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Changes in soil and water characteristics of natural, drained and re-flooded soils in the

Mesopotamian marshlands: Implications for land management planning

R.W. Fitzpatrick CSIRO Land and Water

CSIRO Land and Water: Client Report September, 2004

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Report Title: Changes in soil and water characteristics of natural, drained and re-flooded soils in the Mesopotamian marshlands: Implications for land management planning

Author: R.W. Fitzpatrick

Affiliation: CSIRO Land and Water

CSIRO Land and Water: Client Report September, 2004

Cover Diagram and Photographs: Chronological evolution model of soil-water-landscape changes in the southern Mesopotamian Marshlands from 3000 BC to 2003 AD (present). The model consists of a set of seven schematic cross-sections or phases, which represent major mechanisms operating during successive evolutionary and environmental changes in the soil and water characteristics of the natural, drained, burnt and re-flooded marshlands to form the following range of soils: Sulfidic soils (phases 1 and 7), Anthropogenic soils (phases 2 and 6), Saline, Sodic, Gypsic and Calcic soils (phases 3 and 4), Burnt soils (phase 5) and Reflooded soils (phase 7). The range of soil forming processes operate in combinations at various rates from thousands of years (phases 1 and 2) to short periods such as weeks/months caused by drainage/flooding or even days caused by burning (phases 3 to 7). Within the floodplain alluvium, depositional facies are present but are not shown for the sake of clarity. Photographs depict at finer scales specific soil, water and topographic features.

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Executive Summary The Iraq Marshlands Restoration Program is funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) through the FORWARD task order, contracted under the Development Alternatives, Inc. (DAI) Water Indefinite Quantity Contract (IQC). The program supports restoration of ecosystems through improved management and strategic reflooding and provides social and economic assistance to the marsh dwellers in the Tigris-Euphrates watershed marshlands in southern Iraq. The geological structure and hydrology of the Mesopotamian marshlands, unlike its soils, is relatively well known. Consequently, the overall aim of the Soil and Water sub-project was to establish the limitations of soil and water resources to agricultural production at local (farm plots) and regional (village) scales in drained and re-flooded marshlands. The sub-project had the following objectives:

• develop an experimental approach and field sampling program to determine the changes in soil and water characteristics of natural, disturbed drained and re-flooded marshlands;

• conduct field work at 24 representative case study sites across the marshlands;

• develop detailed and generic conceptual models that encapsulate the various soil-water processes observed at the case study sites;

• develop a user-friendly set of soil-water indicators and a soil identification key for categorising natural and degraded marshland soils to assist local advisers and marsh dwellers to identify signs of soil and water degradation,

• recommend generalised principles that lead to implementation of “best management practices” for ameliorating identified categories of degraded marshland soils, and

• identify knowledge gaps and scope future research and development projects.

All objectives were met. Prior to this project, uncertainties existed about the changes that occur when submerged soils and sediments of the Mesopotamian marshlands are disturbed, drained, burnt, cultivated and reflooded. This was done by:

• Characterising morphological, chemical, geochemical, physical, mineralogical, magnetic and biological changes in representative sulfidic, disturbed, salt-affected and burnt soils at 24 case study sites involving 66 soil and 25 water samples from natural, disturbed, drained and re-flooded marshlands across the following four regional localities: Al Kahla, Al Azair, Al Chibayish and Suq Al-Shiukh.

• Developing detailed soil-water landscape models from each case study site, which defined the soil morphological and biogeochemical processes and changes that operated following landscape disturbance, drainage, burning or re-flooding.

• Developing a generic chronological evolution model of soil-water-landscape changes in the southern Mesopotamian Marshlands from 3000 BC to 2003 AD (present). The model consists of a set of 7 phases, which is illustrated in schematic cross-sections and photographs. The model represents major mechanisms operating during successive evolutionary and environmental changes in the soil and water characteristics of the natural, disturbed, drained, burnt and re-flooded marshlands to form the following range of soils:

o Sulfidic soils (phases 1 and 7),

o Anthropogenic soils (phases 2 and 6),

o Saline, Sodic, Gypsic and Calcic soils (phases 3 and 4),

o Burnt soils (phase 5)

o Reflooded soils (phase 7).

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The range of soil forming processes operate in combinations at various rates from thousands of years (phases 1 and 2) to short periods such as weeks/months caused by drainage/flooding or even days caused by burning (e.g. phases 3 to 7). The 7 phases provide a powerful tool for communicating: (i) the unique formation of sulfidic materials, salt storage, salt mobilisation and irreversible soil change knowledge for these complex landscapes affected by dredging, draining, burning and re-flooding on massive scale and (ii) a framework for determining optimal patterns of regional land use and land management.

• Identifying important soil morphological and chemical field indicators (e.g. soil colour, consistence and salinity) to better target land management in degraded marshlands.

• Developing a user-friendly soil identification key (based on a set of field indicators) to categorise the various natural and degraded marshland soils. The following 7 soil categories and 15 soil sub categories have been identified and defined:

o Anthropogenic soils (dredgic, fusic/burned, garbic);

o Wet Soils (sulfidic, redoxic);

o Saline soils (gypseous and calcareous);

o Gypsic soils (brown and grey);

o Cracking Clays (brown and grey);

o Duplex soils (sodic/restrictive and non-restrictive);

o Calcic soils (brown and grey).

These categories have also been correlated with two international soil classification systems (Soil Taxonomy and the World Soil Reference Base).

• Developing a pictorial key for identifying soil indicators, land use options and best management practices (BMPs) for sub-categories of marshland soils.

The “pictorial key” and “soil identification key” should be packaged as an easy-to-follow pictorial manual or brochure for local advisers and marsh dwellers to easily identify those soil categories that are clearly suitable to be used to grow crops or pastures and those categories to avoid and fence off. The manual will assist in the identification of the new unique categories of degraded marshland soils at any point of inspection and allocate a suitability assessment by:

o Recognising soil morphological features such as soil colour and consistence;

o Using, where needed, simple tests for soil electrical conductivity (salinity), dispersion (sodicity) and pH (acidity);

o Integration and adoption; where knowledge of soil and hydrological processes and production systems are bought together in recommendations for appropriate best management practices;

o Viable, land use options and best management practices and procedures to ameliorate or reclaim identified categories of degraded marshland soils management systems (farming based on soil type) that are more resource efficient than current "trial and error" practices. In some soil categories (e.g. Calcic soils), soil and water degradation can be reversed; in others (e.g. Anthropogenic fusic/burned soil or Saline gypseous soil), the best thing to do is simply to fence off an area and leave it alone. The pictorial manual will help support productive and sustainable agriculture in the marshlands of Iraq.

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The project has advanced the following new concepts and practical information that have already been provided to local marsh dwellers, researches and PhD students at the University of Basra and government department staff:

• Movement and accumulation of soluble salts is typical of drained marshlands but, the salt crusts in the marshlands of Iraq contain an assemblage of previously unrecorded types of sulfate-containing evaporite minerals (eugsterite, bloedite, thenardite and glauberite as detected by x-ray diffraction and Scanning Electron Microscopy). This is caused by the unique geochemistry of the region because the marshlands were built-up with sediments that originally came from sedimentary rocks in the mountains of the north, transported by the Tigris and Euphrates.

• The effect of Anthropogenic burning on drained marshland soils is dramatic because it resulted in the formation of abundant, irreversibly fused, particulate and discrete artifacts over a vast area (20 000 km2). This has lent support to the official proposal to the International Committee on Anthropogenic Soils (ICOMANTH) to modify previously established definitions of: (i) terms for Anthropogenic Soils (Human-altered and transported soils) and (ii) new types of particulate (< 2mm) and discrete artifacts (>2mm fragments).

• Several one-on-one discussions were held between the research team and local marsh dwellers. This proved to be a most effective communication mechanism because researchers have learnt from marsh dwellers; and local observation has been important to the design of our approach and verification of results.

This project has provided a framework to develop a phase 2 pilot project to further develop key indicators to determine the limitations of soil and water resources to agricultural production at local (farm plots) and regional (village) scales in drained and re-flooded areas.

• Recommendations for future soil and water pilot projects and purchase of laboratory and field equipment have been made.

• We have transferred the knowledge gained in this project to the scientific community and consultants (DAI) through a number of preliminary reports, publications and public seminars. This process will continue as the papers make their way through the scientific refereeing and publishing process.

• An application has been made for the Iraq Marshlands to be recognised as a significant “Geohazard environment of the world” by the ‘Geohazards Working Group’, which comprises representatives from the four major geoscience unions of the world.

• Publication of an article entitled: "A return to Eden - Can science save Iraq's ancient marshlands?" in ECOS magazine, volume 121 (September – October 2004), pages 16 to 21 by CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.: http://www.ecosmagazine.com/nid/206/issue/1895.htm

http://www.ecosmagazine.com/?act=view_file&file_id=EC121p16.pdf

• Invited key note address entitled: "Soil and Water Degradation in Drained and Re-flooded Mesopotamian Marshlands in southern Iraq - Comparisons in Australia” by Rob Fitzpatrick was presented at a public seminar on: “Agricultural Links between Iraq and South Australia”, sponsored by the ATSE Crawford Fund of South Australia on Friday 24 September 2004. Seminars were also presented by two other South Australian agricultural scientists who have worked in Iraq and two Iraqi scientists visiting SA (Drs Adnan AlEthari and Dr Mardan Hammad Mardan).

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Table of Contents Executive Summary i 1 Introduction 6

1.1 Background to project 8 1.2 Broad aims and objectives of the Soil and Water sub-project 8 1.3 Specific objectives and approach 9

2 Methods 9 2.1 Establishment of Soil and Water sub-project team and training activity 9 2.2 Sample collection 10 2.3 Sample descriptions 10 2.4 Field Tests 10 2.5 Laboratory analyses 11

2.5.1 Soil and Water analyses 11 2.5.2 Geochemical analysis 11 2.5.3 Mass magnetic susceptibility analysis 12 2.5.4 Semi quantitative analysis of mineral composition using power X-ray diffraction

analysis 12 2.5.5 Scanning electron microscopy analysis 12

3 Results 13 3.1 Morphology, chemistry, geochemistry, mineralogy and soil classification 13

4 Evolution and environmental change in marshland soil-water landscapes – from 3000 BC to 2003 AD (present) 19 4.1 Phase 1: Natural Marshland – Development of Sulfidic materials 21 4.2 Phase 2: Modified effects caused by marsh dwellers (3000 BC - 1980 AD) 23 4.3 Phase 3: Drained – (1980s and 1990s) 23 4.4 Phase 4: Formation of salt-affected soils 24 4.5 Phase 5: Burned 28 4.6 Phase 6: Levelled for farming 31 4.7 Phase 7: Reflooding – (2003) 33

5 Soil Indicators and Best Management Practices to assist in land use planning 35 5.1 Farming Degraded soils in the Drained Marshlands 35 5.2 Soil identification key for natural and degraded marshland soils 36

5.2.1 Definitions of morphological and chemical indicators 39 5.3 Pictorial key for identifying soil indicators, land use options and best management practices42

5.3.1 Risk Management Planning for draining salt-affected marshland soils 50 6 Recommendations for future soil and water pilot projects and purchase of

laboratory and field equipment 52 6.1 Soil-Water Kits to Improve Land and Irrigation Planning 52

6.1.1 Background 52 6.1.2 Broad objectives and outcomes 53

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6.1.3 Specific objectives/outcomes 53 6.1.4 Methodology 53 6.1.5 Milestones: 55

6.2 CSIRO Land and Water recommendation for purchase of laboratory and field equipment to determine chemical and physical properties of soil and water samples in Iraq 55

7 Acknowledgements 1 8 References 1 Glossary 4 Appendix 1 Summary of field and laboratory methods 10 Appendix 2 – Site description, morphological description of soil profiles and samples,

field measurement of soil and water (pH, EC, Eh) 12 Appendix 3 –Soil chemical and geochemical analyses 25 Appendix 4 –Mass magnetic susceptibility 34 Appendix 5 – CSIRO Land and Water recommendation for purchase of laboratory and

field equipment to determine chemical and physical properties of soil and water samples in Iraq 39

Appendix 6: Semi quantitative analysis of mineral composition using powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) 41

Appendix 7: Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of selected samples 81

Natural, drained and re-flooded soils in the Mesopotamian Marshlands 6

1 Introduction The areas of Mesopotamian marshland and swamps on the Tigris and Euphrates river systems in southern Iraq are known locally as Hor Al-Hammar, which means inland lakes of very shallow waters (1-2m depth), the Central Marshes and the Al-Hawizeh marshes (Figure 1). These marshes, until recently, were the most extensive wetland ecosystems in the Middle East (Partow, 2001). It comprised a complex of interconnected, shallow, freshwater lakes, marshes and seasonally inundated floodplains extending from within 150 km of Baghdad in the northwest to the region of Basrah in the southeast (Partow, 2001; Aqrawi and Evans, 1994; Manley and Robson, 1994). This region is also characterized by sub-desert climate, the evaporation rate reaches 15 mm/day, the rainy wind that cover the area are S-SE, which comes from the Arabian Gulf, and frequent dust storms occur all year (Buringh, 1960). The Central and Al Hammar marshes were the worst affected by dust storms (Partow, 2001).

Massive drainage and damming operations on the Tigris and Euphrates river systems in Iraq, Syria, Iran and Turkey has caused around 85% per cent of the Mesopotamian marshlands, which originally covered an area of 20,000 square kilometres to be lost (Figure 1). Even the Al-Hawizeh marshes, straddling the Iran-Iraq border are rapidly dwindling because its water supply is impounded by new dams and diverted for irrigation purposes.

Figure 1: Map of southern Iraq showing: (i) the former extent of the Mesopotamian

Marshlands, (i) the current remaining permanent marsh straddling the Iran-Iraq border (Al-Hawizeh marshes) and (iii) the four regional localities of the soil and water study areas, namely Al Kahla, Al Azair, Al Chibayish and Suq Al-Shiukh.


This extensive Mesopotamian wetland complex, home to a 5,000 year-old civilization who are the heirs of the Babylonians and Sumerians, was one of the most outstanding freshwater ecosystems in the world but by 2000, only a 1,000 square kilometre vestige on the Iran-Iraq border has remained (Figure 1).

The immediate cause of marshland loss, however, has been the massive drainage works implemented in southern Iraq in the early 1990s, following the second Gulf War (Figures 1, 2 and 3). Scientists have estimated that the entire marshlands could disappear entirely by 2008 (Partow, 2001).

Figure 2: Photograph of the Main Outfall Drain (see Figure 1 for locality)

Figure 3: Photograph of Prosperity River (see Figure 1 for locality)

However, with the collapse of the former Iraqi regime in mid-2003, local Marsh Arab residents began opening floodgates and breaching embankments in order to bring water back into the marshlands (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Photograph showing: (i) embankment /dyke adjacent to Euphrates River, which

was breached in 2004 and (ii) reflooding of marshlands around displaced marsh dwellers destroyed houses (top left hand side of photograph).


Recent assessment of water and soils in farmed dried marshland, reflooded dried marshland and existing marshlands have found that most of the 85,000 Marsh Arabs currently living in the area are collecting water directly from polluted reflooded marshlands and farming on salt-affected soils. The challenge now is to restore the wetlands and rehabilitate the saline soils to provide clean water/sanitation services and sustainable farming systems.

Salt-affected soils of the Mesopotamian plain in Iraq have been characterised by many workers (e.g. Buringh, 1960; AlRawi et al. 1968; al-Taie et al. 1969; Sehgal et al. 1980). However, no work has been undertaken on natural submerged soils in the Marshlands and the changes to these soils following desiccation. Hence there is a lack of basic scientific data underpinning strategies to help rehabilitate the degraded saline soils in the drained marshlands for improved agricultural production and to provide clean water/sanitation. Consequently, it was recommended that detailed soil and water studies be conducted in the field at selected key sites and in the laboratory on collected soil samples, incorporating targeted training for local agencies involved in soil and water management and restoration. Impacts include both on-and off-site effects on the soil and water resource base, which ultimately affect social infrastructure, financial returns and regional wealth generated from farming enterprises.

