chap. 13 habitat degradation 鄭先祐 (ayo) 國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院...
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Chap. 13 Habitat degradationChap. 13 Habitat degradation鄭先祐 (Ayo)
國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院生物科技學系 生態學 (2008)
Essentials of Ecology 3rd. Ed.
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Habitat degradationHabitat degradation
• 13.1 introduction• 13.2 Degradation via cultivation• 13.3 power generation and its diverse effects• 13.4 degradation in urban and industrial
landscapes• 13.5 maintenance and restoration of ecosystem
services
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13.1 Introduction13.1 Introduction
• 13.1.1 Physical and chemical impacts of human activities– Physical degradation of habitats includes soil
loss and desertization caused by intensive agriculture and changes to river discharge as a result of water impoundment for hydropower generation or abstraction for irrigation of crops
– Chemical degradation (DDT)
• 13.2 Economic costs of human impacts: lost ecosystem services
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• Fig. 13.1 Graph showing the changes in sparrowhawk eggshell thickness in Britain.
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Fig. 5. DDT gets praise from an advertisement in the June 30, 1947, issue of Time.
Fig. 5. DDT gets praise from an advertisement in the June 30, 1947, issue of Time.
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DDT 的興衰史DDT 的興衰史DDT ： Dichloro-Dipheny-Trichloroethane
雙氯 - 雙苯 - 三氯乙醛DDT 的發現與應用：
第一次合成是在 1874 年於 1939 年，發現其可用作殺虫劑 (Paul Muller)美國大量生產是始於 1940 年代初期。
• 1948 年 Paul Muller 因其在 1939 年的發現而榮獲諾貝爾醫學獎。
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DDT 被禁用的過程DDT 被禁用的過程1947 年前， DDT 被公認為有效且安全。1957 年，美國聯邦政府對 DDT 的使用範圍，
開始有些限制。1962 年， Rachel Carson 的 Silent Spring
1963 年 5 月，美國的科學顧問委員會建議DDT 應在短期內禁用。
1967 年， DDT 被進一步的限制使用。1972 年 6 月 14 日，在聽過 9,312 頁 ( 來自
125 位學者專家 ) 的證言，以及 350 份以上的文件後，美國環保署宣佈於農業，全面禁用。
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• Acid rain damage to spruce forest.
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Economic costs of human impactsEconomic costs of human impacts
• Biodiversity has intrinsic value.– Provisioning ( 給養 ), cultural ( 文化 ),
regulating ( 調節 ) and supporting ( 支撐 ) services ( 功能 )
• Costanza et al. (1997) added up all ecosystem services worldwide, arriving at an estimate of US$38 trillion (1012)– more than the gross domestic product of all nations combined.
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13.2 degradation via cultivation13.2 degradation via cultivation
• 13.2.1 intensive livestock management
• 13.2.2 intensive cropping ( 農作 )
• 13.2.3 managing eutrophication ( 優養化 )
• 13.2.4 pesticide pollution
• 13.2.5 physical degradation associated with cultivation
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Managing eutrophication
Managing eutrophication
• Fig. 13.2 (a) Fingerlings of two piscivorus fish stocked in Lake Mendota: the major biomanipulation effort started in 1987.
• Lathrop et al. (2002) more than 2 million fingerlings of the two species were stocked beginning in 1987.
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• Fig. 13.2 (b) estimates of zooplankton biomass consumed by zooplanktivorous fish per unit area per day.
• (c) mean and range of the maximum depth at which a Secchi disk is visible during the summer from 1976 to 1999.
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• Fig. 13.4 Organochlorines, applied as pesticides on land, are transported to the Arctic through river runoff and oceanic and atmospheric circulation. A study in the Barents sea showed how two classes of pesticide are biomagnified during passage through the marine food chain.
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13.3 Power generation and its diverse effects13.3 Power generation and its diverse effects
• Fig. 13.6 the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide measured at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii showing the seasonal cycle and more significantly, the long-term increase that is due largely to the burning of fossil fuels.
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• Fig. 13.7 predicted changes to the distribution of the Argentine ants and between now and 2050. Red areas are those predicted to improve for Argentine ants, whereas blue areas are predicted to worsen for the species.
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13.3.2 nuclear power13.3.2 nuclear power
• When first developed, nuclear power was viewed as an almost ideal, long-term source of industrial and domestic power.
• Some leakage occurs from nuclear power reactors, and it is doubtful whether the reprocessing of waste nuclear fuel can ever be made completely clean.
• Moreover, the polluting power of radioactive waste has a time scale that may be orders fo magnitude greater than that of other human pollutants.
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• For example, plutonium-239 has a half-life of about 25,000 years.
• Plutonium is separated and recovered from the spent fuel in nuclear reactors and stocks are expected to have risen to more than 100 metric tons by 2010.
• A major accident in 1986 at a nuclear power station at Chernobyl in the Ukraine released 50-185 million curies of radionuclides into atmosphere.
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• Fig. 13.9 An example of long-distance environmental pollution: the distribution in 1988 in Great Britain of fallout of cesium-137 from the Chernobyl nuclear accident in the Soviet Union in 1986.
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Wind powerWind power
• Thousands of square kilometres of the marine environment off the German coast are planned for wind farming by 2030.
• Garthe and Huppop (2004) developed a species sensitivity index (SSI) for 26 seabird species, combining their scores for a range of properties, including flight maneuverability, flight altitude, percentage time spent flying and conservation status.
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• Fig. 13.10 Areas in the German sector of the North Sea where wind farm development is considered to be of ‘less concern’, ’concern’ or ‘major concern’ on the basis of bird density patterns and species-specific sensitivity indexes (SSIs)
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• Fig. 13.11 The sequence of treatments commonly applied to the sewage waste from a modern urban community.
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• Fig. 13.12 (a) An image of the ozone hole over Antarctica for September 24, 2006; the blue and purple colors are where there is least ozone. (b) Average size of the ozone hole from September 7 to October 13 each year from 1980 to 2006.
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Four scenarios ( 四個版本 ) ：1. Global orchestration
Four scenarios ( 四個版本 ) ：1. Global orchestration
A more globally connected society (global orchestration) could produce higher economic growth and the biggest improvement for the poorest people, but at the cost of many ecosystem services and with the largest predicted temperature increase.
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2. Order from strength2. Order from strength
If there is litter change in our sociopolitical outlook, the order from strength scenario is expected to apply, with poor economic growth, degradation of all ecosystem services and a large increase in global temperature.
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3. Adapting mosaic3. Adapting mosaic
The scenario adapting mosaic, of a world driven by local communities focusing on sound environmental management would lead to the smallest economic growth, improvements to all ecosystem services and an intermediate rise in global temperature.
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4. Technogarden4. Technogarden
The technogarden scenario, with its environmentally sound but highly manage ecosystems, and crucially with a climate change policy, leads to the smallest rise in temperature, reduces, nutrient pollution of waterways and improve ecosystem services – except cultural ones, because many ecosystems are managed and unnatural.
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Review questionsReview questions
1. Define the characteristics that make some pesticides particularly dangerous pollutants.
2. It is often argued that environmental pollution can be prevented only by ‘making the polluter pay’. Discuss the ways in which this is, or might be, cone.
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