7

CHAPTER -1

A brief account of art history in South India and Iran in Safavid era

8

CHAPTER-1.A brief account of art history in South India and Iran in Safavid

era

Introduction

As much as human beings are concerned about the future, they are attached and

connected to their past. Practically, present and future mainly depend on the twilight

world of the past. Therefore, studying history seems an inseparable part of human life

and recognizing it fully seems indispensable.

Primitive man had conceptualized universe in terms of obscure and baffling

supposition of supernatural power. He constantly tried to communicate his feelings to

others. Therefore, from the time man started living in caves, he used pictures to convey

his message and satisfy his inner desires. This primitive man did by drawing his desires

and perception on the walls of caves and thus had transferred his thoughts. Through

using the magic of picture, he furthermore tried to dominate nature and his environment.

Pictures, like other aspects of his life had undergone various changes over time.

Consequently, it can be said that painting is a form of art that expresses ideas and

emotions through creating certain aesthetic qualities in a two-dimensional language.

The major elements of this art are: line, form, Colour, shade, and texture. Applying

these elements in various ways could result in creating a sense of density, space, light

and motion on a flat surface. Basically different combinations of these elements create

the quality of artistic expression. As a result, each and every work of art whether,

manifesting natural or supernatural phenomenon, visualizing narrative concept, or

representing mere abstract visual relations, is based on an explanatory design or pattern.

Since historical time, the art of painting has fulfilled functions such as narration,

description, documentation, storytelling and propagation. Moreover, the artist conveys

his message based on emotional qualities, feasibility expression, as well as limitations

of form, method, and his tools. These elements are also influential in the creation of

various styles in painting.

Rich in historical background and cultural heritage, India and Iran, down the

ages, have presented several art works in various fields especially painting to the world,

using these qualities and methods. The aforementioned countries also have a lot in

common. Aryans inhabited Iran and India; consequently, there have been many

common grounds in languages, religions and costumes of the two countries as also

9

similarity in topography such as, descending mountains and vast plains. Moreover, a

close relationship between these countries is readily recognizable. The relationship

between cultures of Iran and India is best manifested in art; although, this relationship

has suffered various vicissitudes over time.

Considering the fact that, the art of painting in India and Iran has undergone a

lot of changes over a period of time as its approach from the older traditions, it is

imperator to know the historical connection of these two countries to present the

argument of this research and subsequently analyzing the art of painting in the two

countries

India

India is considered to be one of the most important centers of ancient

civilization in the world. Archeological relics and explorations in Sand canyon

demonstrate that there had been a five-thousand-year-old civilization in the region.

Introduction of Indian history

History of India and its civilization dates back to at least 6500 BC which

perhaps makes it the oldest surviving civilization in the world. India has been a meeting

ground between the East and the West. Throughout its history many invaders have

come to India. (Indian religions allowed it to adapt to and absorb all of them). (fig.1)

All the while, these local dynasties built upon the roots of a culture well established.

India has always been simply too big, too complicated, and too culturally subtle to let

anyone empire dominate it for long2.

India is a country with a rich history and culture. Home to the Indus Valley

civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian

subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long

history. Four major world religions, Hinduism3, Buddhism4, Jainism5 and Sikhism6

originated here, while Zoroastrianism7, Judaism8, Islam and Christianity arrived in the

first millennium AD and mingled into the region's diverse culture. India became a

modern nation-state in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by

widespread nonviolent resistance. The history of India can be divided into four major

segments, the ancient era, the medieval era, the modern era and the post-independence

era.

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The hallmark of Indian history dates back to the Stone Age with paintings at the

Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka9 in Madhya Pradesh. (PL1) These paintings symbolize the

earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements

appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the “Indus Valley

Civilization”10, dating back to 3300 BCE in Western India. (fig.2) it was followed by

the Vedic Civilization, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural

aspects of early Indian society. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms

and republics known as the Mahajanapadas11 were established across the country.

The empire built by the Maurya12 dynasty under Emperor Ashoka13united most

of South Asia in the third century BCE. From 180 BCE, a series of invasions from

Central Asia followed, including those led by the Indo-Greeks14, Indo-Scythians15,

Indo-Parthian16 and Kushans17 in the North -Western Indian subcontinent. From the

third century CE, the Gupta18 dynasty oversaw the period referred to as "The Golden

Age" of Indian history. Among the notable South Indian empires were the Chalukyas19,

Rashtrakutas20, Hoysalas21, Pallavas22, Pandyas23, and Cholas24. Science, engineering,

art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.

Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra were made in the 6th

century.

Following invasions from Central Asia between the tenth and twelfth centuries,

much of north India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Mughal

dynasty25. Mughal emperors gradually expanded their kingdoms to cover large parts of

the subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms, such as the Vijayanagara

Empire, flourished especially in the South. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century,

the Mughal supremacy declined and the Maratha Empire became a dominant power.

The history of India is a mingle of the East and the West. India has always been

an invader's paradise, while at the same time its natural isolation and magnetic religions

allowed it to adapt to and absorb many of the peoples who penetrated through its many

mountain passes. No matter how many Persians, Greeks, Chinese nomads, Arabs,

Portuguese, Britishers and other raiders made their way into this great country, many

of them merged into the society giving rise to a country full of diversity in terms of

culture, religion, language and architecture. 26

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Indian art

Indian Art is the art produced on the Indian subcontinent from about the 3rd

millennium BC to modern times. To viewers schooled in the Western tradition, Indian

art may seem overly ornate and sensuous; appreciation of its refinement comes only

gradually, as a rule. Voluptuous feeling is given unusually free expression in Indian

culture. A strong sense of design is also characteristic of Indian art and can be observed

in its modern as well as in its traditional forms. 27

The vast scope of the art of India intertwines with its cultural history, religions

and philosophies which place art production and patronage in social and cultural

contexts.Indian art can be classified into specific periods each reflecting particular

religious, political and cultural developments.

* Ancient period (3500 BCE-1200 CE)

* Islamic ascendancy (1192-1757)

* Colonial period (1757–1947) 28

* Independence and the postcolonial period (Post-1947)

“Each Indian period is unique in its art, literature and architecture. Indian art is

constantly challenged as it rises to the peak of achieving the ideals of one philosophy

in a visual form then begins anew for another. This challenge and revolution in thought

provides Indian artists with reasons for innovation and creation, and the process of

visualizing abstract ideas and the culture of the land. Each religion and philosophical

system provided its own nuances, vast metaphors and similes, rich associations, wild

imaginations, humanization of gods and celestial beings, characterization of people, the

single purpose and ideal of life to be interpreted in art”. 29

The earliest Indian religion to inspire major artistic monuments was Buddhism.

Though there may have been earlier structures in wood that have been transformed into

stone structures, there are no physical evidences for these except textual references.

Obscurity shrouds the period between the decline of the Harappa’s30and the definite

historic period starting with the Mauryas. Soon after the Buddhists initiated the rock-

cut caves, Hindus and Jains started to imitate them at Badami31, Aihole32, Ellora33,

Salsette34, Elephanta35, Aurangabad36 and Mamallapuram37.

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Indian rock art has continuously evolved, since the first rock cut caves, to suit

different purposes, social and religious contexts, and regional differences.38

Indian painting

Painting as an art form has flourished in India from very early periods as is

evident from literary sources and also from the remnants that have been discovered.

India, always known for its varied cultural wealth, has a strong history pertaining to its

Indian art paintings. Its paintings have always been praised for their great work, the

commitment of the artists, perfectionism and content. A majority of the paintings have

a definite content in them, most of which are extracts from great epics, Ramayana39,

Mahabharata40, lives of gods and various morals. Apart from these topics, pure and

eternal love has also been a subject of these paintings.41

The unique thing about Indian paintings is that each emperor who ruled the

country had a different choice of art. And during his reign, that particular type of art

was well promoted. Hence, India has seen a wide range of paintings.

Types of Indian Painting cannot be described in terms of a linear development

or chronology unlike the Western art but it is considered to have evolved in a parallel

manner in the course of time and space. There are different styles of paintings which

have emerged in the due course of time in different geographic locations as a result of

religious and cultural impact. Each style is distinct from the other by its essence and

technique though, there is a friendly and complex internal relationship by which they

can be recognized as uniquely Indian. Indian painting can be broadly classified as wall

paintings and miniature. Different types of paintings come under these two broad

categories but again, they can be classified depending on their evolution, emergence

and style. Almost all of the ancient paintings are engraved on the wall of caves and

temples. This starts from prehistoric cave painting of Bhimbhetka and progresses

through the cave paintings of Ajanta caves, Ellora and Bagh caves. These are all

primarily wall paintings.42

The various types of Indian paintings are a reflection of rich culture and affluent past of

India. But generally Indian Paintings can be broadly classified as the murals and

miniatures:

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Indian Wall painting

The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of prehistoric times

identified, as the petro glyphs found in shelters such as rock caves of Bhimbetka, some

of which are dated to 5500 BC. This form of painting has evolved over the centuries

and one can find an example of Indian paintings made, refined, and during the seventh

century in the caves of Ajanta in the state of Maharashtra.

Bhimbhetka in the state of Madhya Pradesh where prehistoric paintings are

discovered in numerous caves. The paintings span a period of over 600 years starting

from upper Paleolithic to early historic and medieval times. The rock shelters and caves

of Bhimbetka have a number of interesting paintings which depict the lives and times

of the people who lived in them, including scenes of childbirth, communal dancing,

drinking, and religious rites, burials, as well as the natural environment around them.43

Executed mainly in red and white with the occasional use of green and yellow

with themes taken from the everyday events of tune, the scenes usually depict hunting,

dancing, music, horse and elephant riders animal fighting, honey collection, decoration

of bodies, disguises, masking and household scenes. Animals such as bison’s, tigers,

lions, wild boars, elephants, antelopes, dogs, lizards, crocodiles etc., have been

abundantly depicted in some caves. Popular religious and ritual symbols also occur

frequently. It is a marvel that these paintings have not faded even after thousands of

years. Many archaeologists ponder on the possibility that these paints were made of

Coloured earth, vegetable dyes, roots and animal fat. Brushes were made from pieces

of fibrous plants. Because of the natural red and white pigments used by the artists, the

Colours have been remarkably well preserved. The oldest paintings are considered to

be 12,000 years old, but some of the geometric figures date to as recently as the

medieval period.

“The coloures used are vegetable colours which have endured through time

because the drawings are generally made deep inside the caves in a niche or on inner

walls. The presence of the figure of a horse, which is supposed to have come into India

in relatively recent times, indicates that some of the drawings date back to a few

thousand years but, there are other drawings which have been established as belonging

to the Paleolithic age by archaeologists, using carbon dating techniques.”44

14

The tradition and methods of Indian cliff painting gradually evolved through

many thousands of years - they are found in multiple locations with prehistoric art. The

oldest frescoes of historical period have been preserved in Ajanta Caves from second

century BC. In total, there are known to be more than 20 such locations in India with

paintings and traces of paintings from ancient and early medieval times (up to 8th - 10th

century AD. The most significant frescoes of ancient and early medieval periods are

located in Ajanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Ellora Caves, and Sittanavasal.45

The Bagh Caves are a group of nine rock-cut monuments, situated among the

southern slopes of the Vindhyas in Kukshi Tehsil of Dhar district in Madhya Pradesh

State in Central India. Paintings on the walls and ceilings of the Viharas of Bagh, the

fragments of which are still visible in Cave number 3 and Cave number 4 (remnants

can also be seen Caves 2, 5 and 7), were executed in tempera. The ground prepared was

a reddish-brown gritty and thick mud plaster, laid out on the walls and ceilings. Over

the plaster, lime-priming was done, on which these paintings were executed. Some of

the most beautiful paintings were on the walls of the portico of Cave 4. To preserve and

prevent any further loss of these valuable representations of Indian classical art, most

paintings were carefully removed in 1982 and today can be seen in the Archaeological

Museum of Gwalior .46

Ellora is an archaeological site, 30 km (19 M) from the city of Aurangabad in

the Indian state of Maharashtra, built by the Rashtrakutarulers. Well-known for its

monumental caves, Ellora now declared as a World Heritage Site 47 by UNESCO.

