Chapter 1

The Learning Process

Learning A change in behavior as a result of experience.

Learning Theory

Learning Theory Body of principles that explain how

people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes.

Two Basic Approaches Behaviorism Cognitive Theories

BehaviorismB.F. Skinner - PigeonsAnimals learn in the same wayImportance of reinforcing desired behavior

to shape and control what is learnedInstructor provides reinforcementFrequent positive reinforcement and

rewards accelerate learning.

Cognitive Theories

Group of TheoriesWhat is inside the student’s mind?Learning is a change in behaviorLearning is a change in thinkingLearning is a change in understandingLearning is a change in feeling

Two Major Cognitive Theories

Information Processing Model The student’s brain has internal structures

• Select and process incoming material

• Store and retrieve material

• Use material to produce behavior

• Receive and process feedback

Two Major Cognitive Theories

Social interaction Learning is a result of interaction between

student and environment Cultural influences, peer pressure, group

dynamics, film and television

Reinforcing behaviorMeasuring changes

Characteristics of Learning

P urposefulE xperienceM ulifacetedA ctive

Learning Styles

Right Brain / Left Brain Right Brain

• Spatially oriented

• Creative

• Intuitive

• Emotional

Learning Styles

Left Brain• Verbal

• Analytical

• Objective

Learning StylesHolistic / Serialist

Holistic - sum is greater than the parts• Top Down• Big Picture

Serialist • Narrow view• Well defined steps• Bottom up

Learning Styles

Dependent / Independent Dependent students need a lot of direction Focus on instructor Independent students require little

direction Instructors goal is not to screw them up.

Learning Styles

Reflective / Impulsive Reflective -Tentative Impulsive - Dive right in.

Six Principles of Learning

R eadinessE xerciseE ffectP rimacyI ntensityR ecency

How People Learn

5 Senses Sight - 75% Hearing - 13% Touch - 6% Smell - 3% Taste - 3%

Perceptions Meaning of stimuli received from 5 senses All learning is a result of perceptions Factors that affect perceptions

• Physical organism

• Basic Need

• Goals and values

• Self concept

• Time and opportunity

• Element of threat

Physical Organism See, Hear, Feel, Respond

Basic Need Preserve and perpetuate one’s

selfGoals and Values

Take care of things that mean much.

Self-concept Confident or Insecure

Time and Opportunity Time to perceive

Element of Threat Fear adversely affects perception

Insight Grouping perception into meaningful

wholes. Interrelationship Insight will almost always occur Anchor points

Instructor’s Role in Developing Insights

Organize demonstrations and explanations and direct practice to show interrelationships

Point out relationships Provide a secure environmentHelp develop student’s self concept

Motivation

Dominant force in learningNegative

Fear, Threat Use sparingly

Positive Rewards

Examples of Motivation Factors Personal comfort, security Avoid pain Usefulness of task Group approval Self Image

Instructor’s Role to help provide motivations

Levels of Learning

R oteU nderstandingA pplicationC orrelation

Domains of Learning

Cognitive DomainAffective DomainPsychomotor Domain

Cognitive domain

Knowledge - Describe, recallComprehension - ExplainApplication - DemonstrateAnalysis - CompareSynthesis - FormulateEvaluation - Rate

Psychomotor DomainPerception - awarenessSet - knowsGuided response - performs / demonstratedMechanism - simple acts wellComplex overt response - complex acts wellAdaptation - Special problemsOrigination - New problems

Affective DomainReceiving - Pay attentionResponding - CompliesValuing - AcceptanceOrganization - rearrangement of

valuesCharacterization - Incorporates values

Learning Physical SkillsDesire to learn - need to knowPatterns to follow - step by stepPerform skill - practiceKnowledge of results - AwarenessProgress follows pattern - plateausDuration and organization of a lessonEvaluation vs CritiqueApplication

Memory3 partsSensory

Hot Stove

Working Memory Short Term 5-10 secs to code, 7 bits of information

Long Term Memory Riding a Bicycle

Theories of Forgetting

Disuse Use it or Lose it

Interference Similar material Not learned well suffers most

Repression Unpleasant

Retention of learning

Praise Stimulates LearningRecall is aided by AssociationFavorable Attitudes aid RetentionLearn with All SensesMeaningful Repetition

Transfer of learning

PositiveNegative

Habit Formation

Building Block Concept

1.6.0.0.1.A.1 H201A change in behavior as a result of experience can be defined asA. learning.B. understanding.C. knowledge.

1.6.0.0.1.A.1 H201A change in behavior as a result of experience can be defined asA. learning.

1.6.0.0.2.B.1 H202The learning process may include some elements such as verbal, conceptual, andA. habitual.B. problem solving.C. experiential.

1.6.0.0.2.B.1 H202The learning process may include some elements such as verbal, conceptual, andB. problem solving.

1.6.0.0.3.A.1 H202While learning the material being taught, students may be learning other things as well. This additional learning is calledA. conceptual.B. residual.C. incidental.