1.1 Background to project

The Iraq Marshlands Restoration Program is funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) through the FORWARD task order, contracted under the Development Alternatives, Inc. (DAI) Water Indefinite Quantity Contract (IQC). The program supports restoration of ecosystems through improved management and strategic reflooding and provides social and economic assistance to the marsh dwellers in the Tigris-Euphrates watershed marshlands in southern Iraq. The geological structure and hydrology of the Mesopotamian marshlands, unlike its soils, is relatively well known. Consequently, the overall aim of the Soil and Water sub-project was to establish the limitations of soil and water resources to agricultural production at local (farm plots) and regional (village) scales in drained and re-flooded marshlands. To make soil and water technology bring about change in practice and improve sustainability at regional and local scale, the Soil and Water sub-project team worked closely with decision makers and opinion leaders (e.g. University of Basra and Iraqi Ministry of Agriculture & Water Recourses staff) at different levels of responsibility. In the southern Iraq marshlands the primary forum for such communication occurs at the local village level and for this reason the sub-project team interviewed and explored on-the-ground activities of the former marsh dwellers, who comprise most of the population, and the few people who now live inside Hammar marsh on islands resembling a lifestyle all but terminated by the drainage of the marshes in the 1980s and 1990s. The team also met with tribal sheikhs.

1.2 Broad aims and objectives of the Soil and Water sub-project

• Establish key limitations of soil and water resources to agricultural production at local (farm) and regional (village) scales in drained and re-flooded Tigris-Euphrates watershed marshlands in Iraq.

• Establish satisfactory approaches for describing and predicting the pathways, mobility, loads and sources of salts and colloids (clays) in the natural, drained and re-flooded marshland soils.


• Commence development of a set of practical soil and water indicators to assist local advisers (mainly University of Basra) and marsh dweller groups to identify signs of soil and water degradation and the adoption of practices to reverse it and thereby increase agricultural productivity and sustainability. This will involve development and evaluation of indicators for salt-affected soils (saline and sodic), natural wet soils, disturbed soils and water quality at local and regional scales.

• Based on the above recommend and develop a Pilot project/program proposal.

1.3 Specific objectives and approach

To establish: • develop an experimental approach and field sampling program to determine the changes

in soil and water characteristics of natural, disturbed drained and re-flooded marshlands;

• conduct field work at 24 representative case study sites across the marshlands;

• develop detailed and generic conceptual models that encapsulate the various soil-water processes observed at the case study sites;

• develop a user-friendly set of soil-water indicators and a soil identification key for categorising natural and degraded marshland soils to assist local advisers and marsh dwellers to identify signs of soil and water degradation,

• recommend generalised principles that lead to implementation of “best management practices” for ameliorating identified categories of degraded marshland soils, and

• identify knowledge gaps.

2 Methods 2.1 Establishment of Soil and Water sub-project team and training activity

The following individuals provided logistical support and technical guidance in the Soil and Water sub-project during field investigations from 7th to 17th February 2004 in Iraq: Dr. Peter Reiss: Program Management, Development Alternatives, Inc. Dr. Ali Farhan: Program Management, Development Alternatives, Inc. Ms. Anna Presswell Program: Development Alternatives, Inc. Mr. Gabriel Bayram: Program Management: Development Alternatives, Inc. Dr R.W. Fitzpatrick: Soil and Water scientist, CSIRO. Dr. Jane Gleason: Agriculture, Development Alternatives, Inc. Mr. Hazim Ahmed Al-Delli: Marsh Management, Agriculture Ministry of Environment, Baghdad Prof. Abdul Jabbar Hassan: Agricultural Engineering, University of Basra. Prof. Dakhil Radi Al-Nedawi: Agriculture, University of Basra. Dr. Ali Hamdi Theiab: Agriculture, University of Basra. Mr. Ali Hussein Hassan: Agriculture, Ministry of Environment, Basra. Mr. Mohamed Malik Yassen: Agriculture University of Basra Soil Fertility; soil management. Mr. Fawzi: Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, Basra. Carl Maxwell: Program Management, USAID/Iraq, USAID/CPA South. Several members of the AMAR (Assisting Marsh Arabs and Refugees) Foundation. Several one-on-one discussions between the research team and local marsh dwellers have taken place in the field and these proved to be a most effective communication mechanism. Researchers have learnt from marsh dwellers, and local observation has


been important to the design of our approach and verification of results. Project activities have also provided: (i) training for a PhD student (Mr. Mohamed Malik Yassen) project; and (ii) transfer of the project outcomes into operational use at a number of levels of application with agricultural advisors, educators (University of Basra staff), managers and government advisors.

2.2 Sample collection

To get both a quantitative assessment of the soil materials and water quality present and reasonable spatial coverage of the wide range of soil-related risks, the following set of soil and water samples (Appendix 2) were collected for further analyses: 66 soil samples and 15 water samples were taken from 24 selected focus sites (13 areas consisted of paired drained and re-flooded sites). The study was undertaken at focus sites in the following four “zones”, which are major agricultural areas associated with significant problems of soil and water degradation:

(i) Farming on dried marshland.

(ii) Reflooded on dried marshland.

(iii) Edge of marshland.

(iv) Existing marshland.

Representative samples of sulfidic, dredged, salt-affected and burnt soils were taken at the focus sites across the following four regional localities: Al Kahla, Al Azair, Al Chibayish and Suq Al-Shiukh (Figure 1).

2.3 Sample descriptions

Soil pits were dug to a depth of about 0.75 m and where possible a hand auger was used to sample soils down to 1.5 m. A representative profile face in the pit was selected and the master horizons demarcated and photographed. Soils were described according to the USDA Field book for describing and sampling soils, Version 2.0 (Schoeneberger et al. 2002) and Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook (McDonald et al. 1990). Further details are given in Appendix 2. The following morphological features were described: horizon thickness (cm), horizon type (using nomenclature from: Schoeneberger et al. 2002; Soil Survey Staff 2003), horizon boundary, matrix colour (using soil Munsell color notation), texture (McDonald et al. 1990), consistence (dry/force/strength), structure, pores/roots, concentrations, rock and other fragments, reaction or fizz to 1N HCl.

2.4 Field Tests

We measured pH and Eh in situ in freshly collected cores or in sub-samples from visually distinct horizons within soil pits (Appendix 2). The peroxide field test (a qualitative assessment of sulfidic material or potential acid sulfate soil conditions) was performed on sub-samples according to ASSMAC Assessment Guidelines (NSW ASSMAC 1998; see Appendix 1).


2.5 Laboratory analyses

2.5.1 Soil and Water analyses Sample preparation and moisture: A sub-sample was dried at 40°C, then ground and sieved through a 2 mm sieve to prepare an air-dry, <2 mm sample for further analysis. The moisture content was calculated from the measured weight loss on drying a weighed, representative sub-sample of the as-received soil sample at 105°C.

Electrical conductivity: A 4 g sub-sample was placed in a screw cap container, 20 ml water added and the suspension shaken for one hour (1:5 soil:water ratio). The electrical conductivity was measured after calibrating the conductivity meter using 0.1M KCl (12.9 dSm-1; Method 2B1; Rayment and Higginson (1992)).

pH: The pH meter was calibrated using pH 4.00 and pH 9.00 buffers. The pH was measured by extracting a 4g sub-sample of air-dry soil with 20 ml water for one hour and measuring the pH as above (Method 4A1; Rayment and Higginson (1992)).

Carbonate content: Sub-samples were analysed as per the method of Rayment and Higginson (1992).

Organic carbon: An air-dry sub-sample was weighed and then combusted in an atmosphere of oxygen in a Leco CR-12 carbon analyser at 1200°C. The quantity of CO2 produced was measured by the I.R. detector and the total carbon content calculated automatically by the instrument (Method 6B3; Rayment and Higginson (1992)). The organic carbon content was calculated by subtracting the inorganic (carbonate) carbon from the total carbon.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) and exchangeable cations: Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of whole soil was determined at pH 8.5 by NH4Cl, and exchangeable Na, Mg, Ca and K were determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy (Rayment and Higginson, 1992). Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) was calculated according to Rayment and Higginson (1992, p.192).

Particle size and coarse fragments (>2 mm): Clay, silt and sand size fractions were determined using the method of Rayment and Higginson, 1992. Soil samples were sieved and weighed to separate coarse fragments larger than 2 mm diameter. Methods are detailed in USDA (1996) under method codes 3B1a and 3B1b. Coarse fragments include gravels (hard ironstone nodules) and rock fragments. Coarse fragments are reported as a percentage of the <2 mm fraction.

Water samples were analysed for major ions (Ca, Mg, K, Na, total Fe, Fe(II), Cl, SO4), alkalinity, nutrients (NH4, NO3 + NO2, TN, filterable reactive P and filterable reactive Si) and total (dissolved) organic carbon. Method details are given in Appendix 1.

2.5.2 Geochemical analysis Samples were analysed for ‘acid extractable’ major and minor elements following microwave digestion. Samples were analysed for total major and minor elements including: heavy metals; metalloids; lanthanides; and actinides. These analyses were performed on the solution obtained following a mixed acid digestion (hydrofluoric + perchloric) using a combination of ICP–OES and ICP–MS. For most analytes, this method gives the total amount present in the sample. Details are given in Appendix 1.

Each soil sample was acid digested in a Milestone 1200 mega microwave using US EPA Method 3051A. The resultant digest solution was analysed for major and minor elements by inductively coupled optical emission spectroscopy using a Spectroflame


Modula. Although this procedure does not result in total decomposition of the sample, it provides a comparative measure of a wide range of acid-soluble major, minor and trace elements in each sample. These results are presented in Appendix 3 (Table A3.3).

2.5.3 Mass magnetic susceptibility analysis

Mass magnetic susceptibility (χ) determinations were conducted on 10 gram aliquots of whole soil. Mass magnetic susceptibility was measured at low (0.46 kHz; χLF) and high frequencies (4.6 kHz; χHF) using a Bartington magnetic susceptibility meter model MS2 (Bartington Instruments Ltd., Oxford, England) equipped with a 32 mm diameter dual frequency sensor, type MS2B (Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). These results are presented in Appendix 5 (Table A5.3).

2.5.4 Semi quantitative analysis of mineral composition using power X-ray diffraction analysis

Semi quantitative analysis of mineral composition was undertaken using power X-ray diffraction (XRD). Samples were finely ground with an agate mortar and pestle (salt efflorescences) or in a McCrone micronizing mill under ethanol (1g sub-sample for 10 minutes) and oven dried at 60°C then thoroughly mixed in an agate mortar and pestle. Powdered samples were lightly pressed in aluminium sample holders for X-ray diffraction analysis. XRD patterns were recorded with a Philips PW1800 microprocessor-controlled diffractometer using Co K-alpha radiation, variable divergence slit, and graphite monochromator. Diffraction patterns were recorded in steps of 0.05° 2 theta with a 3.0 second counting time per step, and logged to permanent data files using instrument control programs developed by Self (1988, 1989). Analysis of the data was carried out using the program XPLOT (Raven, 1990).

2.5.5 Scanning electron microscopy analysis Specimens were selectively sub-sampled to show the appropriate phases, often fractured to expose fresh surfaces, and then oriented and mounted onto aluminum specimen mounts using "Araldite" 5-minute epoxy resin. The samples were subsequently dried in a vacuum desiccator overnight, had the surfaces blown cleaned with a Nitrogen jet, and then coated with a conductive layer.

Where imaging of the composition was required, specimens were evaporatively coated with 30nm of carbon, using an EmScope SC500 coating unit, to provide electrical conductivity and maximize Backscattered Electron (BSE) phase contrast. Carbon coating also minimizes extraneous x-ray peaks from the characteristic X-ray spectrum.

Specimens were placed in a “Phillips” XL30 FEG-SEM, with an attached “EDAX” DX4 energy dispersive x-ray system. Sample examination was done using a primary electron beam energy of 20 KeV. Imaging was performed using the Secondary Electron (SE) signal where information about surface topography was required. The SE signal primarily carries information about the local topography because the signal is dependent on the angle of incidence of the primary beam. Imaging was also performed using the Backscattered Electron (BSE) signal where information about composition and phase was required. The backscattered electron signal primarily carries information about the average atomic number and the density of the sample commonly called "atomic number contrast or Z contrast". The characteristic x-ray signals were also collected at selected


positions for qualitative Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. EDX analysis is possible within the volume over which the electron beam interacts (approximately four cubic micrometers), for all elements of atomic number greater than 6 with detection limits in the order of 0.1 to 5 wt % depending on the energy of the characteristic x-ray line.

3 Results

3.1 Morphology, chemistry, geochemistry, mineralogy and soil classification

Profile descriptions of the 24 soil pits are presented in Appendix 2. In all of the soil profiles, distinct layers or master soil horizons with suffix symbols were demarcated and described and summarised in Table 1. Soil colour, structure, texture and consistency are the most useful properties for soil identification and appraisal (Glossary). Soil colour, structure and consistency provide practical indicators of soil redox status and salinity/sodicity and this relates directly to soil aeration and organic matter content in marshland soils. Consequently, these field indicators were used to help develop a user-friendly soil identification key to categorise the various natural and degraded marshland soils in section 4 (Tables 4 and 5).

Tables A3.1 - A3.4 present chemical (pH, electrical conductivity, chloride, organic carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, extractable P, exchangeable cations, cation exchange capacity, exchangeable sodium percentage – ESP, DTPA extractable Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn; KCl extractable Al, carbonate content and soil saturation extract data) physical (particle size data) data for soil horizons from representative soil profiles.

Based on the detailed profile morphology presented in Appendix 2 and laboratory data (Tables A3.1 - A3.4) classification of all soil profiles were made according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), The World Reference Base for soil resources (WRB; FAO, 1998) and the user-friendly soil identification key to categorise the various natural and degraded marshland soils (Table 4). This information is summarised in Table 1. Assessment of the samples based on the soil profile descriptions and chemical data (Tables A3.1 - A3.4) is that all of the samples highly saline and sodic (i.e. have ESP values >6). The pH values of the soils are mostly neutral to alkaline. However, all of the strongly sodic horizons are alkaline in reaction, with pH values greater than 7.5.

Carbon is present in soils and sediments in three broad forms: organic, inorganic (carbonates) and charcoal. In this study, we measured total carbon and carbonate carbon, with organic carbon calculated by difference. The estimates for organic carbon content will also include charcoal, which is of varying significance in the marshland soils and sediments, however its inclusion will not affect this study. Total organic carbon concentrations were higher in the Anthropogenic soils relative to the natural wetlands. The carbonate content in surface horizons of the burnt soils was low (< 4% as CaCO3).

Selected soil and sediment samples were analysed for total major, minor and trace elements (Appendix A3.5). These concentrations were compared with sediment quality guidelines (ANZECC & ARMCANZ 2000). Nickel concentrations were above the interim sediment quality guideline (ISQG) trigger value of 21 mg/kg for some samples in below the upper value of 52 mg/kg. The average concentration of Cu in the collected sediments was equal to 32 (Table A3.5). Copper concentrations were above the trigger value of 65 mg/kg for one of the burnt samples (IM 18.1B) and crystalline Cu metal was detected by scanning electron photomicrograph (Figure 5). The average concentration


of Zn in the earth crust is 95 ppm, whereas the average concentration of Zn in the investigated soil and sediment samples is 60 ppm.

Figure 5. Scanning electron photomicrograph of crystalline Cu metal from sample IM 18.1B

The reported results indicate that heavy metal concentrations reflect the natural background values because their concentrations approach the average concentration in shale or earth crust. Pb, Ni, Cr and Cu are slightly enriched which may reflect anthropogenic effect. However, the frequency of metals detected in the samples was Ni>Zn > Cr > Pb> Cu> at different locations. However, most of metals occurs naturally in most sediment were derived from the igneous mineral deposits in the catchments area of the investigated locations especially from the Iranian mountains and the Mesoptamanian (Iraq-Iran Mountain range). They were slightly enriched by anthropogenic activities and sources such as illegal dumping of electrical conductors, wires, plumbing fixtures, pipes, and boats paints.