Ellora represents the epitome of Indian rock-cut architecture. 48 (PL2)

“Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra, India are 28 - 30 rock-cut cave monuments

created during the first century BCE and 5th century AD, containing paintings and

sculptures considered to be masterpieces of both Buddhist religious art and universal

pictorial art”. 49

Most of the paintings cover the entire wall making long narratives possible.

One painting of a Buddhist to be, Padmapani50 is particularly popular. (PL3, PL3A)

The Bodhisattva stands composed in the ’Tribanga51’pose holding a lotus flower. The

jeweled crown and the sacred thread across the chest reveal his personality and high

caste status. The calm expression is in contrast to the figures surrounding him. He is

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aloof and detached to the maladies of the material world as he has attained spiritual

strength. (PL4, PL4A

Sittanavasal is a Jain temple complex in Pudukottai district of Tamil Nadu. It

is located at a distance of 58 km from Trichy52. The most famous monument is the rock-

cut monastery of the Jains which contains remnants of exquisite frescoes from the 7th

century AD53. (PL5)

Approximately at the same time, the usage of paper and cloth for paintings was introduced

in Indian paintings. That was when painting in India was categorized as Murals and

Miniatures.

Indian Miniature paintings

Miniature paintings are paintings made on small canvasses of cloth and paper.

Dash of Colour, intricate design and delicate brushwork marks the miniature painting,

an illustrative of the Indian painting. With a rich history dating back to the 6-7th

century, Miniature Painting in India conveyed reality with its sheer subtleties. The

different schools of Indian miniatures like the Pala, Orissa, Jain, Mughal, Rajasthani

and Nepali did not grow after isolation. The 11th century Pala miniatures were the

earliest to arrive. This type of art mainly evolved in the medieval age especially

narrating the royal life and this form of art is popular till date / today.

According to some experts in the field, the use of red Colour for backgrounds

has come to be connected in subsequent tradition, with sensual and passionate desire.

Pala Paintings the earliest examples of Bengal paintings are the twelve extant

miniatures delineated on the palm-leaves of a manuscript of the Buddhist text. (PL6)

There is practically no evidence to indicate that Orissa paintings had any effect

on Pahadi54 artists. Western Indian Jain miniature paintings have, however, left a

permanent mark on succeeding Indian paintings. Jain religious themes and motives did

not propagate copying but their influence can be seen in the adaptation of its style. The

Jain use of strong (pure) Colours, stylish figures of ladies, heavy gold outlines, and

reduction of dress to pointed segments, enlarged eyes and square shaped hands are

reflected both in Rajasthani and Pahadi paintings. They also cast their spell over

Mughal and Deccani painting. (PL7), (PL8), (PL9)

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The sixteenth century, creatively speaking was fruitful for Indian painting. The

art of miniature painting came into great prominence both under the Mughals and the

Muslim kings of the Deccan and Malwa55 and under the Hindu kings of Rajasthan.56

“Some of the great miniature paintings gain inspiration from Ramayana,

Mahabharata, BhagvataPurana57, Rasikpriya58, Rasamanjiri59 as well as ragas of Indian

classical music etc. At the same time you will be able to find Miniature paintings in the

manuscripts of Jains, Buddhist, Rajput, and Mughal theories and texts”.60

The Mughals were instrumental in introducing elements of Persian tradition

into contemporary painting as well as subsequent styles of Indian painting. The credit

for introducing Western elements in drawing and painting in the Indian style also goes

to some Muslim kingdoms. Mughal painting took interest in realistic portraiture than

was typical of Persian miniatures. Animals and plants were also realistically shown.

Although many classic works of Persian literature continued to be illustrated, as well

as Indian works, the taste of the Mughal emperors for writing memoirs or diaries, which

begun with Babur, provided some of the most lavishly decorated texts. (PL10)

Paintings of the Mughal era flourished and developed during the rule of

Emperor Akbar, Jahangir and also during the reign of Shah Jahan. The Mughal

paintings of India developed during the reign of Humayun. When he returned to India

from his exile, he brought with him the great Persian artists; Abd-us-samad61 and Mir-

Sayyid Ali62. In the course of time the art of these two artists made their presence felt

in the local art works and slowly Mughal painting flourished.63

The Deccani school of Painting, which came into prominence after the Mughal

School of painting made Indian painting rich, vivid and illustrative. The Deccani School

of painting got inspiration from the Mughal School and evolved its own unique and

very characteristic style. Pale green, mineral-coloured backgrounds with figures placed

squarely in the foreground marks the Deccani school of painting as an expression of

subtleties through brushwork. (PL11)

Indian paintings can further be classified according to their different origins. Among the

numerous types are Mithila64 or Madhubani65 painting, Pahari painting, Lepakshi66painting

among other must be mentioned.

Maduhbani paintings are kinds of paintings that were patronized by village

women who put forth their mind on paintings. Madhubani paintings mostly depict

17

nature and Hindu religious motifs, and the themes generally revolve around Hindu

deities like Krishna, Ram, Shiva, Durga67, Lakshmi68, and Saraswati. Natural objects

like the sun, the moon, and religious plants like tulsi69 are also widely painted, along

with scenes from the royal court and social events like weddings.70 (PL12, PL12A)

These kinds of paintings are very popular and have become an integral part of the Indian

community.

Tanjore71 Paintings are classical South Indian form of painting which evolved

in the village of Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu State and are well-known for its richness and

compactness of forms and vivid Colours. This art form dates back to the early 9th

century, a period dominated by the Chola rulers, who encouraged art and literature.

These paintings are known for their elegance, rich colours, and attention to detail. The

themes for most of these paintings are Hindu Gods and Goddesses and scenes from

Hindu mythology. In modern times, these paintings have become a much sought after

souvenir during festive occasions in South India. (PL13)

“The process of making a Tanjore painting involves many stages. The first

stage begins with the making of the preliminary sketch of the image on the base. The

base consists of a cloth pasted over a wooden base. Then chalk powder or zinc oxide is

mixed with water-soluble adhesive and applied on the base. To make the base smoother,

a mild abrasive is sometimes used. After the drawing is made, decoration of the jewelry

and the apparels in the image is done with semi-precious stones. Laces or threads are

also used to decorate the jewelry. On top of this, gold foils are pasted. Finally, dyes are

used to add colours to the figures in the paintings”.72 (PL14)

Rajasthani Paintings are miniature paintings of the finest quality, which are

made both on paper and on large pieces of cloth. Different parts of the State boasts of

their own style, and are thus recognized as different schools of paintings. Rajput

painting, also known as Rajasthani Painting, is a style of Indian painting. In the last

decades of the 16th Century, Rajput art schools began to develop distinctive styles

combining indigenous as well as foreign influences (Persian, Mughal, Chinese, and

European) into unique styles. (PL15)

“The Rajput paintings mainly focused on the life of Lord Krishna and epics

like Mahabharata and Ramayana. Along with these, the Rajput manuscripts had several

landscapes portrayed. Many paintings were done on the walls of palaces, inner

18

chambers of the forts, havelis73, particularly, the havelis of Shekhawati74, the forts and

palaces built by Shekhawat Rajputs. Rajput and Pahari style of paintings are also very

popular in Indian art paintings”.75

“The colours were extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells,

and were even derived from processing precious stones. Gold and silver were also used.

The preparation of desired colours was a lengthy process, sometimes taking weeks.

Brushes used were very fine.” 76

Pahari Painting, another school of miniature painting evolved in the hilly states

of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, and Jammu & Kashmir during the reign of the Rajput

rulers. These paintings have beautiful scenes of the Himalaya as the backdrop. There

are three distinct schools named Basholi77, Guler- Kangra78 and Sikh79. Another type

of Indian painting is the Lepakshi Painting, where is a wall painting made on the walls

of the temple of Lepakshi, The Pahari style of painting was inspired by Jayadev’s

Gitagovindam80.Pahari painting (literal meaning a painting from the mountainous

regions, pahar means a mountain in Hindi) is an umbrella term used for a form of Indian

painting, originating from the Hill kingdoms of North India, during 17th-19th century81.

One type of Indian painting which is comparatively a recent form is the Glass

Painting. It is extremely delightful to the connoisseur`s eyes for its clarity and richness

of Colours. The glass is engraved and then Coloured from the reverse side. Patachitra82

flourished in the state of Orissa and is made on cloth with extremely vivid Colours and

its subject is mythology-based subjects (PL16, PL16A). Kalighat83 pots are another

form, which are made on earthen pots or cloth. These are mainly used as wall hangings.

Marble Painting is also a type of Indian painting which like glass painting is also a

recent form of painting made on exquisite marble stones. The subject can be traditional

or contemporary. Marble paintings are mainly used for decorative purpose, especially

on tabletop, furniture and flower vases84. (PL17)

History of South India

Southern India is an area encompassing India's states of Andhra Pradesh,

Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Lakshadweep and

Pondicherry, occupying 19.31% of India's area. The region is also known as Dravidian

as is used in the National anthem. South India lies in the peninsular Deccan Plateau and

19

is bounded by the Arabian Sea in the west, the Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay

of Bengal in the east85. (fig.3)

The history of South India covers a span of over four thousand years during

which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires. The period

of known history of the region begins with the ancient period during which the great

king Ashoka ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent. Then important dynasties such

as Satavahana86, Chalukya, Pallava, Rashtrakuta, Chera, Chola, Pandya, Kakatiya87 and

Hoysala were at their peak during various periods of history. (fig.3A)

The late medieval period saw the rise of Muslim power in South India. The

defeat of the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal by Tughlaq forces of the Delhi Sultanate

in 1323 CE heralded new chapter in South Indian history. The struggle of the period

was between the Bahmani Sultanate based in Gulbarga (and later, Bidar) and the

Vijayanagara Empire with its capital in Vijayanagara in modern Hampi.88

These kingdoms constantly fought amongst each other and against external

forces when Muslim armies invaded south India. The Vijayanagara Empire rose in

response to the Muslim intervention and covered most of South India and acted as a

bulwark against Mughal expansion into the south.

