changing course in urban transport: an illustrated guide

Changing Course in Urban Transport

An IllustrAted GuIde

robin Hickman, Paul Fremer,Manfred Breithaupt, sharad saxena

Contents Foreword 101. Introduction: An Urgent Need for Change 402. The Urban Transport Dilemma 15 – Growth in Motorization 20 •IncreasingDistancesTraveled 26 •SubsidizedCarUse 33 •PoorQualityPublicTransit 34 •NeglectedWalkingandCycling 43 – CostsoftheCurrentApproach 50 •Congestion 50 •CarbonDioxideEmissions 57 •LocalAirPollutionandNoise 60 •EnergyConsumption 62 •Health—ActiveTravel 63 •RoadSafety 64 •SocialExclusion 67 •LandConsumptionandUrbanSprawl 68 •Megaprojects,CostOverruns,andPoorProjectManagement 7503. Options for Sustainable Mobility 80 •Methodologies 84 – UrbanPlanning 86 – TrafficDemandManagement 100 – PublicTransit 107 •MassRapidTransit 107 •LightRapidTransit 118 •BusRapidTransit 122 •UltralightandDemand-ResponsiveTransit 133 – Non-MotorizedTransport 134 •Walking 134 •Cycling 146 – StreetscapeDesign 164 – RoadPlanning 169 •RoadSafetySolutions 170 – Low-EmissionVehiclesandAlternativeFuels 173 – FreightPlanning 18104. Delivering Sustainable Mobility 184 – ADBSustainableTransportInitiative 194 – GIZandSustainableUrbanTransportProject 195Acknowledgements 197Endnotes 198References and Further Reading 200Photo Credits 203

Average Commuting Experiences – Bangkok 29 – Jakarta 56 – HongKong,China 111

Transportation Timelines – Bangkok 31 – Bogotá 78 – london 115 – Amsterdam 155

©2011AsianDevelopmentBank,DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit

Allrightsreserved.Published2011.

PrintedinthePhilippines.

RobinHickman,PaulFremer,ManfredBreithapt,SharadSaxena.ChangingCourseinUrbanTransport:AnIllustratedGuide

Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedherearethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsandpoliciesoftheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB),itsBoardofGovernors,orthegovernmentstheyrepresent;orDeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ).ADBandGIZdonotguaranteetheaccuracyofthedataincludedinthispublication,andacceptnoresponsibilitywhatsoeverforanyconsequencesoftheiruse.

Bymakinganydesignationoforreferencetoaparticularterritoryorgeographicarea,orbyusingtheterm“country”inthisdocument,ADBandGIZdonotintendtomakeanyjudgmentsastothelegalorotherstatusofanyterritoryorarea.

Theaccountspresentedinthispublicationareanecdotal,anddonotimplythatcitieshaveentirelygoodorbadtransportprovisionsoverall.

ADBandGIZencourageprintingorcopyinginformationexclusivelyforpersonalandnoncom-mercialusewithproperacknowledgmentofADBandGIZ.Usersarerestrictedfromreselling,redistributing,orcreatingderivativeworksforcommercialpurposeswithouttheexpress,writtenconsentofADBandGIZ.

Anelectronicversionofthisguideisavailableatwww.adb.org/documents/books/changing-course-urban-transport/default.aspwww.sutp.org

ISBN:978-92-9092-234-6PublicationStockNo.ARM102400

6ADBAvenue,MandaluyongCity1550MetroManila,PhilippinesTel+6326324444Fax+6326362444www.adb.org

TheDeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbHDag-Hammarskjöld-Weg1-565760EschbornGermany

Fororders,pleasecontact:AsianDevelopmentBankDepartmentofExternalRelationsFax+6326362648adbpub@adb.org

0.1. COVER DESIGNDesignMusclephotosbyManfredBreithaupt,ShreyaGadepalli,andCarlosPardo

1

0.2. JINAN (PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA [PRC])AcrossAsia,urbanareasaregroaningunderthestrainofincreasedmotorization,andprojectionssuggestthiswillonlygetworse.

ForewordCities inAsiaaregrowing rapidly.The trafficgrowthassociatedwith thisand increasedaspirations towardmotorizationhavemeantworseningtravelandenvironmentalconditionsforlargenumbersofpeople.Thegeneralqualityofurbanlifeisdeclininginmanycities.Attemptstobuildourwayoutoftheproblembyprovidingmoreroadsandparkingspacewillsimplyleadtoproblemsonalargerscale—morecongestion,carbonemissions,pollution,socialinequity,andeconomicdecline.

There is another route—a change in course—where traffic is managed, mass transit systems developed, non-motorized modesencouraged,urbanplanningdesignedtosupporttransportinvestment(andviceversa),slowertravelspeedsadopted,andlow-emissionvehiclesusedasthemajorshareofthevehiclemarket.Thebenefitsofsuchanintegratedapproachwillbeverylarge.Citiescanregaintheircompetitiveedge,minimizetheirenvironmentalimpacts,becomemoreattractiveplacestoliveandwork,anddevelopstrongsensesofcharacterandidentity.

Itissaidthatapictureisworthathousandwords—andthisillustratedguideprovidesarichcollectionofimagesofsustainableurbantransportschemesandinitiativesfromaroundtheworld.Itshowshowwecanupgradethequalityofurbantransporttosupportwidersustainabilitygoals.WehopethattheinitiativesandideasthatfollowcanbewidelydisseminatedacrossAsia,andthatwecanalllearnfromthepracticalexperiencethatresults.

UrsulaSchaefer-Preuss CorneliaRichterVicePresident DirectorGeneralPlanningandDevelopmentDepartmentKnowledgeManagementandSustainableDevelopment DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)AsianDevelopmentBank

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“Solving traffic jams with more or bigger highways is like putting out a fire with gasoline.”

—Enrique Peñalosa, Colombian politician and former mayor of Bogotá

0.3. BEIJING (PRC)

01. Introduction: An Urgent Need for Change 01. Introduction: An Urgent Need for Change

01.

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1.2. BANGKOK (THAILAND)It is impossible to build enough highwaysto remove the congestion across the city.Thefinancialcostswouldbetoohighandtheenvironmental,social,andqualityoflifeimpactshorrific.

1.3. VIENTIANE(LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC)Public transport is usually poor, andmanyoptforprivatetransport.

1.1. ALEPPO (SYRIA)Arapidlygrowingproportionoftheworld’spopulationlives in cities with intolerable and deterioratingtransportsystems.

Introduction:An Urgent Need for Change

Urban transport in Asia is in crisis. Transport plays a major role in the lifeof anyone living in an Asian city. Yet, formany,theexperienceoftravelistraumatic.The adverse impacts of the growth inmotorization—ineconomic,environmental,andsocialterms—areruiningthequalityoflifeinourcitiesandourglobalclimate.Thereisanurgentneedforachangeinapproach.

Great challenges face urban areas in thefirsthalfofthe21stcentury.Transportisacriticalpartofthefuturelivabilityofcities:itisoftenviewedasthe“makerandbreakerof cities.”1 Societies depend on efficienttransport, but this needs to be developedwithoutunacceptableadverseimpacts.

The dominant investment in transport hasconventionally been in highway building.However, a revised approach is emergingthat advocates managing the transportsysteminawaythatsupportssustainableurbanliving.

A better focus for policy and investmentwouldbepackagedstrategiesthatincludeurbanplanningtosupporttransport,trafficdemandmanagement,massrapidtransit,light rapid transit,busrapid transit, infor-mal non-motorized transit (like walkingandbicycling), low-emissionvehiclesandalternativefuels,andfreightplanning.

This changed emphasis is particularlyrelevantinAsiaandthePacific,wheremassmotorizationisreachinganever-increasingnumber of areas, and is projected forenormous growth in future years. Thepotentialimplicationsforglobaltransportandcross-sectoralgreenhousegasandcarbondioxide(CO2)emissionsareprofound.


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“Sustainable mobility requires clear and innovative thinking about city futures in terms of the reality (what is already there), desirability (what we would like to see), and the role that transport can (and should) play in achieving sustainable cities. This balances the requirements along the physical dimensions (urban struc-ture and traffic) against the social dimensions (people and proximity).”

—D. Banister. 2008. The Sustainable Mobility Paradigm. Transport Policy. 15 (2). pp. 73–80.

1.5. BEIJING (PRC)Designedformassmotorization,Beijing’scomplexarteriesshowthattheconventionalapproachof‘predictandprovide’isseverelyoutdated.Highwayssoonfillupwithtrafficandcongestionreturns.

1.4. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)Theeconomic,environmental,andsocialcostsofcongestednetworksdemandanewapproach.


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TheprojectedgrowthinmotorizationinAsiancitiesishuge.InDelhi,forexample,projectionsindicatea500%increaseinvehicles by 2030, compared to 1990levels.2

1.8. DELHI (INDIA)

1.6. INDORE (INDIA)

1.7. AHMEDABAD (INDIA)


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Theexistinghighlevelsoftrafficinmany industrialized cities are notsustainableglobally.

1.9. SAN DIEGO (US)Thistypeofresidentialdevelopmenthasbeenpervasive,andisthedominanttypeofsuburbiaacrosstheworld.Ittendsto be dispersed withmany trip origins and destinations,makingefficientpublictransitdifficulttosupport.

1.10. TORONTO (CANADA) Somestreetcarsareavailableinthecitycenter,butsuburbansprawlisverycar-dependent.

1.11. NAPLES (US) TheNorthAmericanmodel—low-densitysuburbansprawl,with very highmotorization rates and car dependency—leadstohighlevelsofenergyconsumptionandemissions.Itisnotsustainableattheglobalscale.


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Even crossing a road can be dangerous inthe current traffic-dominated environment.We,andourchildren,deserveabetterplacetolive.

1.13. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)

Theimpactsofsuchmotorizationgrowth,andthehighwaystoservethis,arehighlynegativefor the city—economically, environmentally,politically,socially,andintermsoflivability.

1.12. CHENNAI (INDIA)

02. The Urban Transport Dilemma01. Introduction: An Urgent Need for Change

02.

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The amount of travel worldwide is rising considerably. Thereareverylargeprojectedmotorizationgrowthratesoverthenextfewdecadesinmostcountries,andparticularlyinAsiancities.Conventionally,thisriseintravelhasbeenregardedpositively—asareflectionofincreasingpersonalmobilityandeconomicgrowth.However,thesideeffectsoftraffichaveincreasinglybeenobservedandunderstood,includingincreasedcongestion,airpollution,poorconditionsforpedestriansandcyclists,highaccidentrates,degradationoftheurbanenvironment,andinefficientlandconsumption.

Theproblemsoftrafficgrowthandtheviciouscircleoftransportdeclinehavebeenacknowledgedforover50years.3Theuniversalsimilarityoftheseproblemsisstriking,andprovidesthisillustratedguidewithitsrationale—tounderstandhowcitiescanbetterdiagnosetheirproblemsanddevisestrategiesandinvestmentprogramstodevelopmoresustainablepatternsofmobility.

The Vicious Circle of Transport Decline

Source:T.Pharoah.1992.Less Traffic, Better Towns.London:FriendsoftheEarth.

The UrbanTransport Dilemma

Theaimofthisillustratedguideistoshowthe traffic problems in cities in Asia and,moreimportantly,theremarkableandrapidlygrowing examples of good sustainablemobility available around the world. TheguideispublishedbytheAsianDevelopmentBank (ADB)and theDeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ).

Schemes and initiatives cannot always bewell conveyed through photographs, butthismediumcanintroducesomeveryhighquality transport projects, journeys, andtravel behaviors. Dissemination of goodpractice and the transfer of knowledgecan be very powerful tools in the effort to scale up the delivery of sustainable urbantransport.

Managing traffic effectively can assistin achieving wider societal goals. Ourimplementation and investment programscan,andmust,changedramaticallyrelativeto thepast50years.Thereare,ofcourse,many difficulties in the transferability ofpractice. Urban areas start from differentbaselines, and have different contexts,problems,andopportunities.Goodpracticeis seldomwidespread, even in the better-run cities. Strategies and implementationprogramswillneedtobetailoredspecificallytotheneedsofeachcity.

Yet good practices in urban transport—inpartsofAhmedabad;Amsterdam;Bangalore;Barcelona; Bogotá; Copenhagen; Curitiba;Delhi;Freiburg;HaNoi;HongKong,China;Jinan; Lanzhou; London; Lima; Lyon;Mexico City; Milan; Munich; Manchester;Oxford;Paris;Pune;SanSebastian;Seoul;Singapore; Stuttgart; Tokyo; Vancouver;Zürich; and many others—provide muchinspirationaboutwaystodeliversustainableurbantransportinternationally.

1.15. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)A remarkable seriesof sustainableurbantransport projectsarebeingdeveloped incitiesacrosstheworld.Thesemustnowbe

deliveredtomorepeople.

1.14. SINGAPORE (SINGAPORE)

02. The Urban Transport Dilemma

1716

“It is impossible to spend any time on the study of the future of traffic in towns without at once being appalled by the magnitude of the emergency that is coming upon us. We are nourishing at immense cost a monster of great potential destructiveness, and yet we love him dearly. To refuse to accept the challenge it presents would be an act of defeatism.

Given its head, the motor car would wreck our towns within a decade [...] The problems of traffic are crowding in upon us with desperate urgency. Unless steps are taken, the motor vehicle will defeat its own utility and bring about a disastrous degradation of the surroundings for living [...] Either the utility of vehicles in town will decline rapidly, or the pleasantness and safety of surroundings will deteriorate catastrophically—in all probability both will happen.

Some deliberate limitation of the volume of motor traffic is quite unavoidable. The need for it just can’t be escaped.”

—Sir Colin Buchanan and the UK Ministry of Transport. 1963. Traffic in Towns [The Buchanan Report]. Harmondsworth: HMSO and Penguin.

A typology of transport development paths inAsia is given below.There are differences in terms of low and highmobility, and also thedominanceofprivateandpublicmodes.HongKong,China;Seoul;andSingaporeareviewedastransitcities,whileBangkok,Jakarta,andManilaareviewedastraffic-saturatedbuscities,HaNoiasamotorcyclecity,andHoChiMinhasatraffic-saturatedmotorcyclecity.Overtime,achievinggreatersustainabilityintransportmeansinvestinginaccessibilityanddevelopingmoreeffectivetransitcities.

Transport Development Paths for Developing Cities

Note:Themodelshowsintendedorpotentialtransportdevelopmentpathsfordevelopingcities.Source:P.Barter.2004.A Broad Perspective on Policy Integration for Low Emissions Urban Transport in Developing Asian Cities.Papergivenataninternationalworkshop,InstituteforGlobalEnvironmentalStrategies.Kanagawa,Japan.

02. The Urban Transport Dilemma 02. The Urban Transport Dilemma

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2.2. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)2.1. BANGKOK (THAILAND)

RecentyearshavewitnessedmanyattemptstomanagethetransportsystemsinAsia(andinternationally)inamoresustainableway.Thereisa rapidlyexpandingselectionofverypromisingschemesand initiatives,yetgoodpractice remainsadhoc,andmanycities inAsiaaredeteriorating.

TransportinAsiancitiesisfacingmajordifficultiesinpolicy,planning,governance,andimplementation.Transportstrategiesandmasterplansareoftenclosertowishliststhantofeasible,budgeted,andprioritizedstrategies.Policiesareoftenleftunimplemented,orpartiallyimplemented—perhapsjustthemainroadsinacityarebuilt.Wheninvestmentdoesoccur,littleisknownaboutimpactsrelativetoaspirations.Projectsareveryseldomevaluatedtoseeiftheyhavebeensuccessful,andlessonsseldomlearnedfromimplementation.Projectsaresubjecttooverrunsintimeandcost,withlittlebuilt-inresilienceandadaptabilitytounpredictablefutures.Politicaldecisionssometimesignoretechnicaladvice,andthelevelsofparticipationindecisionmakingareusuallyverylow.Thetransportsectorisnotbeingmanagedsystematicallyoreffectively.Thereistoolittletransferringofknowledge,benchmarkingofpractice,analyzingandmanagingofrisk,andassessingofperformance.4

Theendresultisthatsustainabletravelbehaviorsarenotbeingwidelyachieved—cardependencyisverymuchagrowingproblem.5 the imperativeofclimatechangeaddsagreaterimpetusforaction,withthewindowofopportunityclosingmoreeachyear.Yetbreakingthetrendis,asyet,onlyanaspiration.

The Problems of Traffic Growth: – Increasing Motorization – Increasing Car Use – Growing Distances Traveled – Congestion– CO2 Emissions– Energy Consumption – Local Air Pollution

– Social Exclusion – Negative Health Impacts– Negative Safety Impacts– Land Consumption


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Total Vehicles and MotorizaHon Index

Total Vehicles (in millions) (LeM Axis) MotorizaHon Index (V/1000 P) (Right Axis)

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“Automobility adapts as it spreads along the paths and roads of each society [...] it seems to provide the solution to the problems of congestion that it itself generates [...] it externalizes dangers onto those outside the system as it provides enhanced security for those ‘within,’ and it is central to the individualistic, consumerist affective culture of contemporary [society].”

— M. Sheller and J. Urry. 2004. The City and the Car. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 24. pp. 737–757.


“I will build a car for the great multitude. It will be large enough for the family, but small enough for the individual to run and care for. It will be constructed of the best materials, by the best men to be hired, after the simplest designs that modern engineering can devise. But it will be so low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one—and enjoy with his family the blessing of hours of pleasure in God’s great open spaces.”

—Henry Ford, founder of the Ford Motor Company, 1922

GROWTH IN MOTORIZATION

PRC=People’sRepublicofChina,OECD=OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,v/1000P=vehiclesper1,000personsSources:ADB.2009.Changing Course. A New Paradigm for Sustainable Urban Transport.Manila.;withdata fromCleanAir Initiative forAsianCities,SegmentYAutomotiveIntelligencePvt.Ltd.,andtheInternationalEnergyAgency.

Motorization,intermsoftheaggregatenumberof vehicles, is projected to reach nearly 250millionintheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations (ASEAN), over400million in thePRC,over350millioninIndia—reachingthenumbersseeninNorthAmericaandEurope.Thedifficultyisthatthe levelofmotorizationismuchlowerinAsia, only reaching 200 vehicles per 1,000persons. This suggests that growth in Asiamay continue. If North American motorizationrates—over700vehiclesper1,000persons—arereached,thenAsiancitiesarelikelytobeinserioustrouble,andtheenvironmentalimpactswillbedramaticacrosstheworld.

Total Vehicles and Motorization Index


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2.4. BANGKOK (THAILAND) Theglobalprivatemotorcarfleetisexpectedtojumpfrom1billionin2002to2billionby2022,largelyaconsequenceofgrowthinmotorizationandamovetowardcar-centricculturesinAsia.6


2524

“The ownership of cars in Beijing broke the 4 million mark in December. It took 31 months for the number to grow from 3 million to 4 million. It took Tokyo 12 years to do so.

The ownership of cars in Beijing is growing by half a million a year. Last week [first week of June 2010], 12,000 new cars hit the road, taking the total to 4.33 million. The number has been growing by more than 10,000 a week since April [2010].

For every million cars, the city needs 2.82 million kilometers (km) of roads, which equals the length of all the roads within the Third Ring Road. The parking area for 1 million cars is 30 km2, equal to half of the land within the Second Ring Road.

The Committee recommends that the most effective, direct, and fundamental measures are to control the growth in traffic and car ownership, and to increase the cost of purchasing a car. [A strategy] may include emissions and environment fees, securing a parking spot prior to obtaining a car plate, raising parking fees and levying a congestion charge, developing bicycle and pedestrian lanes, and encouraging people to walk or ride a bike when their commuting time is less than 30 minutes.”

—The Standing Committee of the Beijing Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC). June 2010. China Daily. Beijing.

2.5. BEIRUT (LEBANON)

2.6. BANGKOK (THAILAND) Thecaranditsassociatedinfrastructureoftendominatetheurbanfabricattheexpenseofothermodesandthequalityofthebuiltenvironment.


INCREASING DISTANCES TRAVELED

26 27

2.8. LOS ANGELES (US)ManyAmericanstravelverylongdistancestowork.Thisleadstoaveryinefficientuseofenergy,emissions,andtime.7

In 1800, people in the US traveled, on average, 50meters perday.Theynowtravel50kmperday.Today’sworldcitizenstravel23billionkm;by2050, it is forecast that thisfigurecouldhaveincreasedfourfoldto106billion.8

2.7. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) Thecariscurrentlynecessaryformanyjourneyswithinthecity, since transit investments do not often integrate withurbanform.Thatis,publictransitandnon-motorizedmodesoftravelarepoor.