Scanning electron microscopy results are presented in Appendix A7 under the following headings with page numbers in brackets: SEM Micrographs of samples examined (A7: pages 7-53), EDX spectra of samples examined (A7: pages 54-66) and EDX analyses of samples examined (A7: pages 67-91). The powder x-ray diffraction patterns are presented in Appendix 6 and a full summary of the mineralogical the results are given in Table 2. Codes used to indicate abundance are: D - dominant (>60%), CD - co-dominant (sum of components >60%), SD - sub-dominant (20 to 60%), M - minor (5 to 20%), T - trace (<5%). Mineralogical data is presented in Appendix 6. XRD measurements were made to confirm the presence or absence of layer silicates, quartz, gypsum and pyrite in sediment samples. However, monosulfides are usually amorphous or poorly crystalline and not usually identifiable in XRD powder patterns. Pyrite was only positively identified by XRD in three samples (Table 2 and Appendix 6). In some samples gypsum was absent suggesting that organic sulfur rather than sulfate to be the major non sulfide sulfur present in the sample. Evaporite minerals listed in Table 2 and Appendix 6 only include those, which could be identified with absolute certainty by powder XRD. Salt efflorescences consist of mainly of salts with bloedite (Na2Mg(SO4)2_4H2O), thenardite (Na2SO4) eugsterite (Na4Ca(SO4)3.2H2O), gypsum (CaSO4.H2O), barite (BaSO4), halite (NaCl) and glauberite (Na2Ca(SO4)2). Peak positions for the calcite phase suggest significant Mg substitution. The level of substitution varies between samples and in several samples approaches the theoretical limit.


Table 1: Soil profile location and classification of soils in different soil classification systems

SITE Sample number

Depth

(cm) Horizon

Marshlands Soil Key

(from Table 4)

Soil Taxonomy Soil Survey Staff (1999)

World Soil Reference Base (WRG)

FAO (1998)

Region: Al Azair / Area: Shakhra villageIM 1 IM 1.1 0-1 Az IM 1.2 0-5 Akg1 IM 1.3 5-10 Akg2 IM 1.4 10-20 Btkg1 IM 1.5 20-50 2Btk2 IM 1.6 50-70 2Btky1 IM 1.7 70-80 2Btky2 IM 1.8 90-100 2Btky3 IM 1.9 >120 2Btky4

Saline gypseous soil Gypsic Aquisalid Calci-Gleyic Gypsisol (Sodic)

Region: Al Azair / Area: Shakhra villageIM 2 IM 2.1 0-5 An IM 2.2 5-25 Akg1 IM 2.3 25-50 2Btkg IM 2.4 50-120 2Btky1 IM 2.5 >120 2Btky3

Gypsic grey soil Typic Natrigypsid Gypsi-Gleyic Calcisol (Sodic)

Region: Al Azair / Area: Prosperity River (small village)IM 3 IM 3.1 0-1 Az IM 3.2 0-1 Az

Saline calcareous soil

Calic Aquisalid

IM 3.3 1-5 Bkg

Gleyic-Calcic Solonchak

Region: Al Kahla / Area: Um Sbeta villageIM 4 IM 4.1 0-1 Apz IM 4.2 0-1 Apz IM 4.3 0-5 Apak IM 4.4 5-20 Bakg1 IM 4.5 20-30 Bakg2 IM 4.6 30-65 2Btkg1 IM 4.7 65-75 2Btkg2


Calic Aquisalid Gleyic-Calcic Solonchak (Aridic)

Region: Al Kahla / Area: Um Sbeta villageIM 5 IM 5.1 0-1 Apn IM 5.2 0-5 Apkn IM 5.3 5-20 Apk IM 5.4 20-33 Bekg IM 5.5 33-50 2Btkg IM 5.6 50-100 2Btkg IM 5.7 100-120 3Btkgy

Duplex sodic soil Typic Natrigypsid

or Sodic Haplocalcid

Gleyic-Calcic Solonchak (Aridic)

Region: Al Kahla / Area: Um Sbeta villageIM 6 IM 6.1 0-0.5 Apz IM 6.2 0-15 Apky IM 6.3 15-50 Bky


Calic Haplosalid Vertic-Calcic Solonchak (Aridic)

Region: Al Chibayish/ Area: Al Chibayish villageIM 7 IM 7.1 0-5 Apk IM 7.2 5-25 Bgk IM 7.3 25-50 Bgk IM 7.4 50-88 Bgk IM 7.5 88-115 Bgkc

Calcic grey soil Aquic Haplocalcid Gleyic-Calcisol

Region: Al Chibayish/ Area: Al Chibayish villageIM 8 IM 8.1` 0-1 Azk Saline calcareous Calic Haplosalid Vertic-Calcic Solonchak (Aridic)Region: Al Chibayish/ Area: Al Chibayish villageIM 9 IM 9.1 0-15 Ck IM 9.2 15-40 Cke IM 9.3 40-70 2Bgkya

Anthropogenic dredgic soil

Arent Plaggic Anthrosol

Region: Al Chibayish / Area: Al Chibayish villageIM 10 IM 10.1 0-15 Ck Anthropogenic Arent Plaggic Anthrosol Region: Al Chibayish / Area: Al Chibayish villageIM 11 IM 11.1 0-15 Am IM 11.2 15-20 Oe IM 11.3 20-50 Btgk

Anthropogenic Fusic (burned) soil

Sodic Haplocalcid Hypercalcic-Calcisol

Region: Al Chibayish / Area: Al Chibayish villageIM 12 IM 12.1 0-10 Oeg IM 12.2 10-25 Oekg IM 12.3 25-50 Bgk IM 12.4 300-350 2Bgk

Calcic Grey soil Sodic Haplocalcid Hypercalcic-Calcisol


Table 1 (continued) Soil profile location and classification of soils in different soil classification systems

SITE Sample number

Depth

(cm) Horizon

Marshlands Soil Key

(from Table 4)

Soil Taxonomy Soil Survey Staff (1999)

World Soil Reference Base (WRG) FAO (1998)

Region: Al Kahla / Area: Taruba IM 14 IM 14.1 0-5 Ap IM 14.2 5-25 Bgky1 IM 14.3 25-50 Bgky2 IM 14.4 50-80 Bgky3

Gypsic grey soil Typic Natrigypsid or Typic Calcigypsid

Calcic Gypsisol (Sodic)

Region: Al Kahla / Area: Taruba IM 15 IM 15.1 0-20 C

Anthropogenic garbic soil

Arent Plaggic Anthrosol

Region: Al Kahla / Area: Taruba IM 16 IM 16.1 0-1a A 0-1b A 0-5 Ak IM 16.2 5-25 Bkgy1 IM 16.3 25-50 Bkyg2 IM 16.4 50-72 2Wg

Gypsic grey soil Typic Natrigypsid Calcic Gypsisol (Sodic)

Region: Al Kahla / Area: Taruba IM 18 IM 18.1a 0-20 Am IM 18.1b 0-20 Am IM 18.1c 0-20 Am IM 18.2 20-50 Oe IM 18.3 50-100 Btg IM 18.4 100-300 2Bg

Anthropogenic Fusic (burned) soil

Sodic Haplocalcid Hypercalcic-Calcisol

Region: Al Kahla / Area: Taruba IM 19 IM 19.1 0-10 Oi IM 19.2 10-25 2Bg

Wet sulfidic soil Thapto-Histic Sulfaquents Protothionic-Fibrohistic Fluvisol (Stagnic)

Region: Suq Al-Shiukh/ Area: Bani Asad villageIM 20 IM 20.1 0-15 Oi IM 20.2 15-20 2Bg

Wet sulfidic soil Thapto-Histic Sulfaquents Protothionic-Fibrohistic Fluvisol

Region: Suq Al-Shiukh/ Area: Bani Asad villageIM 21 IM 21.1 0-10 Oe IM 21.2 10-30 2Wg

Wet sulfidic soil Thapto-Histic Sulfaquents Protothionic-Fibrohistic Fluvisol

Region: Suq Al-Shiukh/ Area: Bani Asad villageIM 22 IM 22.1 10-30 Cg Anthropogenic Arent Plaggic Anthrosol Region: Suq Al-Shiukh/ Area: Bani Asad villageIM 23 IM 23.1 0-5 Az


Calic Aquisalid Gleyic-Calcic Solonchak (Aridic).

Region: Al Kahla / Area: Taruba IM 24 IM 24.1 0-2 Az


Calic Aquisalid Gleyic-Calcic Solonchak (Aridic).


Table 2: Mineralogical composition of soils from XRD analysis Sample No. Qz Ct Hl Alb Or Dt Gy Ka/Ch Mi Sm Arg Then Bl Eug Hm Mh Gt Anh Bas Jr Lt Ab Pk PyIM3.1 Salt T SD T T D SD T IM3.2 Salt T M D SD SD T IM4.1 Salt T M M T SD D M IM4.2 Salt M M M T D T IM6.1A Salt Brown

CD CD SD T T M T M M M T M

IM6.2B Salt White

CD CD CD M T M T T T M T T

IM18.1A CD CD M T T T T M SD T IM18.1B Red

T M M SD D M T T

IM18.1C Yellow

T M M M SD D T T

IM18.4A SD D T T M T T T M IM23 Salt M CD M T T T CD SD T IM1.1 M SD D T M M T M M T IM1.2 SD D T T T M M T T M T IM1.3 SD D M T T M T T T M T IM1.4 SD D M M T M M T T M T IM1.5 CD CD M M T M T T M M T IM1.6 SD D M M T M M T M M T T IM1.7 SD D T M T M M T M M T IM1.8 SD D T M T M M T M M T IM1.9 CD CD T M T M M T M M T T IM2.1 SD D M T M T T T M T T IM2.2 SD D M T M T T M M T T IM2.3 SD D M T M T T M M T IM2.4 SD D T T M M T T M T IM2.5 SD D T T M M T M M T IM3.1 T M D T T T SD SD T IM3.2 M T D T T M SD T IM3.3 CD SD CD T T M M T T T T T IM4.1 M D T T T T M SD M IM4.2 T M M T T T D T IM4.3 SD D M T T T M T T M T T T IM4.4 SD D T T T M T T M T IM4.5 SD D T T M M T M M T IM4.6 SD D T T T T T M M T IM4.7 SD D T T M M T M M T IM5.1 CD CD M T T T T M M T IM5.2 CD CD M T T T T M M T T IM5.3 CD CD M T T M T M M T TIM5.4 SD D M T T M T M M T T TIM5.5 M D M T T T T T M T TIM5.6 M D M T T M T M M T IM5.7 CD CD M T M M T M M T T IM6.1 CD CD CD M T M M T T T T IM6.2 D SD T M T T M T T M T T IM6.3 CD CD T M T M T T M M T Where: Quartz = Qz, Calcite = Ct, Halite = Hl, Albite= Alb, Orthoclase = Or, Dolomite= Dt, Gypsum Gy, Kaolin =

Ka and/or Chlorite = Ch, Mica = Mi, Smectite St, Aragonite = Arg, Thenardite = Then, Blodite = Bl, Eugsterite = Eug, Hematite = Hm, Maghemite = Mh, Goethite = Gt, Anhydrite = Anh, Bassanite = Bas, Jarosite = Jr, Lepidocrocite = Lt, Amphibole = Ab, Palygorskite = Pk, Pyrite = Py.�


Table 2 – Continued Mineralogical composition of soils from XRD analysis Sample No Qz Ct Hl Alb Or Dt Gy Ka/Ch Mi Sm Arg Then Bl Eug Hm Mh Gt Anh Bas Jr Lt Ab Pk PyIM7.1 CD CD T T T T T T M T IM7.2 CD CD M T M T T T M T IM7.3 CD CD M T M T T T M T IM7.4 SD D M T T T T T M T IM7.5 SD D M T M T T T T IM9.1 D SD M T M T T M IM9.2 CD CD M T T T T M T IM9.3 CD CD M T M T T T M T IM10.1 CD CD M T M T T M M IM11.1 D SD M T T M M T IM11.2 CD CD M T M T T M M T IM11.3 CD CD M T M T T T M T IM12.1 CD CD M T M T T T M IM12.2 D SD M T M T T T M T IM12.3 CD CD M T M T T T M T IM12.4 CD CD T M T M T T T M T IM14.1 M D T T T T T T T T IM14.2 M D T T T T T T T IM14.3 CD CD T T M M T T M T IM14.4 SD D T T M M T T M T IM15.1 D SD T M T M T T T M T T IM16.1 SD D M T T M T T M T IM16.2 M D T T T T T T T T T IM16.3 M D T T T T T T T M T IM16.4 SD D T T T M T T M T IM18.1 D SD T T T T T M M M T IM18.2 D M M T M T T T M T T IM18.3 CD CD T T M T T T M T IM18.4 SD D T T M T T T M IM19.1 CD CD T T M T T M T IM20.1 M D T T T T T T M T T IM21.1 SD D T T T T T M T T IM22.1 CD CD T T T T T T M T T Where: Quartz = Qz, Calcite = Ct, Halite = Hl, Albite= Alb, Orthoclase = Or, Dolomite= Dt, Gypsum Gy, Kaolin =

Ka and/or Chlorite = Ch, Mica = Mi, Smectite St, Aragonite = Arg, Thenardite = Then, Blodite = Bl, Eugsterite = Eug, Hematite = Hm, Maghemite = Mh, Goethite = Gt, Anhydrite = Anh, Bassanite = Bas, Jarosite = Jr, Lepidocrocite = Lt, Amphibole = Ab, Palygorskite = Pk, Pyrite = Py.�


4 Evolution and environmental change in marshland soil-water landscapes – from 3000 BC to 2003 AD (present)

The following discussion builds up a picture of how different patterns and periods of additions, losses, transformations and translocations of material have, over many thousands of years, created the distinctive soil types and landscapes in the marshlands today. Understanding why a particular soil occurs at a location in the marshland requires:

• a broad appreciation and insight into the extraordinary environmental history of the marshlands over the last 5000 years.

• a detailed study and syntheses of the morphological, chemical, biogeochemical and mineralogical soil data collected at selected paired sites (section 3), together with an understanding of how geomorphology, hydrology, ecology and human intervention/ impact has operated.

The following is a thumbnail sketch that describes seven major phases in the environmental history of the marshland, which shaped the contemporary soil pattern. Each phase describes the mechanisms of additions, removals, transformations and translocations of soil materials. These mechanisms are conceptualized in a generalized predictive soil-water-landscape process model (Figure 6), which consists of a set of seven cross-sections representing phases from 3000 BC to 2003 AD (present). The model essentially provides a set of seven reference points for understanding soil development and landscape evolution across most of the marshland.

This generalized soil-water-landscape process model is a simplification or abstraction of seven major mechanisms operating during successive evolutionary and environmental changes in the soil and water characteristics of the natural, disturbed (dredged), drained and re-flooded marshlands. The mechanisms illustrating the specific soil-water processes in figure 6 are represented in seven successive cross-sections so that each mechanism can be conceptualized. It essentially provides a context for understanding the large impacts, which humans have had on the southern Mesopotamian Marshlands. These impacts have caused major successive evolutionary and environmental changes in the soil and water characteristics of the natural, disturbed, drained, burnt and re-flooded marshlands – resulting in the formation of the following range of soils:

o Sulfidic soils (phases 1 and 7),

o Anthropogenic soils (phases 2 and 6),

o Saline, Sodic, Gypsic and Calcic soils (phases 3 and 4),

o Burnt soils (phase 5)

o Reflooded soils (phase 7).

The soil forming processes described in the model operate in combinations at various rates, which can often be over very long periods of time (thousands of years – phase 1 and 2) or remarkably short periods (e.g. weeks/months caused drainage or flooding or days caused by burning – phases 3 to 7). Consequently, rates depend on both a soil’s age and its environmental condition.