The Vijayanagara Empire

The Vijayanagara Empire, founded in the early 14th century with the purpose

of stemming the tide of Muslim power over running South India, lasted for almost 200

years. (fig.4, fig.4A)It was visited and recorded by the Persian scholar Abdul Razzaq

(traveler). The empire reached its zenith of power and prosperity during the reign of

Tuluva king89, Krishnadevaraya. Krishnadevaraya was a great patron of art, music,

dance and literature and an accomplished poet himself, in Telugu. 90

With the fall of Vijayanagara and the break-up of the Bahmani Sultanate, the

Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda and Hyderabad became the dominant power in the

region. Qutb Shahi dominance of the region continued until the middle of the

seventeenth century, when the Mogul under Aurangzeb made determined inroads into

the Deccan. Following Aurangzeb’s death, Moguls power weakened, and South Indian

rulers gained autonomy from Delhi. The Wodiyar kingdom of Mysore, the Asaf Jahis

of Hyderabad, and Marathas all gained power. (fig.5)

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When the European powers arrived during the 16th century CE, the southern

kingdoms were not powerful enough to resist the new threat and eventually succumbed

to British occupation. The British created the Madras Presidency which covered most

of South India directly, administered by the British Raj, and divided the rest into a

number of dependent princely states. South India, during the British colonial rule was

divided into the Madras Presidency and Hyderabad, Mysore, Thiruvithamcoore91 (also

known as Travancore), Cochin, Vijayanagara and a number of other minor princely

states. After independence, South India was linguistically divided into the States of

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.92

In the middle of the 18th century, the French and the British initiated a

protracted struggle for military control of South India. The period was marked by

shifting alliances between the two European powers and the local powers, mercenary

armies employed by all sides, and general anarchy in South India. Cities and forts

changed hands many times, and soldiers were primarily remunerated through loot. The

four Anglo-Mysore Wars and the three Anglo-Maratha Wars saw Mysore, the Marathas

and Hyderabad aligning themselves in turns with either the British or the French.

Eventually, British power in alliance with Hyderabad prevailed and Mysore was

absorbed as a princely State within British India. The Nizam of Hyderabad sought to

retain his autonomy through diplomacy rather than open war with the British. The

Maratha Empire that stretched across large swathes of Central and Northern India was

broken up, with most of it annexed by the British.93

History of Karnataka

Karnataka is a land with rich historical past. It has many pre-historic sites and

most of them are in the river valleys. The pre-historic culture of Karnataka is quite

distinct from the prehistoric cultures of other States. Gold discovered in Harappa was

found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prompting scholars to hypothesize about

contacts between ancient Karnataka and the Indus Valley Civilization in 3000 BCE.94

“Prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka was part of the Nanda

Empire before coming under the Mauryan Empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries

of Satavahana rule followed, allowing them to control large areas of Karnataka”.95

“The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native

kingdoms, the Kadambas and the Western Gangas, marking the region's emergence as

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an independent political entity. The Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad

as its capital. The Gangas started their rule from c. 350 from Kolara and later their

capital was shifted to Talakad (Mysore Dt.). Till the advent of the Badami Chalukyas,

they were almost a sovereign power. Later they continued to rule over Gangavadi

(which comprised major parts of South Karnataka) till the close of the 10th century as

subordinates of the Badami Chalukyas and the Rastrakutas”.96

The Badami Chalukyas

It was the Chalukyas of Badami who brought the whole of Karnataka under a

single rule. They are also remembered for their contributions in the field of art. Their

monuments are found at Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal. 97

“Parts of modern-day Karnataka were occupied by the Chola Empire between

990-1210 AD. At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the

region. Literature flourished during this time, which led to the distinctive Kannada

literary metres98and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara99

style of architecture. The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought parts of modern

Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu under its rule. In the early 14th century, Harihara and

Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara Empire with its capital, Hosapattana (later

named Vijayanagara), on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in modern Bellary

district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, which

it completely controlled for over two centuries” .100

In 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical

shift when the Vijayanagara Empire fell to a confederation of Islamic Sultanates in the

Battle of Talikota. Of the five Shahi Sultans who succeeded the Bahamanis, the Adil

shahis of Bijapur (1489-1686) and the Barid Shahis of Bidar (1504-1689) ruled over

parts of Karnataka. In 1619, the former dynasty was overthrown by the latter. The city

of Vijayanagar was captured by the Shahi Sultans in 1565 and the capital was shifted

to the South, beyond the frontiers of Karnataka till 1646.

The Bijapur Sultanate, which had risen after the demise of the Bahmani

Sultanate of Bidar, soon took control of the Deccan; it was defeated by the Moghuls in

the late 17th century.The Bahamani and Bijapur rulers encouraged Urdu and Persian

literature and Indo-Saracenic architecture, the Gol Gumbaz being one of the high points

of this style. During the sixteenth century, Konkani Hindus migrated to Karnataka,

22

mostly from Salcette, Goa during the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the

Mangalorean Catholics migrated to South Canara, in Karnataka, especially from

Bardes, Goa, due to food shortages, epidemics and heavy taxation imposed by the

Portuguese.101

In the period that followed, parts of northern Karnataka were ruled by the

Nizam of Hyderabad, the British, and other powers. In the South, the Mysore Kingdom,

former vassals of the Vijayanagara Empire, was briefly independent. With the death of

Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, Hyder Ali, the Commander-in-Chief of the Mysore army,

gained control of the region. After his death, the kingdom was inherited by his son Tipu

Sultan. To contain European expansion in South India, Hyder Ali and later Tipu Sultan

fought four significant Anglo-Mysore Wars, the last of which resulted in Tipu Sultan's

death and the incorporation of Mysore into the British Raj in 1799.The Kingdom of

Mysore was restored to the Wodeyars and Mysore remained a princely state under the

British Raj. 102

After independence, the Wodeyar Maharaja acceded to India. In 1950, Mysore

became an Indian state, and the former Maharaja became its governor, till 1975. The

Ekikarana103 movement which started in the latter half of the 19th century, culminated

in the States Re organization Act of 1956 which provided for parts of Coorg, Madras,

Hyderabad, and Bombay states to be incorporated into the state of Mysore. Mysore

state was renamed Karnataka in 1973. The state of Mysore was formed on November

1, 1956 and since then November 1 of every year is liberated as Kannada Rajyotsava104

/ Karnataka Rajyotsava.105

South Indian painting

Paintings of South India are famous for their intricate curves and bright Colours. There are

many schools of painting in South India like the Mysore, Tanjore, Nayaka, Chola and so on.

Karnataka painting

Karnataka paintings follow a long line of development. The earliest paintings of

Karnataka are of the pre-historic period around 2000-1000 B.C. The representations of

animals, human figures etc., are painted beneath the projected rocks which formed the

dwelling place of the prehistoric people. From the megalithic times, the advancement

of painting was seen on pottery and other articles, murals on caves, on temples, on the

walls of mansions and palaces and on paper. Etchings from the time of Emperor Ashoka

23

can be seen in rock boulders in the region, which gives inkling into the life of the people

of that time.

The tradition of paintings in Karnataka owes its beginnings to the western

Chalukyans who decorated the walls of the caves in Badami with interesting murals

during 6th century A.D. Most of these paintings are lost beyond retrieval but some years

ago Minajgi and later M.S. Chandrashekar, the famous Ajanta painter made

reproductions of these paintings. Some of these are preserved at the Lalit Kala Academy

and the Archaeological Survey of India. (PL18)

During the 15th century, King Ibrahim Adil Shah was responsible for the

commissioning of a few murals in Kamatgi106 and Bijapur. What remain today of a once

beautiful set of paintings on leisure and opulence are only a few bartered traces. There

are some panels showing a king in consultation with an aged fakir. Here shades of

brown dominate and the style is very European. We can also come across a painting of

a princess in a garden being attended to by her maids.

After the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire in 1565 A.D. the artists and artisans

sought refuge and kind protection under the Mysore Wodeyars and Nayaks of Tanjore

who were the feudatories of the Vijayanagar Kings. The tradition fostered by the

Wodeyars and Nayakas was naturally the continuation of the mural art of Vijayanagar.

These common sources and idioms, particularly in the field of painting, have produced

a great degree of similarity between Mysore and Tanjore Schools of art. In later

centuries in the process of assimilation and acquisitions, these two traditions developed

as distinctive in their expression and technique. As a result the artistic activity

throughout South India saw an exuberant variety in style, with divergent centers around

this time.

The Nayakas who subsequently came to rule some parts of Karnataka were

equally good patrons of art. A number of temples with sculptures and paintings that are

truly worthy survive from this period. When Raja Wodeyar came to rule

Srirangapattana after the Nayakas, he decided to set up a guild for the artists in a place

called Ganjam. This place was similar to an artists' village having a tutelary goddess.

We know from literary sources that a sizeable area in the fortified island town of

Srirangapattana- fifteen kilometers north of Mysore - was set aside to house artists and

their families. A temple dedicated to goddess Nimishamba, the family deity of the

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Chandravamshi Kshatriya Raju community, to which most of the artists belonged, still

stands on the banks of the Kaveri near Srirangapattana.107 (PL19)

The artists who settled in Ganjam108 were basically craftsmen who could do all

kinds of work. These artists could have passed on their age old tradition and techniques

to their future generations as in the community of craftsmen the profession is usually

passed on from father to son.

Mysore painting is an important form of classical South Indian painting,

originating from Mysore in Karnataka. These paintings are known for their elegance,

muffled colours, and attention to minute details. The themes for most of these paintings

are Hindu Gods, Goddesses, and events from Hindu mythology. (PL20, PL20A)

The making of these unique South Indian paintings involves the making of the

preliminary sketch of the image on the base. The base is made of a cartridge paper

pasted on a wooden base. A paste made of Zinc oxide and Arabic gum called "gesso

paste" is also used in the South Indian paintings.Very little is known of this early phase

of Mysore painting as no example of art of any significance has survived the centuries

of warfare, neglect and vandalism. But one can safely presume that this early style of

painting closely followed the Vijayanagara idiom, perhaps with minor changes to suit

the taste and culture of the new patrons.109

“The years that followed in Karnataka were not peaceful ones. Rulers spent

most of their time in the strategy and planning of wars, of annexation and actual

execution of such wars. They had to be careful of impending invasions from their

belligerent neighbors’; Most of their time was taken away by politics and war, leaving

very little time for the cultivation of noble arts like painting, music and the like. As

there was no significant encouragement for quite some time, artists had apparently no

scope to improve. The field of painting in particular seems to have suffered. The mural

art which had a long tradition from the days of Ajanta slowly began to degenerate in

Karnataka. However architecture did not suffer greatly as Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan

showed interest in building monuments”. 110

At Asar Mahal in Bijapur, there are some portraits of kings but all are in a bad

shape today (PL21). They carry a strong European bearing and ShivaramKarantht’s111

(PL22)

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It is only during the late 18th century that Karnataka felt a change in the

political scenario. Until then ruled by a prominent Hindu kings, the old Mysore State

now came under Muslim dominion. Historical painting significantly gained prominence

and for the first time in the history of mural tradition of Karnataka, there came about a

departure from religious painting to full scale historical renderings. And this was

experimented in Srirangapattana, the new capital of the new Muslim rulers.

Iran

The history of Iran has been intertwined with the history of a larger historical

region, comprising the area from the Danube River in the West to the Indus River and

Jaxartes112in the East and from the Caucasus, Caspian Sea, and Aral Sea in the north to

the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman and Egypt in the South.

The south western part of the Iranian plateau participated in the wider Ancient

near East with Elam113, from the Early Bronze Age. The Persian Empire proper begins

in the Iron Age, following the influx of Iranian peoples which gave rise to the Median,

Achaemenid114, the Parthian115, the Sassanid dynasties116 during classical

antiquity.(fig.6)

Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656) and the end of the Sassanid Empire was a turning point

in Iranian history. Islamization in Iran took place during 8th to 10th century and led to the

eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia. However, the achievements of the

previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new

Islamic polity and civilization.

After centuries of foreign occupation and short-lived native dynasties, Iran was

once again reunified as an independent state in 1501 by the Safavid dynasty who

established Shi'a117 Islam as the official religion of their empire, marking one of the

most important turning points in the history of Islam .118

Iranians were active in various fields of imaginary and decorative art from long

ago. The Iranian cultural region consisting of the modern nations of Iran, Armenia,

Turkey, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan and surrounding regions is

home to one of the richest art heritages in world history and encompasses many

disciplines including architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy,

metalworking and stone masonry.