An Average Commuting Experience in Bangkok

Morwand is a 36-year-old mother and bank officer.

28 29

She leaves home in BangTalat at 6:45 a.m. and rides 25minutesontheexpresswaytotakeherchildrentoschool.

The children eat breakfast inthebackseatofthecar.

ThenMorwandbeginsherownjourneytoworkbycar.Ittakesher 90 minutes to reach herworkplaceinPathumWan.

With one mode and one stop,she travels anaverageof115minutesoneway.

She also has to get home andpickupherchildren.Shespends3 hours and 50minutes everydayonthecommute!Thisisnotuncommonandisahugewasteoftimeinsocialterms.

2.11. BANGKOK (THAILAND)

2.9. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)Even though the sports utility vehicle (SUV) is not aspopularyetinAsiaasitisinNorthAmerica,thereismuchrecentgrowthinmarketshare.

2.10. DELHI (INDIA) Themajorgrowthareasinnewvehiclesin Asia are in the inexpensive, oldtechnology, small cars; and larger,heaviervehicles.Botharerelativelyhighpolluters in termsofCO2emissionsandlocalairquality.


30 31

1932Thepoliticalsystemchangedfrom absolute monarchy toparliamentarydemocracy.Thailandwashitbyaworlddepression and post-WorldWar crisis.The focus of theThai government shiftedfrom railways to roads tosupportcarusage.

Thefirst roadbridgeacrossthe Chao Phraya River wasbuilt to link Bangkok to ThonBuri.

1946the motorization period beganinBangkok,shiftingthe paradigm towardmore road constructionand promoting personalmotorizedtransport.

1961Thegovernmentdecided toabolishthetramsystemgradually.

1901Trams inBangkokwereconvertedtoelectricpower.

1904Motorcars were introduced to the cityafter the construction of some roads.Initially,onlytheroyalfamily,high-rankinggovernmentofficials,andthewealthyhadaccesstocars.

1906NeartheendofKingRamaV’sreign,only251carsexistedinBangkok.

1913Horse-drawn buses werereplaced by motorizedbuses.

1926Only14taxisexistedinBangkok.

1933TricycleswereintroducedinBangkok.They were very convenient fortraveling short distances, and theyhad the advantage of being able totravelalongnarrowlaneswhereothermodes of transport, especially cars,could not venture.Theywerewidelyusedatthattime.

1947TheprivatetramcompaniesweretakenoverbythegovernmentviatheCapital ElectricityAuthority.Therewere seven routes along themainroads,andthetotallengthwas45kmwith200trams.Therewereonlyabout3,000carsinBangkokbeforeandduringWorldWarIIandtherewereonlyabout700motorcycles.

1999The Bangkok Skytrain opened. The cost ofconstructionwasUS$1.5billionfor23kmfortwolines.

2004Amass rapid transit subwaywas opened inJuly2004.Thebluelinewas21kmlong.

2009The extension of the Bangkok MassTransit System (BTS) SkyTrain acrossthe Chao Phraya Riverwas completedandwasopenedforoperations.

2007The Cabinet of Thailand approvedconstruction of a 27 km bus rapidtransit (BRT) line in Bangkok. TheairporttrainlinktoSuvarnabhumiwasalsoapproved.

2010The BRT system in Bangkok wasopened with a total length of 16.5 kmThe systemwas operatedfreeforamonth,thenonaflatfareuntil december 2010, and then on a distance-basedfarefrom2011.

1960The road length throughout Thailandwas 8,000 km. In the same year, US consulting firms submitted theBangkok Urban Plan, also knownas The Greater Bangkok Plan 2533(1990), to the Thai government. Thebasis of the plan was a pure NorthAmerican paradigm, which focusedon constructing roads and increasingdependenceonautomobiles.

1993Vehicle numbers reached 2.66 million, of which1.09millionwerecarsand0.27millionwerepick-uptrucks.Duringthistimetherewere0.11millionbusesand0.36milliontaxisinBangkok.

1970Thenumberofvehicles inBangkokincreasedto275,000,with197,700carsand41,600pickuptrucks(mostwereusedasprivatecars).

1972Transport users made7,000 trips by trains,compared to 2.64milliontripsbybuses.

1980MotorvehiclesinBangkoktotaled571,300,ofwhich299,100werecarsand55,400pickuptrucks.

1783The Klong OngAng Canal served as animportantarteryforwatertransportinBangkok.

1870/80Rickshawswere introduced from the People´sRepublic of China in the early 1870s. Theseweretwo-wheeledcartspulledbymen,mostlyChinese.BicycleswereintroducedinBangkok.Theyalsobecameverypopular,initiallyamongveryhigh-rankingpeople,includingtheKing.

1880BusesweremadepossiblebytheconstructionofroadsinBangkok.Earlybuseswerehorse-drawn, four-wheeled carriages with a roofandwithtwolongseatsfacingeachother.

1887Tram technology in Bangkok started simply, withcarriages pulled by four horses. Bangkok was thesecondcityinAsiatohavetrams,afterTokyo.

1896The first railway was formally opened by KingRamaV.The operatingdistanceof thetrain was 71 kilometers (km) between thecentralstationinBangkokandAyutthaya.

1907InBangkok,threesteamrailwaylinesoperatedthrough theurban region to thenorth,south,andnortheast.Thestationsintheurbanareawere2km–3kmapart.

1900The railway networkwas expanded towardthe northeast, to Nakhon Ratchasima. Thetotallengthwas265km.

1768Bangkokwasa small villagewithmosttransportationneedscoveredbywaterways.


SUBSIDIZED CAR USE

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Fuelpricesdiffermarkedly,bycountry,duetothevariedlevelsofsubsidyandtaxation.ThepriceofcrudeoilwasUS$83abarrel(US$0.52/liter)in2010.Theretailpriceofgasolineismuchbelowthislevelinsomecountriesduetohighsubsidies(Kuwait,Qatar,andSaudiArabia).Fuelpricesgraduallyincreaseincountrieswithlowsubsidy(Malaysia,UnitedArabEmirates);lowtaxation(India,Mexico,thePhilippines,andUS);andmedium-to-hightaxation(Brazil,theNetherlands,Singapore,andtheUnitedKingdom).

*=includingHongKong,China;CAT=catagory;PRC=People’sRepublicofChina;EU-27=Agroupof27membersoftheEuropeanUnion;LaoPDR=LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic;VAT=value-addedtaxSource:DeutscheGesellschaftfürTechnischeZusammenarbeit(GTZ).2010.International Fuel Prices.Availableatwww.GTZ.de/fuelprices.

World Gasoline Prices

2.13. KUALA LUMPUR (MALAYSIA) 2.14. KUALA LUMPUR (MALAYSIA)

2.12. HA NOI (VIET NAM)Cardominanceisexacerbatedbypoorparkingenforcement.


POOR QUALITY PUBLIC TRANSIT

34 35

2.18. PHNOM PENH (CAMBODIA)

2.19. HA NOI (VIET NAM)

2.17. ‘NO EXIT’ ILLUSTRATION by ANDY SINGER

2.15 and 2.16. DELHI (INDIA) Muchof thepublic transitfleet involvesold,contaminatingvehicles.Thereislittlecoordinationinservices.


36 37

2.22. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) Peoplewaitforabus.Thisisnotmuchfun.2.20 and 2.21. DELHI (INDIA) and KOTA (INDIA)

Theoldbusfleetdoesnotprovideanattractivemeansoftravel.


38 39

2.27. KUALA LUMPUR (MALAYSIA) Two-andthree-wheelersarespatiallyefficient relative tocars.Thoughtheycontributetopollution,noise,safety,andaestheticproblems,theirnegativeimpactscansometimesbeovercome.

2.26. DELHI (INDIA)Insomecities,two-andthree-wheelersdominate.

2.25. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) Evenifthebusfleetisnewer,thereisoftennopriorityinrouting.

2.23. BANGKOK (THAILAND)Itislittlewonderthatchildrengrowupwantingtousethecar.

2.24. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)


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2.30. DELHI (INDIA) Thevehiclemixsometimesleadstocongestion.

2.31. DELHI (INDIA) The use of two- and three-wheelers declines as the carbecomesmorepopular,makingcongestionevenmoreprevalent.

2.28. KOTA (INDIA)Theubiquitous three-wheeleraccounts forahighshare ofthevehiclefleetinsomecities.

2.29. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) Two- and three-wheelers and informal public transitjitneyscanpolluteoroftenmixinanunsafewaywithothertraffic.However, if clean, theyaregenerallyan importantcomponentofatransportsystem,sincetheyuserelativelylittlespaceperperson.


Motorization 2007Two-Wheel Motor Vehicles per 1,000 Inhabitants

NEGLECTED WALKING AND CYCLING

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2.32. BEIJING (PRC) Acriticalmassofcyclistsmakescyclingsafer,thoughdedicatedfacilitiesareuseful.

2.33. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) The only means of transport for low-income citizens inmanydevelopingcountrycitiesarecyclingandwalking,yetthefacilitiesareoftennonexistent.

2.34. BEIJING (PRC) Provisionisoftenpoor,orevendenied.

Note:2007data,unlessotherwisenoted * 2006data ** 2005 dataLaoPDR=LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic,UAE=UnitedArabEmiratesSources:GTZ.2010.WithdatafromInternationalRoadFederation(IRF),World Road Statistics 2009.


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“Cars parked on sidewalks, or parking bays where there should be sidewalks, are symbols of inequality and lack of democracy.”



2.41. BHUBANESWAR (INDIA)2.40. BANGKOK (THAILAND)

2.35. BANGKOK (THAILAND) Pedestriansandcyclistsaretreatedassecond-classcitizens.

2.36. MUMBAI (INDIA)

2.37. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) Facilitiesareoften thoughtlesslydesigned:whathappensattheendofthecrossing?



46 47

“In Dhaka´s strategic transport plan, out of the US$5 billion budget, only 0.22% is allocated for pedestrian facilities.”

—ADB. 2009. Sustainable Urban Transport in Asia 2009: A Year in Review. By Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Center. Manila.

2.43. VIENTIANE (LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC)

2.44. DHAKA (BANGLADESH)



48 49



CONGESTIONCONGESTION

50 51

2.48. BEIJING (PRC)

InThailand,withthelongestcommutingtimesintheworld,atotalof37millionhoursarespenttravelingtoworkeveryday.TheaverageworkingpersonlivinginThailandspendsabout2hourseverydaytravelingtoandfromwork.Currently,theaveragetravelspeedincentralBangkokduringpeakhoursisjust7milesperhour.

COSTS OF THE CURRENT APPROACH


2.47. ‘PUBLIC TRANSIT’ ILLUSTRATION by ANDY SINGER

Congestioninmanyurbanareashasbeenincreasingindurationandintensity.Trafficspeedshavebeenreducingeachyearinmanycities, withtheseverityofcongestiontendingtoincreasewithcitysize.Businessesandindividualswastemuchvaluabletimeintraffic.


52 53

2.50. DELHI (INDIA) Majorcities,includingmegacitiesofover10millionpeople,grindtoahalt.

2.49. BEIJING (PRC)The traffic problem is remarkably prevalent and similar incitiesallaroundtheworld.


54 55

Dependingonvehiclesize,occupancyorloading,andspeed,theuseofspacecanvarygreatlyfordifferentmodesoftravel.Thismeansthatthepotentialvolumesofpassengersvarygreatlybymodealongacorridor.Clearly,thecaristhemostspatiallyinefficientmode.Denseurbancenterscannoteffectivelybeservedbythecar,sincenotenoughpeoplecanbedeliveredtothecenter.

BRT=busrapidtransit,m=metersSources:H.BotmaandH.Papendrecht.1991.TrafficOperationofBicycleTraffic.InTransportation Research Record 1320.TRB.Washington,D.C.:NationalResearchCouncil, andbasedonGTZcalculations(2009).

2.51. LOS ANGELES (US) In car-dependent lifestyles, too much time is spenttravelingfromanondescriptresidentialzoneinsuburbiatoanondescriptemploymentzoneinsuburbia.Whereisthequality,character,andidentityofurbanlife?Asiadeservesbetterthanthis.

2.52. M62 MOTORWAY (UK) ItisnotonlyinNorthAmericawherethecaristhedominantmode and congestion is increasing. Most industrializedwestern countries are very car-dependent outside thecentralurbanarea.


An Average Commuting Experience in Jakarta

Adhi is a 33-year-old communication officer for a nongovernment organization.

CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS

56 57

ModesoftravelhavevaryingeffectsonemissionsofCO2andothergreenhousegasesthatcauseclimatechange.PassengercarsandscootersaretheleastefficientmeansoftravelwhenconsideringCO2emissions.WalkingandbicyclingputnegligibleCO2intotheatmosphere,meaningthatonecouldtravelimmeasurablylongdistanceson1tonofCO2.

Note:Allvaluesinpassenger-kilometers(Pkm),reflectinga100%occupationrate.Alldatagiveninthisdiagramshouldbeconsideredasguidelinevalues,asrealvaluesmaydifferconsiderably,dependingon,forexample,actualloadfactors,smoothnessoftrafficflow,andtechnicalstandardsofvehiclesandinfrastructure.BRT=busrapidtransitSources:GermanInternationalCooperation(GIZ)Gmbh,2011[1]VolvoBRThttp://www.volvobuses.com/bus/global/en-gb/volvogroup/Environment/going+greener/brt/pages/brt.aspx; [2]CalculationsbyIanBarrett.2010.IntegratedTransportPlanningLtd.(ITP).;[3]InstituteforEnergyandEnvironmentalResearch(IFEU).May2008.Wissenschaftlicher Grundlagenbericht zum UmweltMobilCheck (Basic Scientific Report, UmweltmobilCheck).http://www.bahn.de/p/view/mdb/bahnintern/services/umwelt/MDB58033-umc_grundlagen_ifeu_080531.pdf;[4]DeutschesInstitutfürWirtschaftsforschung(GermanInstituteforEconomicResearch).2008/2009.Verkehr in Zahlen (Transport in Figures).SabineRadke,author.Berlin:DIW.; [5]W.HookandL.Wright.2002.Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Shifting Passenger Trips to Less Polluting Modes, A Background Paper for the Brainstorming Session on Non-Technology Options for Engineering Modal Shift in City Transport Systems.InstituteforTransportationandDevelopmentPolicy(ITDP),NewYork,UnitedStates.

How Far Can I Travel on 1 Ton of CO2?

He leaves home in Cikupa,Tangerang, at 5:45 a.m. and rides 15 minutes on hismotorbike to a paid parkingspace.

Hethenwalksabout500meterstotheCitraRayashuttleterminal.

He takes a bus directly to theJl.Sudirmanarea,whichtakesbetween 90 and 120 minutesdependingontraffic.

Heusesthreemodesoftransportand spends 125minutes on anaverageone-waytrip.

He also has to get home. Hespends4hoursand15minutesevery day on the commute.This equals 2.5 working daysperweek!

2.53. JAKARTA (INDONESIA)


58 59

PRC=People’sRepublicofChina,CO2 =carbondioxide,GDP=grossdomesticproductNotes:CountrycodeswerechangedtomatchthoseusedbyADB,asapplicable.Thosemarkedwith*useWorldBankabbreviations.Timeseriesdatacomparison1965–2005.EachlinerepresentsonecountryorareawithCO2percapitaplottedagainstnationalgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)logged.Source:WorldBank.2010.World Development Indicators: Country Data.Washington,D.C.

National GDP (US$) - Time Series (1965–2005)

Internationally, globally, and within Asia,CO2 emissions vary markedly. The onlyconstant is the rise nationally over time.Cross-sectoralemissions,bycountryandregion, are shown opposite. The PRC,Europe,India,theRussianFederation,andtheUSarethelargestaggregateemitters,reflectinglargepopulations.

Per capita emissions are highest inthe countries with high car ownershipand car-dependent lifestyles: in the US (19.5 metric tons per person [tpp]),Australia (18.1 tpp), Canada (16.6 tpp),Japan(9.6tpp),theUK(9.1),andEurope(8.0tpp).

Asia, on the whole, has low per capitaemissions: the PRC emits about 4.3 tpp,andThailand(4.1tpp)andIndia(1.2tpp)follow, though there are some notableexceptions,suchasSingapore(13.2tpp)andMalaysia(9.3tpp).

The time series opposite shows rapidincreasesinCO2emissionsovertimefrom1965 to 2005, particularly in countriessuchasMalaysia.Somecountries in theMiddle East have very high per capitaemissions,suchasQatar(56.3tpp),Kuwait(36.9 tpp), and United Arab Emirates (30.1tpp).Theworldaverageis4.5tpp.

Carbon Dioxide Emissions Over Time (Cross Sectoral)


LOCAL AIR POLLUTION AND NOISE

60 61


2.57. DELHI (INDIA)


2.55. CHANGCHUN (PRC)

IncreasinglocalairpollutionmeansthatcountriesareexceedingairqualitystandardssetbynationalgovernmentsandbytheWorldHealthOrganization.Airpollutionaffectshealth,impairsvisibility,anddamagesbuildingsandthelocalenvironment.

Noisefromtrafficaffectsresidentsandworkers,indeedallcitylife.Alargeproportionofthepopulationisexposedtohighlevelsofnoisefromtraffic.Disturbancecanalsobecausedbyvibration,particularlyfromheavylorries,andfrom24-hourdeliveries.


HEALTH—ACTIVE TRAVELENERGY CONSUMPTION

Transport

Industry

Non-EnergyUse

OtherSectors

Transport

Industry

Non-EnergyUse

OtherSectors

62 63

2.58. ASIALevelsofobesityinAsiaarebeginningtofollowtheNorthAmerican trend, raising concerns about implications forfuturehealthlevels.

2.59. BEIJING (PRC) Walkingandcyclingaspartofeverydayroutines are the best ways to keepactive. These modes improve health,while reducingCO2 emissions—averyusefulcombination.

Inactivelifestyles,includingfromtravel,areleadingtohigherlevelsofobesityandpoorhealth.Sustainabletransportstrategies,includinglessuseofmotorvehiclesandincreasesinthedistanceswalkedandcycled,couldhaveveryimportanthealthbenefits.Levelsofchronicdisease,suchastheprevalenceofischemicheartdisease(reducedbloodsupplyaffectingtheheart),cerebrovasculardisease(changedbloodpressureaffectingthebrain),depression,dementia,anddiabetes,canallbeloweredbyactivetravellifestyles.9

“The rapidly rising demand for energy and oil, fast-rising numbers of middle class inhabitants of Asian cities, and the rapidly changing lifestyles and consumption patterns of the fortunate pose major challenges for transport planners and city designers.”

—H. T. Dimitriou. 2006. Towards a Generic Sustainable Urban Transport Strategy for Middle-Sized Cities in Asia: Lessons from Ningbo, Kanpur, and Solo. Habitat International. 30. 1082–1099.

Thetransportsectorisusingamuchgreatershareoffiniteoilresourcesovertime,accountingforupto62%oftotaloilconsumptionby2008.Thisrepresentsahugeincrease,upfrom1,020milliontonsofoilequivalent(Mtoe)in1973to2,150Mtoein2008,anincreaseof111%.

Note: Other sectors include agriculture, commercial and public services,residential,andothernon-specifiedsectors.Source:InternationalEnergyAgency.2010.KeyWorldEnergyStatistics.Paris.

1973

2008


ROAD SAFETY

19,799 ; 1% 96,110 ; 5%

99,935 ; 6%

114,548 ; 7%

125,839 ; 7%

185,734 ;

11%

251,879 ;

15%

305,805 ; 18%

517,430 ; 30%

War

Poisonings

Drowning

Violence

Falls

Fires

Self‐inflicted injuries

Road traffic accidents

Other unintenKonal injuries

64 65

The cost of road traffic injuries is enormous, estimated atUS$518billioneach year.Thoughonly onepersonmaybeinvolvedinaroadtrafficcrash,theentirehouseholdcanbeaffectedfinancially,sociallyand,ofcourse,emotionally.12

2.62. DELHI (INDIA)Thetwo-wheelerisoftenusedtocarrythefamily,butonlydadgetsthehelmethere.


2.60. INDORE (INDIA)Pedestrianfacilitiesareoftennonexistent.Pedestriansmixwithvehiclesandtraffic.

2.61. HA NOI (VIET NAM)Two-wheelersarefrequentlyusedwithouthelmets,includingwhencarryinglargepackages.

Roadsafetyisamajorconcerninallcities.Worldwide,trafficaccidentsresultinupto1milliondeathseachyearand50millioninjurieseachyear.10Thisisaveryhighcostthatisseeminglyacceptedbysociety.Themajorityofvictimsarepedestriansandcyclists.Accidentratesaredeclininginsomecountrieswithhighlevelsofmotorization,butincreasinginotherswithlowerlevels—suchasmostAsiancountries.Personalsecurityisalsoagrowingsocialproblem,withsometransportimplications.11

Source:WorldHealthOrganization.2004.Global Burden of Disease Study (2004update).Geneva.