*

Figure 6: Chronological evolution model of soil-water-landscape changes in the southern Mesopotamian Marshlands from 3000 BC to 2003 AD (present). The model consists of a set of seven phases in the form of schematic cross-sections, which represent major mechanisms operating during successive evolutionary and environmental changes in the soil and water characteristics of the natural, drained, burnt and re-flooded marshlands to form the following range of soils: Sulfidic soils (phases 1 and 7), Anthropogenic soils (phases 2 and 6), Saline, Sodic, Gypsic and Calcic soils (phases 3 and 4), Burnt soils (phase 5) and Reflooded soils (phase 7). The range of soil forming processes operate in combinations at various rates from thousands of years (phase 1 and 2) to short periods such as weeks/months caused by drainage/flooding or days caused by burning (phases 3 to 7). Within the floodplain alluvium, depositional facies are present but are not shown for the sake of clarity. Photographs depict at finer scales specific soil, water and topographic features.


4.1 Phase 1: Natural Marshland – Development of Sulfidic materials

Figure 7: Phase 1 - Initial formation of marshlands with reeds and shallow waterways (>3000 BC yrs) with sulfidic sediments. Cross-section of natural marshland features indicating development of submerged sediments and soils containing “sulfidic materials” and some “monosulfidic black ooze” with intense reducing conditions (i.e. low redox potential or Eh values to -345 mV), which deoxygenates soils and water. Within the floodplain alluvium depositional facies are present but are not shown for the sake of clarity.

Prior to 3000 BC soil profiles and marshland sediments formed by successive additions, mostly of clay and silt, to form sedimentary layers. Anaerobic conditions developed when these sedimentary layers were inundated or saturated, especially in the reedy marshland banks that were frequently flooded (Figure 7). Beneath the marshes and wetlands, large amounts of organic matter accumulated from decaying vegetation (mostly reeds). Decomposition of the organic matter occurred because of the abundance of different types of micro-organisms. Wet conditions resulted in a paucity of soil fauna to help break down organic matter. As a result, organic matter accumulated and marshlands developed with high amounts of organic materials. Soils and sediments formed under these waterlogged or strongly reducing conditions have an accumulation of iron sulfides (pyrite FeS2 usually in form of pyrite framboids: Figure 8), and contain a lot of sulfidic material. The latter is perfectly safe if left undisturbed as the oxidation of the pyrite, and consequently, acidification, is suppressed because these saturated soils have a pH near neutral to alkaline (Table A3.1; IM 19). These soils also have low levels of salinity and sodicity (A3.1, A3.2; IM 19). These sulfidic sediments form in floodplain alluvium, where large amounts of organic matter accumulate (e.g. 4.6 % organic carbon; Table A3.1) from decaying vegetation (mostly from reeds) usually with abundant diatoms (Figure 9) and iron precipitation in organic filaments (Figure 10).

Figure 8: Scanning electron micrographs of large framboids of pyrite in close association with organic filaments, fungal spores – with electron-opaque organic coatings. Imaging was performed using Secondary Electron (SE) Backscattered Electron (BSE) modes.


Figure 9: Scanning electron micrographs of diatoms and framboids of pyrite in close association with organic filaments and fungal spores. Imaging was performed using Secondary Electron (SE) and Backscattered Electron (BSE) modes.

Figure 10: Scanning electron micrographs of iron precipitation in organic filaments and precipitation of barite. Imaging was performed using Secondary Electron (SE) and Backscattered Electron (BSE) modes. Submerged soils and sediments in the marshlands contain widespread accumulations of pyrite (FeS2) and monosulfides (FeS) and conditions for their formation are ubiquitous because there is sufficient sulfate, iron and carbon available. A limiting factor may be availability of labile carbon, because significant accumulation will occur only when marshland conditions are maintained for periods of years. Drying will enhance oxidisation of sulfides. However, acidification does not appear to be a major risk because these marshlands with high sulfide contents also have high acid neutralizing capacities because of the high calcium carbonate concentrations in the sediments (Table A3.3; >20% for most unburnt sediments). Overall, these findings have significant implications for management of the marshland salinity and sodicity and recommendations have been made for future studies (section 6). Diatom abundances in these sediments and soils are high and there appears to be a diversity of species making the future study of diatoms extremely important because of the range of range of brackish water and freshwater species, which are likely to be present.


4.2 Phase 2: Modified effects caused by marsh dwellers (3000 BC - 1980 AD)

Figure 11: Phase 2 - Marsh dwellers have profoundly modified the marshlands between 5000 BC and 1980 AD through: (i) constructing islands by dredging, mounding and mixing of saline clay-rich sediments and organic materials, (ii) building substantial reed houses and (iii) introducing water buffalo - to form Anthropogenic soils.

Landscapes and soils were profoundly modified by marsh dwellers between 3000 BC and 1980 AD as a result of sediment dredging and mounding to develop small islands on which to build reed houses and farm water buffalo (Figure 11). Marsh dweller villages were often built on the water – with a household for every group of islands. Over time, these islands were reinforced and gradually built up with reeds and mud. Canoes are the main form of transportation (Figure 11). Processes included: (i) excavation and mixing of the original sedimentary clay and silt layers and (ii) additions of plant and animal litter – resulting in formation of Anthropogenic soils. The higher amounts of organic carbon (Table A3.1) and the higher concentrations of P and N (Table A3.1; A3.5) in the Anthropogenic soils (Appendix 2) indicate the progressive additions of primarily organic materials over long periods of time by human activity.

4.3 Phase 3: Drained – (1980s and 1990s)

Figure 12: Phase 3 – Massive drainage works implemented between the 1980s and 1990’s has caused water to drain away from the landscape and leach salts from soils on ridges and concentrate salty water in the lower parts of the drained marshlands - resulting in highly saline soils. The marsh dwellers now live alongside the many engineered drains and canals constructed since the 1980’s to drain the marshes.

Draining of the marshlands is mainly caused by drainage schemes in Iraq but also by damming upstream since the 1970s. The Tigris and the Euphrates are amongst the most intensively dammed rivers in the world. In the past 40 years, the two rivers have been fragmented by the construction of more than 30 large dams, whose storage capacity is several times greater than the volume of both rivers. By turning off the tap, dams have substantially reduced the water available for downstream ecosystems and eliminated the floodwaters that nourished the marshlands. However, the major cause of marshland drainage has been the massive drainage works implemented in southern Iraq in the early 1990s, following the second Gulf War (Figures 1, 2, 3, 4 and 12). Although


some of these engineering works were meant to deal with substantial salinisation in the inter-fluvial region, historically Mesopotamia's main environmental problem, they were expanded into a full-fledged scheme to drain the marshlands. Recent satellite images provide clear evidence that the once extensive marshlands have dried-up and regressed into desert, with vast stretches salt encrusted soils (Figure 12). Furthermore, satellite imagery shows only a limited area of the marshlands having been reclaimed for agricultural purposes.

As the water drains away from the landscape, more salt is leached from the soil on the ridges and salty water collects in the lower parts of the drained marshlands (Figure 12). Finally, in the low lying areas, as the water progressively evaporates, various types of sulfate-rich brine and evaporite minerals are formed as precipitates in the resulting highly saline soils. These soils are affected by sodium, magnesium, chloride and sulfate in ground and surface waters, which aggravate drought stress because the dissolved electrolytes create an “osmotic potential” that affects water uptake by plants. Vegetation is sparse therefore in these salt-affected lands.

4.4 Phase 4: Formation of salt-affected soils

Figure 13: Phase 4: The following range of salt-affected soils form as the drained marshland sediments desiccate under high evapotranspiration rates coupled with low effective precipitation: (i) highly saline soils develop in depressions with accumulations of evaporite salts containing mainly sulfate minerals (ii) Calcic, Gypsic and Sodic soils develop on crests where some leaching of salts may occur. Note the occurrence of dead dried reeds.

Movement and accumulation of soluble salts is typical of drained marshlands but, the salt crusts in the marshlands of Iraq (Figures 14 to 16) contain an assemblage of previously unrecorded types of sulfate-containing evaporite minerals (as detected by x-ray diffraction and Scanning Electron Microscopy; Figures 17 to 18; Appendix 6 and 7). These salt evaporite deposits mainly consist of salts with bloedite (Na2Mg(SO4)2_4H2O), thenardite (Na2SO4), eugsterite (Na4Ca(SO4)3.2H2O), gypsum (CaSO4.H2O), barite (BaSO4), halite (NaCl) and glauberite (Na2Ca(SO4)2). Chemical analyses of these saline soils indicate high concentrations of sulfate and magnesium ions with relatively low bicarbonate and chloride concentrations (Table A3.5). This is caused by the unique geochemistry of the region because the marshlands were built-up with sediments from that originally came from sedimentary rocks in the mountains of the north, transported by the Tigris and Euphrates.

Sulfides produced in bottom sediments of the natural marshland (phase 1, Figure 7), but which are now within the soil surface, react with the oxygen in the air to form sulfuric acid. The acid either drains into waterways, or reacts with carbonates and clay minerals in soils and sediments to form sulfates – liberating dissolved iron, calcium, magnesium and other elements such as copper. The components (Na, Ca, Mg, Cl and SO4) of the evaporite minerals were derived by leaching of oxidized iron sulfides and then


precipitated as specific minerals (eugsterite, thenardite, bloedite and gypsum) at various stages during the drying/ evaporation of the drained marshland (Figures 14 to 16).

The predominance of sulfate evaporate minerals in the Marshlands is also largely due to the chemistry of the inflowing river water. These salts accumulate steadily in the lower parts of the drained marshland because of limited lateral movement of water to carry them away in the drains. An ordered sequence of minerals appears as evaporation of the brine progresses. For example, thenardite and eugsterite crystallise on older halite crystals at a more recent stage and consist of “loosely stacked crystals” and are largely unaltered. The halite constitutes a first stage with higher salinity (Na and Cl) than those of later stages, which consecutively consisted of bloedite (high Mg) and then eugsterite (high Ca)- thenardite formation (Figures 17 to 20).

These recently accumulated sulfate-containing salt crusts or efflorescences indicate unique soil and hydrological conditions and provide important information for designing management strategies for reclaiming such areas. The shallow drainage water contains sodium, calcium, magnesium, chloride and most importantly sulfate ions (Appendix 2). The data we have gained indicates that these salts are seasonal pedogenic products. Most of the salts result from the evaporation of the saline sulfatic drainage water. More work should be undertaken to confirm seasonal changes in mineralogical composition (Section 6). Similar observations have been made of salt efflorescences in the Great Konya Basin, Turkey by Driesen and Schrool (1973) who also identified halite with gypsum and other sulphate minerals (e.g. thenardite). Gumuzzio et al. (1982) have identified mixtures of thenardite and mirabilite in salt efflorescences of Spanish soils (i.e. in winter rainfall areas). They reported that the mineralogical composition varied with the winter type being characterised by mirabilite-thenardite-epsomite and a summer type constituted thenardite-bloedite.

During reflooding (Phase 7) these highly soluble minerals play important roles in the transient storage of components (Na, Ca, Mg, Cl and SO4), which dissolve to form toxic saline mono-sulfide black ooze around islands. Soils progressively affected by sodium, magnesium, chloride and sulfate from ground and surface waters aggravate drought stress because dissolved electrolytes create an “osmotic potential” that affects water uptake by plants.

Figure 14: Abandoned saline and sodic field near Um Sbeta village (site IM 4) being inspected by Mr. Mohamed Malik Yassen PhD student at University of Basra. Marsh dwellers continue to try to farm this area.


Figure 15: Abandoned saline and sodic field near Shakhra village (site IM 1) being inspected by Prof Abdul Jabbar Hassan, University of Basra. Marsh dwellers have tried farming this area and now want to re-flood it.

Figure 16: Abandoned saline and sodic area within a small village adjacent to the bund wall of the Prosperity River (site IM 3) being inspected by Prof Abdul Jabbar Hassan and Prof. Dakhil Radi Al-Nedawi of University of Basra. Marsh dwellers have discontinued farming this area.

Figure 17. Scanning electron photomicrographs of large halite (NaCl) crystals with thin laths of eugsterite (Na4Ca(SO4)3.2H2O) and clumps of thenardite (Na2SO4).


Figure 18. Scanning electron photomicrographs of elongated eugsterite crystals with clumps of thenardite, Gypsum (CaSO4.H2O) and barite (BaSO4).

Figure 19: Scanning electron photomicrographs of elongated eugsterite crystals with clumps of thenardite, gypsum (CaSO4.H2O) and barite (BaSO4) and diatoms.

Figure 20: Scanning electron photomicrograph of mainly subhedral crystals of bloedite (Na2Mg(SO4)2.4H2O) with varying amounts of inclusions of thenardite occurring between the bloedite crystals. Bloedite crystals also contain needles of eugsterite and glauberite on some parts of their surface.


Sodic soils Sodic soils (easily dispersive with a high proportion of adsorbed Na and/or Mg ions) form on the ridges where the soluble salts have been leached from the soil. These soils are highly dispersive when in contact with low salinity water (e.g. rainwater or Tigris River water) and most of these soils also have pronounced shrink-swell characteristics (see photograph in Table 5). Soils progressively affected by sodicity in the root zone have restricted permeability, especially within the sodic sub-soil layers.

Gypsic soils Gypsic soils (soils with substantial accumulation of gypsum) with loamy topsoil textures, slakes easily and dries to a finely platy crust that hinders water infiltration. The high gypsum content of gypsiferous soils upset the balance between nutrients and lower the availability of essential plant nutrients (P, K and Mg).

Calcic soils Calcic soils (soils with substantial accumulation of lime) develop in landscapes where solutes containing predominantly Ca carbonate accumulate because the surfaces drain well. Because of their good drainage properties, even in wet positions (depressions and seepage areas), these soils can subsequently develop highly saline subsoil horizons (salic horizon). The wet soils at the saline pond edges are subject to high evapotranspiration stresses because the water is near the surface and evaporation at the surface increases the matric tention and lifts more water to the surface. As the water is evaporated, calcite increases creating a Bk horizon. Slaking and crust formation hinders water infiltration, especially where surface soils are silty.

4.5 Phase 5: Burned

Figure 21: Phase 5: High temperature burning (>500 degrees centigrade) of the dried marshland soils have irreversibly destroyed the original soil components (e.g. organic matter, iron pyrite, layer silicates) and formed high concentrations of magnetic cemented / ceramic-like gravel (>60%) in the upper 1-50 cm. These fragments have important implications for chemical and physical processes in these soils because they increase permeability and provide a physical restriction to the root growth of sensitive plants. Note: Losses of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide by volatilization.

When the landscape had completely dried out, the dry vegetation and peaty materials were burned (Figure 21). The dried reeds would often be up to 2 to 3 meters high when the burning occurred. With such a tremendous fuel load, the fires would cause temperatures to exceed 300 degrees centigrade (i.e. as though in a kiln or oven). Topsoil between 15 and 50 cm transformed irreversibly into ceramic bricks or hard cemented (fused) ceramic-like porous fragments. Pyrite (FeS2) has been converted to the iron oxide maghemite (Fe2O3) releasing sulfur dioxide gas, but retaining the same


pyrite framboid shape (Figure 24). Conditions for maghemite formation were ideal because the pyrite ‘framboids’ were completely coated in organic matter (see Figures 8 to 10) and heated to above 300 degrees centigrade in a carbon dioxide reducing atmosphere.

The effect of Anthropogenic burning on drained marshland soils is dramatic because it resulted in the formation of abundant, irreversibly fused, particulate and discrete artifacts over a vast area (20 000 km2). This has lent support to the official proposal to the International Committee on Anthropogenic Soils (ICOMANTH) to modify previously established definitions of: (i) terms for Anthropogenic Soils (Human-altered and transported soils) and (ii) new types of particulate (< 2mm) and discrete artifacts (>2mm fragments). One of the areas of work that has received less attention is the alteration of saline and sulfidic soils provoked by devastating high severity reed wildfires in an arid climates.

Figure 22: Intense marsh burning and blazes have fired the dried soil and transformed it into a hard ceramic crust (site IM 11).

Figure 23: Intense marsh burning and blazes have fired the dried soil and transformed it into a hard ceramic crust (site IM 18). Abandoned area being inspected by Prof Abdul Jabbar Hassan, University of Basra.