26

Persian painting

Introduction

Iranian painting that is erroneously called "Miniature" contains some opuses

from the history of Iran after entry of Islam. It mostly includes the illustration of literary

books (like Kelileh va Demneh119, SamakeAyyar120…), scientific books (like Al-

teriagh, Al-aghaani121…), historical books (like Jame-ol-tavarikh122…) and also

religious ones (like Khavaran nameh123).

The first relics that can be termed a Painting date back to 7000 – 8000 years

ago found in a cave in Lorestan124. Also there are wall paintings from the era of

Ashkanian and Sasanian. After the entry of Islam and with the governance of

Baniomayyeh125and Abbasian126, we do not see any great symptom of Art in Iran. But

after the formation of local governments in Iran like Samanian127, Ghaznavian128 and

Alebooyeh129, and after their independence from the central power in Baghdad, the

basis for the growth of Iranian art and culture was developed. Most of the opuses from

these eras are the illustration and picture drawing in books and it is less about painting

on the walls of palaces. In fact, Iranian art showed greater flexibility with all the

limitations imposed on it with the Arab onslaught, Iranians changed the way of

presentation in order to preserve the rich Iranian culture. We can categorize Iranian

painting (negargari) into different styles.

Oriental historian Basil Gray believes "Iran has offered a particularly unique art

to the world which is excellent in its kind". Fieldworks and excavations on wall painting

on cliffs in Lorestan caves, west of Iran, revealed that they belong to the Mesolithic

Age in 7th millennium B.C. It might be considered as one of the oldest artworks

discovered in Iran. (PL23) In the caves of Lorestan province, painted images of animals

and hunting scenes have been discovered. Paintings were also discovered by W.

Sumner, on the walls of buildings, in Mallyan heights, in Fars. Paintings discovered on

earthenware in Lorestan, Sialk130 and other archaeological sites prove that the artists of

this region were familiar with the art of painting. 131

There are some iconic objects in the form of bone engraving and designed

potteries from the middle of the 5th millennium B.C. Besides, Iranian artists have

created many antiquities during different Ages. However, the important point is that

Iranian painting has amalgamated the Western and Eastern traditions and other foreign

27

cultures through it’s a history and results has evolved its own style. Despite various

external effects, an internal continuity can be distinguished in transforming the Iranian

painting history. After the domination of Moguls over Iran, a new revolution started in

Iranian art. The furbishing trend of external effects is carried out during theTimurid132

and Safavid and genuine art schools grew up into being, although Safavid dynasty itself

brought about a new style in Iranian painting.

Iranian paintings generally are divided into two branches, namely mural and miniature

paintings.

Persian Mural painting

The most famous and valuable samples of iconic Iranian art can be viewed on

the mosaics and manuscript plaques, but it should also be noted that Iranians were active

in various iconic and decorative arts from so time immemorial. Based on evidences

available, mural painting can be considered much older than book figuring. However,

mural was given utmost importance among other iconic arts in the primitive period; its

importance diminished after the Moguls domination and once again attention was paid

to big wall size paintings during the Safavid dynasty133.

“The earliest known evidence attesting to the long history of Persian wall

painting is found in Sialk, a region near the modern city of Kashan in central Iran, where

archaeologists discovered a settlement that dates to around 5000 B.C.E. Not only did

the excavators unearth a ransom of naively painted, geometric pottery, they also

discovered the remnants of rudimentary interior architectural decoration” where “the

walls of rooms were painted red with iron oxide mixed in fruit juice134.”(PL24, PL24A)

While little evidence of interior wall painting is extant from the following

period, there is continuous support for a tradition of polychrome faience and stucco

decoration on the exterior (and very rarely on the interior) 4 edifices of buildings whose

provenances range from the stylized Assyrian and Achaemenid reigns of the first

millennium to the successive era of naturalism that occurred after Persia was conquered

by Alexander in 330 B.C.E. The subsequent 400-year span during which time the

Hellenistic Seleucids and then Parthian ruled Persia, closed the door on the esoteric

administrative policies of the ancient dynasties, affecting an unprecedented degree of

interaction between the West and the East. The result of this extra cultural meld was

the development of interior palatial design that reflected a rich variety of ornamental

28

stucco wall and ceiling decorations which included both natural and mythical human

and animal forms, geometric and stylized vegetal compositions architectonic elements

and other repeat designs135.(PL25, PL26)

From the Parthian era, few mural paintings, most of them discovered in the

northern parts of Euphrates River, have been uncovered. One of these paintings is a

display of a hunting scene. The position of riders and animals, and the style in this work

reminds us of Iranian miniatures, many of which appear to be direct antecedents of later

Islamic motifs. (PL27)

But in the paintings of Achaemenids era, profile work was preferred by the

artists. The proportion and beauty of Colours of this era are remarkable. The Colours

are shade less, and have the same tune. In some cases, black stripes limited the

Colourful surfaces.

Mani136, the Iranian prophet and painter, who lived about the 3rd century, was

a skilled and expert painter. His paintings were thought to be part of his miracles. The

paintings of Torfan, discovered in the desert of Gall, a region situated in the Turkestan

province in China, belong to 840 to 860 AD. These mural paintings exhibit Iranian

scenes and portraits. Imagines of tree branches also exist in these paintings. (PL28,

PL28A)

For the most part, the newly minted Sassanian rulers maintained the figural and

vegetal Decoration popularized during the Parthian period. However, the Sassanians,

who ruled the region from 224 to 639, ultimately sought to reconcile the diverse and

often naturalistic influences of the recent past with the awesome formality of the ancient

Achaemenids. (PL29)

The importance of both Silk Road trade and Buddhist peregrinations to the

transmission of motifs between the East and the West is further underscored by Scholar

Oleg Graber’s assertion that “a number of Iranian themes have been discovered” in the

relatively disparate locations of the Tarim basin in the Xinjiang region of North-

Western China, Bamiyan in Afghanistan and Ajanta in modern India. Grabar notes “in

all these sites, thousands of paintings still cover the walls of convents, sanctuaries,

refuges, and hostels for merchants and pilgrims.137” (PL30, PL30A)

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Grabar suggests that a strong influence on the pre-Islamic Persian consciousness

may arguably be termed the first “truly Iranian art, Soghdian138 Painting.”(PL31)

Discovered in the 1980’s in Panjikent139, an area of the former Soviet Union, as well as

in various sites bordering the Caspian Sea, the Soghdian frescoes date from the second

to the eighth centuries. The unique flavor of Soghdian painting is created by its

dominant emphasis on non-sacred subject matter. Essentially focusing on genre scenes,

a few of the subjects depicted in the Panjikent. (PL32) program are a backgammon

game, feasting, and a funerary procession. Other scenes have been identified as themes

from literature. These include such varied topics as exploits from the life of the

Shahnameh140 figures Rostam141 and Siyavush142, battles of the Amazons and even the

wolfs suckling the founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus. Stylistically, Grabar

describes the Soghdian works as having flat washes of ground Colour similar to the

Sassanian cliff murals. Describing the art as “linear” with almost no depth” or “trace of

classical Mediterranean illusionism, Grabar explains, “The backgrounds are red, black,

yellow or blue, almost always without indication of landscape, and the human figures,

animals (especially horses ) buildings and various objects are clearly defined with thick

features and assured drawing143.(PL33)

Wall Painting during the Early Islamic Period

Archaeologists discovered heavy line drawings of male heads and a horse and

rider. Perhaps, indicative of the waxing Islamic fascination with plasticity, the

remainder of the interior is shrouded in a lush veil of painted vegetal arabesque. A dig

at the slightly later eleventh century site of Lashkari Bazar in Afghanistan has revealed

frescoes that seem to relate directly to a Soghdian predecessor. Pointing out that the

ruins at Lashkari were the veritable residence of the Ghaznavid sultan who

commissioned Firdowsi.s epic, Grabar notes that the murals subject matter, courtesans

surrounding a prince, relates to the works found at Panjikent. The erect two-

dimensional Lashkari images are executed in true Soghdian spirit with their clothing

painted in precise detail and their physiognomy simplified to such a degree that they

resemble carnival masks.144

As many Islamic histories imply, the thirteenth century upheavals brought

about by the Mongolian conquest irrevocably altered the face of Islamic art’s Basil

Gray points out, “The Mongols themselves had no art; but the Mongol court, in China

30

and in Persia was a cosmopolitan centre at which Chinese, Persian and Uyghur Turk

laboured together to build and run the administration or met to exchange goods.”145

Accordingly, the ensuing era of Islamic art reflected the diverse elements

brought together under the Khanate. The art of Muslim craftsmen retained its pre-

Islamic preoccupation with the aggrandizement of the ruling classes as evinced by the

continuation of the princely cycle. At the same time, the Muslims’ pre-established

affinity for Chinese styles greatly facilitated the incorporation of fresh and now readily

available motifs into the infinitely evolving patterns of arabesque. While there is no

architectural evidence of wall painting (1256-1335), a few of the interior scenes

portrayed in the Great Mongol Shahnameh, as well as in a few other Shahnameh albums

of the period Show abstract painted wall decoration similar to the simplest style found

in the Houghton manuscript146. (PL34)

Evidence from the ensuing Timurid period (1370-1507) is much more abundant.

Further evidence of wall painting during Timur’s reign is manifest by a highly

decorated Madrasah or School built by another of his wives, Saray MulkK hanum.

Beside from the architectural evidence, there are numerous written sources that

reference to the decoration of Timur’s bagh’s: “elaborate garden estates” that peppered

the landscapes of Shahre sabaz, Samarqand, Herat and Tabriz. There are several

beautiful palaces, with their complements of rooms very richly worked with decoration

in gold and blue, and their tiles.” 147

During the 15th century Timurid-Turkmen era Chinese and Islamic motifs were

effectively combined to create an “elegant new decorative genre” best termed

“chinoiserie.”148(PL35) logically, it is the ornament from this period that had the

greatest influence on later Safavid style149. In fact, considering the brief time frame

between the fall of the Aq-Quyunlu and the creation of Tahmasp’s Shahnameh, it may

be accurate to say that many of the murals depicted in the manuscript are veritable

images of interior decoration found in captured Turkmen and Timurid palaces. (PL36)

Persian miniature painting

A Persian miniature is a small painting on paper, whether a book illustration or

a separate work of art intended to be kept in an album of such works called a muraqqa.

The techniques are broadly comparable to the Western and Byzantine traditions of

miniatures in illuminated manuscripts. Although there is an equally well-established

31

Persian tradition of wall-painting, the survival rate and state of preservation of

miniatures is better, and miniatures are much the best-known form of Persian painting

in the West, and many of the most important examples are in Western, or Turkish,

museums. Miniature painting became a significant Persian genre in the 13th century,

and the highest point in this tradition was reached in the 15th and 16th centuries, and

was heavily influenced by Chinese paintings as the Mongol rulers of Persia brought

with them numerous Chinese artists to the court. The tradition continued often this

under some Western influence and has many modern exponents. The Persian miniature

had a dominant influence on other Islamic miniature traditions, principally the Ottoman

miniature in Turkey, and the Mogul miniature in the Indian sub-continent.150

Persian art under Islam had never completely forbidden the human figure, and

in the miniature tradition the depiction of figures, often in large numbers, is central.

This was partly because the miniature is a private form, kept in a book or album and

only shown to those the owner chooses. It was therefore possible to be freer than in

wall paintings or other works seen by a wider audience. The Quran151 and other purely

religious works are never illustrated in this way, though histories and other works may

include religious scenes, sometimes even depicting the Prophet Muhammad, after 1500,

usually without showing his face.