Injury-Related Mortality in the Southeast Asia Region, 2004


SOCIAL EXCLUSION

66 67

2.68. NANDED (INDIA)

2.67. BEIJING (PRC)

Investmentsintheprivatecarandthegrowthintrafficfacilitatethemovementofthemotorist,butcanreducetheaccessibilityofothers,sincespacesgiventothecar(intheformofhighwaysandcarparks)oftenformobstaclesforpedestrians,cyclists,andthosewithdisabilities.

Transportinterventionsmustservedeprivedareasandtargetdisadvantagedgroupsiftheyaretoimprovetransportequityandopportunity.Transport provision, if designed to improve accessibility—rather thanmobility—can be part of the social safety net providing access toemploymentandotherfacilities.Disadvantagedgroupsaremostoftenthoughtofaslow-incomegroups,butcanalsoincludepeopleexcludedbygender,age,anddisability.

2.64. KUNMING (PRC)

2.65. BANGKOK (THAILAND)Thelackoffacilitiesforvulnerableroadusersmeansthattheircasualtyratesaremuchhigherthanthoseofothergroups,suchascarusers.

2.66. INDORE (INDIA) Thespecialcontextsinsomecitiesmeanstheobstaclesontheroadcanbeuncertain.

Almostthreequartersofroadtraffic deaths in SoutheastAsia are of vulnerable roadu s e r s—mo t o r cy c l i s t s ,pedestrians,orcyclists.13

5–14Years 15–29Years

Lowerrespiratoryinfections Road traffic injuries

Road traffic injuries HIV/AIDS

Malaria Tuberculosis

Drownings Violence

Meningitis Self-inflictedinjuries

Diarrhealdiseases Lowerrespiratoryinfections

HIV/AIDS Drownings

Tuberculosis Fires

Protein–energymalnutrition Warandconflict

Fires Maternalhemorrhage

Measles Ischemicheartdisease

leukemia Poisonings

Congenitalanomalies Abortion

Trypanosomiasis leukemia

Falls Cerebrovasculardisease

Epilepsy Diarrhealdiseases

Leishmaniasis Falls

Violence Meningitis

Warandconflict Nephritisandnephrosis

Poisonings Malaria

Roadtrafficinjuriesaretheleadingcauseofdeathamong15-to 29-year-olds.Among5- to 14-year-olds, it is the secondleadingcause.

Source:WorldHealthOrganization.2009.Global Status Report on Road Safety: Time for Action.Geneva.

Leading Causes of Death, by Age Group


LAND CONSUMPTION AND URBAN SPRAWLLAND CONSUMPTION AND URBAN SPRAWL

68 69

2.69. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) Newresidentialenclaves—urbansprawlontheedgeofthecity—arebuiltatvery lowdensitiesandareusuallyverycardependent.

Cities in Asia are often sprawling, with the higher-incomegroupsmovingtoareaswithbetter livingconditionsandthelower-incomegroupsbecomingtrappedandmarginalized.

Globally,theuseofspacebytraffic,intheformofhighwaysandparking space, takes10%–60%of land in the city (thelatter in LosAngeles).Theurban landscapecan suffer fromdegradation when new roads and transport facilities arebuilt,historicbuildingsdemolished,andopenspacereduced.Highwayscancontributetothedecayingof theurbanfabricandtheneglectofcentralcityareas.

The decentralization and suburbanization of urban areashasbeenfacilitatedbythecar(and, inspecificcorridors,bypublictransit).Thishasresulted inthesubstantialgrowthoftriplengths,andtravelpatternsthataredispersed,reflecting‘many to many’ origins and destinations.14 Trips are rarelyconcentratedontheradialcommuteintothecitycenter.

Under dispersal, development pressures occur in locationsaroundkey junctionson the roadnetwork, inareas thatarepoorly accessible for peoplewithout cars.Activities becomespatiallysegregated.Thesetrendsmakeinvestinginefficientpublictransitmoredifficult,andincreasecardependence.


70 71


2.73. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) Even where there are clusters of highdensity,muchvaluablespaceisdevoted,atgroundlevel,totheparkingofvehicles,which can sometimes result in wastedspace. Urban centers are still served, inthemostpart,by thecar,and that thereislittlecoordinationbetweenurbanform,layout,andpublictransitinvestment.

2.71. SEOUL (REPUBLIC OF KOREA) Largercitiesandsmallerurbanareasprovideopportunitiestodevelopclustersofhigh-densitydevelopment that cansupportpublictransitsystemsovercarusage.However,thiswillrequirestrongerurbanplanningregimesandstrategiclogictourbanformandlayout.Densityandtransportpolicymustgohandinhand.

2.70. DELHI (INDIA)A newmetro system needs high densities around themajorinterchangestoincreasepatronageandencouragemodalshifts.


Indicator MetricHigh-

Income AsiaMiddle-

Income AsiaLow-

Income AsiaMIO LIO US Canada AUS and NZ

Western Europe

Urbandensity Persons/ha 134.4 164.3 205.6 53.7 122.1 14.9 26.2 15.0 54.9

ProportionofjobsinCBD % 20.1% 13.1% 31.8% 16.8% 21.2% 9.2% 15.7% 15.1% 18.7%

Metropolitan GdP per capita US$ $34,797 $9,776 $1,689 $6,625 $1,949 $31,386 $20,825 $19,775 $32,077

Passengercarsper1,000persons - 217.3 198.3 38.0 265.1 71.2 587.1 529.6 575.4 413.7

Motorcyclesper1,000persons - 65.8 154.0 95.6 14.7 15.1 13.1 9.5 13.4 32.0

Passengercarkmpercapita - 3,724 3,517 785 4,133 1,172 18,155 8,645 11,387 6,202

Motorcyclepassengerkmpercapita - 100 1,165 416 78 90 45 21 81 119

Lengthofexpresswayperperson m/pers 0.022 0.027 0.004 0.043 0.009 0.156 0.122 0.129 0.082

Privatepassengervehiclesperkmofroad - 118.1 290.4 169.3 137.5 139.7 98.7 105.8 73.1 181.9

Averageroadnetworkspeed km/h 31.3 20.9 20.5 35.9 30.4 49.3 44.5 44.2 32.9

Parkingspacesper1,000CBDjobs - 121 164 55 374 134 555 390 505 261

Publictransportseatkmofservicepercapita - 5,535.2 2,734.4 2,057.4 3,282.8 3,322.2 1,556.8 2,289.7 3,627.9 4,212.7

Publictransportboardingspercapita - 464.1 274.2 267.3 340.5 234.4 59.2 140.2 83.8 297.1

Publictransportoperatingcostrecovery % 138.5% 98.8% 138.6% 82.9% 107.9% 35.5% 54.4% 52.7% 59.2%

Modesplit:motorizedprivatemodes % 38.6% 54.6% 21.6% 45.5% 30.9% 88.5% 80.5% 79.1% 49.7%

Modesplit:motorizedpublicmodes % 32.3% 25.6% 28.3% 26.6% 32.8% 3.4% 9.1% 5.1% 19.0%

Modesplit:non-motorizedmodes % 29.1% 19.8% 50.1% 27.9% 36.3% 8.1% 10.4% 15.8% 31.3%

Transportdeathsper100,000people - 5.9 20.7 10.4 18.3 13.2 12.7 6.5 8.6 7.1

Privatepassengertransportenergyuseper capita

MJ/person 9,556 10,555 2,376 10,569 4,052 60,034 32,519 29,610 15,675

Publictransportenergyusepercapita MJ/person 1,500 1,583 607 1,012 1,696 809 1,044 795 1,118

Totalemissionspercapita(CO2,SO2,VHC,NOX) kg/person 31.3 97.2 69.1 157.5 81.8 264.6 178.9 188.9 98.3

72 73

Comparative data from cities across the world show greatdifferencesinlanduseandwealth,privateandpublictransportsupplyandusage,andenergyusageandemissions.

HIGH-INCOME ASIAHongKong,ChinaOsaka(Japan)Sapporo(Japan)SingaporeTokyo(Japan)

MIDDLE-INCOME ASIABangkok(Thailand)KualaLumpur(Malaysia)Seoul(RepublicofKorea)Taipei,China

LOW-INCOME ASIABeijing(PRC)Chennai(India)Guangzhou(PRC)HoChiMinhCity(VietNam)Jakarta(Indonesia)Manila(Philippines)Mumbai(India)Shanghai(PRC)

MIDDLE-INCOME OTHERBudapest(Hungary)CapeTown(SouthAfrica)Curitiba(Brazil)Johannesburg(SouthAfrica)Krakow(Poland)Prague(CzechRepublic)Riyadh(SaudiArabia)SaoPaulo(Brazil)TelAviv(Israel)

LOW-INCOME OTHERBogotá(Colombia)Tehran(Iran)Tunis(Tunisia)Cairo(Egypt)Dakar(Senegal)Harare(Zimbabwe)

USAtlantaChicagoDenverHoustonLosAngelesNewYorkPhoenixSanDiegoSanFranciscoWashington,DC

CANADACalgaryMontrealOttawatorontoVancouver

AUSTRALIA and NEW ZEALANDBrisbane(Australia)Melbourne(Australia)Perth(Australia)Sydney(Australia)Wellington(NewZealand)

WESTERN EUROPEAmsterdam(theNetherlands)Athens(Greece)Barcelona(Spain)Berlin(Germany)Bern(Switzerland)Bologna(Italy)Brussels(Belgium)Copenhagen(Denmark)Dusseldorf(Germany)Frankfurt(Germany)Geneva(Switzerland)Glasgow(UK)Graz(Austria)Hamburg(Germany)Helsinki(Finland)London(UK)Lyon(France)Madrid(Spain)Manchester(UK)Marseilles(France)Milan(Italy)Munich(Germany)Nantes(France)Newcastle(UK)Oslo(Norway)Paris(France)Rome(Italy)Ruhr(Germany)Stockholm(Sweden)Stuttgart(Germany)Vienna(Austria)Zurich(Switzerland)

Land Use and Transport Characteristics

AUS=Australia,CBD=centralbusinessdistrict,PRC=People’sRepublicofChina,CO2 =carbondioxide,GDP=grossdomesticproduct,ha=hectare,kg=kilograms,km=kilometers, km/h=kilometersperhour,LIO=low-incomeother,MIO=middle-incomeother,m/pers=metersperperson,MJ=megajoule,NOX=nitrogenoxides,NZ=NewZealand, SO2 =sulfurdioxide,UK=UnitedKingdom,US=UnitedStates,VHC=volatilehydrocarbonsSources:J.R.KenworthyandF.Laube.2001.UITP Millennium Cities Database for Sustainable Transport.Brussels:InternationalAssociationofPublicTransport.;P.Barter,J.R.Kenworthy,andF.Laube.2003.LessonsfromAsiaonSustainableUrbanTransport.InN.P.LowandB.J.Gleeson,(eds.)Making Urban Transport Sustainable.Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan.


MEGAPROJECTS, COST OVERRUNS,AND POOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT

74 75

Not all megaprojects are beneficial. Major radial expresswayscanincreasecarusageandunderminesustainabilityaspirations.Metrosfrequentlycarryfewerpassengersthanforecast.Greatcareisrequiredindefining,developing,andimplementingallprojects,particularlythelargerones.

2.74. BANGKOK (THAILAND) Manymajorprojectsaresubjecttocostoverrunsandambitiousassumptionsinforecasting.

Someprojectsarenotoriousfortheirpoormanagementofcostandtime.Megaprojects,inparticular,haveenormousopportunitycostsandareriskybynature.Costescalationcanoccurinconstructionandfinancing,andfordifferenttypesandsizesofschemes—forexample,roads,bridges,andrailways.Thisoccursinpublic,private,andjointprojects.Ambitiousassumptionsareoftenusedinmodelingforecasts.16

Sources: P.NewmanandJ.R.Kenworthy.1989.Cities and Automobile Dependence: An International Sourcebook.Aldershot:Gower.;P.NewmanandJ.R.Kenworthy.1999.Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence.Washington,D.C.:IslandPress.;LeMondeDiplomatique.2007.Atlas de l’Environnement: Chantilly,France.

Urban density and transport energy consumption have been correlated, showing that high densities are associatedwith reduced energyconsumption.15Although there are other important issues involved (fuel price and transport infrastructure, socioeconomic and populationcharacteristics, integration of services, etc.), citiesmust findwaysof strategically usingurban structure to support sustainable travel.Animportantpartofthiswillincluderaisingdensitiesinlocationsaroundinterchanges.

Urban Density and Transport-Related Energy Consumption


7776

“Many people just get into their cars in the morning almost without thinking, and then they find themselves stuck in another traffic jam. Experts have calculated that traffic jams cost the German economy several billion euro every year. And to my mind the answer is not simply to build more roads.

Stuck in traffic jams, people waste time, get irritated. Some people put themselves through it every day, even if a 5-minute walk would take them to the underground, which would get them to work quicker and more comfortably. Never mind the pleasure of being able to read the paper on the way!

It’s true that this is not possible in every town, nor in every suburb; but it is possible much more often than transport user figures would suggest. Are we actually aware how our quality of life suffers just because we don’t let go of old habits? Sometimes I wish people would think about this a little more.”

—Horst Köhler, former German Federal President, speaking to the German Motorists Association in Munich in early 2010.



78 79

1928Inter-city buses startedoperation, fully operated byprivatecompanies.

1974ThecityhelditsfirstCar-freeSunday(Ciclovia),3.8kminlength.

1978Thecityhad33privatetransportcompaniesprovidingserviceto327routes.

1964The first report on integrated collectivetransportwaspresentedtothemunicipality.

2000TransMilenio (a BRT system)was inaugurated alongAvenidaCaracasandCalle80.

2003TransMilenio built phase 2, includingbicycle parking, atno cost to its usersatterminalstations.

2004Thebikewaynetworkmeasuredover330kminlength.

2010The national government gavenumerouscommentsontheFirstMetroLine project, and thiswas postponeduntil a comprehensive review couldbedeveloped.Phase3ofTransMileniocontinuedconstruction.

1968The first large transport route and organization analysis wasundertaken,aswasthefirstofficialmetrostudyandproposal.

Thecityhadmorethan3,000privatelyownedandoperatedbuses.

The national government created the Transit Code (Código deTránsito),which,amongotherthings,formalizedpublictransportandcreatedspecificlocalauthoritiestoregulateit.

1941In order to satisfy excessive demand, aconsultantreportsuggestedthattramwaysbecomplementedbybus-basedsystems.

1988CaracasAvenuewasredesignedandrebuiltasabus-onlycorridor.Nomanagementstructurewas developed. This was the first phase(southernportion).

1998-2000Mayor Enrique Peñalosa developed andimplemented a large urban transport plan,which included a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)system,300+kmofbikeways, sidewalks thatreplaced parking bays, and large promenadesthroughoutthecity.

1991The local public transport authority, EmpresaDistritalTransportesUrbanos(EDTU),wasclosed. 2006

Car-freeSunday encompassed121 kmofroutes.

Automobilesales reachedrecordnumbersnationally: (200,000 compared to 60,000in1999).

The TransMilenio network comprised 84kmoftrunklines(phases1and2werecompleted).

2008Therewere895,293automobilesregisteredinthecity.

Mayor Samuel Moreno promised to havethe first line of metro contracted by endof his mayoral term in December 2011. Astudywasundertaken.

Bicycle network expansion plans will add20kmthroughDecember2011.

1996Car-freeSundayencompassed81kmofroutes.

1998354,481 automobiles wereregisteredinthecity.

1948Twentytrolleybusesand20buses(boughtbythecityin1947)startedoperation.

1951Thetramwayservicestoppedoperationdueto high costs and increased motorization,andbecausetheywereseenas“premodernandarchaic”bymayorFernandoMazuera.

1876Horse-drawncarriageswith10-personcapacitywere used as public transport (operated byCompañía Franco–Inglesa de Carruajes deAlfordyGilede).

1882The Bogotá City Railway Co. washired to operate a mule-drawntramway(TranvíadeMulas)underaconcessioncontractuntil1912.

1900Horse-drawn four-seater taxis were putinto service. Tickets cost 40 cents pertrip,or1pesoperhour.

1903ThefirstcararrivedinBogotá.

1910Bogota inaugurated electric service operation,whichwasboycottedforpoliticalreasonsbypublictransportusers. Twenty-five-horsepower electric tramwaysstarted operation—a 20-minute ride between PlazadeBolivarandChapinero.

1911Municipaltramwaystransported3.5millionpassengers in27vehicles:21mule-drawnand6electric.

1921Tramwaysmoved 10.4million passengersalong 30.6 kilometers (km) of lines using 30vehicles.

1884Tranvía de Mulas startedoperating with eightvehicleswith10-passengercapacityeach.

03. Options for Sustainable Mobility 03. Options for Sustainable Mobility

03.

80 81

3.2. HONG KONG, CHINA (PRC)


There is widespread acknowledgement of the need to develop greater sustainability in travel patterns and a number of exciting projects are emerging internationally. Thereisalsoageneralconsensusonthelikelycomponentsofsustainablemobility.StrategiestoreducetrafficinAsiancitieswillneedtoincludeawiderangeofmeasures,suchastrafficmanagement, improvedaccessbynon-motorizedmodes,urbanplanning,and thepromotionof low-emissionvehicles,wheretravelbyprivatecarisessential.Trafficreductionisnotanendinitself,butisrecognizedasthebestmeansofachievingwidersustainabilityandlivabilityaspirations.

There is extensive literature that defines the difficulties, and examines the likely policy interventions available, in developingsustainabletransportstrategies.Usefulfurtherreadingisgiveninthebibliography.ManypublicationshaveanAsianfocusand,inaddition, the GIZ Sourcebook(www.sutp.org)providespracticaladvicetopolicymakersindevelopingcitiesonmanyrelevanttopicsforurbantransportdevelopment.

Options forSustainable Mobility



82 83

3.4. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)Transportation networks and facilities are designed toimprove thequalityof life in thecity,withpedestriansandcyclistsgivenpriority.


METHODOLOGIES

PP3: Vehicle Class Market Share (car/SUV/2 or 3 wheeler)

PP2: Alternative Fuels

PP4: Public Transport

PP5: Walking and Cycling

PP6: Urban Planning

PP7: Wider Behavioral Interventions

PP8: Freight Transport

SYO: Synergies

PP1: Low Emission Vehicles

26.30MtCO2BAU2030

9.46MtCO2

AspirationforDelhi=+200%on1990(64%reductiononBAU)

6.15MtCO2

3.12MtCO2

84 85

Packagesofinterventionsthatincludearangeofmeasuresoftenmakethegreatestimpactatthecitylevel,asevidencedbythisDelhiexample.

PackagingtheComponentsofaStrategy

AVOID:Reducetheneedtotravel. – urbanplanning – trafficdemandmanagement

SHIFT:Changethetransportmodesthatpeoplechoose. – publictransit •massandlightrapidtransit •busrapidtransit •ultralightanddemand-responsivetransit – non-motorizedtransport •walkingandcycling

IMPROVE:Increasetheenergyefficiencyofvehiclesandfuels. – low-emissionvehiclesandalternativefuels

MtCO2 =milliontonscarbondioxide,BAU=businessasusual,PP(1,2,3...etc.)=policypackage(1,2,3...etc.),SUV=sportutilityvehicle,SYO=synergeticeffectsSource:R.HickmanandD.Banister.2011.TransitionstoLowCarbonTransportFutures.StrategicConversationsfromLondonandDelhi.Journal of Transport Geography.Forthcoming.

Policy Solutions in Delhi


Thereareanumberofusefulmethodologiesandapproachesavailabletohelpdecisionmakersformulatepoliciesandinvestmentprograms.Therangeofinterventionsavailablehavebeenclassifiedintothe‘AVOID–SHIFT–IMPROVE’typology:17

•AVOID:Reducetheneedtotravel.•SHIFT:Changethetransportmodesthatpeoplechoose.•IMPROVE:Increasetheenergyefficiencyofvehiclesandfuels.

Anexampleofscenarioanalysisandpolicypackagingisprovidedopposite.TheriseintransportCO2emissionscanbeviewedasaprojectionofthebusiness-as-usualpolicy,andanaspirationtochangethetrajectorycanalsobedeveloped.Aseriesofpolicyinterventions,groupedintopackages,canbeusedtohelpachievethisfuturescenario,includinglow-emissionvehicletechnologies,alternativefuels,publictransit,walkingandcycling,urbanplanning,andwiderbehavioralchangeinitiatives.