The severely burned locations at each site were indicated by reddened surface soils, loss of organic matter, and sometimes white to gray ash on top of the soil (IM 11 and IM 18 Appendix 2, Table 1; Figures 22 and 23). The reddened surface soil layer ranged in thickness from 1 to 80 cm and was underlain by a blackened soil layer 1 to 15 cm thick (Figure 23). Three separate sets of severely burned samples (including ash, reddened ceramic material, blackened charcoal layer and underlying unburned layer) were


collected from each site. Table 3 refers to the burned soil layers as "reddened" or "blackened" and gives the range of depths at which they were sampled at each site. Mass magnetic susceptibility was measured on the whole soil samples (Table 3). Full method details are given in Appendix 4. The highest mass magnetic susceptibility readings (χm = 2000 10-8 m-3 kg); were recorded for surface layer (Table 3; and figure 24). The blackened soil layers underlying the reddened layers showed little or no mineralogical alterations because they apparently were not subjected to the same intense temperatures found closer to the surface.

Table 3: Mass magnetic susceptibility results for profile IM 18

Average depth (cm) *Mass Magnetic

susceptibility Freq. Dep%

Clay %

(From table A3.3)

10 - Reddened ceramic materials 2000 >12 7

35 - Blackened charcoal layer 180 >13 30

75 - Underlying unburned layer 3 >12 42

150 - Underlying unburned layer 2 >10 21

*Mass magnetic susceptibility (χm) 10-8 m-3 kg (low frequency)

Profile depth versus magnetic susceptibility

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

0 500 1000 1500 2000

Magnetic Susceptibilty (χ)

Dep

th (c

m)

Figure 24: Mass magnetic susceptibility results for profile IM 18

Biomass burning has had a profound effect on the functioning of these soils. Both the direct effects of fire and also the overall changes to the ecosystem in a post-fire situation has lead to short-, medium- and long-term changes in the soil. These relate to soil functioning in the physical, biological and chemical sense and also include changes to aggregate stability, pore size distribution, water repellency and runoff response (see Figure 28 below – showing evidence of water ponding); alteration in mineralization rates, biomass production, species composition and carbon sequestration; and changes in C:N ratios, pH and nutrient availability (Table A3.1 to A3.5).


Figure 25: Scanning electron photomicrographs of globular clusters of maghemite crystals in burnt marsh soil, which has formed by the process of burning in a carbon dioxide reducing atmosphere.

4.6 Phase 6: Levelled for farming

Figure 26: Phase 6: Local marsh dwellers have knocked over the burned petrified ridges and micro-valleys (see Figures 22 and 23) and developed “near-level undulating” fields, which have been ploughed to incorporate the burnt ceramic fragments into the soil.

Local marsh dwellers have attempted to knock over the burned petrified ridges and micro-valleys to develop level fields and plough the gravely fragments back into the earth (Figure 26). However, these burnt soils are not suitable for growing crops because there is a reduction in their water storage capacity and a loss of organic matter and clay matrix caused by high temperature transformation to ceramic-like fragments. The high concentration of cemented ceramic-like ironstone fragments (more than 60 per cent) appears to restrict plant root growth and increases permeability (increased nutrients leaching). As well, it appears that the reductions in the permeability of deeper clay-rich layers, caused by compaction during the smoothing of the land surface, may cause waterlogging and increased soil salinity.


Figure 27: Abandoned saline field with very high concentrations of cemented ceramic-like ironstone fragments (more than 60 per cent) being inspected by Prof Abdul Jabbar Hassan, University of Basra. Marsh dwellers have abandoned farming this area and now want to re-flood it.

Figure 28: Abandoned waterlogged and saline field with high concentrations of cemented ceramic-like ironstone fragments (more than 60 per cent). Marsh dwellers have abandoned farming this area and now want to re-flood it.


4.7 Phase 7: Reflooding – (2003)

Figure 29: Reflooding of dried and burnt marshlands to form sulfidic-rich soils with monosulfidic black ooze and waters with high concentrations of dissolved organic carbon and iron.

In 2003 the displaced marsh dwellers breached embankments and dykes, especially along the Euphrates river and reflooded parts of the marshlands, including around previously destroyed houses (Figure 3 destroyed houses and palm trees). The reflooding and ponding of water submerged the burned saline soils and associated burned reeds (Figure 29). Soil inundation resulted in the development of an anaerobic environment and also redoximorphic features, such as (i) waters with high dissolved organic carbon and iron (see photograph in Figure 29), (ii) reduced black soil matrix and redox concentrations (zones of Fe oxides and pyrite) (Figures 30 and 31). Intense reducing conditions (i.e. low redox potential or Eh values to -345 mV) develop in lower lying soils covered by the reed mulch surrounding new dwellings on islands when reflooded. These submerged soils contain toxic saline ‘mono-sulfidic black ooze’ (i.e. mono sulfide minerals: Figure 32) and occur adjacent (10 to 20 m) to reflooded waterways (Figure 30).

In such poorly drained areas on islands adjacent to dwellings, the readily available carbon, sulfur, nutrients and floodwaters lead to anaerobic conditions and precipitated sulfides (black layer – sulfidic material) (Figures 31 and 32). The monosulfidic black ooze deoxygenates water and suffocates aquatic plants and animals. Such anaerobic conditions are strongly conducive to inhibiting and damaging root growth because when these areas are dried out, the sulfides in turn oxidise to produce sulfuric acid further damaging root growth. The intense reducing conditions (i.e. low redox potential or Eh values to -345 mV) could be the result of increased nutrient loads (eutrophic conditions) and of the high concentration of detritus sapric material remaining from the organic matter in the drained marshland soils. This finely divided soil organic matter remaining from the drained marshland soils decomposes quickly. These soil processes and materials must be better understood if effective approaches to management are to be developed.


Figure 30: Saline ‘mono-sulfidic black ooze’ being sampled from submerged soils in the re-flooded Al Hammar Marshes near Bani Asad village by Rob Fitzpatrick. Blue-green algae is evident in the background. Photograph by Dr Jane Gleason.

Figure 31: Dr Rob Fitzpatrick samples saline ‘mono-sulfidic black ooze’ in soils on an island adjacent (10 metres) to a marsh dwellers house in the re-flooded Al Hammar Marshes (Bani Asad village). Photograph by Dr Jane Gleason.

Figure 32: Scanning electron photomicrographs of framboidal pyrite with adhering root remnants and fungal spores amongst other monosulfide minerals and barite.


5 Soil Indicators and Best Management Practices to assist in land use planning

The submerged sulfidic soils and sediments of the Mesopotamian marshlands now occupy a relatively small area, because 90% of original 20 000 square kilometres had been lost due to drainage, but it has a unique combination of landforms, geomorphology and climate to give a unique range of soils. When these soils were drained, burned and re-flooded an equally unique range of soils has developed, as indicated in section 4. As a result research personnel have only recently come to grips with a completely different array of soils.

This section is designed to assist in the identification of these new categories of soils at any point of inspection and allocate a suitability assessment. Section 5.2 provides a key to identify these unique soils. Section 5.3 lists the major limitations for seven representative soil sub-categories and outlines the suitability procedure utilizing the criteria adopted for the marshlands. While every effort has been made to avoid the use of pedological jargon some technical terminology cannot be avoided. The glossary and section 5.2.1 below contains a definition of terms, which are highlighted in the text using bold. An attempt has been made to use as much plain language as possible and to keep the definitions as simple as possible.

5.1 Farming Degraded soils in the Drained Marshlands

There are several Best Management Practices (BMPs) and conservation practices to consider when planning and implementing a Management Plan. This section contains some suggested practices, though many other practices may exist. The practices identified in this section represent those, which this author believes may be the most practical when planning to rehabilitate salt-affected and sulfidic soils in the drained marshlands.

The farmers cultivating the dried marshes, like their counterparts living on the edge of the marshlands face the same constraints as most farmers in Iraq. There is a lack of soil information to help identify and quantify soil constrains inputs, especially fertilizer, transportation is difficult, and they receive little or no extension advice. However, the circumstances resulting from the drying of the marshes and formation of highly degraded and unproductive soils, present other more difficult challenges to the marsh dwellers, challenges, which are perhaps serious enough to warrant special assistance programs. The distinctive challenges facing the marsh dwellers now turned farmers are lack of experience in farming. For millennia, the marsh dwellers lived off limited and seasonal agriculture livestock tending, and fishing in the marshes. They had limited experience with farming grain crops or pastures. The events of the past two decades forced them to dispense with most economic activities they did as marsh dwellers in favour of cultivating crops as their maim source of income. Now they are moving into a new form of agriculture - growing for the market (Dr Jane Gleason – personal communication). They are making this change without any training or help from the Ministry of Agriculture or other agencies.

As indicated in section 3, there are significant and growing problems of salinisation of soil and water in the dried marshes. Further, little is known about the physicochemical changes in these saline/sulfidic soils when drained, such as when these soils desiccate,


burn, and are subsequently sown to annual crops and pastures (wheat and barley). Lack of knowledge about these soils makes it difficult to provide good advice on crop selection, site selection or level and type of input.

Understanding the distribution, evolution, nature and interrelationships of the soils (and sediments) is vital for effective planning of agricultural management and selection of appropriate remediation options. Data has indicated that seven conceptual soil-water models could be constructed, which summarize the physico-chemical processes involved in soil changes that lead to these different soil types (and poor water quality because of mobilised salts and soil particles) when the marshlands are drained or otherwise disturbed. Certain soil types are prone to pugging where animals graze waterlogged soils and erosion may also develop. Intense reducing conditions (i.e. low redox potential or Eh values to -345 mV) were measured in sulfidic materials in potential acid sulfate soils on islands that were recently reflooded. This could be the result of increased nutrient loads (eutrophic conditions) and of the high concentration of detritus sapric material remaining from the organic matter in the drained marshland soils. This finely divided soil organic matter decomposes fast. However, these soil processes and materials must be better understood if effective approaches to management are to be developed.

In many parts of the southern Iraqi marshlands, improving agricultural water use efficiency will lead to increased agricultural productivity and sustainability. Soil degradation (mostly salt affected soils) is often the primary limiting factor in the efficient use of the (often limited) water resource. Soil degradation and water resource depletion proceed at varying rates and occur at different scales. Thus, to assess water related limitations to agricultural production and the off-farm impacts of inefficient water use and quality we need effective tools such as predictive models and indicators of environmental sustainability for both farms and the regions in which they operate. For example, in some of these saline/sulfidic landscapes, knowledge of soil and water properties and how the underlying aquifer responds to changed land management can lead to remedial action, which can minimise or possibly reverse the spread of salinity. However, it is difficult to for any individual to become familiar and maintain familiarity with such an array of complex soils. Hence, a systematic soil identification key is designed to assist in the identification of soils at any point of inspection.

5.2 Soil identification key for natural and degraded marshland soils

A user-friendly soil key was developed to easily identify the various natural and degraded soils in the marshlands of southern Iraq by people who are not experts in soil classification. It is based on the comprehensive data set of soil properties acquired across the marshlands in February 2004 (Appendix 1-7) and soil-water-landscape models developed in section 4. The soil identification key is an important tool for delivering soil-specific land development and soil management packages to advisors, planners and marsh dwellers in the marshlands.

The soil key provides the means to describe marshland soils in terms of attributes meaningful to land and water quality degradation. It also correlates these attributes with two international soil classification systems, namely Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1999) and the World Soil Reference Base (FAO 1998) (see Table 1; and Appendix 2). The key essentially uses non-technical terms to categorise soils in terms of attributes that are important for charactering soil and water degradation (anthropogenic, wet, saline, gypsic, cracking clays, duplex, calcic, sodic, sulfidic). The soil features or indicators used in the key are easily recognised in the field by people with limited soil


classification experience. The following important and mostly visual diagnostic features were used: depth to certain characteristic changes in wetness (waterlogging), consistency, colour, structure, salinity, gypsum occurrence, calcareousness, cracking, texture trends down profiles (e.g. texture contrast at A/B horizon boundary or duplex character).

The key layout is bifurcating, being based on the presence or absence of particular soil profile features. It consists of a systematic arrangement of soils into the following 7 broad soil categories and 15 soil sub-categories and can be used as practical vehicle for delivering soil-specific land development and soil management options to advisors, planners and marsh dwellers in the marshlands:

o Anthropogenic soils (dredgic, fusic/burned, garbic);

o Wet Soils (sulfidic, redoxic);

o Saline soils (gypseous and calcareous);

o Gypsic soils (brown and grey);

o Cracking Clays (brown and grey);

o Duplex soils (sodic/restrictive and non-restrictive)

o Calcic soils (brown and grey).


Table 4: Key for identifying categories and sub-categories of natural submerged, disturbed, drained, burned and reflooded marshland soils in southern Iraq

Does the soil have one of the following diagnostic features?

Soil Category Sub-category

Dredgic Formed by dredging mineral and organic materials from marshlands.

1.1

Fusic (Burned) Formed by high temperature burning of soils following the draining and desiccation of marshlands containing reeds to form abundant (>20%), irreversibly fused, particulate and discrete artifacts (often coarse fragment size).

1.2

has soil resulted from human activities and has a minimum depth of burial of 0.3m?

YES? → → →→ → →

NO?↓

1. Anthropogenic soil

Garbic Formed from organic and mineral applications odomestic and industrial refuse.

1.3

Sulfidic Soils with sulfidic-like materials within the upper 1.5 m of the profile.

2.1has a water table within 50 cm of the surface for three months of the year. or grey subsoil layers that may have yellow and/or reddish mottles (gleyed).

YES? →→→→→→→→→→→

NO?↓

2.

Wet Soil

Redoxic

Soils with the major part of the profile is mottled.

2.2

Gypseous

Soils with more than 20% visible gypsum within the upper 0.5 m of the profile.

3.1is bare, salt-encrusted, often with a soft fluffy surface1, soil conductivity (ECse) is >16 dSM-1, may or may not have halophytic plants, water table conductivity ranges from 2–50 dSM-1

YES?→→→→→→→→→

NO?↓

3.

Saline soil 1thick white layer of crystals is visible when surface is dry (mostly sodium chloride) and thick cream salt crystals is visible when surface is moist (probably sulfate-rich salts gypsum and thenardite)

Calcareous

Soils with more than 10% visible calcium carbonate within the upper 0.5 m of the profile.

3.2

Brown Dominant colour class is brown

4.1has more than 20% visible gypsum within the upper 0.5 m of the profile.

YES?→ → → → → → →

NO? ↓

4.

Gypsic soil Grey Dominant colour class is grey

4.2


Continued - Table 4: Key for identifying categories and sub-categories of natural submerged, disturbed, drained, burned and reflooded marshland soils in southern Iraq

Does the soil have one of the following diagnostic features?

Soil Category Sub-category

Brown Dominant colour class is brown.

5.1is clayey to at least 50 cm, cracks on drying. and has slickensides within 50 cm.

YES?→ → → → → → → → →

NO? ↓

5.

Cracking Clay Grey Dominant colour class is grey

5.2

Sodic / Restrictive Sub-soil is hard and has a prismatic, columnar or coarse blocky structure and/or dull grey colours within 50 cm.

6.1has a sandy, loamy or clay loamy topsoil <80 cm thick abruptly (with sharp, abrupt or clear boundary) overlying a more clayey subsoil.

YES? →→→→→→→→→

NO? ↓

6.

Duplex soil

Non-restrictive Sub-soil does not have a prismatic, columnar or coarse blocky structure and/or dull grey colours within 50 cm.

6.2

Brown Dominant colour class is brown.

7.1is calcareous (> 10 % calcium carbonate) throughout or at least below 20 cm.

YES- → → → → → → → →

7. Calcic soil

Grey Dominant colour class is grey

7.2

5.2.1 Definitions of morphological and chemical indicators The following morphological indicators are used for assessing soil conditions: 1. Anthropogenic soil: soil formed from human activities and has a minimum depth of burial of 0.3m.