As well as the figurative scenes in miniatures, which this article concentrates

on, there was a parallel style of non-figurative ornamental decoration which was found

in borders and panels in miniature pages, and spaces at the start or end of a work or

section, and often in whole pages acting as frontispieces. In Islamic art this is referred

to as "illumination"152, and manuscripts of the Quran and other religious books often

included considerable number of illuminated pages.153

The designs reflected contemporary work in other media, in later periods being

especially close to book-covers and Persian carpets, and it is thought that many carpet

designs were created by court artists and sent to the workshops in the provinces.154

The bright and pure colouring of the Persian miniature is one of its most striking

features. Normally all the pigments used are mineral-based ones which keep their bright

colours very well if kept in proper conditions, the main exception being silver, mostly

used to depict water, which will oxidize to a rough-edged black over time.155

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The conventions of Persian miniatures changed slowly; faces are normally

youthful and seen in three-quarters view, with a plump rounded lower face better suited

to portraying typical Chinese or Eastern features than those of most Persians. Lighting

is even, without shadows or chiaroscuro. Walls and other surfaces are shown either

frontally, or as at (to modern eyes) an angle of about 45 degrees, often giving the

modern viewer the unintended impression that a building is (say) hexagonal in plan.

Buildings are often shown in complex views, mixing interior views through windows

or "cutaways" with exterior views of other parts of a facade. Costumes and architecture

are always those of the time156.

Many figures are often depicted, with those in the main scene normally

rendered of the same size, and recession (depth in the picture space) indicated by

placing more distant figures higher up in the space. More important figures may be

somewhat larger than those around them, and battle scenes can be very crowded indeed.

Great attention is paid to the background, whether of a landscape or buildings, and the

detail and freshness with which plants and animals, the fabrics of tents, hangings or

carpets, or tile patterns are shown is one of the great attractions of the form. Dress of

the figures is equally shown with great care, although artists understandably often avoid

depicting the patterned cloth that many would have worn. Animals, especially horses

that appear very often, are mostly shown sideways on; even the love-stories that

constitute much of the classic material illustrated are conducted largely in the saddle,

as far as the prince-protagonist is concerned.157 (PL37)

Landscapes are very often mountainous (the plains that make up much of Persia

are rarely attempted), this being indicated by a high undulating horizon, and outcrops

of bare rock which, like the clouds in the normally small area of sky left above the

landscape, are depicted in conventions derived from Chinese art. Even when a scene in

a palace is shown, the viewpoint often appears to be from a point some metres in the

air158. (PL38)

The earliest miniatures appeared unframed horizontally across the page in the

middle of a text, following Byzantine and Arabic precedents, but in the 14th century

the vertical format was introduced, perhaps influenced by Chinese scroll-paintings.

This is used in all the luxury manuscripts for the court that constitute the most famous

33

Persian manuscripts, and the vertical format dictates many characteristics of the style.159

(PL39), (PL40)

The miniatures normally occupy a full page, later sometimes spreading across

two pages to regain a square or horizontal "landscape" format. There are often panels

of text or captions inside the picture area, which is enclosed in a frame, eventually of

several ruled lines with a broader band of gold or colour. The rest of the page is often

decorated with dense designs of plants and animals in a muted grisaille, often gold and

brown; text pages without miniatures often also have such borders. In later manuscripts,

elements of the miniature begin to expand beyond the frame, which may disappear on

one side of the image, or be omitted completely160. (PL41, PL41A)

Historians have considered each period based on the cities and towns and also Iran’s

geological position to explain Iranian art characteristics. Since early period, therefore, in each

city having a government or if few artists have gathered and worked together, that city became

important and of prime importance and its name was considered as art school.

The most ancient paintings of the Islamic periodic, are quiet scarce, and were

created in the first half of the 13th century. Iranian miniatures (fine and small drawings)

came to Fife after the fall of Baghdad (1285 AD). Since the beginning of the 14th

century, handwritten books were adorned by the scenes from battle fields, feasts and

hunting. China, perhaps since the 7th century, as an artistic center, has been the most

important incentive for the art of painting in Iran. Ever since, a relation has been

established between Buddhists, Chinese’ painters and Iranian artists. From historic

viewpoint, the most important evolution in Iranian art has been the adoption of Chinese

designs and Colouring which were mixed with the specific conception of Iranian artists.

The extreme beauty and skill of Iranian paintings are laid to describe.

In the first centuries, after the emergence of Islam, Iranian artists began

adorning books. The preface and the margins of books were adorned by artist. These

designs were passed on, through on to the next centuries, together with precise

principles and rules, which is known as the "Art of Illumination". The art of illumination

and adorning books made its path of progression under the Seljuk era, Mogul and

Timourid's reigns.

There remain two valuable illustrated books from the reign of Baisongor. One,

being the Kelileh and Demneh (PL42)and the other, Baisongor's

Shahnameh161(PL43).In the drawings of Shahnameh, painted in 1444 AD in Shiraz,

34

interesting examples of Iranian miniature art can be seen. One of these drawings

represents a beautiful scene from an Iranian court, painted in the Chinese style. White

and blue tiles and Persian carpets are drawn in geometrical shapes. (PL44)

In one of the manuscripts of the book of "Khamseh Nezami162", exist 13

excellent miniatures, drawn by Mirak, the famous painter and calligrapher (PL45). The

sensitive and artistic spirit of Baghdad’s paintings is represented in the drawings of

another volume among the works of Khamseh Nezami. This precious work is preserved

in “The British Museum”. One of the liveliest paintings of this book shows the

construction Castle of Khawarnaq (in Heart). In this painting, masters and architects

are busy building the palace. This miniature was painted in 1494 in Herat. (PL46)

Behzad163, the greatest painter of the Herat School, expanded the delicate art of

miniatures. He invented new patterns for natural facts and portraitist which did not exist

before his time. One of the masterpieces of the Iranian art of painting is an illustrated

book of Shahnameh, preserved in the library of Golestan palace in Tehran. This

Shahnameh was also illustrated under Baisongor, the Timourian prince, and belongs to

the Herat School. The paintings of this book, from the view point of Colouration and

proportion of the components in the images are at the highest degree of beauty and

firmness. (PL47, PL47A)

During the Safavid era, the artistic center was moved to Tabriz. A few artists

also settled in Qazvin (PL48), (PL49). But the Safavid School of painting was

established in Esfahan. The miniature of Iran, in the Esfahan of Safavid era, was

detached from the influence of the Chinese out and stepped out on a new road. The

painters were then more inclined towards naturalism. Reza Abassi, founded the "Safavi

School of painting". The art of design during the Savafids subjected to a brilliant

transformation. The design, which is one of the most elegant Iranian designs, was made

possible by the talent of the artists of the Safavid School. Miniatures created under the

Safavid School, were not exclusively aimed for adorning and illustrating books. The

Safavid style is softer in form than those of the Timourid School, specially the

Mongolian. (PL50)

Human images and their behavior are not vain and artificial, on the contrary

quite natural, and close to reality. Safavid painters also manifested a special expertise

in paintings. The most magnificent example of the paintings of this period exists in the

35

palaces of "Chehel Sotoun" and "Ali Qapoo164". In Safavid paintings, the splendor and

the grandeur of this period is the main attraction. The themes of the paintings are about

the life in the royal court, the nobles, beautiful palaces, pleasant goodness, scenes of

battles and banquets. Humans are drawn in elaborate garments, handsome faces and

elegant statues Colours are glowingly bright.

The art of painting, during the Safavid era expanded both in quantity and quality. In the

works of this period, a greater freedom, skill and power can be seen. (PL51, PL51A)

“Iranian paintings, through their richness, offer a special joy unlike anything

else. They keep a vast connection with the epic stories. In Iranian paintings, the nude

body of a human is not a way of expression. Iranian painting is considered as one of the

greatest schools of Asia. Splendor and luminosity have not been better expressed in any

other culture. Bright skies, astonishing beauty of spring blossoms, and among them,

humans with splendid garments who hate and love, are jovial or melancholic, form the

general themes of Iranian painting”.165

Safavid dynasty

Safavid dynasty was formed by the conquest of Aq qoyonlus by Shah Ismail

Safavid in 1501 A.D. and his dynasty continued for 250 years. During this period, many

kings ruled, among them Shah Tahmasp I, Shah Abbas I and Shah Abbas II were greater

patrons of art. (fig.7)

“Shah Ismail Safavid went to Tabriz after his victory and officially announced

his kingship. As an outcome Shah Ismail I, the first Safavid ruler in Tabriz, especially,

announced Shiism as the formal religion of the country, a new attitude in Iran political,

social, scientific, cultural and art began In Tabriz, most of the artists gathered according

to the order of Shah Ismail and started their work in the royal library, where there were

book industries, workshops and therefore, Shah Ismail Safavid provided the possible

integration of the main schools of pristine painting by setting up a government unit in

Iran and the Iranian painting was highly developed in the Tabriz workshop under the

Safavid kings’ support”166.(fig.8)

“The Tabriz school of painters evinced a high interest in drawing, environment

and daily life. They were trying to give a comprehensive feedback of the surrounding

world in small size paint and for this reason they filled the whole board by drawing

sculpture, architect decoration and scene details. However, they never followed the

36

nature-painting style in realism trend of the outer world like the previous art works, no

3-dimensional technique is observed. Conceptual space making style has been followed

as before”167.

“One of the main and characteristic elements observed in the early Safavid

dynasty painting is clothes and the head cover of people. This cover is in the form of a

rounded turban and a small red rod or symbol is seen. It seems this symbol was the

symbol of the Safavid family members and their followers in the beginning of the

Safavid dynasty. The colour of this symbol and sign was always red but was not so

durable and after sometime its use was reduced”.168 (PL52, PL52A)

In the Tabriz school of painting space structure of the image has become more

complicated because of relationships and events. This structure consists of various

levels extended from top to bottom and surroundings often came out from the edges

and borders of the images. (PL53)(PL54, PL54A)The levels appear far or near because

of the shape and colour. Therefore, the space is 2 dimensional, deep, uniform and

discrete; each spatial part is of a certain event happening and often is independent.

Different events and affairs have no spatial and temporal continuity, but it seems as if

an astute observer sees everything at the same time. This kind of multi-place space

making, which is undoubtedly touched by mystical insight, shows excellence and a

sense of discipline of in Iranian painting. 169Therefore, the main characteristics of

Tabriz school are full decoration, brilliant and concentrated colours, mystical insight

and feeling.

Shah Ismail Safavid died at the age of 38 in 1524 A.D and his 10 years old son,

Tahmasp Safavidsat on the throne. Shah Tahmasp, was very much interested in painting

and calligraphy from his childhood, was educated under the supervision of great

painters and calligraphers on his father’s order. After sitting on the throne, he employed

famous and recognized masters of that period in his workshop. He shifted his capital

from Tabriz to Qazvin in 1549 A.D. In Qazvin, the artists continued with their activities

based on the Tabriz city experiences.170

During this period, Ibrahim Mirza, Shah Tahmasp’s nephew, was appointed to

rule Khorasan. This young prince fixed a workshop in Mashhad and employed some of

the experts of Tabriz school from outside as well as the resident Khorasan artists.