Thevalueofsuchworkistoassessthelikelycontributionsof,andtrade-offsbetween,policyinterventions.Manyarelikelytoactacrossandbetweenparticulartypologies.

Thefollowingequationsimplifiesthecontributionofvariousfactors:

G=A*Si*Ii*Fij

where G isthetotalemissionssummedovermodes(i) A isthetotaltravelactivityinpassengerkilometers(ortonskm)acrossallmodes S convertsfrompassengertovehicletravel I istheenergyintensityofeachmode(includingvehicleefficiency,occupancyorloading,vehicleweight,power,anddriverbehavior) F isthefueltype(j)inmode(i)18


86 87

Source:R.Hickman,C.Seaborn,P.Headicar,andD.Banister.2009.Planning for Sustainable Travel. Summary Guide. London:HalcrowandCommissionforIntegratedTransport.

Focusing Development along the Major Transit Corridors, and near Interchanges

Clustering Density around the Transit Network

Well-Linked and PermeableNew Development

Source:R.Rogers.1997.Cities for a Small Planet.London:Faber.

Source:R.Hickman,C.Seaborn,P.Headicar,andD.Banister.2009.Planning for Sustainable Travel. Summary Guide.London:HalcrowandCommissionforIntegratedTransport.

URBAN PLANNING

3.6. SINGAPORE

PlanningregimesinAsiancitiescertainlyneedstrengtheningtomoreeffectivelyguideandshapethelocationandformofdevelopment.Considerationswithintheurbanplanningfieldtohelpachievesustainabletravelbehaviorsinclude

• settlementsize,• strategicdevelopmentlocation,• density,• jobs–housingbalance,• accessibilityofkeyfacilities,• developmentsitelocation,• mixofuses,and• neighborhooddesignandstreetlayout.19

Alongsidetransportandinfrastructureprovision,trafficdemandmanagementmeasures,andwidereffortstochangetravelbehaviornormsandaspirations,urbanplanningcancreatetheappropriatephysicallocationofactivitiesforsustainabletravelpatterns.Interventionscantakeplaceatthestrategiclevel(thelocationofmajorareasofdevelopment)oratthelocallevel(integrationwithtransitschemes,densityandmixedusestandards,andstreetlayout).Furtherguidanceisgivenatwww.plan4sustainabletravel.org.


88 89

3.9. TORONTO (CANADA) Torontorepresentsaclassicuseofdevelopmentdensityclusteredalong thepublic transport route, in this casetheMetro.

3.10. LONDON (UK) CanaryWharfisanewfinancialdistrictbuiltathighdensities,supportedbyanewUndergroundline(theJubileeLine)andlightrail(theDocklandsLightRailway).

3.11. LONDON (UK) A high-density and vibrant urban core—with employment,residential,andculturalfacilities—isonlypossibleifaneffectivepublictransportsystemdeliversthepeopleinnumbers.

3.7. HA NOI (VIET NAM) ThecentralareainHaNoihasrelativelyhighdensities,creatingvitality,andhigh levelsofwalking,cycling,andtwo-wheeleruse—anexampleofacompacturbancenterinAsia.

3.8. HONG KONG, CHINA (PRC) The ultrahigh densities inHongKong, China are associatedwithhighpublic transportusageand lowpercapitaenergyconsumption.


90 91

3.13. SEVILLE (SPAIN) Thecityillustrateshowsustainablemodescanbesupportedbyacompacturbanstructure.Manypeopleliveandworkinthecenter,withexcellentconditionsforwalking,cycling,andpublictransport.

3.12. LONDON (UK) Paddington Basin is one example of howmajor railwaystationshavebeenredevelopedasopportunityareasforhigherdensificationandawidermixofuses.


92 93

3.16. SYDNEY (AUSTRALIA) Acompactandvibrantcenter,withanincrediblewaterfront,supportsahighqualityurbanlife.

3.14. OXFORD (UK) Oxfordisarelativelydense,compactcitywithmuchopenspace, many parks, and a fabulous tree canopy. Highdensitycanalsobehighquality.

3.15. MANCHESTER (UK) Manchester enjoys a much larger urban area, with higherbuildingsinthecitycenter.Thecityhasbenefitedfromaveryimpressiveurbanrenaissanceoverthelast20years.Politicalinterventioncanturncitiesaround.


94 95

3.21. GRENOBLE (FRANCE)

3.20. GRENOBLE (FRANCE)Thiscompacturbancenterhasgreatstreetsandboulevardsandahighqualityofurbanlife.

3.17. DELFT (THE NETHERLANDS)LargenumbersofpeopleliveinattractiveurbancentersinmanyEuropeancities,leadingtohighvitality.

3.18. CADIZ (SPAIN)

3.19. LIVERPOOL (UK) Thenewretailhubisamajorredevelopmentinthecenterofthecity. Itoffersexcellentpermeabilityandlinkagestoneighboringareasandattractions.


96 97

3.26. FREIBURG (GERMANY) Thequickestroutetothecityispurposivelybytramorcycle,andpedestrianprovisions

areexcellent.

3.27. FREIBURG (GERMANY) The space not devoted to the car isavailableforgardens,playareas,andother

communityfacilities.

3.25. FREIBURG (GERMANY)In Vauban, another new city extension, cars are notallowed to park within the residential areas, except fordeliveryanddrop-off.Acarparkisavailableontheedgeofthedevelopment.

3.24. FREIBURG (GERMANY) A new city extension at Rieselfeld is built around the tramnetworkandhidescarsawayinundergroundparking.

3.22. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)High-densityareascanbeofhighquality—withemployment,residentialareas,andotherfacilitieslocatedinthecitycenter.

3.23. SAN SEBASTIAN (SPAIN) The Spanish seem to develop the very best in city centerattractivenessand livability—ahealthyaspiration forqualityinstreetdesign.


98 99

3.32. PARIS (FRANCE)Livability is greatly enhanced by beautiful parks andgardens,whichhelpmakecitylivingattractive.

3.31. NEW YORK (US) Theparkprovidesmuch-neededopenspaceforrelaxationinadenseandbusypartofthecity.

3.28 and 3.29. MIAMI (US) Evenverycar-dependentculturescandevelopattractiveandpopularpedestrianareas,andcanrepopulateandregeneratethecentralareas,allowinginvestmentinpublictransit.

3.30. NAPLES (US) Some of the new urbanist residential areas are popular,pedestrian friendly, and have active retail centers.However,manyremaintheenclavesofthewealthy.


100 101

3.33. SINGAPORE Singapore is theonly location inAsiawitha congestion charging scheme, providinginspirationforschemesdevelopedinLondonandStockholm.

3.34. SINGAPORE InSingapore’sElectronicRoadPricing(ERP)system, sensorsautomaticallydeduct tollsfromunitsinsidevehicles.

“Years ago we believed it was possible to rebuild towns in such a way that they were appropriate to man and to vehicles. Now we must state precisely the incompatibility of what is right for car and man: even when car traffic is reduced, parked cars remain continually incompatible to playing children, cars parked on pavements restrict passers by and they restrict standing and sitting around. The number of cars must be [dramatically] reduced!”

—D. Garbrecht. 1981. Walking: A Plea for Life in the Town. Beltz Verlag: Weinheim.

TRAFFIC DEMAND MANAGEMENT

Traffic(ortravelortransportation)demandmanagementinvolvestheapplicationofstrategiesandmeasurestoreducetraveldemand.Theyareusuallyintendedtoapplytothereductionofsingle-occupancyprivatevehiclesortoredistributetrafficinspaceorintime.

Trafficdemandmanagementcanbeacost-effectivealternativetoincreasingcapacity,andhasthepotentialtomoreeffectivelydeliverenvironmentalbenefits,improvepublichealth,strengthencommunities,andmakecitiesmoreeconomicallyprosperousandlivable.

Trafficdemandmanagementmeasurescanincluderoadspacereallocationawayfromthecar(busandcyclelanes,widerfootways,pedestrianzones,andpublicrealmimprovements);highoccupancyvehiclelanes;pricing(tollroads,congestion,orarea-widecharging);parkingsupplychargesandrestrictions;trafficcalming;andbehavioraloptions(suchastravelplanningandflexiblework).TheVictoriaTransportPolicyInstituteTrafficDemandManagementEncyclopediagivesanoverviewofthevariousoptionsavailable(www.vtpi.org/tdm).


102 103

“A city that is good for children, the elderly, the handicapped, and the poor is good for everybody else.”

—Enrique Peñalosa, Colombian politician andformer mayor of Bogotá

3.37. NEW YORK (US) Stacked parking or underground parkingtranslates into more surface-level spaceavailableforotheruses.Reducedparkingsupplyeffectivelyreducescarusage.

3.38. NICE (FRANCE)Road space can be dedicated to publictransit.Theleftlanehereisforbustransit.

3.35. XIAN (PRC) Manycentralareasarenowbeingdevelopedascar-freeareas,oratleastcaruseisrestricted.

3.36. XIAMEN (PRC) Pedestrian and cycle space in central areas make cities moreaccessibleandlivable.


104 105

3.42. DELFT (THE NETHERLANDS) Vehicle restrictions are well used in many urban areasacross Europe, creating pedestrian- and cycle-friendlycentralenvironments.

3.39, 3.40, and 3.41. LONDON (UK) The congestion charging scheme in London has led toreducedtrafficlevelsandemissionswithinthechargingzoneandhasencouragedtheuseofnon-motorizedmodes.


MASS RAPID TRANSIT

106 107

Massrapidtransit(MRT)—fullysegregatedurbanrailsystemsalsoknownasmetros,subways,orundergroundnetworks—areoftenfoundatthecoreoflargeurbanareas,alongsidemoreconventionalinter-urbanrailservices.Thereareover140systemsintheworld,includinginBerlin,BuenosAires,Chicago,London(thefirstundergroundnetwork,whichopenedin1863),Milan,Moscow,NewYork,Osaka,Paris,Tokyo(themostwell-usedwithover3billionpassengerridesperyear),andmorerecentlyBangkok;Beijing;Delhi;Dubai;HongKong,China;KualaLumpur;Manila;Nanjing;RiodeJaneiro;Shanghai(themostextensiveinlengthat420km);Seoul;Singapore;andVancouver.Manyofthesecitiescouldnotexistanddeliverthehighnumbersofpeopletothedenseurbancenterswithoutthemetrosystems.

Fordevelopingcities,itissometimesassertedthatthesesystemsareunaffordable,unsuccessfulontheirownaccountwithpoorpatronageandfinancialreturns,anddivertattentionfromother investmentsinnon-motorizedmodes.Metrosaremostsuited,giventhattheycanbeafforded,wherehigh-capacity transit isnecessary tosupporthigh-densitycentralbusinessdistricts;and theyshouldbedevelopedalongsideotherformsofpublictransit.

PUBLIC TRANSIT

3.44. KUALA LUMPUR (MALAYSIA) Depending on specifications, MRT systems can carrylargevolumesofpeoplealongradialcorridors.Theyareparticularly useful as part of a network into a centralurbancore.

3.43. DELFT (THE NETHERLANDS) Saferoutestoschoolreducetheuseofcarsbyparentsandhelpchildrengetcomfortablewithnon-cartravel.Thisincludesorganizedcollectionanddrop-offforchildren,theuseofactivemodesoftravelandpublictransit,andskillsdevelopmentformodes,suchascycling.

‘Smarter Choice’ behavioral change measures, sometimes known as mobility management, are increasingly being used in Europe and NorthAmericatoinfluenceindividuals’travelbehaviors,andcanbeviewedaspartoftrafficdemandmanagementinitiatives.

They include interventions that influence travel demand, and comprise travel plans (workplace, school, residential, personal); saferoutestoschool;carclubsandcar-sharingschemes;homeshopping;publictransportinformation;marketing;cycletraining;andtravelawarenesscampaigns.20


108 109

3.47 and 3.48. MUMBAI (INDIA) TheiconicnetworkofIndianrailwaysstretchesacrossthewholeofthecountryandfacilitatesmovementbetweencities.

3.46. BEIJING (PRC) Thebullet train fromBeijingtoTianjinopened in2008,withalinedistanceof117kmandtrainsrunningatamaximumspeed of 350 km/h. It takes just 30minutes, giving peoplemorechoiceinwheretheyliveandwork.However,improvedservices can also induce new long-distance travel, makingenergyconsumptionaproblem.

3.45. SHANGHAI (PRC) Themagneticlevitation(MAGLEV)traincarriespassengerstoandfromPudongAirportatspeedsover350km/h.ItservesalongsidemoreconventionalurbanrailandMRTsystems.Itis,however,averyexpensivesystem.


An Average Commuting Experience in Hong Kong, China

John is a 45-year-old engineer living in Tai Po.

110 111

He leaves home in Tai Po at 7:45a.m. andwalks5minutestotheMRTstation.

He takes MRT for about 10minutes.

He gets off, and walks out atthe street level to a bus stop.Thisbustakeshimtoastopjustacrossthestreetfromhisoffice.Ittakes5minutes.

Usingtwomodesoftransport,he spends about 35 minutes,including wait time, on anaverageone-waytrip.

He also has to get home. Hespends a total of 1 hour and10 minutes every day on thecommute. This is a very time-saving way to go to work,and travel time can be spentreading.


3.49, 3.50, and 3.51. BEIJING (PRC) Larger cities need a varied range of public transit modes,includingheavyrail,ametro,andlighterformsoftransitandbus-basedsystems.


112 113

3.56. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)Urbanvibrancyofthisqualitycanbesupportedbylong-terminvestmentsinamixoftransitsystems.

3.57. LONDON (UK) Theearliestexampleofarailnetworkshapingitscity,theDistrict andMetropolitan Lines, laid in the 1880s, led tothedevelopmentofhigh-qualitysuburbswithlargepublictransitusage.

3.58. LONDON (UK) Recent investments in high-speed trains in Europe areencouraging new rail-based travel patterns. Rail is nowcompetingwithshorthaulflights.

3.53. KUALA LUMPUR (MALAYSIA)

3.54. BANGKOK (THAILAND) The design ofMRT systems needs verycarefulconsideration,soasnottointrudeontheurbanfabric.

3.55. VANCOUVER (CANADA) In Vancouver, the Skytrain is used as astructuringelementforurbanformandlayout. Development density clustersare found around the stations. It is animpressive example of urban structure thatisshapedaroundthetransitnetwork.


114 115

1933ThePiccadillylinetoCockfostersopened.

HarryBeckdesignedanewdiagrammaticmapoftheUndergroundnetwork—nowconsideredadesignclassic.

1939–1945Many Underground stationswereusedasair-raidshelters.

1943 and 1944sir Patrick Abercrombie produced the CountyofLondonPlanand theGreaterLondonPlan,includingaseriesofurban‘ringways’orhighways.

1948LondonTransport was nationalizedbythenewLabourgovernment.

720 million passengers rode theUndergroundnetwork.

1949Central Line extendedtoEpping.

1937The Highway Development Survey reviewedLondon’s road needs and recommended theconstructionofaprogramofnewroadsalongthe lines ofAmerican-style parkways—wide,landscaped roads with limited access andgrade-separatedjunctions.

1991ThefirstbuildingswerecompletedatCanaryWharf,providinganewfinancialdistrictforLondon,supportedbytheDocklandsLightRailwayandanewJubileeLine.

1994WaterlooandCity Line incorporated intotheUndergroundnetwork.

1999the Jubilee line exten-sion to Stratford wascompleted, including arefurbished station atWestminster.

2000sLondon’sfirstmayorwaselectedandTransportforLondon(TfL),alocalgovernmentbodyresponsibleformostaspectsoftransport,wassetup.

2010Over 7.5million people lived within Greater London,which saw 10million daily public transport journeysand27milliontotaljourneysin2010.

1987AfireatKing’sCrossSt.PancrasUndergroundstation,thebusieststationonthenetwork,killed31people(whichledtotheabolitionofwoodenescalators).

1950s and 1960sCarownershipboomed.

1969TheVictoriaLineopened.

1970TheLondonWestway,anelevateddualcarriageway,openedfromPaddingtontoNorthKensington.

2003The London congestion chargingschemewasintroduced.

TheUndergroundbeganoperatingasa public–private partnership (PPP),wherebytheinfrastructureandrollingstockweremaintainedbytwoprivatecompanies(MetronetandTubelines),while London Underground Limitedremained publicly owned andoperatedbyTfL.

1973TheLondonRingwayproposalswereabandoned.

1986M25,anouterorbitalmotorwayaroundLondon,opened.

2007Metronetwentintoadministration,costingtheGovernmentofUK£2billion.Two-thirdsofthenetworkrevertedtoTfLcontrol.

Oyster card introduced-—electronic, integratedticketing for Under-ground, bus, and rail.By2010,over34millionOyster cards had beenissued.

1863ThefirstlineoftheLondonUnderground—the Metropolitan Line—was built. Withina fewmonths, itwascarryingover26,000passengersaday.

1877TheDistrictLineopenedtoRichmond.

1900sThe first electric trams were introduced,replacinghorse-drawntrams.

1920sThenorthernLinetoEdgwareandMordenopened.

1913Edward Johnston designed theLondon Transport’s roundel—thefamouscircleandhorizontalbar.

1920s and 1930sArchitectCharlesHoldendesigneda number of iconic stations. TherapidgrowthofOuterLondonwasfacilitatedbyrailnetworks.


116 117

3.60, 3.61, and 3.62. BERLIN (GERMANY)Berlin’srailsystembenefitsfromveryhighqualityinvestmentsinthemainlinestations.

3.59. LONDON (UK)Even the branding and mapping of city transport canbecomeiconic.


LIGHT RAPID TRANSIT

118 119

3.65 and 3.66. STRASBOURG (FRANCE) Thetramnetworkiswellsupportedbycyclingandpedestrianfacilities.Integrationwithinandbetweentransportmodesisacriticalelementforsuccess.Lightrailtransit(LRT),sometimesknownaslightrapidtransit,

isaformofurbanrailpublictransitthatgenerallyhaslowercapacity and speed thanheavy rail andmetro systems, buthigher capacity and speed than conventional street-runningtramorbus-basedsystems.Electricrailcarsareusuallyused,operating in segregated lanes separate from other traffic.Sometimesincentralurbanareas,thevehiclesmixwithothertrafficonstreet.

There are many examples in Europe (Barcelona, Croydon,Grenoble, Manchester, Milan, Montpellier, and Strasbourg);NorthAmerica(Boston,Portland,andSanFrancisco);andAsia(HongKong,China;Manila;Shanghai;Singapore).TheManilalightrailtransitisoneofthehighest-capacitynetworks,servingupto40,000passengersperhourineachdirection.

3.64. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)Sometravelbyrailcanbemoreinformal.Thesechildrenareontheirwaytoschool.

3.63. STRASBOURG (FRANCE)Thetramcorridorisbeautifullylandscapedandbecomespartofthespecialfabricofthecity.


120 121

3.69 and 3.70. BILBAO (SPAIN) Thetramcorridorandwiderpublictransportfacilitiesarealmostanextensionoftheartgallery.

3.67. BILBAO (SPAIN)

3.68. GRENOBLE (FRANCE) Thecityisurbane,vibrant,andanenjoyableplacetobe,withlittlecongestion.Thetramnetworkallowsmanypeopletoaccessandliveinthecentralarea.


BUS RAPID TRANSIT

122 123

3.72. JAKARTA (INDONESIA)TransJakartaBRTprovidesthequickestroutearoundtherotaryandotherpartsofthecity.

InLatinAmerica,buswayshaveexistedformorethan30years.Theyhavebeenverysuccessfulinmovinglargenumbersofpeople,usuallytheurbanpoor.Busrapidtransit(BRT)isavariationoftheconventionalbusway,physicallysegregatedintheroadwaywithfarespre-paid,andfastboardingplatforms.

There are nearly 200 systems worldwide. The best examples are in South America and Asia.Theseveryexcitingprojectshavebecomeshowcaseexamplesforsustainableurbantransportinrecentyears.ThemostwellknownincludeBogotá’sTransMilenioandCuritiba’sRedeIntegradadeTransporte;andthereareothersystemsinAhmedabad,Bangkok,Delhi,Jakarta,Nagoya,Pune;andmanyinthePRC,suchasinBeijing,Chongqing,Guangzhou,Jinan,Xiamen,Xian,andZhengzhou.TherearesimilarsystemsinAfrica,Asia,Australia,Europe,andNorthAmerica.