2. Wet soil: Presence of a ground water table: free water at a particular depth in the soil.

3. Colour: This is the most readily identified morphological characteristic. While the presence and form of iron oxides (red and yellow) and organic matter (dark colours) are the main features determining a soil's colour, it can also be influenced by other minerals such as calcium carbonate (pale colours). Colour is often used to identify horizon changes down a profile. It can also provide an indicator of the soil's organic matter content and fertility levels, as well as redox condition, which relates to soil aeration (drainage). Dark brown or black colours typically result from high organic matter content. High chroma red and yellow colours are usually found where iron minerals are present in oxidizing conditions. Properties influenced by coloured iron oxides include retention of anions such as phosphate. Uniform bright red colours usually indicate good drainage. Pale colours indicate the absence of iron oxide, often due to its removal through leaching or reduction. Mottles - spots, blotches, or streaks of colour subdominant to the matrix colour commonly indicate impeded drainage. Patches of red, orange or yellow in a pale matrix are concentrations of iron oxides formed by redistribution during periodic waterlogging.

4. Gley (bluish or greenish grey) colours (low chroma) are often found in severely waterlogged conditions where reduction is almost complete. Gleyed - a soil condition resulting from prolonged soil saturation, which is manifested by the presence of grey or bluish or greenish pigmentation through the soil mass or in mottles (spots or streaks). Gleying occurs under reducing conditions in which iron is reduced predominantly to the ferrous state.


5. Segregations: discrete accumulations of material by chemical or biological rocesses (e.g. carbonate, ironstone and gypsum).

6. Coarse fragments: comprise all strongly cemented or fused (from burning) soil materials, including rock fragments and hard segregations, which are sized greater than 2 mm. They are subdivided into fine gravels (2 to 6 mm), medium gravels (6 to 20 mm), coarse gravels (20 to 60 mm), cobbles (60 to 200 mm), stones (200 to 600 mm) and boulders (>600 mm). High amounts of coarse fragments in the soil may impose severe limitations on its capacity to supply water and nutrients by reducing volume of soil available for root activity. They can also have an adverse impact on soil workability, being highly abrasive to tillage implements. On the other hand, surface gravel may reduce erosion, act as a mulch to reduce evaporation from the soil, and store heat for re-radiation during the night.

7. Soil consistence - is a measure of the strength and coherence of a soil. Soil consistence is also called rupture resistance and is a very readily observed feature in the field. In viticulture, this morphological attribute gives an indication of potential for root impedance. Factors that influence consistence include soil texture, mechanical compaction, aggregation, organic matter content and cementing agents. Soil consistence can be very readily measured in the field by determining the magnitude of finger, foot or hammer force needed to cause disruption or distortion to a 25 to 30 mm block of soil. See simplified definitions and tables in Fitzpatrick et al (1999). The depth of likely root penetration in soils can be estimated in the field by measuring changes in soil consistence progressively down the soil profile from the soil surface (e.g. Tables 1 and 2 – in Fitzpatrick et al 1999). The very hard and rigid classes are often indicative of reduced permeability as well. Classes of consistence are defined in Table 2 in Fitzpatrick et al 1999. The table is also re-presented in the Glossary.

8. Soil texture - relative proportions of sand, silt and clay in the soil. Soil texture (field method) - is determined in the field by the following procedure: Take a sample of soil sufficient to fit comfortably into the palm of the hand (separate out gravel and stones). Moisten soil with water, a little at a time, and work until it just sticks to your fingers and is not mushy. This is when its water content is approximately at "field capacity". Continue moistening and working until there is no apparent change in the ball (bolus) of soil. This usually takes 1-2 minutes. Make a ribbon by progressively shearing the ball between thumb and forefinger. The behaviour of the worked soil and the length of the ribbon produced by pressing out between thumb and forefinger characterises 15 soil texture grades as shown in (McDonald et. al., 1990).

9. Texture Groups (according to Northcote, 1979): The Sands = sand (S), loamy sand (LS), clayey sand (CS). The Sandy Loams = sandy loam (SL). The Loams = Loam (L); sandy clay loam (SCL); Silty loam (ZL). The Clay Loams = Clay loam (CL). The Light Clays = light clay (LC). The Medium-Heavy Clays = Medium clay (MC), Heavy clay (HC).

10. "Duplex" texture: contrast in texture between the topsoil and subsoil that is greater than 1 ½ the Texture Groups defined under “Texture Groups” above, e.g.: Sand/clay Sand/sandy clay loam Loam/clay Loam/clay loam/medium or heavy clay.

11. Uniform texture: very little contrast in texture between layers in the profile, e.g.: Sand/sand/sand Clay loam/clay loam/clay loam Clay/clay/clay.

12. Gradational texture: steady increase in clay down the soil profile, e.g.: Sand/loamy sand/sandy loam Loam/clay loam/clay Clay loam/clay/medium clay.

13. Soil Structure - relates to the way soil particles are arranged and bound together. It can be described from the visible appearance of in-situ soil in a dry to slightly moist state. The size, shape


and nature of soil aggregates play a major role in determining profile hydrology and the ease of root penetration. Where soil particles are bound together in natural forming aggregates (peds) separated by irregular spaces, the soil is described as having structure. The degree and nature of structure development is largely determined by clay mineralogy and organic matter content. Where peds are absent, the soil is described as being uniform or structureless. In a single-grained material, the soil is loose and incoherent. In a massive material, it is structureless and coherent. Soils that are single-grained or have moderately to strongly developed small peds, tend to be well aerated and freely drained. Plant roots grow easily through these soils and water infiltrates readily. Where the soil is composed of accommodated (i.e. close-fitting) peds, there are often restrictions to penetration of roots, air and water, and drainage may be poor. Similar problems can be experienced in massive soils, depending on the soil texture and consistence.

14. Blocky, prismatic, columnar structure: distinct structural character with clear planes of weakness between each ped and with equi-dimensional, sharp angled, accommodating sides (blocky) or vertical dimensions greater than horizontal but with rounded tops (columnar) or flat tops (prismatic).

15. Well structured: consistence that is firm or weaker in moderately moist condition and does not have columnar, prismatic or course blocky structure but rather more spherical, non-accommodating peds.

16. Slickensides: Natural shiny surfaces found on soil aggregates formed by the parallel orientation of clay particles during swelling and shrinking cycles. Refers to polished or grooved surfaces within soils resulting from part of the mass sliding or moving against adjacent material along a plane that defines the extent of the slickensides. In soils, they only occur in clay rich materials with high swelling clay content.

17. Topsoil: the surface layer of the soil, generally but not always darkened by accumulation of organic matter.

18. Subsoil: the subsurface layer, lacking in organic matter and generally coloured by secondary accumulations of iron, clay, carbonate, etc.

19. Calcareous: reaction of the soil to a drop of hydrochloric or other acid (indicates the presence and possibly amount of free carbonate present).

20. Calcrete: hard, rigid limestone or carbonate-rich soil material.

21. Rippable vs. non-rippable rock: rock which can be ripped has potential for supporting some root growth. This characteristic is particularly important in shallow soils.

22. Restrictive layer: layer, which impedes root growth. Includes non-rippable rock or hardpan, clayey material with prismatic, columnar or coarse blocky structure, or waterlogged soil, as indicated by gley or dull grey colours.

Chemical indicators used for assessing soil conditions:

23. Sulfidic material: waterlogged material or organic material that has a pH >3.5 and contains sulfide-sulfur. If incubated as a layer 1 cm thick under moist conditions (field capacity) while maintaining contact with the air at room temperature shows a drop in pH of more than 0.5 or more units to a pH value of 4 or less (i.e. 1:1 by weight in water, or in a minimum of water to permit measurement) within 8 weeks (Soil survey Staff 1999).

24. Gypsic materials: with more than 20% visible gypsum within the upper 0.5 m of the profile.

25. Saline materials: bare, salt-encrusted, often with a soft fluffy surface, soil conductivity (ECse) is >16 dSM-1, may or may not have halophytic plants, water table conductivity ranges from 2–50 dSM-1

In addition to the above attributes a set of modifiers can be used to further refine the 15 soil sub-categories. Modifiers are properties that cannot be determined in the field but require laboratory intervention. The modifiers are determined on samples taken from soil layers within the soil profile. They are used to designate any soil category as, say, “Saline” or “Sodic” or “Acid” (Cass et al. 1996). Morphological descriptors combined with modifiers are useful in assessing soil conditions because they assist in diagnosing possible constraints to vine growth and they can be used in research to


evaluate causes for variation in soil condition induced by land management, hydrology and weather conditions. The principle modifiers used in this key are:

• Soil reaction: the pH of a 1:5 soil to water extract.

• Salinity: the amount of salt in the soil as measured by electrical conductivity of a 1:5 soil to water extract.

• Sodicity: the relative proportion of sodium to calcium and magnesium in a 1:5 soil to water extract.

5.3 Pictorial key for identifying soil indicators, land use options and best management practices

The capacity to reverse established soil degradation in the marshlands (e.g. salinisation) will depend strongly on the specific category or sub-category of soil that exists (Table 4). Consequently, the 7 process models outlined in section 4, together with the 7 soil categories and 15 sub-categories (Table 4) and their physical (e.g., soil texture) and chemical indicators (EC and pH), were used to construct a simplified pictorial key for identifying soil indicators, land use options and generalised best management practices (BMPs) for different sub-categories of marshland soils (Table 5).

In Table 5 best management practices and land use options for seven representative soil sub-categories in particular landscape settings have been proposed. But many drained soils also need to be managed from a risk management perspective by tacking into account both on- and off-site consequences. To this end advisors and marsh dwellers must have access to relevant information on the processes that support any actions and investments that might be taken within any region and this would also include cost effective guidelines.

The “pictorial key” and “soil identification key” should be packaged as an easy-to-follow pictorial manual or brochure for local advisers and marsh dwellers to easily identify those soil categories that are clearly suitable to be used to grow crops or pastures and those categories to avoid and fence off. The “pictorial key” includes:

o Recognising soil morphological features such as soil colour and consistence;

o Using, where needed, simple tests for soil electrical conductivity (salinity), dispersion (sodicity) and pH (acidity);

o Integration and adoption; where knowledge of soil and hydrological processes and production systems are bought together in recommendations for appropriate best management practices;

o Viable, land use options and best management practices and procedures to ameliorate or reclaim identified categories of degraded marshland soils management systems (farming based on soil type) that are more resource efficient than current "trial and error" practices. In some soil categories (e.g. Calcic soils), soil and water degradation can be reversed; in others (e.g. Anthropogenic fusic/burned soil or Saline gypseous c soil), the best thing to do is simply to fence off an area and leave it alone. The pictorial soil key will help support productive and sustainable agriculture in the marshlands of Iraq.

Management strategies should to be based on adequate characterisation and mapping of the 15 sub categories (Table 4). Understanding the distribution, evolution, nature and interrelationships of the soils and sediments (section 4) is vital for effective planning of agricultural management and selection of appropriate remediation options.


Table 5. Pictorial key for identifying soil indicators and best management practices (BMPs) for sub-categories of marshland soils Marshland soil sub-category Indicators Soil Texture

Chemical tests Generalised best management practices (BMPs)1

Sands/Loams EC, pH, CaCO3, ESP or SAR, BD (bulk density)

Ripping and mulching – to manage crusts, which are sodic/saline and have high BD Drain to leach salts after calcium application (lime if acidic, or gypsum if alkaline ) and to prevent significant periods of fluctuating water logging (anoxic) conditions by draining. Vegetate with perennial or salt tolerant species. Should not be used for crop production

Clays2 As for Sands/Loams But do not drain

1.1 Anthropogenic Dredgic soil Soils showing profound modification by human activity – i.e. progressively affected by anthropogenic alteration by: (i) addition of organic materials and saline sediments over long periods of time.

Surface

Mostly bare ground with: - dispersed clay layers - cracks if clayey - thin coating of white or cream salt crystals visible when surface is dry (probably sodium chloride and sulfate-rich salts - gypsum and thenardite) Top layer Mixed greyish-brown clay with grey (bleached) mottles.

Bottom layers Stratified and mixed layers with greyish-brown clay and grey (bleached) mottles and black organic material.

Sand/Clay3

As above, but with subsoil BD

As for Sands/Loams But only drain sandy layers.

1Most soils affected by salinity and sodicity have nutrient deficiencies or imbalances. It is important, especially in eroded or scalded sites, that nutrient status is addressed when re-establishing vegetation. To minimise erosion and pugging, stock should be excluded from these areas. Many clayey subsoils have high bulk densities (BD) with poor hydraulic conductivity. These conditions cause difficulty in leaching salts and exploration by plant roots; 3Sandy textures overlying clayey textures (Sand/Clay) are called duplex soils.


Continued - Table 5: Pictorial key for identifying soil indicators and best management practices (BMPs) for sub-categories of soils Marshland soil sub-category Indicators Soil Texture


Sands/Loams EC, pH, CaCO3, ESP or SAR, BD

Ripping and mulching – to manage crusts, which are sodic/saline and have high BD Drain to leach salts after calcium application (lime if acidic, or gypsum if alkaline ) and to prevent significant periods of fluctuating water logging (anoxic) conditions by draining. Vegetate with perennial or salt tolerant species. Should not be used for crop production; limited horticulture.


1.2 Anthropogenic Fusic (Burned) soil Soil layers irreversibly changed by high temperature burning often above >300 degrees centigrade, because clays (layer silicates and iron oxides) have been substantially transformed to ceramic-like gravel (>20%).

Surface

Mostly bare ground or burned reed stubble with: - dispersed clay layers - thin coating of white or cream salt crystals visible when surface is dry (probably sodium chloride and sulfate-rich salts - gypsum and thenardite) Top layer

>20% fused and hard ceramic-like gravel formed by burning silicates and iron oxides.

Bottom layers

Uniform greyish-brown with some grey (bleached) mottles.

Sand/Clay3


As for Sands/Loams But only drain sandy layers. High amounts of coarse fragments in the soil may impose severe limitations on the capacity of the soil to supply water and nutrients by reducing volume of soil available for root activity. They can also have an adverse impact on soil workability, being highly abrasive to tillage implements. On the other hand, surface gravel may reduce erosion and act as a mulch to reduce evaporation for the soil.

1Most soils affected by salinity and sodicity have nutrient deficiencies or imbalances. It is important, especially in eroded or scalded sites, that nutrient status is addressed when re-establishing vegetation. To minimise erosion and pugging, stock should be excluded from these areas. 2Many clayey subsoils have high bulk densities (BD) with poor hydraulic conductivity. These conditions cause difficulty in leaching salts and exploration by plant roots; 3Sandy textures overlying clayey textures (Sand/Clay) are called duplex soils.




2.1 Wet Sulfidic soil Contain a high proportion of either “sulfidic material” or “monosulfidic black ooze” with intense reducing conditions (i.e. low redox potential or Eh values to -345 mV), which deoxygenates soils and water.

Surface Some bare ground on edge of marshlands with - reeds and rushes. Other features include: - white crystals visible when surface is dry - cream salt crystals visible when surface is moist (sulfate-rich salts gypsum and thenardite) - red stains and red gels

Top layer

Black, mushy, smelly, and permanently wet; EC meter reading is more 0.7 dS/m

Bottom layers

Bluish-grey colour with saline water table EC meter reading is more 0.7 dS/m

All (see 1.1)

pH, sulfide S, CaCO3, acid production potential and neutralising capacity.

Do not drain – by engineering, trees, pugging by buffaloes or cattle (grazing)

Maintain or create permanent wetlands

Vegetate with native wetland salt tolerant species.

If drained, follow appropriate management in (B) i.e. do not add

gypsum but use lime

Protect area (i.e. these soils should not be used for crop production)

1 Most soils affected by salinity have nutrient deficiencies or imbalances. It is important, especially in eroded or scalded sites, that nutrient status is addressed when re-establishing vegetation. To minimise erosion and pugging, stock should be excluded from these areas. 2 Many clayey subsoils have high bulk densities (BD) with poor hydraulic conductivity. These conditions cause difficulty in leaching salts and exploration by plant roots; 3 Sandy textures overlying clayey textures are called duplex soils.