37

Mashhad paints have colour highlights, various line rhythms and white stains, which

make the board highly dynamic. Soft and curved lines are clearly seen. (PL55, PL55A)

“The thin youth with a long neck and rounded face and white turban on their

shoulder, separated cliffs, old knotted trees and characters not related to the story are

the characteristics of this period’s paintings. However, the artist has created wider field

for main activities by removing the background, which are mostly seen in Qazvin

painting. (PL56) While Mashhad workshop was active, Qazvin had no significant

activity in the field of book painting, because Shah Tahmasp Safavid used most of the

court painters to decorate the 40 colonnades of the Qazvin Palace, which was built on

his order. It seems he himself had taken part in the wall painting of this palace”.171

The artist’s style gradually changed because Shah Tahmasp Safavid became

cynical to art in the middle years of his age, as he reduced his support to artists and

painters migrated to other places is season of new patrons. This problem caused rapid

changes and variation of painting styles in the second half of the 16th century. Death of

Shah Tahmasp Safavid in 1578 A.D. brought about fighting between his children to a

prejudiced ruling. Finally, Shah Ismail II succeeded his father after various battles. He

decided to renew the previous glory of art and therefore, he gathered worthy staff and

different artists in royal libraries.

Shah Ismail II curveted for some of the painters from Mashhad, Tabriz and

Shiraz to Qazvin and revived the court workshop. They benefited from the experiences

of Mashhad school teachers. It means the same multiform, small and big and sometimes

helicoidally movement of brush observed in Mashhad painting, can also be seen here.

Contrary to Mashhad’s combination, there are no such various bodies in Qazvin

paintings.Therefore, colour variation is reduced and it can be said there is no significant

splendor is colouring like Tabriz and Mashhad paintings. On the other side, a new

phenomenon appeared in Iranian painting style from the second half of the 10th. Century

and it is painting and designing, separated and independent of the book. There is often

a person or a beautiful couple with a few plants and helicoidal cloud on a plain

background. Designs and paintings of this style were usually decorated with

calligraphic fragments; incidence of this phenomenon depends upon two factors:

(PL57)

38

Reduction of court support

Growth of the trader cast

In fact, artists were, to some extent, dependent on the non-court rich orders since

they could not rely on the king or princes support anymore. But since these new art

supporters were not able to supply the necessary funds for the figurative manuscripts,

they convinced the artists to adhere to mono painting order172.

The death of Shah Ismail II in 1587 A.D. resulted in a blow impact on the body

of the royal painter’s studio and this problem created a main obstacle for the painters

and artists. As a result, the royal painters in Qazvin had to find another alternative to

survive and some of them migrated to India and some sought asylum in Ottoman and

some migrated to other Iranian cities like Herat and Mashhad. Indeed, painter’s

activities were not only for the royal workshops in the 16th. Century, especially, after

support from Shah Tahmasp, activities of town centres like Shiraz increased. In

workshops of these towns, iconic manuscripts, as before, of rather small size were

produced to meet the market demands. Although painters of Shiraz were influenced by

the Tabriz, Mashhad and Qazvin schools, they were still faithful to the traditional

disciplines and principles. The main characteristic of the Shiraz painting is the legal

system of image and text relationship, which was formed in the 15th century A.D.,

destroyed in the 16th century A.D. and was hardly see in the 17th century A.D.173 (PL58)

During the second half of the 16th century A.D., workshops at Herat and some

at the east Khorasan cities had notable activities; most of the iconic manuscripts

produced in these workshops were exported to India and Bokhara. Paintings of these

workshops do not have elaborate clothes and constructions decoration and have very

plain landscapes. Besides, occasionally, new colours like olive-green and light blue

have been applied, which had not been used in Iranian paintings till that time. (PL59)

Shah Abbas I ascended the throne at the age of 17 in 1586-7 A.D. He ruled for

40 years on the foundations of the ruins of the previous periods. He developed not only

art but also their related fields to a high-level. Iranian arts got a new phase of life. Most

painters, calligraphers and allied industries were pressed into the service of the new

Shah started restoration of the old works and undertook new orders. It gained

importance after the shifting of the capital to Esfahan in 1597 A.D., when a

comprehensive activity was started to decorate palaces, villas and public buildings. He

39

invited top calligraphers, religious heads and painters to promote science, techniques,

professions and art in Esfahan. He shortened the distance between the capital and the

sea by shifting it to the South of the country and developed his relations with India and

Western countries and introduced Iran to the ambassadors and expeditionary

representatives of European countries. He also encouraged many traders and tourists to

made them familiar with Iran; it was thus that most of them have left notes as a

memorial and have shown their amazement and bewilderment about Iran and its

development in that period. They have mentioned building and objects, various arts,

especially painting of that period in their notes. Therefore, it can be claimed that art was

highly encouraged and during Shah Abbas I and artists were highly respected.

“Circular wall-painting in palaces and private and public buildings is another

manifestation of painting dehiscence of that period. Different samples of the 17th

century A.D. wall-painting can be seen at the 40 colonnades Palace in Esfahan. During

these years the artists, displaced due to riot, instability and ignorance of the rulers, were

once again invited to the royal workshops. A creative painter, named Reza Abbasi with

the support of Shah Abbas opened a new season in Iranian painting, which was

recognized as Esfahan School of painting or Reza Abbasi School. Reza and his

contemporaries’ expertise were in the fields of handwritten manuscript painting, single-

sheet painting, designing for textile industries, tile industries, carpet weaving

workshops, new and big layout of palace wall-painting and other buildings during this

period. Wall-painting collection of the early colonnades Palace building under Reza

Abbasi’s supervision belongs to this period”.174 (PL60)

“Europeans came to Iran during Reza Abbasi’s time. Although he made

European men the subject of his works, he never tried to use perspective or shading and

his new style was based on the visual values of writing. He was a skillful designer who

could show volumes and curls very nicely by changing the thickness of lines using reed

pens. Therefore, it can be said that the Esfahan School had a great influence on Reza

Abbasi and his followers’ works and kept it away from previous painting traditions in

different aspects. In fact, the earlier bonding between painting and literature was lost

during this period and separation of painting from book painting provided this

possibility for him to pay more attention to daily events. This caused appearing single-

painting” .175

40

“Indeed, not only did Reza Abbasi and his followers change and innovative

and creatively evolve Iranian painting route in the 17thcentury A.D., they also left the

most innovative and creative methods in the field of wall-painting as memorial. The

remains of Esfahan building walls of Safavid period is an evidence of developing

painters works to wider and newer fields, i.e. palaces and building walls. After the death

of Shah Abbas I, his grandson, Shah Safi succeeded and sat on the throne in 1038 A.H.

Shah Safi died because of overdrinking in 1052 A.H. and his 10 years old son, Shah

Abbas II, succeeded him. (PL61)

“During the monarchy of Abbas II in 1052-1077 A.H., he became famous for

evincing great interest in art and artists; he invited European painters to teach European

techniques in painting and also dispatched some of the talented Iranian youths to the

west to become familiar with the European works closely. This period is referred to as

the “mixed methods” period. In fact, two different tendencies in painting field can be

seen in the third quarter of the 11th century A.H. on the one hand side, the artists

following Reza Abbasi’s style and on the other, artists interested in European nature-

painting; the latter being a new season in Iranian painting history. (PL62)

After Shah Abbas II, Shah Suleiman sat on the throne and the fall of the Safavid

dynasty began from then. Shah Hussein Safavid took over ruling of the government

after Shah Suleiman. Shah Hussein, who left the Chaharbag School as memorial, was

too weak a king and lost monarchy by a fillip from the Afghanis. Therefore, Safavid

dynasty ended after two centuries”.176

41

REFRENCE AND NOTES:

CHAPTER-1.

1- Saraswati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, arts and science. She is the companion of

Brahma, also revered as his Shakti (power). It was with her knowledge that Brahma created the

universe. She is a part of the trinity of Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. All the three forms help the

trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva in the creation, maintenance and destruction of the Universe.

The Goddess is also revered by believers of the Jain religion of west and central India.

2- Frawley, David, Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India, (1994) P.27

3- Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent.

Hinduism is known to its followers as Sanātana Dharma.

4- Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices,

largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha The

Buddha lived and taught in the north eastern Indian subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 4th

centuries BCE.

5- Jainism is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its

philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine

consciousness and liberation.

6- Sikhism[note is a monotheistic religion founded during the 15th century in the Punjab region, on

the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev Ji and ten successive Sikh Gurus (the last teaching being the holy

scripture Guru Granth Sahib). It is the fifth-largest organized religion in the world and one of the

fastest-growing.

7- Zoroastrianism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of Prophet Zoroaster (also

known as Zarathustra, in Avestan) and was formerly among the world's largest religions .It was

probably founded some time before the 6th century BCE in Greater Iran.

8- Judaism in Hebrew: Yahedut, the distinctive characteristics of the Judean ethnos is the "religion,

philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people.

9-The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological World Heritage site located in Raisen District

in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. The Bhimbetka shelters exhibit the earliest traces of human

life in India; a number of analyses suggest that at least some of these shelters were inhabited by man

for in excess of 100,000 years some of the Stone Age rock paintings found among the Bhimbetka

rock shelters are approximately 30,000 years old.

10- The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period

2600–1900 BCE) that was located in the north western region of the Indian subcontinent .The Indus

Valley is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with its contemporaries, Mesopotamia

and Ancient Egypt. At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of well over five

million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, developed new techniques in metallurgy and

handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The

civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multi-storeyed houses.

11- In ancient India, a number of kingdoms emerged during the Vedic Age that were spread across

the Indo-Gangetic plain. These kingdoms were also called as republics and 16 of them were regarded

42

the greatest of all. These 16 kingdoms were known as the 16 Mahajanapadas. These 16 Maha

Janapadas are mentioned in the ancient literature and scriptures. The term Maha Janapada actually

means "great country" and is derived from Sanskrit. The sixteen mahajanapadas rose before the start

of Buddhism in India. Though these places were tribal settlements initially, roughly by 600 B.C

they grew into bigger political entities by grabbing land. The sixteen mahajanapadas are given here

in detai.

12- The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in ancient India,

ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC.

13- Ashoka the Great was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost the entire

Indian subcontinent from ca. 269 BC to 232 BC.

14- The Indo-Greek Kingdom or Graeco-Indian Kingdom covered various parts of the northwest

regions of the Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries BC, and was ruled by more than 30

Hellenistic kings,

15- The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas (Scythians), who migrated from

southern Siberia into Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, and into parts of

Western and Central India, Gujarat and Rajasthan, from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the

4th century CE. The first Saka King in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in

Gandhara and gradually extended supremacy over north-western India. Indo-Scythian rule in India

ended with the last Western Satrap Rudrasimha III in 395 CE.

16- Indo-Parthian rulers were a group of ancient kings from present day eastern Afghanistan and

Pakistan who ruled India. These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthian, as their

coinage was often inspired by the Arsacid dynasty, but they probably belonged to a wider groups of

Iranian tribes who lived east of Parthia proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who

assumed the title Gondophares, which means ”Holder of Glory”, were even related.

17- The Kushan Empire, originally formed in the early 1st century AD under Kujula Kadphises in

the territories of ancient Bactria on either side of the middle course of the Oxus (or Amu Darya) in

what is now northern Afghanistan, northern South Asia, and southern Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

18- The Gupta Empire was an Ancient Indian empire which existed approximately from 320 to 550

CE and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent.

19- The Chalukya dynasty was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central

India between the 6th and the 12th centuries.

20- The Rashtrakuta Empire was a royal dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian Subcontinent

between the sixth and the 10th centuries. During this period they ruled as several closely related,

but individual clans.

21- The Hoysala Empire was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the

modern day state of Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas

was initially located at Belur but was later moved to Halebidu.

22- The Pallava were a South Indian dynasty who ruled the Northern Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh

with their capital at Kanchipuram for a period of about six hundred years from the early 4th century

CE until the end of the 9th century.