EffectiveBRTislikelytosatisfythefollowingcriteria:•availabilityofright-of-way•compatibilitywithexistingpublictransportsystems•effectiveimplementation

Inafewcities,BRTisthecenterpieceofthesustainabletransportstrategy,andthereiscertainlymuchpotential for their futuredevelopmentas relatively low-costmass transit systemsacrossAsia.Everycityisdifferent,however,andrequiresitsownanalysisofthemostsuitabletransportoptions.Systemscanrarelybetemplatedfromcitytocity.21



124 125

3.76. KUNMING (PRC) WorkerspreparetheBRTroute.

3.77 and 3.78. JINAN (PRC) ThenewBRTsystem,withmodernvehiclesandbooking,hasincreasedpropertyprices,sincelivingnearalineispopular.

3.73, 3.74, and 3.75. PUNE (INDIA)Though ticketing is not electronic, BRT in Pune helpedovercomepreviouslevelsofcongestion.Paperticketsarefineforthelocalcontext.


126 127

3.80. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)Operationalfrom1998,thewell-knownTransMilenionetworkhasveryhighpatronagelevels,and20%ofusersarealsoprivate car owners. TransMilenio’s popularity has led toreducedtrafficfatalities,airpollution,andtraveltimes.Afterthecurrentplannedextension,thenetworkwillcover388km.

3.82. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)TheBRTisintegratedwithothernon-motorizedmodesoftransport,suchascycling.


TransMilenio carries very high passengervolumes of up to 35,000 passengers perhour in each direction, and exceeds thecapacityoflightrailsystems.Thisisduetoavarietyofsystemdesignfeatures:

• high-capacity articulated vehicles (160passengers)withmultipledoors;

• high average bus occupancies (anaverageof1,600passengersperday);

• exclusive busways, unaffected bytraffic congestion, with double lanesallowing express buses to overtakelocalbuses;

• high-capacitystationdesign,featuringlevel boarding and off-board farepaymentusingsmartcardtechnology;

• centralized control of bus operations,which coordinates local and expressservices, reduces bunching, andimprovesreliability;and

• high service frequency (280 busesper hour per direction on busy trunksections, resulting in a combinedheadway of 13 seconds at busystops).22

3.79. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA) TransMilenio serves the dense city center and suburbs,and includespublicrealmimprovements. It isownedandregulated by TransMilenio SA (www.transmilenio.gov.co),a governmental department that contracts services outtoprivateoperatorsandfeederserviceoperatorswhoarepaidonthebasisofvehiclekilometersoperated.


128 129

3.86. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)Thesignreads:“Vehiclemonitoredviasatellite.”

3.87 and 3.88. CURITIBA (BRAZIL) TheBRTservicedelivershighvolumesofpassengerstoandfromthehigh-densitydowntown,supportingavibrantcenterandanumberofculturalfacilities.3.84 and 3.85. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)

3.83. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)An extensive cycle network supports theBRTroutes.

In Curitiba,Brazil,BRTwasfirstintroducedin 1974. Today, it serves a dense urbanarea. Raised interchanges allow fastdocking, entrance, and egress. Routes aresegregated,anddesignstandardshigh:thesheltershavebecomeiconicforthecity.Theservice approaches the speed, efficiency,andreliabilityofasubwaysystemby

• integratedplanning;• exclusive bus lanes and feeder busservices;

• signal priority for buses (it is govern-ment policy to give priority to publictransport);

• pre-boardingfarecollection;• freetransfersbetweenlines;and• large capacity articulated and bi-articulatedwide-doorbuses.

Atpresent,thesystemcarriesover500,000passengersperday.Twenty-eightpercentof riders previously used the car, inwhatwas a car-dependent city. The networkhas been extended to five busways withcoverageofapproximately65km.23


130 131

3.90, 3.91, and 3.92. MEXICO CITY (MEXICO) MexicoCityreliesontheMetrobusBRTsystemtodeliverpeopletoworkplacesandotheractivities.

3.89. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)


ULTRALIGHT AND DEMAND-RESPONSIVE TRANSIT

132 133

Therearealsoothervariantsofpublictransit,offeringlowerloadcapacitiesandgreaterflexibilityinrouting.Ultralighttransittechnologiesarebeingtestedandbuilt,forexample,intheUKandtheMiddleEast.

Demand-responsiveservicesalsooffermuchpotential for lower-densitysuburbanand ruralareas. Individualscanbooka ride,via theInternetorphone,andtheserviceisalteredtopickupthepassenger.Suchdial-a-ridetaxi–busschemesarebeingdevelopedintheUK,andservicesoftenexistfortheelderlyorotherpopulationgroups.

3.95. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)New electric tricycles in Manila’s Fort Bonifacio shoppingdistrictofferenergy-efficient,personal rapid transit for lowvolumesofpeople.Theremaybeawiderroleforthesetypesof technologies alongside conventional public transit andother forms of demand-responsive transit, including para-transitsuchasminibusesandjeepneys.

3.93. SHANGHAI (PRC) The more conventional bus can alsoplayanimportantroleaspartofawidertransportsystem.

3.94. NANCY (FRANCE) This variant in BRT technology is the‘tramway on tires,’ a rubber-tired vehicleguidedbyafixedrailintheground.


WALKING

134 135

3.98. WUHAN (PRC)

Walkingisanextremelyvaluablemeansoftravel,accountingforalargeshareofalljourneys,andindeedisanintegralpartofalltrips.Thedistancetraveledisusuallyrelativelyshort(below1km).Thegainsofwalkingfortheindividualcanbeimportantintermsofsupportinganactiveandhealthylifestyle,andthecosttothecommunityisminimal,unlikeothermodes.Despitethis,thequalityofthewalkingenvironmentisoftenverypoor.Improvednetworksandfacilitiescanbedesignedtoincreasenotonlytheproportionofjourneysmadeonfoot,butalsothequalityofthewalkingexperienceinthecenterandperipheryofurbanareas.

NON-MOTORIZED TRANSPORT

3.96. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA) Pedestrianized streets in central areas offer high qualitywalkingenvironments,idealformajorretailhubs.

3.97. DELHI (INDIA) Anewfootwayprovidesasegregatedrouteawayfromtraffic.


136 137

3.99, 3.100, and 3.101. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) A few high quality pedestrianenvironments do exist in anotherwisecar-dominatedcity.

Astrategytoimprovethequalityandsafetyofwalkingcouldinclude

• newpedestrianlinkstocreateanetworkofconvenientroutes;• betterfootways(paving,landscaping,lighting,streetfurniture);• streetsandpublicareasthatcreateinterestforpedestrians(buildingfrontages,signs,andadvertisementsscaledforthepedestrianratherthanthevehicle);

• priorityforpedestriansonresidentialandlocalstreetsandcentralareas;• bettercrossingfacilities,includingreducedspeedandvolumeoftrafficandincreasedcrossingtimeforpedestrians;and

• developmentsthatensurefacilitiescanbereachedonfooteasily.24


BEFORE

AFTER

138 139

3.104. and 3.105. SEOUL (REPUBLIC OF KOREA) Thedualcarriagewaythroughthecitywastakendown,theoldriverreinstated,andapedestrianfootwaydeveloped,inaclassicexampleofsustainable,integratedtransport.

3.102. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)Investmentinthepublicrealmmakescitiesmorelivable.

3.103. MACAU, CHINA (PRC) Lifeandvitalityexistinthecitycenter.


140 141

3.107. MACAU, CHINA (PRC) Pedestriancrossingfacilitieswiththewidth,andpriority,tosuitthevolume.

“If a city is to be ‘livable’ it has to be ‘walkable.’ Reducing car travel will lead to a repopulation of footways and public spaces, making them safer and livelier places to be.”

—T. Pharoah. 1992. Less Traffic, Better Towns. London: Friends of the Earth.

3.106. CHENNAI (INDIA) Advertisingforamarathonclearlyconveysthe value of active lifestyles,which bringhealth gains—particularly when the veryinactive use walking and cycling as ameansoftravelandexercise.


142 143

3.111. MANCHESTER (UK) Walkable areas are an integral part of the renewedcentralcity.

3.112. MANCHESTER (UK)

3.109. PARIS (FRANCE) and 3.110. ANTIBES (FRANCE) Residentsinthesecitiesenjoyfabulousboulevardsandexemplarywalkways.

3.108. COPENHAGEN (DENMARK) Some of the pedestrian environments in Europe are ofgreatquality.


144 145

3.114. PRAGUE (CZECH REPUBLIC)At times the public realm can be as beautiful asthearchitecture.

The European Charter of Pedestrian RightsAdopted by the European Parliamentin 1988

I. The pedestrian has the right tolive in a healthy environment andfreely enjoy the amenities offered bypublic areas under conditions thatadequatelysafeguardhis/herphysicalandpsychologicalwell-being.

II. The pedestrian has the right to liveinurbanorvillagecenterstailoredtothe needs of humanbeings and notto the needs of the motor car andto have amenitieswithinwalking orcyclingdistance.

III. Children, the elderly, and the disabledhave the right to expect towns to beplaces of easy social contact and notplaces that aggravate their inherentweakness.

IV. The disabled have the right tospecific measures to maximizetheir independent mobility, includingadjustments inpublicareas, transportsystems, and public transport(guidelines, warning signs, acousticsignals, accessible buses, trams andtrains).

V. Thepedestrianhastherighttourbanareaswhichare intendedexclusivelyfor his/her use, are as extensive aspossibleandarenotmerepedestrianprecincts but in harmony with theoverall organizationof the town, andalsotheexclusiverighttoconnectingshort,logical,andsaferoutes.25

3.113. LONDON (UK)The quality of pedestrian investment insomecitiesisremarkable,butneedstobemuchmorewidespread.


CYCLING

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3.117. DELHI (INDIA) Cyclinginthecityhasahighmodalshare,butthenetworksandfacilitiesareverypoorlydeveloped.

Cycling is also a very beneficial meansof travel because it offers active lifestylegainstotheindividualandminimaladverseimpacts for the community. People aremainly deterred because cycling canbe dangerous. Higher levels of use areachievedwheresafeandattractivefacilitiesareprovided.

Astrategytoimprovethequalityandsafetyofcyclingcouldinclude

• theprovisionofafullysegregatedcyclenetwork alongside facilities within themainroadandfootpathnetwork;

• trafficcalmingsothatspeedsofvehiclesareclosertothoseofcyclists;and

• parking and storage facilities that aresecureandconvenientlylocated.26

3.115. HA NOI (VIET NAM)Though cycling is still popular in partsof Asia, facilities are usually poor.The aspiration is generally towardmotorization, with cycling seen as anoutdatedmeansoftravel.

3.116. BEIJING (PRC)


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3.121. BEIJING (PRC) Bicycle hire schemes are becoming very popular inChinesecities.

3.122. BEIJING (PRC)3.118. XIAN (PRC) Onlyinlimitedplacesarespecialprovisionsmadeforcyclists.

3.119. TIANJIN (PRC)

3.120. ESFAHAN (IRAN) Esfahan enjoys some excellent cycle provision, withsegregatedroutes.


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“Twenty years ago in Bogotá there was not 1 meter of bikeway and ridership was insignificant. Today, more than 350,000 people ride to work daily.”


Bogotá’soriginalmasterplanofthemetroand elevated highways was rejectedandreplacedwithbusrapidtransitand 155 miles of dedicated cycleways,allowingsafecyclingforasmuchas5%ofthepopulation.

3.126. BUDAPEST (HUNGARY) Residentswalk and cycle during a car-freeday,whichcouldsurelybecomemorefrequent,ifnotpermanent,insomelocations.

3.127. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS) Cycleparkingatbusrapidtransitstopsincreasesridership.

Two- and three-wheelers and rickshawsareavailabletoalmostallincomelevelsandcanbeusedtocarrypassengersandgoods.Theyare found inmanycitiesacrossAsiaandareeffectivelyzerocarbonifmanuallyoperated. Again, though they suffer fromlackofsegregatedlanesoratleastdedicatedspace,theycanbeaveryeffectivepartofasustainabletransportsystem.

3.123. DELHI (INDIA)


3.124. LIMA (PERU) Youngpeoplelearntoridewithbicycletraining.


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3.131. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS) Thisfootbridgeshowsthatwelldesignednon-motorizedtransportroutescanbecomeiconic.

“When I see an adult on a bicycle, I do not despair for the future of the human race.”

—H.G. Wells, British author of science fiction, including War of the Worlds and The Time Machine

3.128–3.130. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS) TheDutchcycle,notbecause theyarepoor,butbecauseitishealthy,fun,andthebestwaytotravel.Thequalityofcycleprovisionhereisamongthebestintheworld,fueledbyastrongcyclingculture,whereover30%ofpeoplecycleforalltrips.


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1965The municipal government made plans to replacethe tram network with a mainly underground Metronetwork covering thewhole built-up area of the cityanditssuburbs.

1978A new city council took office. It formally aimed toconserve the cultural and historic value of the citycenter and to encourage the use of the bicycle andpublictransport.

1980sStrategiesandpoliciesweredevelopedtointegrate transport modes and redesignurbanspace.

1991Tram conductors begantobereintroduced.

2001Thefirstof155newCombino-tramsarrived.

2003AtrialofthreeCitarofuelcellbusesstarted.

2005Line 26 opened to IJburg, a newlybuilt residential neighborhood on anartificialislandintheIJmeer.

1997 line 50 opened toGein.

1990Line51openedtoAmstelveen.(AnextensiontoWestwijkwasaddedin2004.)

1980the strippenkaart national fares system of zones, striptickets, and season ticketswasintroduced.

1943The municipal tram and ferry services were merged to form themunicipaltransportcorporationGemeentevervoerbedrijf(GVB).

1975Traffic circulation plans were developedfor cities in the Netherlands, paying equalattention to all transport modes andsupporting theuseofwalking,cycling,andpublictransit.

Planners in the Netherlands pioneer thedevelopment of alternative approachesto streetscape design, e.g., woonerfs and homezones.Thesebecamevery influentialin Europe and arewidely adopted in othercountries. Transport planning and urbandesignbecamemuchmorecloselyaligned.

1994Stadsmobiel, the transport service for theelderlyandthedisabled,waslaunched.

1955Over75%ofjourneysweretakenbybicycle.

1960sTherapidincreaseincartrafficcaused serious congestion inthe city center, where narrowstreets are very unsuitable forcars.Suburbanizationofthecitycontinuedwithdevelopmentontheedgeoftheurbanarea.

1969GVB launched anightbusnetworkwitheightroutes.

1977The first two Metro lines opened—Line 53 (Gaasperplas) and Line 54(Holendrecht), with extensions to theCentraal Station in 1980. There wasmuch local opposition due to thedemolitionoflocalresidentialareas.

2004The shared space approaches to streetscapedesign were pioneered in Friesland by HansMonderman. The conventional segregation oftrafficisreplacedinthecentersoftowns,withpedestrians,cyclists,andvehiclessharingspace,and with vehicles traveling at lower speeds.Again the approaches became influential inothercountries.

2006TheOV(openbaar vervoerorpublictransport)-chipcardwasintroducedontheMetro.

2010Adensenetworkofcyclerouteshadbecome available. There were over400km(250miles)ofdedicatedcyclelanesinAmsterdam.

1970sThe use of the bicycle continued to decline, reachinga lowpointof25%ofall journeysbeingmadeontwowheels.

Local actors and neighborhood groups, including thecounterculture movement ‘Provo’ and the Cyclists’Federation,lobbiedforgreateruseofthebicycle.

Early 1970sPeoplebecameawareofthefailuresoftransportpolicyandtheneedtoreducethegrowthinmotorization.

1860sCyclingbecamepopularintheNetherlandswiththefirst steel model of the velocipede (Latin for “fastfoot”),usedmainlybythewealthy.Theearliestusable,wooden velocipede was created by the GermanKarl Drais in 1817 (known as the laufmaschine or “runningmachine”).

1896The slogan “Everybody on thebicycle” was coined to encouragemiddle- and lower-income peopletousethebicycle.

1897First municipal ferryservicesbegan.

1900Amsterdam’s municipaltransport services werefounded.

1908Busservicesbegan.

1916Electrificationof theAmsterdamtramnetworkwascompleted.

1950GVB delivered its1,000thtram.

1960Cycling’s mode sharedeclined with increasedprosperityandthegrowthincarownership.

1869Mass market manufacturing ofbicycles began, particularly throughtheMichauxcompany(inParis).

1871The first Dutch bicycle club wasfoundedinDeventer.


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3.135. PARIS (FRANCE)3.134. KRAKOW (POLAND)

3.132. COPENHAGEN (DENMARK) Cycling in the European city is a popular and fashionablemeansoftravel.

3.133. BARCELONA (SPAIN)


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3.141. BILBAO (SPAIN) Theformerdockyardshavebeenredevelopedtoprovidealinearurbanparkalongsidetheriver,allowingcycliststoridetothemajorcentersandattractionsinthecity.

3.140. LISBON (PORTUGAL) TheLisbonExpositehasstate-of-the-artpedestrian,cycle,andSegwayfacilities,alongsidetheMetrostationandretailandleisureenvironment.

3.139. LISBON (PORTUGAL) New developments offer the potential to design innon-motorizedmodesfromthestart.

3.136. BUDAPEST (HUNGARY) The idea for Critical Mass—a monthlybicycleridetocelebratecyclingandassertcyclists’ right to the road—started in San Francisco in September 1992 andspreadtocitiesallovertheworld.

3.138. OXFORD (UK) Some cities generate a culture aroundcyclingandbecomepartlyknownbythispopularmeansoftravel.

3.137. ZÜRICH (SWITZERLAND) On a car-free day, this cyclist makes astatementaboutthespace-savingvalueofcycles:“Iamacartoo.”


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TheBike+BusinessinitiativeinFrankfurtseekstoencouragecyclingbyemployees.Theprojecthasrunsince2002,managedbytheAllgemeiner Deutscher Fahrrad-Club(GeneralGermanBicycle Club) Hesse and Planungsverband Ballungsraum Frankfurt Rhine/Main (Frankfurt/Rhine-Main ConurbationPlanningAssociation).Theinitiativeincludes

• initial consultation with employers and employees,establishing current travel behaviors and possibilities formodeshifts;

• assessment of site-specific cycle facilities, usage, andpossibleroutestowork;

• developmentofanactionplan, including improvedroutes,bicycleparking,changingfacilities,andshowers;and

• communication and development of a cycling culture,includingadvice,bike-to-workdays,andwellnessdays.

3.144. FRANKFURT (GERMANY) Securebicycleparkingsitsadjacent tooffices,making thecyclecommutetoworkassmoothaspossible.

3.145. FRANKFURT (GERMANY) Businesstravelplanningencouragesuseofthebicycleinthecommute.

3.142. SEVILLE (SPAIN) CyclehireschemeshavebecomeverypopularinEurope.Inaddition toSeville, therearewell-knownschemes inLyon,Paris,andanumberofothercities.

3.143. NANTES (FRANCE) Bicloo is the cycle-sharing scheme in Nantes. Acrossprograms, the designs and specifications differ, but thepremise remains the same—free cycle use, or very lowcharges,withcyclestandsfoundaroundthecentralarea.


162 163

3.151. BELFAST (UK)

3.148, 3.149, and 3.150. BRISTOL (UK)

3.152. CARDIFF (UK)

3.146. POWYS (UK) Sustrans, a sustainable transport charityin the UK, is developing a nationalnetworkofoff-roadcycleroutesintheUK. (www.sustrans.org.uk)

3.147. GLASGOW (UK) Already over 12,000 miles in length,Sustrans’routesaremainlyusedforleisurepurposes. The paths also attract peoplebackonto their cycles for other journeys,suchasthecommute.


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3.154. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS) Inthe1970s,theDutchdevelopedthewoonerf—aresidentialstreet where the car was downgraded in importance.Pedestriansandcyclistscouldthriveandpeoplecouldplayanddwell.ItwasveryinfluentialintransportplanninginEurope.

STREETSCAPE DESIGN

3.153. DELHI (INDIA) Connaught Place provides some good streetscape designpractice,andisaniconiccenterforDelhi.

Emerging streetscape design practice inEurope offers much potential for practiceinAsia.Streetdesignhasbeendevelopingasadiscipline inEuropesince the1970s,firstintheNetherlandswiththeconceptofthe woonerf, a street where pedestriansand cyclists have legal priority overmotorists, and also in Germany withVerkehrsberuhigung,morewidelyknownastrafficcalming.27Trafficismadetotravelatslowerspeedsbydesigninterventions,suchas roadhumps, pinchpoints, landscaping,andotherphysicalfeatures.Thesafetyandlivabilityresultsaremarked.Itis,orshouldbe,anapproachtothedesignofurbanstreetsandplaces thatmakes themenjoyable foruse by non-motorized travelers. Ideally,traffic volumes are reduced by physicaldesign to give greater priority to walkingandcycling.