Continued - Table 5: Pictorial key for identifying soil indicators and best management practices (BMPs) for sub-categories of soils Marshland soil sub-category. Indicators Soil Texture


Sands/Loams

EC, pH, CaCO3, ESP or SAR, BD2

Drain to leach salts. Calcium application (lime if acidic, or gypsum if not acidic). Vegetate with perennial or salt tolerant species May be used for crop production if ECse < 8 dS/m.

Clays2


Drain subsoil (e.g. slotting). Drain to leach salts. Calcium application (lime if acidic, or gypsum if not acidic). Vegetate with perennial or salt tolerant species. May be used for crop production if ECse < 8 dS/m.

3.1 Saline gypseous soil Soils affected by sodium, magnesium, chloride and sulfate in ground and surface waters, which aggravate drought stress because dissolved electrolytes create an “osmotic potential” that affects water uptake by plants. In severely salt-affected lands vegetation is sparse.

Surface

Mostly bare ground with:

- thick white layer of crystals visible when surface is dry (sodium chloride) - thick cream salt crystals visible when surface is moist (probably sulfate-rich salts gypsum and thenardite) - red stains and red gels

Top layer

Greyish-black EC meter reading is more 0>20 dS/m

Bottom layers

Bluish-grey colour with saline water table EC meter reading is more than 20 dS/m

Sand/Clay3


Drain topsoil to leach salts. Drain subsoil (e.g. slotting) Calcium application (lime if acidic, or gypsum if not acidic). Vegetate with perennial or salt tolerant species May be used for crop production if ECse < 8 dS/m.

1 Most soils affected by salinity have nutrient deficiencies or imbalances. It is important, especially in eroded or scalded sites, that nutrient status is addressed when re-establishing vegetation. To minimise erosion and pugging, stock should be excluded from these areas. 2 Many clayey subsoils have high bulk densities (BD) with poor hydraulic conductivity. These conditions cause difficulty in leaching salts and exploration by plant roots; 3 Sandy textures overlying clayey textures are called duplex soils.





Ripping, mulching and applying gypsum – to manage crusts, which are sodic/saline and have high BD Drain to leach salts after calcium application (use lime) and to prevent significant periods of fluctuating water logging (anoxic) conditions by draining. Vegetate with perennial or salt tolerant species. May be used for crop production if ECse < 8 dS/m.


4.1 Gypsic Grey soil Soils with substantial accumulation of gypsum with loamy topsoil textures, slakes easily and dries to a finely platy crust that hinders water infiltration. Gypsum is often present as crystals, which glisten. The high gypsum content can create adverse physical and chemical conditions for the growth of many plant species by: (i) creating an imbalance between nutrients and lower the availability of essential plant nutrients (P, K and Mg), (ii) subsiding under irrigation because gypsum crystals dissolve in water.

Surface

Mostly bare ground with: - dispersed clay layers - cracks if clayey - thin coating of white or cream salt crystals visible when surface is dry (probably sodium chloride and sulfate-rich salts - gypsum and thenardite) Top layer

Mottled greyish-brown with some grey (bleached) mottles.

Bottom layers

Greyish-brownish with prisms/ columns, cracks, slickensides and some grey mottles. Soil disperses in rain water and so is sodic. ESP > 15.

Sand/Clay3



1 Most soils affected by salinity and sodicity have nutrient deficiencies or imbalances. It is important, especially in eroded or scalded sites, that nutrient status is addressed when re-establishing vegetation. To minimise erosion and pugging, stock should be excluded from these areas. 2 Many clayey subsoils have high bulk densities (BD) with poor hydraulic conductivity. These conditions cause difficulty in leaching salts and exploration by plant roots; 3 Sandy textures overlying clayey textures (Sand/Clay) are called duplex soils.





Ripping, mulching and applying gypsum – to manage crusts, which are sodic/saline and have high BD Drain to leach salts after calcium application (lime if acidic, or gypsum if alkaline ) and to prevent significant periods of fluctuating water logging (anoxic) conditions by draining Vegetate with perennial or salt tolerant species. May be used for crop production if ECse < 8 dS/m.


6.1 Duplex Sodic soil Form on ridges where soluble salts have been leached from the soil. These soils: (i) have a high proportion of adsorbed Na and/or Mg ions, (ii) disperse when in contact with low salinity water (rainwater or Tigris River water), (iii) may have pronounced shrink-swell characteristics, (iv) have restricted permeability in the root zone, especially within sub-soil layers, (v) often contain hydrophobic (water repellent) granules that are highly susceptible to water and wind erosion.

Surface

Mostly bare ground with: - dispersed clay layers - cracks if clayey - thin coating of white or cream salt crystals visible when surface is dry (probably sodium chloride and sulfate-rich salts - gypsum and thenardite) Top layer

Uniform greyish-brown with some grey (bleached) mottles; silty loam

Bottom layers

Brownish-grey with prisms/ columns, cracks, slickensides and some grey mottles. Soil disperses in rain water and so is sodic. ESP > 15; clayey (medium clay).

Sand/Clay3



1 Most soils affected by salinity and sodicity have nutrient deficiencies or imbalances. It is important, especially in eroded or scalded sites, that nutrient status is addressed when re-establishing vegetation. To minimise erosion and pugging, stock should be excluded from these areas. Many clayey subsoils have high bulk densities (BD) with poor hydraulic conductivity. These conditions cause difficulty in leaching salts and exploration by plant roots; 3 Sandy textures overlying clayey textures (Sand/Clay) are called duplex soils.





Ripping and mulching – to manage crusts, which are sodic/saline and have high BD Drain to leach salts after calcium application (lime if acidic, or gypsum if alkaline) and to prevent significant periods of fluctuating water logging (anoxic) conditions by draining. Vegetate with perennial or salt tolerant species. May be used for crop production if ECse < 8 dS/m.


7.2 Calcic Grey soil Developed in landscapes where solutes containing predominantly Ca carbonate accumulate because the surfaces drain well. Because of their good drainage properties, even in wet positions (depressions and seepage areas), these soils can subsequently develop highly saline subsoil horizons (salic horizon). Slaking and crust formation hinders water infiltration, especially where surface soils are silty. Calcium carbonate commonly occurs as masses and nodules. Fine calcium carbonate particles have similar properties to silt and can increase the ability of sand to hold water. Very high concentrations of fine calcium carbonate may reduce permeability and provide a chemical restriction to the root growth of sensitive plants. Alkaline conditions in highly calcareous soils may inhibit the uptake of nutrients.

Surface

Mostly covered by vegetation with minor patches of carbonate- rich salts.

Top layer

Uniform greyish-brown with some grey (bleached) mottles; is calcareous (> 10 % calcium carbonate) throughout or at least below 20 cm.

Bottom layers

Mottled greyish-brown with some grey (bleached) mottles; calcareous (> 10 % calcium carbonate) throughout or at least below 20 cm.

Sand/Clay3



1Most soils affected by salinity and sodicity have nutrient deficiencies or imbalances. It is important, especially in eroded or scalded sites, that nutrient status is addressed when re-establishing vegetation. To minimise erosion and pugging, stock should be excluded from these areas. 2Many clayey subsoils have high bulk densities (BD) with poor hydraulic conductivity. These conditions cause difficulty in leaching salts and exploration by plant roots; 3Sandy textures overlying clayey textures (Sand/Clay) are called duplex soils.


5.3.1 Risk Management Planning for draining salt-affected marshland soils Several general principles, including the need for risk management planning, should be taken into consideration before rehabilitation of salt-affected land in the marshlands is attempted. Often the adoption of several approaches provide synergies:

• management of soil EC to prevent dispersion or controlled accession of freshwater; use of gypsum to ameliorate sodicity,

• prevention/management of cemented pans by ripping, mulching and applying gypsum,

• interruption to capillary flow by ripping, • minimisation of evaporation losses by mulches or lowering the groundwater table, • flexibility of approaches to cope with sequences expected over longer periods, • construction of stable drains to control off-site effects from increased salt or

colloid mobilisation, • management of soil fertility for establishing desirable plant species.

There is still much to be learned before proven and innovative systems are developed to return degraded salinised and burnt soils in the Iraq marshlands to productive states, whilst minimising potential off-site impacts. Even with the best rehabilitation, there will be some situations where changes in soil chemistry and morphology will remain irreversible, and these affected soils will permanently limit agricultural production (see Table 5). In some situations there will also be detrimental off-site effects.

Risk management is essential for managing the drained marshland salt-affected soils. Many factors should be addressed by planners for managing the on- and off-site consequences before saline soils are drained. Appropriate drainage risk management plans should be developed for individual drainage areas and be a part of the overall catchment plan. One such approach, based on the generic framework of Standards Australia (to ISO standards), is presented in Fitzpatrick et al (2003b). In addition, risk management plans should address the following issues:

• Is it economically/socially/politically acceptable and feasible?

• Is it possible to provide appropriate drainage?

• Is leaching water available?

• Is the soil and water chemistry right?

• Are appropriate vegetation, other biota and land management systems available for adoption?

• Should appropriate biota be introduced or re-introduced?

• Will there be unacceptable off-site effects?

In outline, the key areas that should be considered for risk planning are:

• Preliminary.

• Concept planning.

• Drainage planning,

• Risk management.

• Risk management framework.


• Establish context.

• Identification of potential risks.

• Analyse and evaluate risks.

• Evaluate risks.

Treat risks by identifying (i) barriers to amelioration/reclamation and (ii) best strategy for preventing risks

• Development of mitigation measures

• Operational phase mitigation measures.

• Construction phase mitigation measures.

• Monitoring effects of reclamation and during construction phase.

Documentation of processes undertaken, risk assessment procedures and responsibilities.


6 Recommendations for future soil and water pilot projects and purchase of laboratory and field equipment

6.1 Soil-Water Kits to Improve Land and Irrigation Planning

6.1.1 Background The overall aim of a follow-up project is to establish and quantify the limitations of soil and water resources to agricultural production at local (farm plots) and regional (village) scales in drained and re-flooded Tigris-Euphrates watershed marshlands in Iraq. The complementary aim is to further develop the set of practical soil and water indicators listed in section 5, to assist local advisers and marsh dwellers to identify signs of soil and water degradation and the adoption of practices to reverse it and thereby increase agricultural productivity and sustainability. This will involve:

• Further evaluation and development of the pictorial key and soil identification key;

• Publication of an easy-to-follow pictorial manual or brochure incorporating a revised “pictorial key” and “soil identification key” for local advisers and marsh dwellers to easily identify those soil categories that are suitable to be used to grow crops or pastures and those categories to avoid and fence off. The pictorial manual will assist in the identification of the new unique categories of degraded marshland soils (salt-affected soils: saline, sodic and sulfidic), water use efficiency and water quality at local and regional scales and allocate a suitability assessment.

The pictorial manual will include a suite of robust indicators, which can reliably predict the direction and extent of changes that are occurring in the whole marshland region. The indicators must have meaning to the local and regional marsh dweller committees and to policy developers. They are based on intermediate quality (easily collected/inexpensive) but dense (extensive) data, and are particularly useful as an early warning of system decline or improvement. Such indicators are central for benchmarking and monitoring the state of the environment in the marshlands. As such, the approach seeks to assist the marsh dweller communities assess their local environment using the best techniques developed to date. The adoption and regular use of these indicators will also:

• identify site-specific constraints to productivity;

• identify risks for future degradation of regional soil and water resources;

• aid future property planning; and

• generate spatial information for reporting on the state of local environments. The proposed approach seeks to develop and encourage a community-based ethos for monitoring local environments and for assessing the sustainability of current farming practices. To make this technology bring about change in practice at the local scale and improve sustainability at regional and local scale involves working closely with the decision makers and opinion leaders (e.g. University of Basra and Ministry of Agriculture & Water Recourses staff) at different levels of responsibility. In the southern Iraq marshlands the primary forum for such communication occurs at the local village level. People from these groups should consult during all stages of the project and provide key bridging to accomplish


the final project aims, such the publication of the easy-to-follow pictorial manual or brochure incorporating a revised “pictorial key” and “soil identification key”.

6.1.2 Broad objectives and outcomes Establish a comprehensive set of practical (“how-to” or “do-it yourself”) soil and water indicator kits to assist local advisers and farmer groups to: (i) identify signs and specific areas of soil and water degradation and (ii) adopt practices to reverse soil and water degradation and thereby increase agricultural productivity and sustainability.

Determine limitations of soil and water resources to agricultural production at 8 local (farm) areas within four regional scales and achieve adoption by local communities of a suite of robust, easy to use, indicators, which can be interpreted reliably and mapped spatially.

Develop and conduct training courses to aid property planning.

6.1.3 Specific objectives/outcomes Establish a means for rural communities in the marshland agricultural areas to develop and use robust indicators for assessing the impact of farm practice on the marshland environment. This will be achieved by establishing:

• Satisfactory approaches for describing and predicting the pathways, mobility, loads and sources of salts and colloids (clays) in natural, drained and re-flooded marshland soils. Water partitioning between runoff, evaporation, transpiration and drainage for the landscapes being studied.

• Soil and water processes involved in the major causes of land degradation from 8 new focus sites in the following four regional localities: Al Kahla (X3 and including Prosperity River X1), Al Azair (X2), Al Chibayish (X1) and Suq Al-Shiukh (X1).

• A soil and water “do-it-yourself” indicator kit and manual to assist in mapping marshland soil-water landscapes for achieving environmentally sustainable production.

• Candidate soil-water models for the feedbacks between soil salinity, soil sodicity, sulfidic materials and hydraulic properties of soil profiles that can be used in water balance modelling and based on the base data collected at selected paired sites.

• Models with improved ability to assess the relationships between soil water availability, soil properties, crop water use and crop yield in the agricultural systems of the study.

6.1.4 Methodology The proposed project will concentrate on further developing robust indicators of productivity and soil and water health and publishing an easy-to-follow pictorial manual or brochure incorporating a revised “pictorial key” and “soil identification key”. The pictorial manual will assist in the identification of the new unique categories of degraded marshland soils (salt-affected soils: saline, sodic and sulfidic), water use efficiency and water quality at local and regional scales and allocate a suitability assessment.


Where possible, modern, geographical information systems (GIS), field electromagnetic induction techniques (EM-38) and remote sensing data will be used to assist with spatial interpretation and extrapolation of the soil patterns within each focus area. As a result of these pilot studies, refinements to the prototype kits will be made (e.g. section 5), if necessary. The success generated by these pilot studies should encourage other marsh dweller groups and advisors in the region to adopt the indicator integrating approach to aid land use planning.

The EM-38 electromagnetic induction technique (equipment owned by CSIRO Land & Water) is designed to be particularly useful for agricultural surveys measuring soil salinity and sodicity because the EM-38 can cover large areas quickly as it is very lightweight and is only one meter long. The EM-38 provides rapid surveys with excellent lateral resolution. Measurements are obtained with the instrument placed on the soil surface. The EM-38 provides depths of exploration of approximately 0.75 to 1.5m in the horizontal and vertical dipole modes respectively. The EM-38 electromagnetic induction surveys will as conducted using the vertical (i.e. to 1.5m in depth) and horizontal dipoles (i.e. to 0.3 m in depth).

Sample representative soils at key sites (paired sites) along transects within the 8 key focus study areas from the following 4 regions: Al Kahla (X3 and including Prosperity River X1), Al Azair (X2), Al Chibayish (X1) and Suq Al-Shiukh (X1). At each key focus area, several samples will be described within a small area (5 to 10 meters), preferably at toposequence scale, using the concepts developed by Fitzpatrick et. al (2003a, b) to link soil and water resource patterns to:

• soil-landscape processes (i.e. soil forming or soil alteration processes) and

• water flow systems (i.e. flow paths in the soil-landscape),

• construct detailed conceptual soil-water-landscape models.

Conduct EM-38 electromagnetic induction (equipment owned by CSIRO Land & Water) surveys along two transects across each key/focus site.

Conduct laboratory analysis on soils (e.g. EC, pH, dispersion and Eh) and groundwaters, to help quantify the water and solute transport processes and soil-water-landscape models at each key site.