43

23- The Pandyan dynasty was an ancient Tamil dynasty. The Pandyas were one of the four Tamil

dynasties (the other three being Chola, Chera and Pallava), which ruled South India until the 15th

century CE.

24- The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of

southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd

century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory

until the 13th century AD.

25- The Mughal Empire was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent.The Mughal emperors

were descendants of the Timurids. It began in 1526, at the height of their power in the late 17th and

early 18th centuries, they controlled most of the Indian Subcontinent—extending from Bengal in

the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south.

26- http://www.indohistory.com/index.html

27- Thapar, Binda 2004. Introduction to Indian Architecture, pp.36–37

28- http://en.wikipedia.org , Indian art, & Dehejia, Vidya 1997, Indian Art, p.47

29- Mitter, Partha, 2001, Indian Art, P.10

30- Harappa or The Indus Valley Civilization is an archaeological site in Punjab, northeast Pakistan,

about 35 km (22 mi) west of Sahiwal. The site takes its name from a modern village located near

the former course of the Ravi River.

31- Badami, formerly known as Vatapi, is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in

the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It was the regal capital of the Badami Chalukyas from 540

to 757 AD.

32- Aihole is a temple complex in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It is a very popular tourist

spot in north Karnataka. It lies to the east of Pattadakal, along the Malaprabha River, while Badami

is to the west of both.

33- Ellora is an archaeological site, 30 km (19 mi) from the city of Aurangabad in the Indian state of

Maharashtra built by the Rashtrakuta dynasty and Well-known for its monumental caves, Ellora is

a World Heritage Site.

34- Salsette Island is an island in Maharashtra state on India's west coast.

35- The Elephanta Caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island, or Gharapuri

(literally "the city of caves") in Mumbai Harbour, 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) to the east of the city of

Mumbai in the Indian state of Maharashtra.

36- Aurangabad is a city in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, India.

37- Mahabalipuram, derived from 'Mamallapuram' is a town in Kancheepuram district in the Indian

state of Tamil Nadu. It was a 7th century port city of the South Indian dynasty of the Pallavas around

60 km south from the city of Chennai in Tamil Nadu.

38- http://www.indohistory

44

39- The Ramayana is an ancient Sanskrit epic. It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms an

important part of the Hindu canon considered to be itihāsaThe Ramayana is one of the two great

epics of India, the other being the Mahabharata.

40- The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the

Ramayana. The epic is part of itihasa.

41- www.all-about-india.com

42- www.indianetzone.com

43- Klaus K. Klostermaier, (1989), a survey of Hinduism, pp. 25-27

44- The Lonely Planet, India. (2007), P. 689.

45- Madhya Pradesh A to Z, Madhya Pradesh State Tourism Development Corporation, Cross

Section, Publications Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi 1994

46- Bagh Caves, rock cut Buddhist temples

47-The Rashtrakuta Empire, was a royal dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian Subcontinent

between the sixth and the 10th centuries

48- "Ancient and medieval Indian cave paintings 2010, Internet encyclopedia", Wondermondo.

49- http://whc.unesco

50-Padmapani or "Lotus-Bearer" is one of the more common epithets of Avalokiteshvara, the

Bodhisattva of Infinite Compassion.

51- Tribhanga or Tribunga is a (tri-bent pose) standing body position or stance used in the traditional

Indian sculpture, art and Indian classical dance forms like the odyssey

52- Trichy is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of

Tiruchirappalli District.

53- Dale, Brown, (1994), Lost Civilizations: Ancient India Land of Mystery, p.220

54- Pahadi or pahari is term coined for the paintings done in the Himalayan states. The schools of

Pahari Art developed and flourished from about 17th to 19th centuries.

55- Malwa is a natural region in west-central northern India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin.

56- www.indianetzone.com

57- The Bhagavata Purana is one of the maha Puranic texts of Hinduism, with its primary focus on

bhakti (religious devotion) to Supreme God Vishnu (Narayana), primarily focusing on Krishna. The

Bhagavata Purana includes many stories well known in Hinduism.

58-Rasikapriya is an rāgam in Carnatic music (musical scale of South Indian classical music).

59-Rasamanjari or ‘blossom-cluster of delight’, is a Sanskrit text by the poet, Bhanudatta Misra.

45

60-The most former example of the Mughal style of art is the Tutinama Painting; `Tales of a Parrot`,

which is presently in the Cleveland Museum of Art. There is another famous Mughal painting which

is called the `Princess of the House of Timur`. It is one of the early Mughal paintings which was

redone a number of times.

61-Abd al-Samad or Khwaja Abdus Samad was a 16th-century painter of Persian miniatures who

moved to India and became one of the founding masters of the Mughal miniature tradition, and later

the holder of a number of senior administrative roles.

62-Mir-Sayyid Ali, Persian miniaturist who, together with his fellow countryman ʿAbd-uṣ-Ṣamad,

immigrated to India and helped to found the Mughal School of painting.

63- Www. craftsinindia.com

64- Mithila a city in Ancient India, the capital of the Videha Kingdom. Mithila is a proposed state in

India, comprising the Maithili speaking regions of Bihar and Jharkhand.

65- Madhubani painting or Mithila painting is a style of Indian painting, practiced in the Mithila

region of Bihar state, India and the adjoining parts of Terai in Nepal. Painting is done with fingers,

twigs, brushes, nib-pens, and matchsticks, using natural dyes and pigments, and is characterized by

eye-catching geometrical patterns.

66- Lepakshi is a small village and Mandal headquarters located in the Anantapur District, in Andhra

Pradesh, India. The temples are home to some of the most beautiful paintings of Vijayanagar period

available today. The Papaneshwar temple in Lepakshi was built in 1535 A.D. and others in the

neighborhood must be of similar timeframe.

67-Durga meaning "the inaccessible or "the invincible is a popular fierce form of the Hindu Goddess

or Devi. She is depicted with multiple (variously, from ten up to thousand) arms, carrying various

weapons and riding a ferocious lion. She is often pictured as battling or slaying demons, particularly

Mahishasura, the buffalo demon.

68- Lakshmi is the Hindu Goddess of wealth, prosperity (both material and spiritual), fortune, and

the embodiment of beauty. She is the consort of the God Vishnu.

69- Tulsi, or tulasī also known as Holy Basil, is an aromatic plant in the family Lamiaceae which is

native throughout the Eastern World tropics and widespread as a cultivated plant. Also Tulsi or

tulasi is a sacred plant for Hindus and is worshipped by Hindus as the avatar of goddess Lakshmi.

Water mixed with the petals is given to the dying to raise their departing souls to heaven.

70- Douglas. E. Barrett, Basil Gray, (1978) Indian Painting, p.158

71- Thanjavur, formerly Tanjore, is a city which is the headquarters of the Thanjavur District in the

south Indian state of Tamil Nadu.

72- Brown, Percy, (1960), Indian Painting, pp.64-65

73- Haveli is the term used for a private mansion in India and Pakistan, usually one with historical

and architectural significance. The word haveli is derived from the Persian word hawli, meaning

"an enclosed place". They share similar features with other mansions derived from Islamic

Architecture such as the traditional mansions in Morocco called Riads.

46

74- Shekhawati is a semi-arid historical region located in the northeast part of Rajasthan, India. Its

name originated from the Shekhawat Rajputs.

75- Douglas, E, Barrett, Basil Gray, (1978) Indian Painting, p.139

76- Ananda, K. Coomaraswamy, (2003) Rajput Painting, p.4

77- Bashohli (Basoli) is a town and a notified area committee in Kathua district in the state of Jammu

& Kashmir, India. It is situated on the right bank of River Ravi at an altitude of 1876 ft. Basohli also

is widely known for its paintings called Basohli paintings, which are considered the first school of

Pahari paintings, and which evolved into the much prolific Kangra paintings school by mid-

eighteenth century.

78- Haripur Guler is a township in Kangra district in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. Guler

painting is the early phase of Kangra Kalam. About the middle of the eighteenth century some Hindu

artists trained in Mughal style sought the patronage of the Rajas of Guler in the Kangra Valley.

There they developed a style of painting which has a delicacy and a spirituality of feeling. The Guler

artists had the Colours of the dawn and the rainbow on their palette.

79- A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a monotheistic, monist, pantheist religion that originated in the

15th century in the Punjab region. Sikh art and culture is synonymous with that of the Punjab region.

Sikh paintings found themselves. Patronized by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who was renowned art

lover. He is credited to give the eternal beauty to Golden Temple by hiring several talented painters

to decorate the walls and the panels of it. Sikh paintings are categorized into three distinct classes;

Kangra School, Guler School and Lahore School.

80- Jayadeva was a Sanskrit poet circa 1200 AD. He is most known for his composition, the epic

poem Gita Govinda, which depicts the divine love of Krishna, and his consort, Radha. This poem,

which presents the view that Radha is greater than Hari, is considered an important text in the Bhakti

movement of Hinduism. These paintings were traditionally done only by males. However, in recent

times, some women artists have also taken up this art form.

81- The colours extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were even derived

by processing precious stones. Gold and silver were used. The preparation of desired colours was a

lengthy process, sometimes taking weeks. Brushes used were very fine.

82- Patta” literally means “cloth” and “Chitra” means “picture” in Sanskrit. The Pattachitra painting

tradition is closely linked with the worship of Lord Jagannath, and stories from the Ramayan,

Mahabharath and of Radha & Krishna are the other main themes.

83- Kalighat painting originated in the 19th century Bengal, in the vicinity of Kalighat Kali Temple,

Kalighat, Kolkata, India, and from being items of souvenir taken by the visitors to the Kali temple,

the paintings over a period of time developed as a distinct school of Indian painting. From the

depiction of Hindu gods, goddesses, and other mythological characters, the Kalighat paintings

developed to reflect a variety of themes.

84- www.indianetzone.com

85- wikipedia.org/wiki/South India

86-The Śātavāhana Empire or Andhra Empire, was a royal Indian dynasty based from Amaravati in

Andhra Pradesh .The territory of the empire covered much of India from 230 BCE onward.

47

87- The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruled most of the Telugu speaking lands

covered by current day Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083 CE to 1323 CE

88- Nagaraju, S. (1990), Prehistory of South India., pp. 35–52

89- The Tuluva Dynasty was the third dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire.

90- Kamath 2001, A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present, pp157-158,

170 -174 &Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2000), a history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall

of Vijayanagar, pp250 -252

91- Travancore (and Venad) was located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent.

92- Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2000), a history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of

Vijayanagar, pp49-52

93- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_India

94- Ranganathan. "THE Golden Heritage of Karnataka

95- Kamath 2001, A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present, p30

96- Malini, Adiga 2006, the Making of Southern Karnataka, p. 89

97- Kamath, Suryanath U, (2001), A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the

present, pp.58-59

98- The meter in poetry involves exact arrangements of syllables into repeated patterns called feet

within a line. Meters are regularized rhythms. An arrangement of language in which the accents

occur at apparently equal intervals in time. Each repeated unit of meter is called a foot.

99- Vesara is a type of Indian architecture primarily used in temples. The two other prominent styles

are Dravida and Nagara. Vesara is a combination of these two temple styles.

100- Kamath, Suryanath U, (2001). A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the

present, pp.132-134

101- Ibid, pp.199-205

102- Ibid, pp.171, 174,204

103- The Ekikarana movement is Karnataka's unification. The regions that make up for today’s

Karnataka were under as many as 20 different administrative units with the princely state of Mysore,

Nizam’s Hyderabad, the Bombay Presidency, the Madras Presidency and the territory of Kodagu

being some of them. Under such circumstances, a need was felt among Kannadigas living in these

various administrative units to form one state, which would unify all Kannada-speaking people in

the various regions. This movement called the Ekikarana movement was led by litterateurs and

thinkers.