1.6.0.0.3.A.1 H202While learning the material being taught, students may be learning other things as well. This additional learning is calledC. incidental.

1.6.0.0.4.B.1 H203Individuals make more progress learning if they have a clear objective. This is one feature of the principle of A. readiness.B. primacy.C. willingness.

1.6.0.0.4.B.1 H203Individuals make more progress learning if they have a clear objective. This is one feature of the principle of A. readiness.

1.6.0.0.5.B.1 H203Providing opportunities for a student to practice and then directing this process towards a goal is the basis of the principle ofA. learning.B. readiness.C. exercise.

1.6.0.0.5.B.1 H203Providing opportunities for a student to practice and then directing this process towards a goal is the basis of the principle ofC. exercise.

1.6.0.0.6.B.1 H203The principle that is based on the emotional reaction of the learner is the principle ofA. effect.B. intensity.C. primacy.

1.6.0.0.6.B.1 H203The principle that is based on the emotional reaction of the learner is the principle ofA. effect.

1.6.0.0.7.B.1 H203Things most often repeated are best remembered because of which principle of learning?A. Principle of recency.B. Principle of effect.C. Principle of exercise.

1.6.0.0.7.B.1 H203Things most often repeated are best remembered because of which principle of learning?C. Principle of exercise.

1.6.0.0.8.B.1 H203Which principle of learning implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute?A. Principle of primacy.B. Principle of intensity.C. Principle of effect.

1.6.0.0.8.B.1 H203Which principle of learning implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute?B. Principle of intensity.

1.6.0.0.9.B.1 H203Which principle of learning often determines the sequence of lectures within a course of instruction?A. Principle of primacy.B. Principle of recency.C. Principle of intensity.

1.6.0.0.9.B.1 H203Which principle of learning often determines the sequence of lectures within a course of instruction?B. Principle of recency.

1.6.0.1.0.B.1 H203Which principle of learning often creates a strong impression?A. Principle of readiness.B. Principle of primacy.C. Principle of intensity.

1.6.0.1.0.B.1 H203Which principle of learning often creates a strong impression?B. Principle of primacy.

1.6.0.1.1.A.1 H203What is the basis of all learning?A. Positive self-concept.B. Perception.C. Motivation.

1.6.0.1.1.A.1 H203What is the basis of all learning?B. Perception.

1.6.0.1.2.A.1 H203A basic need that affects all of a person's perceptions is the need to A. accomplish a higher level of satisfaction.B. avoid areas that pose a threat to success.C. maintain and enhance the organized self.

1.6.0.1.2.A.1 H203A basic need that affects all of a person's perceptions is the need to C. maintain and enhance the organized self.

1.6.0.1.3.A.1 H203Instruction, as opposed to the trial and error method of learning, is desirable because competent instruction speeds the learning process byA. emphasizing only the important points of training.B. teaching the relationship of perceptions as they occur.C. motivating the student to a better performance.

1.6.0.1.3.A.1 H203Instruction, as opposed to the trial and error method of learning, is desirable because competent instruction speeds the learning process byB. teaching the relationship of perceptions as they occur.

1.6.0.1.4.A.1 H203Which factor affecting perception has a great influence on the total perceptual process? A. Self-concept.B. Goals and values.C. Time and opportunity.

1.6.0.1.4.A.1 H203Which factor affecting perception has a great influence on the total perceptual process? A. Self-concept.

1.6.0.1.5.A.1 H203Perceptions result when a personA. gives meaning to sensations being experienced.B. responds to visual cues first, then aural cues, and relates these cues to ones previously learned.C. is able to discern items of useful information.

1.6.0.1.5.A.1 H203Perceptions result when a personA. gives meaning to sensations being experienced.

1.6.0.1.6.A.1 H203The factor which contributes most to a student's failure to remain receptive to new experiences and which creates a tendency to reject additional training is A. element of threat.B. negative self-concept.C. basic needs.

1.6.0.1.6.A.1 H203The factor which contributes most to a student's failure to remain receptive to new experiences and which creates a tendency to reject additional training is B. negative self-concept.

1.6.0.1.7.A.1 H203The mental grouping of affiliated perceptions is calledA. insights.B. conceptualization.C. association.

1.6.0.1.7.A.1 H203The mental grouping of affiliated perceptions is calledA. insights.

1.6.0.1.8.A.1 H203An instructor may foster the development of insights byA. helping the student acquire and maintain a favorable self-concept.B. keeping the rate of learning consistent so that it is predictable.C. pointing out the attractive features of the activity to be learned.

1.6.0.1.8.A.1 H203An instructor may foster the development of insights byA. helping the student acquire and maintain a favorable self-concept.

1.6.0.1.9.A.1 H203In the learning process, fear or the element of threat willA. cause a student to focus on several areas of perception.B. narrow the student's perceptual field.C. decrease the rate of associative reactions.