More recently, concepts of shared spacehavedeveloped in theNetherlands,whereequal priority is given to pedestrians,cyclists, and the motor car. Projects havespread beyond residential areas to centraland radial urban and rural streets, andthroughoutEurope.AlthoughtheAsianstreetisverydifferentincontext,therearelessonsthat can be learned in terms of providingpriorityforthepedestrianandcyclist,slowingtrafficspeedsthroughdesigninitiative,anddevelopingastreetscapethatcontributestowiderbuiltenvironmentdesignaspirations.


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3.157. HENNEF (GERMANY) Here, lessspacehasbeenprovided forcars,andcrossingareashavebeenprovidedforpedestrians.

3.156. NORRSKOPPING (SWEDEN) In this shared space, equal priority is given to motorists andnon-motorists.

3.158. POUNDBURY (UK)

3.155. FRANKFURT (GERMANY) Cyclistsareintentionallygiventhemostdirectroutesacrossthecity,andareallowedtotravelagainsttheone-waytrafficroutes.Thisraisestheattractivenessofcyclingandreducescarspeed.


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Acity’sroadsareanimportantpartofitsmulti-modalinfrastructurenetwork.Newroadscanopenupnewareasfordevelopment,withinandbeyondtheurbanarea.Theycanprovideadditionallinksandremovebottlenecksinthenetwork.InmanyAsiancities,therewillneedtobecontinuedinvestmentintheroadnetwork.However,thisshouldonlybeonepartofthepackageofmeasuresthatensurespeoplecanmovearoundtoaccessactivities.Theroadnetworkshouldbewellmaintained—roaddecaycanleadtomaintenanceandsafetyproblems.

Toooften,roadmanagementresultsincapacityimprovementstothedetrimentofotherroadusersandthesurroundingurbanfabric.Trafficwillexpandtofilltheroadspaceavailable,certainlywherethereismuchdemandfortravelbycar.Thisphenomenonisknownasinducedtraffic.Thereverseisalsotrue:iftrafficcapacityisnotexpanded,orcapacityisremoved,thentheexpectedgrowthintrafficwillnotoccurandpotentiallytrafficvolumeswillreduce.Anynewroadspaceshouldbecarefullyjustified.

Traffic-freeareascanbeprovided incentral retailareasasapartofapedestrianizedarea. InmanyEuropeancities,suchasBologna,Cambridge,Delft,Groningen, andLubeck, traffichas alsobeen restricted over awider central area to allowmoreattractive space forpedestriansandcyclists.

3.161. BANGKOK (THAILAND) Road investment needs to be very carefully justified,withlessfocusoncapacityenhancementandincreasedvolumeandagreateremphasisonimprovingaccesstoactivities.

ROAD PLANNING

3.159. LONDON (UK) HighStreetKensingtonprovidesexcellentpedestrian and cycle priority within astill busy thoroughfare. Cycle parkingis provided in the center of the road toencourage people to cross the roadinformallyandslowdownthetraffic.

3.160. ASHFORD (UK) Theringroad,whichrestrictedthegrowthofthetown,hasbeendowngradedfromadualcarriagewaytoasinglecarriageway.Itofferssomesharedspace,givingmuchgreaterspaceandprioritytopedestrians— a classic example of downgrading theracetrackaroundthetowncenter.


ROAD SAFETY SOLUTIONS

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Remarks by Michelle Yeoh, Asian Development Bank Transport Forum Manila, 2010

“As you probably know, I am an actress.Some of youmay knowme frommy rolein the James Bond series. Others mayrecognize me from the movie ‘CrouchingTiger,HiddenDragon.’OfalltherolesI’veplayed,nothinghasbeenasimportantastheworkI’vedoneonbehalfoftheMakeRoadsSafe campaign to improve road safety. Itis all too clear that transport policies arefailingpeople.This failure isdemonstratedinsomanyways:

• intheDelhitraumaunit,where70%ofthebedsarefilledwithroadtrafficvictims;

• in thedesperationetchedon the facesof parents watching over their injuredchildreninaHaNoihospital;

• in the smart new multi-lane highwaywhich has far too few crossing pointsforthecommunityitcutsinhalf;

• intheendlessgriefofamotherwhosechild’s young life, so full of hope andpromise, has been extinguished justbecauseshewasn’twearingahelmet.

Sowemustchangedirection; for too longroad safety hasbeenan afterthought: just1%or2%ofaprojectbudget.Weallknowthat theAsiaPacific regionhashuge roadinjury problems. But we also have thepotential within Asia to solve this crisis.The global car manufacturing giants ofthe futurewillbeAsian,and theymustbeencouragedtoproducesafeandgreencarsfor the future. We have innovative AsianroadsafetysolutionsliketheGlobalHelmetVaccineInitiative,whichbuildsonsuccessfulhelmetcampaignsinVietNam.WehavetheInternationalRoadAssessmentProgramme,which is working in many countries inthis region—in Australia, Bangladesh,India,Malaysia,VietNam, and here in thePhilippines.We do face a challenge, but Iamoptimisticaboutthefuture.Iknowthatyouwillbeheroesforroadsafety,andthattogetherwecanmaketheDecadeofActionareality.”

3.162. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)ActressMichelleYeohisaninternationaladvocateforroadsafety.

ThegradualdeclineinfatalaccidentsinGermany,outlinedbelow,canbeattributedtoanumberofroadsafetyinterventions.Reducingspeeds,compulsoryseatbelts(car)andhelmets(motorbike),andlowerbloodalcohollimitshaveallhadverypositiveimpacts.SimilartimelinescanbeseeninmanyEuropeancountries.

km/h=kilometersperhourNote:Inthiscontext,roadtollreferstothenumberofpeoplekilledinroadaccidentsperyear.Source:Statistisches Bundesamt(FederalStatisticalOffice)Germany.2010.;DatausedinpresentationbyA.Rau,TUMünchen,andD.Bongardt.GIZ.2010.Eschborn,Germany.

Road Safety Interventions in Germany 1960–2009


172 173

LOW EMISSION VEHICLES AND ALTERNATIVE FUELS

3.164. MENGCHENG COUNTY (PRC) Allvehicles—two-,three-,andfour-ormorewheelers—can be powered with alternative fuels, saving oil forotherpurposes.

Low-emission vehicles are those that achieve reduced fuelconsumption through innovative engine design, includingtechnologiessuchashybridpetrolvehicles,diesel,andelectricengines. All vehicles, including two- and three-wheelersand largerpassengerand freightvehicles,can includemoreefficientenginetechnologiesandusealternativefuels.

Intermsofpassengervehicles, thecurrentbestgenerationsworldwide of hybrid petrol vehicles have an emissionslevel of about 100 grams of carbon dioxide per kilometer (gCO2/km).(TheToyotaPrius,whichisahybridgasolinevehicle,emits89gCO2/km.)Thesmalldieselvehiclesaresimilar(theVolkswagenPoloBlueMotionemits89gCO2/km).Theintentionwith technological improvements is to push hard to reducethese levelsevenfurther.Perhapsmost important ismovingtheverypromisingtechnologiesintothemassmarket.InAsia,thekeyinitialstageistodeveloptherangeoftechnologiesandfuelsavailableformassconsumption. In India,forexample,thereareplansforhybridstobemadeavailable,includingtheHondahybridCivicSedan,andtheMahindraIndustrieshybridSUV. TVSMotor Company and BajajAuto are developing ahybridthree-wheeler.

Thesizeandmixofvehiclesusingtheroadnetworkareveryimportantintermsofenergyusage,emissions,androadspace.Thesmallerandlightervehiclesaremuchmoreefficient.Thisincludesthesmallmotorcarandtwo-andthree-wheelers.ThecarmarketinIndiaconsistslargelyofsmallvehicles,butthisislesssointhePRC,Malaysia,andelsewhere,wherelargerandheaviervehiclesarepreferred.“No longer having to pay my

increasing insurance premium and the running costs of my old car means that now I make substantial savings by being a member of a Car Club. It’s easy! I am pleased that it helps to eliminate the number of vehicles on the road and for me it’s very convenient. Car Clubs mean that I can have the use of a car without the worry, cost, and upkeep of my own vehicle.”

—London Car Club member

3.163. LONDON (UK)

Alternatives to conventional car ownership are becomingpopularinurbanareas,suchasLondon.Forexample,membersoftheLondonCarClubbookacareitherviatheInternetorbytelephone,anduseasmartcardtogetin.Thecarsareparkedina localparkingbay,andreturnedwhenfinished.Typicallyanannualfeeischarged,rangingfrom£100to£200,andavehicle usage charge of about £4–£5 for the first hour and£2–£3 forsubsequenthours.Mileagechargesare low foratypicalurbanjourney,about15–20penceamile.

The benefits are great. Each car club vehicle can replace 20privatevehiclesandthelow-carbonvehiclesusedtypicallyemitabout30%lessCO2thantheaverageUKcar.

28


2

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Vehicle emission standards for new vehicles have been adopted by a number of countries globally, and there is marked variation.The intention is to graduallymake the new vehicle fleetmore efficient in terms of CO2 emissions.Motormanufacturers can operatewithin defined market boundaries, and wider societal goals can be achieved. For example, the PRCmoved from a 2002 average of 210gCO2/kmtobelow170gCO2/kmby2009;theEuropeanUnionfrom168gCO2/kmto130g/CO2kmin2015and95gCO2/kmby2020(viatheEUVoluntaryCarAgreement,throughwhichtheEuropeanAutomobileManufacturersAssociationandtheEuropeanCommissionagreedtolimittheamountofCO2emittedbyEuropeancars).Japanisslightlymoreprogressive,targetingbelow130gCO2/kmby2015.USstandardsaremuchlessstringent,targetingjust170gCO2/kmby2020.TherearenocurrentagreementsinIndiaorSoutheastAsia.

PRC=People’sRepublicofChina,C02=carbondioxide,NEDC=NewEuropeanDrivingCycleSource:CleanAirInitiativeforAsianCities(CAI-Asia)andInternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation(ICCT).2009.Review of Fuel Efficiency Standards.Manila:CAI-Asia.

Actual and Projected Global New PassengerVehicle Emission Standards (2002–2020)

Alternativefuelscanalsobeusedalongsideemergingenginetechnologies.Therearemanypossibilities,someofwhicharelistedbelow.

• Compressed natural gas (CNG): A gaseousmixture ofhydrocarbonswith80%–90%methane.CNGiscolorless,odorless,non-toxic,highlyflammable,andcompressedtoimprovestoragecapability.MostCNGvehiclesareretrofits,convertedfromgasolineanddieselvehicles.CNGcontainslesscarbonthananyotherfossilfuel.Themaindrawbackisthelackofrefuelingfacilities.

• Liquid petroleum gas (LPG): A mixture of gases,liquefied by compression or refrigeration. The majordrawback is limited supply—ruling out any massconversiontoLPGfuel.

• Methanol: An alcohol. Most of the world’s methanolis produced by a process that uses natural gas as afeedstock. It is possible to produce methanol fromfeedstocks, such as coal or biomass, or urban wasteandrefuse.

• Ethanol: Alcohol-based, but considerably cleaner, lesstoxic,andlesscorrosivethanmethanol.Ethanolalsohasa high volumetric energy content. It can be producedby the fermentation of sugar cane or corn. Ethanol ismore expensive to produce thanmethanol, and requireslargeharvestsofcropsand largeamountsofenergy forproduction.One-thirdof the12millioncars inBrazilareethanolpowered.

• Biodiesel:Producedbyreactingvegetableoranimalfatswithmethanolorethanoltoproducealowerviscosityfuelthatissimilarinphysicalcharacteristicstodiesel.

• Hydrogen: Potentially the cleanest fuel option. However,hydrogen suffers from two major problems: productionand storage. The fuel is highly flammable and requireslargestoragecapsules.Hydrogen isnota fossil fuelandisnotfoundinsignificantquantitiesinnature.Itthereforeneeds to be manufactured: the most common methodsareelectrolysisofwater,reformingnaturalgas,orpartialoxidationandsteamreformingotherfossilfuels.Significantinvestments are needed in infrastructure for delivery,storage,anddispensingofhydrogenifitistobeusedasavehiclefuel.

• Electricity:There ismuchpotential for electricity-fueledvehicles as a niche part of the market. CO2 emissionsdependonthenatureoftheenergysourceusedtoproducetheelectricity.29

3.166. DELHI (INDIA) CNGisalsothefuelforthislargergoodsvehicle.

3.165. DELHI (INDIA) This three-wheeled delivery van runs on compressednaturalgas(CNG).


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3.169. JAKARTA (INDONESIA) Thisbusispoweredbyliquefiednaturalgas.

3.170. DELHI (INDIA) The conversion of vehicles to CNG hasbeen successful, though there are someproblemswithrefuelingopportunities.

3.167. DELHI (INDIA) Thesethree-wheelersarefueledbyCNG.

3.168. DELHI (INDIA) Small vehicles assist in keeping average fleet emissionslow,andareoftenpoweredbyalternativefuels.


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3.172. TOYOTA PRIUS

3.174. GREEN LOTUS SPORTS

3.175. FORD HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

3.176. CAR LABELING Car labeling is starting to include fuel economy to helppurchasersbecomemoreenvironmentallyaware.

3.173. DETROIT (US)

3.171. HANGZHOU (PRC)

Low-emissionvehiclesavailableintheAsianmarketarefewinnumber.Thequalityandrangeneedstobehugelyimproved,withsubsidiesandincentivesforearlytakeupandadoption.Asia,particularlythePRCandIndia,islikelytobethegloballeaderinvehiclemanufactureinthisfield,andwillbeabletosellitsinnovationstotheWest.

Becauseuseofthecarissoprevalentinsociety,thedevelopmentoflow-emissionvehiclesinthemasscar(andpublictransit)marketiscriticaltoreducingCO2emissionsandachievingsustainablemobilityaspirations.

Thereisagreaterrangeoflow-emissionvehiclesinEurope,Japan,andNorthAmerica,buttheirshareofthemarketremainsfrustratinglysmall.


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Aswellaspassengertravel,freighttransportis important to a city’s transport system.The freight sector isoftenassociatedwithhigh traffic volumes, safety issues, andCO2 and other emissions. Load factorsare particularly important to resultingemissions—with higher loads reducingvehicleefficiency,butimprovingthefreightintensityofemissions.InAsia,manyfreightmovements are informal. Data on freightmovements is often nonexistent. The newmodule on urban freight from the GIZSourcebook (www.sutp.org) gives moredetailsonpotentialinitiatives.

FREIGHT PLANNING

3.180. DELHI (INDIA) FreightdeliveriesinAsiancitiesareoftenofaninformalnature.

3.181. M1 HIGHWAY (UK) Freight traffic volumes can be significant along majorhighway corridors, and much greater effort is required inreducingtheirenvironmentalimpacts.

3.177, 3.178, and 3.179. COPENHAGEN (DENMARK) A demonstration of models at the United Nations ClimateChangeConference2009(COP15)highlightedinnovationsin engine technologies thatwill progress rapidly over thenext10and20years.Themajorchallengeistakingthemtothemassmarket.


182 183

3.183. HO CHI MINH CITY (VIET NAM) Freight in Asia needs to be carried by low-emissionvehicles.

3.184. LILLE (FRANCE) Electric delivery vans are being trialed insomecities.

Freightvehicleroutingstrategiescanusuallyassist in reducing the impact of vehiclesthrough sensitive areas, though there areissueswithcomplianceandenforcement.

Thereisarangeofmeasurestohelpreduceemissions in the freight sector, includingimproving handling factors (number oflinksinthesupplychain),reducinglengthof haul, improving mode share, emptyrunning,fuelefficiency,andchoiceoffueland/orpowersource.30

3.182. PHILADELPHIA (US) Alternatively fueled freight vehicles can help reduceemissionssignificantly.

04. Delivering Sustainable Mobility 04. Delivering Sustainable Mobility

04.

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Whichdirection?PolicymakersandthepublicinvolvedindesigningAsia’sfuturecitieshaveacriticallyimportantroletoplay.Thechallengesofclimatechange,economiccompetitiveness,health,andsocialequitymeanthatsustainablemodesandactivelifestylesneedtobepursuedwithmuchrenewedvigor.Organizations,suchasADBandGIZ,canhelpfacilitatethemovetowardsustainablemobility.

Theemergingsignsarethatcarbon-intensivemotorizationcanbeavoidedinAsia,withthetransitiontosustainablemobilityinvolvingurbanplanningandtrafficdemandmanagement,highlevelsofwalkingandcycling,(carbon-efficient)two-andthree-wheelers,masstransit,low-emissionvehiclesandalternativefuels,andaveryselectiverolefortheconventionalpetrolcar.

4.1. DELHI (INDIA) Megacitieshostthegreatesttransportdifficulties,butproblemsofcongestionare prevalent inmost urban areas. Scaling up the delivery of sustainabletransportoptionswilltakeyears.

DeliveringSustainable Mobility

4.2. HO CHI MINH CITY (VIET NAM) Muchcanbegained fromcleaning the fuelused in two-andthree-wheelers.

A number of cities in Asia are demonstrating how sustainable mobility can be delivered. Many arealready of high densities, and levels ofmotorization are relatively low. Growinglevels of wealth can be used to movetoward sustainable mobility behaviorsand to avoid the outdated models ofcar dependency. However, the currenttrajectory for many cities is towardincreasedmotorization,with the affluentmiddle classes aspiring and buying intocaruse.Spaceformoreefficientmodesisbeingremovedtomakeroomforthecar.Thisneedstochange.

Investment priorities can move fromdeveloping expressways and otherprovision for the car into providing forthe sustainable modes—public transit,two- and three-wheelers (with cleanfuels),walking,andcycling.Whereprivatemotorization is used, this should be ofthecleanvariety, involving low-emissionvehiclesandalternativefuels.

Investing in sustainable modes is byfar the most efficient when viewed intermsof spaceand theamountof citygrossdomesticproductspentinmovingpeople.31And,ofcourse,qualityinpublictransportprovisionandthepublicrealmsupports attractive and competitivecities.


186 187

“It is frequent that images of high rises and highways are used to portray a city’s advance. In fact, in urban terms, a city is more civilized not when it has highways, but when a child on a tricycle is able to move about everywhere with ease and safety.”



4.7. SURABAYA (INDONESIA) Thechild’sviewofthecitycanbeveryrevealing.Achievingsustainablemobilityisalsoaimedatimprovingcity

livability.Thisobjective becomesparamount, and transportinvestmentshouldberefocusedonsupportingqualityinurbanliving.Arealtestforthesuccessofinterventionscanbeseeninhowattractiveacityisforchildren.

4.4. KATHMANDU (NEPAL)



188 189

4.10. LONDON (UK) It is important to develop an appreciation of sustainablemobilityattheearliestopportunity.

Low-carbon transport options can beportrayed as fun, cool, optimal ways totravel.The environmental and heath gainsare positive side effects. The economicperformance of attractive cities is alsocriticalinanincreasinglycompetitiveworld,and sustainable mobility cities tend toperformverywell.

4.8. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)

4.9. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS) Particulartypesof journeys,e.g., theschoolrun,aremuchbetter carried out by cycling and walking, instilling activelifestyles in the next generation. These require networks,facilities,andappropriatelocationsofactivities.


190 191


4.11 and 4.12. ZURICH (SWITZERLAND)Car-freedaysallowmuchactivityandfuninthecitycenter,andillustratewhatcanbedoneincar-freeenvironments.


192 193

The next 10 years are critical to thedevelopment of sustainable cities andsustainabletransportinAsia.Somecitiesalready have the basis for sustainablemobility.

Strong governance, an environmentallyaware public, and effective use of scarcefunding are crucial to success in policyimplementation. The great challenge isto scale up the emerging good practicesacrosscities.

“What is happening in Asia is by far the most important development in the world today [...] not only for Asians, but also for the entire planet.”

—John Naisbitt. 1996. Megatrends Asia. The Eight Asian Megatrends that are Changing the World. London: Nicholas Brealey

4.14. BEIJING (PRC)

GIZ AND SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT PROJECTASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK – SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT INITIATIVE

GIZ AND SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT PROJECTASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK – SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT INITIATIVE

Division 44 Environment and Infrastructure

Sector project "Transport Policy Advice"

Deutsche Gesellschaft für

Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH

Sustainable Transport:

A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Module 2bMobility Management

– revised August 2004 –

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Water, Ene

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Transpor

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Intelligen

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Module 4e

Sustaina

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cy-maker

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Division 44

Environment and

Infrastructure

The CDM in the Transport Sector

Module 5d

Sustainable Tran

sport: A Sourcebook for P

olicy-makers in Developin

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Sector project

Transport Policy Advisory

Service

Division 44 Environment and InfrastructureSector project "Transport Policy Advice"

Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Module 1a

The Role of Transport in Urban Development Policy

– revised July 2005 –

Division 44 Water, Energy, Transport

Urban Freight in Developing CitiesModule 1g


Division 44 Environment and Infrastructure

The CDM in the Transport SectorModule 5d


ChangingCourse

A New Paradigm forSustainable Urban Transport

Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.org/urbandevISBN 978-971-561-809-0Publication Stock No. RPT090487 Printed in the Philippines

Changing Course: A New Paradigm for Sustainable Urban Transport

Most Asian cities have grown more congested, more sprawling, andless livable in recent years; and statistics suggest that this trend willcontinue. Rather than mitigate the problems, transport policies haveoften exacerbated them. In this book, ADB outlines a new paradigm forsustainable urban transport that gives Asian cities a workable, step-by-stepblueprint for reversing the trend and moving toward safer, cleaner, moresustainable cities, and a better quality of urban life.