104- Kannada Rajyotsava is celebrated on 1 November every year. This was the day in 1956 when

all the Kannada language-speaking regions of South India were merged to form the state of

Karnataka.

48

105- Karnataka history/Karnataka.htm

106- Kamatagi is a village in the southern state of Karnataka, India.

107- www.indianetzone.com

108- Ganjam is a town and a notified area committee in Ganjam district in the state of Odisha, India.

109- Sivapriyananda, Maq, p. 68

110- Veena, shekar, (2010), Historical paintings of Srirangapattana, p. 90

111- Kota Shivaram Karanth (October 10, 1902 – December 9, 1997) was a Kannada writer, social

activist, environmentalist, Yakshagana artist, film maker and thinker.

112- The Syr Darya, also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo, is a river in Central Asia, sometimes

known as the Jaxartes or Yaxartes .from its Ancient Greek name .The Greek name is derived from

Old Persian, Yakhsha Arta ("Great Pearly"), a reference to the Colour of the river's water.

113- Elam was an ancient civilization centred in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran,

stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of

southern Iraq.

114- Achaemenid, the Persian Empire (c. 550–330 BCE), known as the first Persian Empire, was

founded by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation. Extending from Anatolia and

Egypt across western Asia to northern India and Central Asia.

115- The Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD), also known as the Arsacid Empire, was a major Iranian

political and cultural power in ancient Persia The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture,

religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed

Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures.

116- Sassanid dynasties was one of the dynasty of Ancient Persia (224-651 CE), which at its largest

covered an area of modern Iran and Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia and large parts of Pakistan.

Because of its large area, the title of the king was "King of kings of Iran and non-Iran". The dynasty

is named after Sasan, an ancestor of Shah Ardashir.

117- Shia Islam is the second largest denomination of Islam, after Sunni Islam. The followers of Shia

Islam are called Shi'ites or Shias. "Shia" is the short form of the historic phrase Shīʻatu ̒ Alī, meaning

"followers of Ali", "faction of Ali", or "party of Ali

118- Iran Islamic Republic, Encyclopædia Britannica retrieved 23 January 2008

119- Kalila wa-Dimna which is a translation by the Iranian Ibn al-Muqaffa' to Arabic in the 8th

century, originally it comes from Hindu Panchatantra (300 AD). In the year 570 it was translated to

Pahlavi and later to Syriac. Panchatantra is an ancient Indian inter-related collection of animal fables

(colourful fables) in verse and prose, in a frame story format.

120- SAMAK-E ʿAYYĀR, is a prose narrative originating in the milieu of professional storytellers,

transmitted orally and written down around the 12th century.

49

121-Kitab al-aghani, is an encyclopaedic collection of poems and songs that runs to over 20 volumes

in modern editions by the 10th-century litterateur Abu l-Faraj al-Esfahani. Abu l-Faraj claimed to

have taken 50 years in writing the work, which ran to over 10 000 pages.

122- The Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh ("Compendium of Chronicles") or Universal History is a work of

literature and history, produced by the Mongol Ilkhanate in Persia. Written by Rashid-al-Din

Hamadani (1247–1318) at the start of the 14th century, the breadth of coverage of the work has

caused it to be called, "the first world history."

123- Khavaran Nameh is one of the religious epics, which is written by Ibn Hessam Khosfiin in ninth

century AH, in 22500 verses, in the form and style of the Shahnameh. This epopee, similar to other

epic.

124-Lorestan Province is a historic territory and province of western Iran, amidst the Zagros

Mountains. In the 3rd and 4th millennium BC, migrant tribes settled down in the mountainous area

of the Zagros Mountains. The Kassites, an ancient people who spoke neither an Indo-European nor

a Semitic language, originated in Lorestān.

125- The Umayyad was the second of the four major Islamic caliphates, established after the death

of Muhammad.

126- The Abbasid Caliphate, was the third of the Islamic caliphates. It was ruled by the Abbasid

dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphate

from all but the al-Andalus region.

127- The Samani dynasty also known as the Samanid Empire, (819–999), was a Sunni Persian Empire

in Central Asia, named after its founder Saman Khuda, who converted to Islam despite being from

Zoroastrian theocratic nobility. It was a native Persian dynasty in Greater Iran and Central Asia after

the collapse of the Sassanid Persian Empire caused by the Arab conquest.

128- The Ghaznavid dynasty, was a Muslim dynasty of Turkic slave origin ruling much of Persia,

Transoxania, and the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent from 975 to 1186.

129- The Buyid dynasty or the Buyids, were a Shī‘ah dynasty of Day limited origin from Daylaman

in Gilan. They founded a confederation that controlled most of modern-day Iran and Iraq in the 10th

and 11th centuries. During the 10th and 11th centuries, just prior to the invasion of the Seljuq Turks,

the Buyids were the most influential dynasty in the Middle East.

130- Tepe Sialk is a large ancient archaeological site (a tepe or Persian tappeh, "hill" or "mound") in

a suburb of the city of Kashan, Esfahan Province, in central Iran, close to Fin Garden. The culture

that inhabited this area has been linked to the Zayandeh Rud Civilization.

131- Pope, Arthur& others, (1964) P.11

132-The Timurid dynasty, self-designated Gurkānī was a Persianate Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turco-

Mongol lineage which ruled over modern-day Iran, Afghanistan, much of Central Asia, as well as

parts of contemporary Pakistan, India, Mesopotamia, Anatolia and the Caucasus. The dynasty was

founded by Timur (Tamerlane) in the 14th century.

133- Pakbaz, R. (1999), Encyclopaedia of Art

134- Pope, Arthur Upham, (1965), Persian Architecture, p.15

50

135- Ferrier, R.W. Ed, (1989), The Arts of Persia, p.53

136- Mani was the Iranian prophet and the founder of Manichaeism, a gnostic religion of Late

Antiquity which was once widespread but is now extinct. Mani was born in or near Seleucia-

Ctesiphon in Asuristan (Assyria), at the time still part of the Parthian Empire.

137- Grabar, Oleg, (1999), Mostly Miniatures: An Introduction to Persian Painting, p. 17

138- Sogdiana or Sogdia was the ancient civilization of an Iranian people and a province of the

Achaemenid Empire, eighteenth in the list on the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great.

139- Panjakent, also spelled Panjikent, is a city in the Sughd province of Tajikistan on the Zeravshan

River, with a population of 33,000. It was once an ancient town in Sogdiana. The ruins of the old

town are on the outskirts of the modern city.

140- The Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi

between c. 977 and 1010 AD and is the national epic of the Iran (Persia) and the Persian speaking

world. Consisting of some 50,000 verses, the Shahnameh tells mainly the mythical and to some

extent the historical past of the Persian Empire from the creation of the world until the Islamic

conquest of Persia in the 7th century.

141- Rostam or Rustam is the epic hero of the story, Rostam and Sohrab, part of the Persian epic of

Shahnameh in Persian mythology and son of Zal and Rudaba. In some ways, the position of Rostam

in the historical tradition is parallel to that of Surena, the hero of the Carrhae.

142- Siavash or Siyāvush, from Avestan Syāvaršan, is a major figure in Ferdowsi's epic, the

Shahnameh. He was a legendary Iranian prince from the earliest days of the Iranian Empire. A

handsome and desirable young man, his name literally means "the one with the black horse" or

"black stallion".

143- Grabar, Oleg, (1999), Mostly Miniatures: An Introduction to Persian Painting, p. 35

144- Ibid, p.37

145- Gray, Basil, (1980), the Arts of the Book in Central Asia, p. 98

146- Blair, Sheila, Jonathon Bloom, (1995), the Art and Architecture of Islam, p.30

147- Golombeck and Wilber, the Islamic Architecture of Iran and Turan: The Timurid Periodvol.I. p.

175

148- Chinoiserie, a French term, signifying "Chinese-esque", refers to a recurring theme in European

artistic styles since the seventeenth century, which reflect Chinese artistic influences. It is

characterized by the use of fanciful imagery of an imaginary China, by asymmetry in format and

whimsical contrasts of scale, and by the attempts to imitate Chinese porcelain and the use of

lacquerlike materials and decoration.

149-Lentz, Thomas W, (1993), Dynastic Imagery in Early Timurid Wall Painting, Muqarnas no. 10

150- Gruber, Christiane, (2009), Representations of the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic

paintingVolume. 26

51

151- The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of

God.

152- An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of

decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. In the

strictest definition of the term, an illuminated manuscript only refers to manuscripts decorated with

gold or silver, but in both common usage and modern scholarship, the term is now used to refer to

any decorated or illustrated manuscript from the Western traditions. Comparable Far Eastern works

are always described as painted, as are Mesoamerican works. Islamic manuscripts may be referred

to as illuminated, illustrated or painted, though using essentially the same techniques as Western

works.

153- Canby, Sheila R. (2009), Shah Abbas, the Remaking of Iran, p.83

154- Ibid, p.83

155- Gray, Basil, (1930), Persian Painting, pp. 22-23

156 - Gray (1930), Persian Painting, pp. 22-28 & Welch, Antony, p.35

157- Gray, (1930), Persian Painting, pp.25-26, 44-50

158- Ibid, pp. 25-26, 48-49, 64

159- Eleanor G, and others (1976), Islamic Art, p.70

160- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_miniature#cite_note-10

161- “Bayasanghori Shâhnâmeh”, king of book, was made in 1430 for Prince Bayasanghor (1399-

1433), the grandson of the legendary Central Asian leader Timur (1336-1405).

162- Khamsa (Quintet) or PanjGanj (Five Treasuries) is five epic poems which is considered the

greatest romantic epic poet in Persian literature created by Nizami Ganjavi. (1141 to 1209).

163- Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād (c. 1450_c. 1535), also known as Kamal al-din Bihzad or Kamaleddin

Behzad , was a Persian painter and head of the royal ateliers in Herat and Tabriz during the late

Timurid and early Safavid periods.

164- Ali Qāpū is a grand palace in Esfahan, Iran. It is located on the western side of the Naqsh-e

Jahan Square opposite to Sheikh Lotf Allah mosque, and had been originally designed as a vast

portal. It is forty-eight meters high and there are seven floors, each accessible by a difficult spiral

staircase. In the sixth floor music room, deep circular niches are found in the walls, having not only

aesthetic value, but also acoustic.

165- Gray, Basil, www.iranchamber, Iranian Visual Arts

166- Pakbaz, R, (2004), Naqqashi-e Iran az dirba ta emruz, (the painting of Iran from past till today),

p.90

167- Zaki, M.H. and Sahab, Persian painting, (1993), p.154

168- Ibid, p.155

52

169- Pakbaz, R, (2004) Naqqashi-e Iran az dirba ta emruz, (the painting of Iran from past till today),

p.91

170- R. M. Savory, Encyclopaedia Iranica, AbbasI, & Ashrafimoghadam, M, 1988, p49

171- Pakbaz, R, (2004), Naqqashi-e Iran az dirba ta emruz, (the painting of Iran from past till today),

p.93

172- Ibid, p.96

173- Ashrafi Moghadam, M, (1988), hamgami naghashi ba adabiate Iran, p.56

174- Pakbaz, R. (2004), Naqqashi-e Iran az dirba ta emruz, (the painting of Iran from past till today),

p. 123

175- Ibid, p.123

176- Aqajani, Esfahani and Javani, A. (2007), p .7