chapter 003
TRANSCRIPT
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1Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Chapter 3
Introduction to Quantitative Research
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2Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Concepts Relevant To Quantitative Research
Basic research Applied research Rigor Control
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3Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Basic Research
The pursuit of “knowledge for knowledge’s sake”
Purpose is to generate and refine theory andbuild constructs
Findings are frequently not directly useful inpractice
Findings can be generalized to varioussettings
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4Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Basic Research - Case Study
Examine the causes of body fat loss early in the development of cancer cachexia in male rats
The study demonstrates the importance of genetic research in understanding disease pathology and provides basis for further research in animals and in humans with cancer cachexia
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5Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Applied (Practical) Research
Scientific investigation conducted to generate knowledge that will directly influence or improve clinical practice
Purpose is to solve problems, to make decisions, or to predict or control outcomes in real-life practice situations
The findings are less generalizable than those from basic research
Complementary to basic research
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6Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Applied Research Case Study
Determine the effectiveness of a nurse- managed telemonitoring (TM) program on the blood pressure (BP) of urban African Americans
Findings showed that this nurse-managedTM intervention significantly affected BP in a population with a high incidence of hypertension
Based on these findings, home monitoring became part of a patient’s prescribed treatment
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7Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Rigor
The striving for excellence in research Discipline Scrupulous adherence to detail Strict accuracy Precision Measurement involving objectively
experiencing the real world
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8Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Control
Imposing “rules” to decrease the possibilityof error
Increases the probability that the study’sfindings are an accurate reflection of reality
Through control, the researcher can reduce the influence or confounding effect of extraneous variables on the study variables
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Control (Cont’d)
Experimental
Quasi-experimental
Correlational
Descriptive
More Control
Less Control
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10Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Common Areas in Which Control Might be Enhanced
Selection of subjects (sampling) Reduction of subject or participant attrition Selection of the research setting Development and implementation of the
intervention Measurement of study variables Subjects’ knowledge of the study
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Sampling and Attrition
Sampling: process of selecting subjects, events, behaviors, or elements for participation in a study
Random sampling: usually provides a sample that is representative of a population
Attrition: loss of study subjects (researchers limit this to increase the rigor of their studies)
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Research Settings
Natural: uncontrolled, real-life settings (descriptive and correlational)
Partially controlled: environment that the researcher manipulates/modifies in some way (quasi-experimental)
Highly controlled: artificially constructed environments that are developed for the sole purpose of conducting research
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13Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Development and Implementation of Study Interventions or Treatments
Intervention fidelity A study intervention needs to be:
Clearly and precisely developed Consistently implemented Examined for effectiveness through quality
measurement of the dependent variables
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Measurement of Study Variables
Attempt to use the most precise instruments available to measure the study variables
Rigorously control the process for measuring study variables to improve the design validity and quality of the study findings
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Subjects’ Knowledge of a Study
Hawthorne effect: individuals may change their behavior due to the attention they are receiving from researchers rather than because of any manipulation of independent variables.
Kind of messes with the validity of your study…don’t you think?
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16Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Steps of the Quantitative Research Process
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Steps of the Quantitative Research Process (Cont’d)
Conceptualizing
Planning
Implementing
Communicating findings
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Formulating a Research Problem and Purpose
Research problem: area of concern or phenomenon of interest where there is a gap in the knowledge base needed for nursing practice
Research purposed: generated from the problem and identifies the specific focus or aim of the study (often indicates the type of study to be conducted)
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Major Sources for Nursing Research Problems
Nursing practice Literature review Research priorities for funding agencies and
professional organizations Researcher and peer interactions Theory testing
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Review of Relevant Literature
What is relevant literature?
Sources that are pertinent or highly important in providing the in-depth knowledge needed to study a selected problem and purpose
Why do it?
To find out what is already known and identifies the knowledge gaps that exist
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Developing a Framework
Framework: the abstract, logical structure ofmeaning that will guide the development of a study and enable the researcher to link the findings to the body of nursing knowledge
Assumptions are inherent in the framework but may not be explicitly stated
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Formulating Research Objectives, Questions, or Hypotheses
Narrow the focus of the research purpose Often specify only one or two research
variables Identify the relationship between the
variables Indicate the population to be studied
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Defining Research Variables
Identified by the objectives, questions, or hypotheses Variables: concepts that are measured, manipulated,
or controlled in a study More abstract concepts (e.g., creativity, empathy,
social support) are sometimes referred to as “research concepts”
Conceptual definition: theoretical meaning variable/concept
Operational definition: how a variable will be measured/manipulated in a study
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Selecting a Research Design
A blueprint for maximizing control over factors that could interfere with a study’s desired outcome
The type of design directs the selection of: Population Sampling process Methods of measurement A plan for data collection and analysis
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Defining the Population and Sample
Population: all the elements (individuals, objects, or substances) that meet criteria for inclusion in a universe and which are accessible and can be best represented by the study sample
Sample: subset of the population that is selected for a particular study
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Selecting Methods of Measurement
Measurement: assigning numbers to objects in accord with some rule
Instrumentation: the application of specific rules to the development of a measurement device/instrument
Data generated with an instrument are at thenominal (lowest), ordinal, interval, or ratio (highest) level of measurement
The level of measurement, determines the type of statistical analyses that you can perform on the data
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Instrument Selection
Requires extensive examination of its reliability and validity
Reliability: how consistently the measurement technique measures a concept
Validity: the extent that instrument actuallyreflects the abstract concept being examined
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Developing a Plan for Data Collection and Analysis
Data collection: precise, systematic gathering of information relevant to the research purpose, objectives, questions, or hypotheses
Detailed procedures are developed, with a schedule identifying initiation and termination of the process
Analysis plan is based on the research objectives/questions/hypotheses; the data to be collected; research design; researchers’expertise; availability of computer resources
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Implementing the Research Plan
Intervention implementation Data collection Data analysis Interpretation of research finding Pilot study
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Pilot Study
A smaller version of a proposed study conducted to refine the methodology
Many reasons for conducting, but a pilot study has the potential to improve the development, funding, and implementation of future studies
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Data Collection
Obtaining numerical data Consent forms Techniques
Observation Interview Questionnaires Scales Physiological measurement
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Data Analysis
Reduces, organizes, and gives meaning to the data
Analysis techniques Descriptive Statistical Make predictions Examine group differences
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Interpreting Research Outcomes
Examining the results from data analysis Exploring the significance of the findings Identifying study limitations Forming conclusions Generalizing the findings Considering the implications for nursing Suggesting further studies
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Communicating Research Findings
Developing and disseminating a research report to appropriate audiences
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Types of Quantitative Research
Descriptive Correlational Quasi-experimental Experimental
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Descriptive Research
Purpose is to explore and describe phenomena in real-life situations
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Correlational Research
Examines linear relationships between twoor more variables and determines the type (positive or negative) and degree (strength) of the relationship
-1 is a perfect negative correlation +1 is a perfect positive correlation 0 indicates no relationship
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Quasi-experimental Research
Examines the cause-and-effect relationshipsamong selected independent and dependent variables
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Experimental Research
Examines cause and effect relationships between independent and dependent variables under highly controlled conditions