About the Asian Development Bank

ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is tohelp its developing member countries substantially reduce poverty andimprove the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s manysuccesses, it remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billionpeople who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on lessthan $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusiveeconomic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regionalintegration.

Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from theregion. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countriesare policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, andtechnical assistance.

Changing C

ourse: A N

ew Paradigm

for Sustainable Urban T

ransport

Urban Development Series

3rd proof New Paradigm for SustaPage 1 9/29/2009 2:07:30 PM

SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT

INITIATIVE

Operational Plan

Sustainable Transport Initiative Operational Plan

Strategy 2020 sets the long-term strategic framework of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) for 2008–2020. During this period, ADB lending and technical assistance operations in Asia and the Pacific will emphasize inclusive economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. The Sustainable Transport Initiative Operational Plan provides details of how ADB will update its operations in the transport sector in line with Strategy 2020. ADB will focus on creating transport systems that are accessible, safe, affordable, and environment-friendly.

About the Asian Development Bank

ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its developing member countries substantially reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.

Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.

Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgISBN 978-92-9092-013-7 Publication Stock No. RPT101856 Printed in the Philippines

Staff Working PaperMay 2010

finalart_may12.indd 1 5/14/2010 9:04:06 AM194 195

TheDeutscheGesellschaftfür InternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbHwasestablishedon1January2011.Itbringstogetherthelong-standingexpertiseoftheGermanDevelopmentService(DED),theGermanTechnicalCooperation(GTZ)andCapacityBuildingInternational,Germany(Inwent).Asafederallyownedenterprise,GIZsupportstheGovernmentofGermanyinachievingitsobjectivesinthefieldofinternationalcooperationforsustainabledevelopment.

Mostactivitiesof theGIZarecommissionedby theGermanFederalMinistry forEconomicCooperationandDevelopment (BMZ)andotherGermanministries,andpublicandprivatesectorclientsinGermanyandabroad.TheKfWDevelopmentBankisGermany’sleadingdevelopmentbankandanintegralpartofKfWBankGroup.Byfinancingurbantransportprojectsthroughouttheworld,KfWsupportsthegovernmenttoachievethegoalssetforGermandevelopmentcooperation.

Beyondexecutingurbantransportprojectsinvariouscountries,GIZisdirectingtheSustainableUrbanTransportProject(SUTP),acooperationof more than 30 institutions worldwide, including United Nations agencies, local governments, nonprofit organizations, and multilateralorganizations.SUTPaimstohelpdevelopingworldcitiesachievetheirsustainabletransportgoalsthroughthedisseminationofinformationaboutinternationalexperience,andthroughtargetedworkwithincities.

Amajor aspect of the project strategy is to work within existing networks and information dissemination channels to achieve the projectobjectives.

Mainactivitiesoftheprojectinclude:• developingdocumentsandotherwrittenandgraphicinformationmaterialfordiffusion;• designingandconductingtrainingcourses;and• conductingtechnicalassessmentonurbantransportpoliciesandprojectsinspecificcities.

TheSUTPwebsiteisconsideredamongtheleadingreferencesfortransportplanningguidanceindevelopingcitiesworldwide.

Forfurtherinformation,pleasevisitwww.sutp.orgwww.gtz.de/transportwww.kfw.de

TheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB),throughStrategy 2020: The Long Term Strategic Framework of the Asian Development Bank, 2008–2020, hasestablishedthreestrategicagendastoguideitsworkupto2020—inclusiveeconomicgrowth,environmentallysustainablegrowth,andregionalintegration.TheseaidADBinitsmissiontohelpdevelopingmembercountriesinAsiaandthePacificreducepovertyandimprovethequalityoflifeoftheirpeople.32

Transportisamajorpartofinfrastructure—oneofADB’sfivecoreareasofoperationalfocus.ItisalsointegraltothefivedriversofchangeofStrategy2020—privatesectordevelopmentandoperations,goodgovernanceandcapacitydevelopment,genderequity,knowledgesolutions,andpartnerships.

ToalignitstransportoperationswithStrategy2020,ADBhasestablishedtheSustainableTransportInitiativetosupportthedevelopmentofaccessible,safe,environment-friendly,andaffordable transportsystems. ItadaptsADB’s transportoperations to thediverseandchangingcontextoftransportintheorganization’sdevelopingmembercountries.

Throughthisinitiative,ADBhasidentifiedfouropportunitiestointroducenewandenhancedlendingoperationsthatwillscaleupitssupportforsustainabletransport.ADBwill

• expandoperationsandmodelprojectsthatfocusonurbantransport;• modelprojectsthatshifttotransportmodeswithloweremissionsandenergyconsumption,andimprovetransportefficiencyinorderto

addressclimatechangeintransport;• improvetransportfacilitationtoenhancecross-bordertransportandlogisticsinsupportofregionaleconomicintegration;and• increaseoperations,modelprojects,andbestpracticesthatimproveandpromoteroadsafetyandsocialsustainability.

TheSustainableTransportInitiativewillalsohelpADBestablishnewtypesofsustainabletransportoperationsbyconductingresearchandpilottesting in the followingareas: transportmanagement tools, low-emissionvehicle technologies, intelligent transportsystems,and transportpricingsystems,amongothers.

The initiative targets a significant expansion inADB lending for urban transport and railways during the period 2010–2020.While roadsremainanintegralpartofADBtransportoperations,lendingwillbegraduallyadjustedtofocusonaspectsthatareinstrumentalforimprovingsustainability,suchasruralroadsthatpromoteinclusiveeconomicgrowth.

UndertheSustainableTransportInitiative,ADBisalsoestablishingaSustainableTransportPartnershipFacilitytoprovideamechanismbywhichpartnerscanprovidefinancingandexpertisetosupporttheinitiative.ItwillalsoactasacatalysttosupportthepreparationandimplementationofinnovativeformsofsupportforsustainabletransportwithinADBoperations.

196 197

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Putting together this guide was a team effort. Many thanks to thesustainable urban transport experts and photographers, includingKarl Fjellstrom, Santosh Kodukula, Carlos Pardo, ArminWagner, LloydWright,andothers,whohaveprovidedtheirimagesforthispublication,manythroughtheGesellschaft für InternationaleZusammenarbeit (GIZ)transportphotocollection.ThankstoDesignMuscleforlayout,KateTighefor careful copy editing, and JoannaAbaño formanaging the desktoppublishingandprintingofthepublication.

ThankstoJonBewleyforuseofimagesfromtheSustransphotocollection.Sustrans(www.sustrans.org.uk)isaUKcharitythatisenablingpeopletotravelbyfoot,bike,orpublictransportformoreofthejourneyswemakeeveryday.Itistimeweallbeganmakingsmartertravelchoices.

AlsothankstoCatherineSeaborn(Halcrow)fordataanalysisontransportand CO2 emissions by country; Sophie Punte (Clean Air Initiative forAsianCities [CAI-Asia]) for thedataonmotorization trendsandvehicleemissionstandards;GIZforuseofanalysisonfuelprices,two-wheelermotorization, modes, and passenger volume; LowCVP for providingsomeof their images; andAndySinger foruseof cartoons.Thanks toDavidBanisterforcommentsonadraftversionoftheguide,andAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)andtheGermanFederalMinistryforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(BMZ)throughGIZforguidingandfundingthework.

ABOUT THE AUTHORSRobin Hickmanwasleadauthorontheguide,includingdevelopingtextandsourcingimages.HeisanassociatedirectorandheadoftransportresearchatHalcrow,andaresearchfellowattheTransportStudiesUnit,UniversityofOxford.www.tsu.ox.ac.uk/people/rhickman.php

Paul Fremer assisted in the development of the text and sourcing ofimages.HeisatransportspecialistwithGIZ.www.GIZ.de/en

Manfred Breithaupt co-initiated, commented on, and helped edit theguideas itwasdeveloped,andsourcedanumberof thephotos.He iscoordinatingthetransportsectionwithGIZ.www.GIZ.de/en

Sharad Saxena also co-initiated, commented on, and helped edit theguideandsourcedanumberofthephotos.HeisatransportandclimatechangespecialistwithADB.www.adb.org/transport

We hope the photographs and ideasprovidedinthisguideinspirepractitionersand the public, across Asia and furtherafield. Sustainable travel behaviors cansupport very attractive lifestyles betterthan car-dependent behaviors. It is thismessage that needs to be much moreeffectivelyspread.

the world can learn much from the development of sustainable mobility acrossAsia. Changing course canmeanthat strategic societal objectives areachieved, consistent with individualpreferencesandcityquality-of-lifegoals.Whatarewewaitingfor?

198 199

16 B.Flyvbjerg,M.K.Skamris,andS.L.Buhl.2004.WhatCausesCostOverruninTransportInfrastructureProjects?Transport Reviews.24(1),pp.3–19.;H.Priemus,B.Flyvbjerg,andB.vanWee.(eds.)2008.Decision-Making on Mega-Projects: Cost-Benefit Analysis, Planning and Innovation.Cheltenham:EdwardElgar.

17 Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). 2004. Sourcebook. Module 5e, Transport and Climate Change.H.Dalkmann,andC.Brannigan,GIZ:Eschborn.Availableatwww.sutp.org.;ADB.2009.Changing Course. A New Paradigm for Sustainable Urban Transport.Manila.

18 L.Schipper,C.Marie-Lilliu,andR.Gorham.2000.Flexing the Link Between Transport and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. A Path for the World Bank.Paris:InternationalEnergyAgency.

19 R.Hickman,C.Seaborn,P.Headicar, andD.Banister.2009.Planning for Sustainable Travel. Summary Guide.London:HalcrowandCommissionforIntegratedTransport.

20 S.Cairns,L.Sloman,C.Newson,J.Anable,A.Kirkbride,andP.Goodwin.2004.Smarter Choices: Changing the Way We Travel.London:StationaryOffice.

21 ADB.2009.Changing Course: A New Paradigm for Sustainable Urban Transport. Manila.22 G.Menckhoff.2005.Latin American Experience with Bus Rapid Transit. Proceedings of

the Annual Meeting.Melbourne:InstituteofTransportationEngineers.23 G.Menckhoff.2005.Latin American Experience with Bus Rapid Transit. Proceedings of

the Annual Meeting.Melbourne:InstituteofTransportationEngineers.24 T.Pharoah.1992.Less Traffic, Better Towns.London:FriendsoftheEarth.25 Shownhereare thefirstfive items in thecharter.M.Hillman.1993.Planning for theGreenModes.In:R.Tolley.The Greening of Urban Transport.London:Belhaven.

26 T.Pharoah.1992.Less Traffic, Better Towns.London:FriendsoftheEarth.27 R.Tolley.1990.The Greening of Urban Transport: Planning for Walking and Cycling in

Western Cities.London:Belhaven.;T.Pharoah.1992.Less Traffic, Better Towns.London:FriendsoftheEarth.

28 D.MeyersandS.Cairns.2009.Carplus Annual Survey of Car Clubs.London:CityCarClub,UK.

29 M.KhareandP.Sharma.2003.FuelOptions. In:D.A.Hensher,andK.J.Button,eds.Handbook of Transport and the Environment. Oxford: Elsevier.; R. Hickman and D.Banister.2011.Transitions toLowCarbonTransport Futures.StrategicConversationsfromLondonandDelhi.Journal of Transport Geography.Forthcoming.

30 A.McKinnon.2007.CO2 Emissions from Freight Transport in the UK. Background Report to the Commission for Integrated Transport. London: UK Commission for IntegratedTransport.

31 P.Barter,J.Kenworthy,andF.Laube.2003.Lessons fromAsiaonSustainableUrbanTransport. InN.P.LowandB.J.Gleeson. (eds.)Making Urban Transport Sustainable.Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan.

32 ADB.2008.Strategy 2020: The Long-Term Strategic Framework of the Asian Development Bank 2008–2020.Manila.

ENDNOTES1 C. Clark. 1957. Transport: Maker and Breaker of Cities. Town Planning Review. 28. pp.237–50.

2 R.HickmanandD.Banister.2011.TransitionstoLowCarbonTransportFutures.StrategicConversationsfromLondonandDelhi.Journal of Transport Geography.Forthcoming.

3 D.Banister.2005.Unsustainable Transport: City Transport in the New Century.London:Routledge.; Buchanan, C. and theMinistry ofTransport. 1963.Traffic in Towns [The Buchanan Report].Harmondsworth:HMSOandPenguin.;J.M.Thomson.1977.Great Cities and Their Traffic.London:Gollancz.

4 AsianDevelopmentBank(ADB).2009.Changing Course: A New Paradigm for Sustainable Urban Transport.Manila.

5 Thenatureof‘cardependence’isbroad—coveringrelianceintrips(thereisnootherformoftransportavailable);car-reliantactivities(carryingheavygoodsorundertakingmulti-destination trips); car-reliant locations (remote); car-reliant persons (limitedmobility); car-convenient journeys (alternatives modes are available, but perceivedaslessattractive);car-dependentpersons(astatementofstatusorself-esteem);caraddiction(thosewhoare‘obsessed’withcarsandwhoseliferevolvesaroundtheneedtodrive);acar-reliantsociety(highobservedlevelsofcaruse,wherepeoplewithoutcarsareexcluded fromessentialactivities).K.LucasandP.Jones.2009.The Car in British Society.London:RACFoundation.

6 D. Sperling and D. Gordon. 2009. Two Billion Cars: Driving Toward Sustainability. NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

7 US Government. 2009. National Household Travel Survey, United States Bureau of Transportation Statistics.Washington,D.C.(www.bts.gov)

8 M.Buchanan.2002.Nexus: Small Worlds and the Groundbreaking Science of Networks. London: Norton.; A. Schäfer and D. Victor. 2000. The Future Mobility of theWorld’sPopulation.Transport Research A.34.pp.171–205.

9 J.Woodcock,P.Edwards,C.Tonne,B.G.Armstrong,O.Ashiru,D.Banister,S.Beevers,Z. Chalabi, G. Tiwari, A.Woodward, and I. Roberts. 2009. Public Health Benefits ofStrategies toReduceGreenhouse-GasEmissions:Urban LandTransport.The Lancet. 347.pp.1930–1943.

10 D. Mohan. 2002. Road Safety in Less-Motorized Environments: Future Concerns,International Journal of Epidemiology.31(3).pp.527–32.

11 K.Gwilliam.2002.Cities on the Move.Washington,D.C.:WorldBank.;Banister,D.2005.Unsustainable Transport: City Transport in the New Century.London:Routledge.

12 WorldHealthOrganization(WHO).2009.Global Status Report on Road Safety: Time for Action.Geneva.

13 WorldHealthOrganization. 2009.Regional Report on the Status of Road Safety: The South-East Asian Region: A Call for Pollicy Direction.NewDelhi: IndraprasthaEstate,MahatmaGandhiMarg.

14 Conventionally,citieshavebeendesignedtoservetripsfrommanyoriginstoalimitednumberofcentraldestinations.

15 P.NewmanandJ.R.Kenworthy.1989.Cities and Automobile Dependence: An International Sourcebook.Aldershot,Gower.;P.NewmanandJ.R.Kenworthy.1999.Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence.Washington,D.C.:IslandPress.

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• ____.2004.Sourcebook. Module 2a, Land Use Planning and Urban Transport. Petersen,R.GIZ:Eschborn.Availableatwww.sutp.org.

• ____.2007.Sourcebook. Module 5e, Transport and Climate Change.Dalkmann,H.andBrannigan,C.GIZ:Eschborn.Availableatwww.sutp.org.

• ____.2008.International Fuel Prices.www.GIZ.de/fuelprices• Gwilliam,K.2002.Cities on the Move.WashingtonD.C.:WorldBank.• HalcrowFox.2000a.Mass Rapid Transit in Developing Countries.Washington,D.C.:

WorldBank.• ____.2000b.Review of Urban Public Transport Competition. Washington,D.C.:World

Bank.• Hickman,R.andBanister,D.2007.LookingovertheHorizon:TransportandReduced

CO2EmissionsintheUKby2030.Transport Policy.14(5).pp.377–387.• ____.2011.TransitionstoLowCarbonTransportFutures.StrategicConversationsfrom

LondonandDelhi.Journal of Transport Geography.Forthcoming.• Hickman,R.,Ashiru,O.,andBanister,D.2010.TransportandClimateChange:Simulating

theOptionsforCarbonReductioninLondon.Transport Policy.17(2).110–125.• Hickman,R.,Seaborn,C.,Headicar,P.,andBanister,D.2009.Planning for Sustainable

Travel. Summary Guide.London:HalcrowandCommissionforIntegratedTransport.• Hidalgo-Guerrero, D. 2004. TransMilenio Bus Rapid Transit System Expansion,

2002–2005.Proceedings of CODATU (Cooperation for Urban Mobility in the Developing World) XI.Bucharest.

• Hillman,M.1993.Planningfor theGreenModes. In:Tolley,R. (ed.).The Greening of Urban Transport.London:Belhaven.

• Hook,W.2005.InstitutionalandRegulatoryOptionsforBusRapidTransitinDevelopingCountries: Lessons from International Experience. Transportation Research Record.1939.pp.184–191.

• IntergovermentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC).2007.Fourth Assessment Report on Climate Change. Synthesis Report. Geneva.

• International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT). 2009. Passenger Vehicle Greenhouse Gas and Fuel Economy Standards: A Global Update.Washington,D.C.

• InternationalEnergyAgency.2009.Key World Energy Statistics.Paris.• InstituteforTransportationandDevelopmentPolicy(ITDP),GehlArchitects,andNelson

NygaardConsultingAssociates.2010.Our Cities Ourselves. The Future of Transportation in Urban Life.Washington,D.C.

• Kenworthy,J.R.andLaube,F.2001.UITP Millenium Cities Database for Sustainable Transport.Brussels:InternationalUnionofPublicTransport.

• Khare,M.andSharma,P.2003.FuelOptions.In:Hensher,D.A.andButton,K.J.(eds.).Handbook of Transport and the Environment. Oxford:Elsevier.

• Lucas,K.andJones,P.2009.The Car in British Society.London:RACFoundation.• McKinnon,A.2007.CO2 Emissions from Freight Transport in the UK. Background Report

to the Commission for Integrated Transport. London: UK Commission for IntegratedTransport.

• Menckhoff,G.2005.LatinAmericanExperiencewithBusRapidTransit.Proceedings of the Annual Meeting, Institute of Transportation Engineers. Melbourne.

• Meyers,D.andCairns,S.2009.Carplus Annual Survey of Car Clubs.London:CityCar Club, UK.; City Car Club. 2010. www.citycarclub.co.uk [webpage, accessedDecember2010].

• Mohan, D. 2002. Road Safety in Less-Motorized Environments: Future Concerns.International Journal of Epidemiology.31(3).pp.527–32.

• Naisbitt,J.1996.Megatrends Asia. The Eight Asian Megatrends that are Changing the World.London:NicholasBrealey.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING• Åkerman,J.andHöjer,M.2006.HowMuchTransportCantheClimateStand?Sweden

onaSustainablePathin2050.Energy Policy.34.1944–1957.• Allport, R., Key, G. and Melhuish, C. 1998. A New Approach to Setting the Future

Transport Agenda.Manila:AsianDevelopmentBank(ADB).• Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2007. Technical Assistance for Sustainable Urban

Transport—City Case Studies.FinalReport.Manila.• ____. 2008. Strategy 2020: The Long-Term Strategic Framework of the Asian

Development Bank 2008–2020.Manila.• ____. 2009. Changing Course. A New Paradigm for Sustainable Urban Transport.

Manila.• ____.2010.Sustainable Transport Initiative: Operational Plan.Manila.• ____.2010.Sustainable Transport Initiative: An Overview.Manila.• Banister,D.2005.Unsustainable Transport: City Transport in the New Century.London:

Routledge.• ____.2008.Thesustainablemobilityparadigm.Transport Policy.15(2).pp.73–80.• Banister,D.,Stead,D.,Steen,P.,Akerman,J.,Dreborg,K.,Nijkamp,P.,andSchleicher-

Tappeser,R.2000.European Transport Policy and Sustainable Mobility.London:E&FSpon.