1.6.0.1.9.A.1 H203In the learning process, fear or the element of threat willB. narrow the student's perceptual field.

1.6.0.2.0.A.1 H203Name one way an instructor can help develop student insights.A. Point out various items to avoid during the learning process.B. Keep learning blocks small so they are easier to understand.C. Provide a safe environment in which to learn.

1.6.0.2.0.A.1 H203Name one way an instructor can help develop student insights.C. Provide a safe environment in which to learn.

1.6.0.2.1.A.1 H203Insights, as applied to learning, involve a person's A. ability to recognize the reason for learning a procedure.B. grouping of associated perceptions into meaningful wholes.C. association of learning with change.

1.6.0.2.1.A.1 H203Insights, as applied to learning, involve a person's B. grouping of associated perceptions into meaningful wholes.

1.6.0.2.2.A.1 H203Which statement is true concerning motivations?A. Motivations must be tangible to be effective.B. Negative motivations often are as effective as positive motivations.C. Motivations may be very subtle and difficult to identify.

1.6.0.2.2.A.1 H203Which statement is true concerning motivations?C. Motivations may be very subtle and difficult to identify.

1.6.0.2.3.A.1 H203Motivations that cause a student to react with fear and anxiety areA. negative.B. tangible.C. difficult to identify.

1.6.0.2.3.A.1 H203Motivations that cause a student to react with fear and anxiety areA. negative.

1.6.0.2.4.A.1 H203For a motivation to be effective, students must believe their efforts will be rewarded in a definite manner. This type of motivation isA. tangible.B. subtle.C. negative.

1.6.0.2.4.A.1 H203For a motivation to be effective, students must believe their efforts will be rewarded in a definite manner. This type of motivation isA. tangible.

1.6.0.2.5.A.1 H203Which is generally the more effective way for an instructor to properly motivate students?A. Provide positive motivations by the promise or achievement of rewards.B. Reinforce their self-confidence by requiring no tasks beyond their ability to perform.C. Maintain pleasant personal relationships with students.

1.6.0.2.5.A.1 H203Which is generally the more effective way for an instructor to properly motivate students?A. Provide positive motivations by the promise or achievement of rewards.

1.6.0.2.6.A.1 H203Motivations in the form of reproof and threats should be avoided with all but the student who isA. overconfident and impulsive.B. experiencing a learning plateau.C. avidly seeking group approval.

1.6.0.2.6.A.1 H203Motivations in the form of reproof and threats should be avoided with all but the student who isA. overconfident and impulsive.

1.6.0.2.7.A.1 H204What level of knowledge is being tested if asked, "What is the maneuvering speed of the aircraft listed in the owner's manual?"A. Application.B. Understanding.C. Rote.

1.6.0.2.7.A.1 H204What level of knowledge is being tested if asked, "What is the maneuvering speed of the aircraft listed in the owner's manual?"C. Rote.

1.6.0.2.8.B.1 H204During the flight portion of a practical test, the examiner simulates complete loss of engine power by closing the throttle and announcing "simulated engine failure". What level of learning is being tested?A. Understanding.B. Correlation.C. Application.

1.6.0.2.8.B.1 H204During the flight portion of a practical test, the examiner simulates complete loss of engine power by closing the throttle and announcing "simulated engine failure". What level of learning is being tested?B. Correlation.

1.6.0.2.9.A.1 H204When asking a student to explain how gross weight affects maneuvering speed, what level of learning is being tested?A. Correlation.B. Understanding.C. Application.

1.6.0.2.9.A.1 H204When asking a student to explain how gross weight affects maneuvering speed, what level of learning is being tested?B. Understanding.

1.6.0.3.0.A.1 H204At which level of learning do most instructors stop teaching? A. Correlation.B. Application.C. Understanding.

1.6.0.3.0.A.1 H204At which level of learning do most instructors stop teaching? B. Application.

1.6.0.3.1.A.1 H205The best way to prepare a student to perform a task is toA. give the student an outline of the task.B. explain the purpose of the task.C. provide a clear, step-by-step example.

1.6.0.3.1.A.1 H205The best way to prepare a student to perform a task is toC. provide a clear, step-by-step example.

1.6.0.3.3.A.1 H205A learning plateau may be defined as theA. point in the learning curve at which skill proficiency retrogresses.B. normal and temporary leveling-off of an individual's learning rate.C. achievement of the highest possible level of competence for a particular individual.

1.6.0.3.3.A.1 H205A learning plateau may be defined as theB. normal and temporary leveling-off of an individual's learning rate.

1.6.0.3.4.A.1 H206According to one theory, some forgetting is due to the practice of submerging an unpleasant experience into the subconscious. This is called A. blanking.B. immersion.C. repression.

1.6.0.3.4.A.1 H206According to one theory, some forgetting is due to the practice of submerging an unpleasant experience into the subconscious. This is called C. repression.