• Barter, P. 2004.A Broad Perspective on Policy Integration for Low Emissions Urban Transport in Developing Asian Cities.Papergivenataninternationalworkshop,InstituteforGlobalEnvironmentalStrategies.Kanagawa,Japan.

• Barter,P.,Kenworthy,J.,andLaube,F.2003.LessonsfromAsiaonSustainableUrbanTransport.In:Low,N.P.andGleeson,B.J.(eds.).Making Urban Transport Sustainable. Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan.

• Buchanan,C.andMinistryofTransport.1963.Traffic in Towns [The Buchanan Report].Harmondsworth:HMSOandPenguin.

• Buchanan,M.2002.Nexus: Small Worlds and the Groundbreaking Science of Networks. London:Norton.

• Cairns, S., Sloman, L., Newson, C.,Anable, J., Kirkbride,A., andGoodwin, P. 2004.Smarter Choices: Changing the Way We Travel. London:StationeryOffice.

• Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) and International Council on CleanTransportation(ICCT).2009.Review of Fuel Efficiency Standards.Manila:CAI-Asia.

• Cervero,R.,Sarmiento,O.,Jacoby,E.,Gomez,L.,andNeiman,A.2009.InfluencesofBuiltEnvironmentsonWalkingandCycling:LessonsfromBogotá.International Journal of Sustainable Transport.3.pp.203–226.

• Clark,C.1957.Transport:MakerandBreakerofCities.Town Planning Review.28.pp.237–250.

• Dimitriou,H.T.1992.Urban Transport Planning: A Developmental Approach.London:Routledge.

• Dimitriou, H. T. 2006. Towards a Generic Sustainable Urban Transport Strategy forMiddle-SizedCitiesinAsia:LessonsfromNingbo,KanpurandSolo.Habitat International. 30.pp.1082–1099.

• Flyvbjerg, B., Skamris, M. K., and Buhl, S. L. 2004.What Causes Cost Overrun inTransportInfrastructureProjects?Transport Reviews. 24(1).pp.3–18.

• Garbrecht,D.1981.Walking: A Plea for Life in the Town.BeltzVerlag:Weinheim.• Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). 2003. Sourcebook. Module 3a,

Mass Transit Options.Wright,L.andFjellstrom,K.GIZ:Eschborn.Availableatwww.sutp.org.

• GesellschaftfürTechnischeZusammenarbeit(GTZ).2003.Sourcebook. Module 3b, Bus Rapid Transit.L.Wright.GIZ:Eschborn.Availableatwww.sutp.org.

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PHOTO CREDITSAllphotographsarecreditedasbelow.Manythankstothephotographersinvolvedforprovidingimagesonavoluntarybasis.ManyofthesephotosareavailablethroughtheGIZurbantransportcollection.

www.GIZ.de/en/themen/umwelt-infrastruktur/transport/19395.htm

0.1. COVER DESIGN DesignMuscle, 2010.Manfred Breithaupt,ShreyaGadepalli,andCarlosPardo

0.2. JINAN (PRC)CarloPardo,2008.0.3. BEIJING (PRC)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.1.1. ALEPPO (SYRIA)ManfredBreithaupt,2005.1.2. BANGKOK (THAILAND)ArminWagner,2008.1.3. VIENTIANE (LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC)Lloyd

Wright,2006.1.4. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.1.5. BEIJING (PRC)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.1.6. INDORE (INDIA)CarlosPardo,2008.1.7. AHMEDABAD (INDIA)SantoshKodukula,2008.1.8. DELHI (INDIA)RobinHickman,2008.1.9. SAN DIEGO (US)AllanFerguson,2008.1.10. TORONTO (CANADA)RobinHickman,2008.1.11. NAPLES (US)RobinHickman,2009.1.12. CHENNAI (INDIA)SantoshKodukula,2008.1.13. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.1.14. SINGAPORE CarlosPardo,2008.1.15. CURITIBA (BRAZIL) ManfredBreithaupt,2006.2.1. BANGKOK (THAILAND) SantoshKodukula,2008.2.2. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) JoannaAbaño,2011.2.3. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.2.4. BANGKOK (THAILAND)CarlosPardo,2006.2.5. BEIRUT (LEBANON)ManfredBreithaupt,2008.2.6. BANGKOK (THAILAND)ArminWagner,2008.2.7. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) JoannaAbaño,2011.2.8. LOS ANGELES (US)Jupiterimages,2009.2.9. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010. 2.10. DELHI (INDIA)RobinHickman,2010.2.11. BANGKOK (THAILAND)ArminWagner,2008.2.12. HA NOI (VIET NAM)GerhardMenckhoff,2006.2.13. KUALA LUMPUR (MALAYSIA)CarlosPardo,2006.2.14. KUALA LUMPUR (MALAYSIA)LloydWright,2006.2.15. DELHI (INDIA) AbhayNegi,2005.2.16. DELHI (INDIA)RobinHickman,2008.2.17. ‘NO EXIT’ ILLUSTRATIONAndySinger.2.18. PHNOM PENH (CAMBODIA)CulturbildMählenMüth,2004.2.19. HA NOI (VIET NAM) KarinRoßmarkt,2004.2.20. DELHI (INDIA)SharadSaxena,2009.2.21. KOTA (INDIA)SharadSaxena,2009.2.22. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.2.23. BANGKOK (THAILAND)CarlosPardo,2005.2.24. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)ShreyaGadepalli,2003.2.25. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.2.26. DELHI (INDIA)SharadSaxena,2010.

2.27. KUALA LUMPUR (MALAYSIA)RolandHaas,2006.2.28. KOTA (INDIA)SharadSaxena,2009.2.29. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.2.30. DELHI (INDIA)CarlosPardo,2006.2.31. DELHI (INDIA) AbhayNegi,2005.2.32. BEIJING (PRC)AFPImageForum,2008.2.33. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.2.34. BEIJING (PRC)CarlosPardo,2006.2.35. BANGKOK (THAILAND)LloydWright,2007.2.36. MUMBAI (INDIA)CarlosPardo,2009.2.37. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.2.38. MUMBAI (INDIA)SantoshKodakula,2008.2.39. BANGKOK (THAILAND) LloydWright,2006.2.40. BANGKOK (THAILAND)LloydWright,2006.2.41. BHUBANESWAR (INDIA)JeroenBuis,2007.2.42. BANGKOK (THAILAND)ArminWagner,2005.2.43. VIENTIANE (LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC)Lloyd

Wright,2006.2.44. DHAKA (BANGLADESH)KarlFjellstrom,2004.2.45. MUMBAI (INDIA)CarlosPardo,2007.2.46. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)JohnDulac,2011.2.47. ‘PUBLIC TRANSIT’ ILLUSTRATIONAndySinger.2.48. BEIJING (PRC)Imaginechina,2010.2.49. BEIJING (PRC)AFPImageForum,2005.2.50. DELHI (INDIA)AFPImageForum,2005.2.51. LOS ANGELES (US)KarlFjellstrom,2002.2.52. M62 HIGHWAY (UK)HighwaysAgency,2006.2.53. JAKARTA (INDONESIA) AFP,2009.2.54. HA NOI (VIET NAM)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.2.55. CHANGCHUN (PRC)Imaginechina,2009.2.56. BANGKOK (THAILAND)CarlosPardo,2005.2.57. DELHI (INDIA)JeroenBuis,2007.2.58. ASIAAFP,1998.2.59. BEIJING (PRC)CarlosPardo,2009.2.60. INDORE (INDIA)CarlosPardo,2008.2.61. HA NOI (VIET NAM) ManfredBreithaupt,2007.2.62. DELHI (INDIA)SantoshKodukula,2008.2.63. BANGKOK (THAILAND)OllyPowell,2006.2.64. KUNMING (PRC)OllyPowell,2006.2.65. BANGKOK (THAILAND)CarlosPardo,2008.2.66. INDORE (INDIA)CarlosPardo,2008.2.67. BEIJING (PRC)CarlosPardo,2007.2.68. NANDED (INDIA)JeroenBuis,2007.2.69. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)AntonioAcosta,2011.2.70. DELHI (INDIA)RobinHickman2008.2.71. SEOUL (REPUBLIC OF KOREA) JeroenBuis,2009.

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3.101. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.3.102. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)ShreyaGadepalli,2003.3.103. MACAU, CHINA (PRC) JohnDulac,2011.3.104. SEOUL (REPUBLIC OF KOREA)AFP,2003.3.105. SEOUL (REPUBLIC OF KOREA)JohnDulac,2009.3.106. CHENNAI (INDIA) SantoshKodukula,2009.3.107. MACAU, CHINA (PRC) JoannaAbaño, 2011.3.108. COPENHAGEN (DENMARK)LloydWright,2006.3.109. PARIS (FRANCE)RobinHickman,2004.3.110. ANTIBES (FRANCE)RobinHickman,2004.3.111. MANCHESTER (UK)RobinHickman,2006.3.112. MANCHESTER (UK)RobinHickman,2006.3.113. LONDON (UK)AntonySpencer,2010.3.114. PRAGUE (CZECH REPUBLIC)RobinHickman,2005.3.115. HA NOI (VIET NAM)ManfredBreithaupt,2007.3.116. BEIJING (PRC)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.117. DELHI (INDIA)SantoshKodukula,2008.3.118. XIAN (PRC)ArminWagner,2006.3.119. TIANJIN (PRC)ManfredBreithaupt,2008.3.120. ESFAHAN (IRAN)CulturbildMählenMüth,2005.3.121. BEIJING (PRC)KarlFjellstrom,2004.3.122. BEIJING (PRC)ManfredBreithaupt,2008.3.123. DELHI (INDIA)SantoshKodukula,2008.3.124. LIMA (PERU)JereonBuis,2007.3.125. HA NOI (VIET NAM)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.126. BUDAPEST (HUNGARY)ZsoltAndrasi,2010.3.127. (THE NETHERLANDS)Photononstop,2010.3.128. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)RobinHickman,2007.3.129. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)RobinHickman,2007.3.130. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)RobinHickman,2007.3.131. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)RobinHickman,2007.3.132. COPENHAGEN (DENMARK) CarlosPardo,2009.3.133. BARCELONA (SPAIN) JoannaAbaño,2011.3.134. KRAKOW (POLAND)RobinHickman,2009.3.135. PARIS (FRANCE) JohnDulac,2009.3.136. BUDAPEST (HUNGARY)ZsoltAndrasi,2010.3.137. ZURICH (SWITZERLAND) LloydWright,2005.3.138. OXFORD (UK)RobinHickman,2009.3.139. LISBON (PORTUGAL)RobinHickman,2007.3.140. LISBON (PORTUGAL)RobinHickman,2007.3.141. BILBAO (SPAIN)RobinHickman,2007.3.142. SEVILLE (SPAIN)RobinHickman,2007.3.143. NANTES (FRANCE)KarlFjellstrom,2007.3.144. FRANKFURT (GERMANY)ADFCHessen,2009.3.145. FRANKFURT (GERMANY)RegionFrankfurtRheinMain,2008.3.146. POWYS (UK)JulianCram/Sustrans,2008.3.147. GLASGOW (UK)JonBewley/Sustrans,2008.3.148. BRISTOL (UK) JonBewley/Sustrans,2008. 3.149. BRISTOL (UK) JonBewley/Sustrans,2008. 3.150. BRISTOL (UK) JonBewley/Sustrans,2008. 3.151. BELFAST (UK) JonBewley/Sustrans,2008. 3.152. CARDIFF (UK) JonBewley/Sustrans,2008.

3.153. DELHI (INDIA)RobinHickman,2008.3.154. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)HalcrowGroup,2004.3.155. FRANKFURT (GERMANY) PaulFremer,2010.3.156. NORRSKOPPING (SWEDEN)BenHamilton-Baillie,2004.3.157. HENNEF (GERMANY)BenHamilton-Baillie,2009.3.158. POUNDBURY (UK)RobinHickman,2000.3.159. LONDON (UK)RobinHickman,2009.3.160. ASHFORD (UK)SimonDoyle,2009.3.161. BANGKOK (THAILAND)CarlosPardo,2005.3.162. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) AFPImageForum,2010.3.163. LONDON (UK)RobinHickman,2010.3.164. MENGCHENG COUNTY (PRC)AFPImageForum,2008.3.165. DELHI (INDIA)PongnarinPetchu,2008.3.166. DELHI (INDIA)PongnarinPetchu,2008.3.167. DELHI (INDIA)RobinHickman,2008.3.168. DELHI (INDIA)RobinHickman,2008.3.169. JAKARTA (INDONESIA)ManuelCamagay,2006.3.170. DELHI (INDIA)RobinHickman,2008.3.171. HANGZHOU (PRC)KarlFjellstrom,2006.3.172. TOYOTA PRIUSLowCVP,2008.3.173. DETROIT (US)AFP,2007.3.174. GREEN LOTUS SPORTSLowCVP,2008.3.175. FORD HYDROGEN FUEL CELLLowCVP,2008.3.176. CAR LABELING LowCVP,2008.3.177. COPENHAGEN (DENMARK) SharadSaxena,2009.3.178. COPENHAGEN (DENMARK)SharadSaxena,2009.3.179. COPENHAGEN (DENMARK)SharadSaxena,2009.3.180. DELHI (INDIA)SantoshKodukula,2008.3.181. M1 HIGHWAY (UK)HighwaysAgency,2006.3.182. PHILADELPHIA (US) SamEold,2010.3.183. HO CHI MINH CITY (VIET NAM)GerhardMenckhoff,2008.3.184. LILLE (FRANCE)AFPImageForum,1997.4.1. DELHI (INDIA)CarlosPardo,2005.4.2. HO CHI MINH CITY (VIET NAM)GerhardMenckhoff,2008.4.3. BANGKOK (THAILAND)CarlosPardo,2006.4.4. KATHMANDU (NEPAL)PeterVoerman,2005.4.5. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) JoannaAbaño,2011.4.6. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)ShreyaGadepalli,2006.4.7. SURABAYA (INDONESIA)ManfredBreithaupt,2004.4.8. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.4.9. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)AndreaBroaddus,2009.4.10. LONDON (UK)RobinHickman,2010.4.11. ZURICH (SWITZERLAND)LloydWright,2005.4.12. ZURICH (SWITZERLAND)LloydWright,2005.4.13. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) JoannaAbaño,2011.4.14. BEIJING (PRC)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.4.15. UKSustransNetworkandNikkiWingfield,2007.

2.72. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.2.73. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) RobinHickman,2010. 2.74. BANGKOK (THAILAND)AndreasRau,2005.2.75. BANGKOK (THAILAND)ArminWagner,2008.3.1. HONG KONG, CHINA (PRC)JoannaAbaño,2011.3.2. HONG KONG, CHINA (PRC)JoannaAbaño,2011.3.3. HONG KONG, CHINA (PRC)JoannaAbaño,2011.3.4. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)JoannaAbaño,2011.3.5. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)ShreyaGadepalli,2003.3.6. SINGAPORECarlosPardo,2008.3.7. HA NOI (VIET NAM)RobinHickman,2002.3.8. HONG KONG, CHINA (PRC) ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.9. TORONTO (CANADA)RobinHickman,2009.3.10. LONDON (UK)RobinHickman,2008.3.11. LONDON (UK)RobinHickman,2006.3.12. LONDON (UK)RobinHickman,2009.3.13. SEVILLE (SPAIN)RobinHickman,2008.3.14. OXFORD (UK)RobinHickman,2009.3.15. MANCHESTER (UK)RobinHickman,2009.3.16. SYDNEY (AUSTRALIA)SunilBoghal,2010.3.17. DELFT (THE NETHERLANDS)RobinHickman,2008.3.18. CADIZ (SPAIN)RobinHickman,2006.3.19. LIVERPOOL (UK)RobinHickman,2009.3.20. GRENOBLE (FRANCE)RobinHickman,2000.3.21. GRENOBLE (FRANCE)RobinHickman,2004.3.22. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS) RobinHickman,2008.3.23. SAN SEBASTIAN (SPAIN)RobinHickman,2008.3.24. FREIBURG (GERMANY)RobinHickman,2007.3.25. FREIBURG (GERMANY)RobinHickman,2007.3.26. FREIBURG (GERMANY)RobinHickman,2007.3.27. FREIBURG (GERMANY)RobinHickman,2007.3.28. MIAMI (US)RobinHickman,2008.3.29. MIAMI (US)RobinHickman,2008.3.30. NAPLES (US)RobinHickman,2008.3.31. NEW YORK (US)JohnDulac,2008.3.32. PARIS (FRANCE)RobinHickman,2002.3.33. SINGAPORECarlosPardo,2008.3.34. SINGAPORECarlosPardo,2008.3.35. XIAN (PRC)ArminWagner,2006.3.36. XIAMEN (PRC)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.37. NEW YORK (US)ANP/AFP,2009.3.38. NICE (FRANCE)RobinHickman,2006.3.39. LONDON (UK)RobinHickman,2007.3.40. LONDON (UK)RobinHickman,2007.3.41. LONDON (UK)RobinHickman,2007.3.42. DELFT (THE NETHERLANDS)RobinHickman,2002.3.43. DELFT (THE NETHERLANDS)RobinHickman,2002.3.44. KUALA LUMPUR (MALAYSIA) ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.45. SHANGHAI (PRC) ArminWagner,2006.3.46. BEIJING (PRC)AndreasRau,2008.3.47. MUMBAI (INDIA)ManfredBreithaupt,2002.3.48. MUMBAI (INDIA)ManfredBreithaupt,2002.

3.49. BEIJING (PRC) ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.50. BEIJING (PRC)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.51. BEIJING (PRC)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.52. HONG KONG, CHINA (PRC) AndreasRau,2008.3.53. KUALA LUMPUR (MALAYSIA)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.54. BANGKOK (THAILAND)CarlosPardo,2005.3.55. VANCOUVER (CANADA)RobinHickman,2008.3.56. AMSTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)RobinHickman,2000.3.57. LONDON (UK)RobinHickman,2006.3.58. LONDON (UK)RobinHickman,2008.3.59. LONDON (UK) TransportforLondon,2010.3.60. BERLIN (GERMANY)ManfredBreithaupt,2002.3.61. BERLIN (GERMANY)ManfredBreithaupt,2002.3.62. BERLIN (GERMANY)ManfredBreithaupt,2002.3.63. STRASBOURG (FRANCE)RobinHickman,2006.3.64. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)AFPImageForum,2008.3.65. STRASBOURG (FRANCE)RobinHickman,2004.3.66. STRASBOURG (FRANCE)RobinHickman,2004.3.67. BILBAO (SPAIN)RobinHickman,2008.3.68. GRENOBLE (FRANCE)RobinHickman,2004.3.69. BILBAO (SPAIN)RobinHickman,2008.3.70. BILBAO (SPAIN)RobinHickman,2008.3.71. BANGKOK (THAILAND)SantoshKodukula,2010.3.72. JAKARTA (INDONESIA)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.73. PUNE (INDIA)SantoshKodukula,2008.3.74. PUNE (INDIA)SantoshKodukula,2008.3.75. PUNE (INDIA)SantoshKodukula,2008.3.76. KUNMING (PRC)KarlFjellstrom,2004.3.77. JINAN (PRC)CarlosPardo,2007.3.78. JINAN (PRC)CarlosPardo,2007.3.79. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)ShreyaGadepalli,2006.3.80. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)AFP,2010.3.81. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)TransMilenio,2006.3.82. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)ShreyaGadepalli,2006.3.83. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.84. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.85. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)ManfredBreithaupt,20063.86. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)GerhardMenckhoff,2004.3.87. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)GerhardMenckhoff,2004.3.88. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)GerhardMenckhoff,2004.3.89. CURITIBA (BRAZIL)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.90. MEXICO CITY (MEXICO)CarlosPardo,2007.3.91. MEXICO CITY (MEXICO)CarlosPardo,2007.3.92. MEXICO CITY (MEXICO)CarlosPardo,2007.3.93. SHANGHAI (PRC)ArminWagner,2006.3.94. NANCY (FRANCE)GrahamCarson,2004.3.95. MANILA (PHILIPPINES) EricSales,2011.3.96. BOGOTÁ (COLOMBIA)ShreyaGadepalli,2003.3.97. DELHI (INDIA)JeroenBuis,2007.3.98. WUHAN (PRC)ManfredBreithaupt,2006.3.99. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.3.100. MANILA (PHILIPPINES)RobinHickman,2010.

changing course in urban transport: an illustrated guide

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