Construct localised and regional user friendly predictive soil-water-landscape models – that also clearly identify features associated with waterlogging, salinity and sodicity based on the toposequence concept - models to help:

• interpret onset of conditions of impaired soil drainage, salinity, soil erosion and stream water quality under changing hydrological conditions,

• implement more efficient management strategies (e.g. farm planning) and

• predict the consequence of key management strategies applied at different places in the marshland soil-landscape.


6.1.5 Milestones:

Task Milestone Performance indicator Define the extent of 8 priority areas April/May Areas defined via GIS, maps

Complete field work in 8 areas June-August Develop prototype “how-to” kits

Draft Plain English Indicator Manual September Prototypes developed

Organise/ hold workshop October Update Indicator manual and

Updated “how-to” kits and pictorial manual

November Kits, Indicator manual completed and published.

Run training course December Examination

Compile report to DAI and USAID January Final report to DAI and USAID

6.2 CSIRO Land and Water recommendation for purchase of laboratory and field equipment to determine chemical and physical properties of soil and water samples in Iraq

A request was received from Dr Peter Reiss to supply recommendations to DAI for purchase of laboratory and field equipment to determine chemical and physical properties of soil and water samples in Iraq. The information outlined in Appendix 5 was sent to Dr Peter Reiss and Mr Gabriel Bayram on 16 April 2004.

Xray Diffraction data - Appendix 6 2010/02/15 - 14:09 Pg A6 - 1


7 Acknowledgements Rob Fitzpatrick would like to thank the following individuals for having provided outstanding technical guidance, timely entrance approvals, and logistical support: Dr Peter Reiss, Dr Jane Gleason, Ms Anna Presswell, Mr Gabriel Bayram and Dr. Ali Farhan (Development Alternatives, Inc), Carl Maxwell (USAID/Iraq, USAID/CPA South; several members of the AMAR (Assisting Marsh Arabs and Refugees) Foundation; Prof. Dakhil Radi Al-Nedawi, Prof. Abdul Jabbar Hassan, Mr. Mohamed Malik Yassen, Dr. Ali Hamdi Theiab (University of Basra), Mr. Hazim Ahmed Al-Delli (Marsh Management, Agriculture Ministry of Environment, Baghdad), Ali Hussein Hassan (Agriculture Ministry of Environment, Basra), Mr. Fawzi (Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture, Basra) and Mr Jaroslev Reif (CPA in Basra) for information on the hydrology and irrigation systems. I would like to thank: Mark Raven who performed all the mineralogical (x-ray diffraction) analyses, Mr Benn Britton for conducting mass magnetic susceptibility analyses, Adrian Beech and staff in the CSIRO Land and Water Analytical Chemistry Unit who performed the majority of the soil and water analyses, Prof Rosa Poch (University of Lleida, Spain) for optical microscopy analyses and Stuart McClure for SEM analyses. Dr Phil Slade and Richard Merry (CSIRO Land and Water) for editorial comments. Ms Clare Peddie (CSIRO Land and Water) for preparing an article in ECOS magazine entitled "A return to Eden - Can science save Iraq's ancient marshlands?" Mr Greg Rinder (CSIRO Land and Water) for the graphic work on the “Chronological evolution model of soil-water-landscape changes in the southern Mesopotamian Marshlands from 3000 BC to 2003 AD (present)”. In particular, I would like to thank Ms Jackie Wraight (CSIRO corporate) for preparing the contract with DAI and her relentless help in gaining the timely entrance and clearance approvals and logistical support. I would also like to thank Drs Mike McLaughlin, Steve Morton and Ron Sandland for their constructive support and granting me permission to undertake this amazing experience. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Alison and family for their support, especially while in Iraq.

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Fitzpatrick, R.W., Merry R.H, Cox J.W., Rengasamy P and P.J. Davies (2003b). Assessment of physico-chemical changes in dryland saline soils when drained or disturbed for developing management options. CSIRO Land and Water Technical Report 02/03. CSIRO, 56pp. http://www.clw.csiro.au/publications/technical2003/tr2-03.pdf

Fitzpatrick R.W., J.W. Cox, and J. Bourne (1997). Managing waterlogged and saline catchments in the Mt. Lofty Ranges, South Australia: A soil-landscape and vegetation key with on-farm management options. Catchment Management Series. CRC for Soil and Land Management. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, Australia, 36 pp.

Fitzpatrick, R. W. and Riley, T.W. (1990). Abrasive soils in Australia: Mineralogical properties and classification. p. 404-405. In: Trans. 14th Int. Soil Sci. Soc. Conf., Kyoto, Japan. VII.

Gumuzzio, J. Batlle, J. and Casas, J. (1982). Mineralogical composition of of salt efflorescences in a Typic Salordid, Spain. Geoderma 28: 39 - 51.

Manley, R. and J. Robson, Hydrology of the Mesopotamian Marshlands. (1994). The Wetland 259 Ecosystems Research Group, University of Exeter. 260.

McDonald, R.C., Isbell, R.F., Speight, J.G., Walker, J. & Hopkins, M.S. (1990). Australian soil and land survey field handbook. 2nd Edition, (Inkata Press, Melbourne).

McNeill, J.D. (1980) Electromagnetic terrain conductivity measurements at low induction numbers. Technical Note TN-6, Geonics Ltd., Ontario, Canada.

Northcote, K.H. (1979). A Factual Key for the Recognition of Australian Soils. 4th Ed. (Rellim: Adelaide).

Munsell Soil Color Charts (1994). Macbeth Division of Kollinorgen Instruments Corporation, 1994.

Partow, H. (2001). The Mesopotamian Marshlands: Demise of an Ecosystem. Early Warning and Assessment Technical Report, UNEP/DEWA/TR.01-3 Rev. 1. Division of Early Warning and Assessment. United Nations Environment Program. Nairobi, Kenya. 46pp.

Raven, M.D. (1990) XPLOT version 3.2 user manual. Manipulation of X-ray powder diffraction data. CSIRO Division of Soils Technical Report No. 24/1990.

Rayment, G. E. and Higginson, F.R. (1992) Australian Laboratory Handbook of Soil and Water Chemical Methods. Inkata Press. Melbourne.

Schoeneberger P.J., Wysocki, D.A. Benham, E.C. and Broderson W.D. (editors) (2002) Field book for describing and sampling soils, Version 2.0. Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE, USA



Self, P.G. (1988) PC-PW1710 - user manual. PC based system for the control of a Philips PW1710 X-ray diffraction system. CSIRO Division of Soils Technical Memorandum No. 41/1988. 32pp.

Self, P.G. (1989) PC-PW1800 - user manual. PC based system for the control of a Philips PW1800 X-ray diffraction system. CSIRO Division of Soils Technical Memorandum No. 1/1989. 29pp.

Sehgal Jawahar L., Mohammad Al-Kubaisi and Maymud Al-Mishhadani (1980). An appraisal of the problems in classifying salt-affected soils of Mesopotamian plain (Iraq). International Symposium of Salt affected soils 18-21 February, 1980, India. p 118-128.

Soil Classification Working Group (1991) Soil Classification: A Taxonomic System for South Africa. Memoirs on the Agricultural Natural Resources of South Africa No. 15. pp. 257.

Soil Survey Staff (1999). Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys. 2nd edition. Agriculture Handbook No. 436. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington. pp 869.

Soil Survey Division Staff (1993). Soil Survey Manual. United States Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 18. (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC).

Stace, H.C.T., G.D. Hubble, R. Brewer, K.H Northcote,. J.R. Sleeman, M.J. Mulcahy, and E.G. Hallsworth, (1968). A Handbook of Australian Soils. Rellim: Glenside, South Australia.

Soil Survey Staff (1999). Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys. 2nd edition. Agriculture Handbook No. 436. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington.

Thesiger, Wilfred. (1964). The Marsh Arabs. Longmans Green. Penguin edition. 1980.

Thompson, R. and Oldfield, F. (1986) Environmental magnetism. Ch.2. Allen and Unwin Ltd, London.

U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, (1954). Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. USDA US Govt. Printing Office, Washington DC.



Glossary acid sulfate soils - saline soils or sediments containing pyrites, which once drained (as part of remedial land management measures, or as part of coastal development), become acidic releasing large amounts of acidity into the ecosystem with consequent adverse effects on plant growth, animal life, etc. These soils are widespread around coastal regions of the world (especially when associated with mangrove swamps) and occur to an unknown extent in inland areas.

potential acid sulfate soil materials (PASS) – in their pristine state, acid sulfate soils (also termed potential acid sulfate soils (PASS), occur in saline wetland seeps or are buried beneath alluvium and:

(i) contain black sulfidic material (see below), are waterlogged and anaerobic;

(ii) contain pyrite (typically framboidal);

(iii) have high organic matter content;

(iv) have pH 6-8.

actual acid sulfate soil materials (AASS) - when PASS are disturbed:

(i) contain a sulfuric horizon (see below) because pyrite is oxidised to sulfuric acid (pH <3.5-4);

(ii) iron sulfate-rich minerals form, commonly as bright yellow or straw-coloured mottles containing jarosite, natrojarosite or sideronatrite.

sulfidic material waterlogged material or organic material that has a pH >3.5 and contains sulfide-sulfur. If incubated as a layer 1 cm thick under moist conditions (field capacity) while maintaining contact with the air at room temperature shows a drop in pH of more than 0.5 or more units to a pH value of 4 or less (i.e. 1:1 by weight in water, or in a minimum of water to permit measurement) within 8 weeks (Soil survey Staff 1999).

sulfuric horizon a horizon composed either of mineral or organic soil material that has both pH <3.5 (1:1 by weight in water, or in a minimum of water to permit measurement) and bright yellow jarosite mottles. A sulfuric horizon is defined as (Soil Survey Staff,1999), 15 cm or more thick.

classification, soil - the systematic arrangement of soils into groups or categories on the basis of their characteristics. Broad groupings are made on the basis of general characteristics and subdivisions on the basis of more detailed differences in specific properties. The USDA soil classification system of soil taxonomy was adapted for use in publications by the National Cooperative Soil Survey on 1 Jan. 1965. For complete definitions of taxa see: Soil Survey Staff (1999). The World Reference Base for soil resources (WRB; FAO, 1998) is the International Union of Soil Science (IUSS)-endorsed reference soil classification system.

coarse fragments - comprise all strongly cemented soil materials, including rock fragments and hard segregations, which are sized greater than 2 mm in diameter. They are subdivided into fine gravels (2 to 5 mm), medium gravels (5 to 20 mm), coarse gravels (20 to 75 mm), cobbles (75 to 250 mm), stones (250 to 600 mm) and boulders (>600 mm). Large amounts of coarse fragments in the soil may impose severe limitations on its capacity to supply water and nutrients by reducing volume of soil available for root activity. They can also have an adverse impact on soil



workability, being highly abrasive to tillage implements. On the other hand, surface gravel may reduce erosion and act as a mulch to reduce evaporation from the soil.

electrical conductivity (EC) - conductivity of electricity through water or an extract of soil. Commonly used to estimate the soluble salt content in solution.

ECse - the electrical conductance of an extract from a soil saturated with distilled water, normally expressed in units of siemens (S) or decisiemens (dS) per meter at 25°C. A variety of other units (Table G1) have been used for salinity. Most scientists, planners and regulatory agencies endorse a strong plea for abandonment of these units in favour of standardisation on dS/m

Table G1: Factors for conversion of salinity units to dS/m

*Salinity Unit Multiply to get dS/m

μS/cm 0.001

mS/cm 1

mS/m 0.01

S/m 10

μmho/cm 0.001

mmho/cm 1

ppm 0.0016(1) to 0.0019(2)

mg/L 0.0016(1) to 0.0019(2)

grains/gal 0.023(1) to 0.027(2) (1) Approximate conversion for natural surface and well waters. (2)Approximate conversion for pure salt solutions of sodium and calcium chlorides

EC 1:5 - the electrical conductance of a 1:5 soil:water extract (i.e. soil is extracted with distilled water), normally expressed in units of siemens (S) or decisiemens (dS) per meter at 25°C.

Although the EC 1:5 method is quick and simple it does not take into account the effects of soil texture. It is therefore inappropriate to compare the EC 1:5 readings from two soil types with different textures. It is possible to approximately relate the conductivity of a 1:5 soil-water extract (EC 1:5) to that of the saturation extract (ECse) and predict likely effects on plant growth (Table G1), and the simplicity of this method means that it is the most common way of assessing soil salinity.

Table G2: Criteria for assessing soil salinity hazard and yield reductions for plants of varying salt tolerance. ECse is saturated paste electrical conductivity (after Richards, 1954) and EC1:5 is the corresponding calculated electrical conductivity of a 1:5 soil:water extract for various soil textures (Cass et al., 1996).

Salinity hazard

ECse

dS/m

Effects on plant yield

1:5 Soil/Water Extract (dS/m)

Loamy sand Loam Sandy clay loam Light clay Heavy



clay

Non-saline <2 Negligible effect

<0.15 <0.17 <0.25 <0.30 <0.4

Slightly saline

2-4 Very sensitive plants affected

0.16-0.30 0.18-0.35

0.26-0.45 0.31-0.60

0.41-0.80

Moderately saline

4-8 Many plants affected

0.31-0.60 0.36-0.75

0.46-0.90 0.61-1.15

0.81-1.60

Very saline 8-16 Salt tolerant plants unaffected

0.61-1.20 0.76-1.45

0.91-1.75 1.16-2.30

1.60-3.20

Highly saline >16 Salt tolerant plants affected

>1.20 >1.45 >1.75 >2.30 >3.20

gleyed - a soil condition resulting from prolonged soil saturation, which is manifested by the presence of bluish or greenish pigmentation through the soil mass or in mottles (spots or streaks). Gleying occurs under reducing conditions under which iron is reduced predominantly to the ferrous state.

natric horizon - a mineral soil horizon that satisfied the requirements of an argillic horizon, but that also has prismatic, columnar, or blocky structure and a subhorizon having >15% saturation with exchangeable Na+.

salinity, soil - the amount of soluble salts in a soil. The conventional measure of soil salinity is the electrical conductivity of a saturation extract.

sodic soil - a nonsaline soil containing sufficient exchangeable sodium to adversely affect crop production and soil structure under most conditions of soil and plant type. The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is at least 15 or the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of the saturation extract is at least 13.

exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) - exchangeable sodium fraction expressed as a percentage.

soil horizon - a layer of soil or soil material approximately parallel to the land surface and differing from adjacent genetically related layers in physical, chemical, and biological properties or characteristics such as colour, structure, texture, consistency, kinds and number of organisms present, degree of acidity or alkalinity, etc.

soil texture/field texture - Soil texture is a measure of the proportion of sand (2.00 to 0.05 mm), silt (0.05 to 0.002 mm) and clay (<0.002 mm) in soil (see Table G3). The clay content is closely related to the specific surface area (the total area of all exposed particle sizes), which has a major influence on soil-water relationships and soil physics. The specific surface area also affects many chemical reactions in the soil. As a result, soil texture provides a useful tool for predicting profile water relations, nutrient status, pH buffering capacity, erodibility and the risk of structure decline and subsurface compaction.



soil texture (field method) - is determined in the field by the following procedure:

• Take a sample of soil sufficient to fit comfortably into the palm of the hand (separate out gravel and stones). Moisten soil with water, a little at a time, and work until it just sticks to your fingers and is not mushy. This is when its water content is approximately at "field capacity".

• Continue moistening and working until there is no apparent change in the ball (bolus) of soil. This usually takes 1-2 minutes.

• Attempt to make a ribbon by progressively shearing the ball between thumb and forefinger.

The behaviour of the worked soil and the length of the ribbon produced by pressing out between thumb and forefinger characterises ten selected soil texture grades as shown in Table G3 (modified from McDonald et. al., 1990).

While field texture can be used to provide an approximation of particle-size distribution as measured in the laboratory, it is a useful measure in its own right. Field texture, along with particle-size distribution, provides a guide to soil behaviour because it is influenced by other factors such as organic matter content, clay mineralogy, the presence of carbonates and the amount of sodium on exchange sites. The soils in the marshland are predominantly silty loams and silty clays.

soil texture groups (according to Northcote, 1979): 1. The Sands = sand (S), loamy sand (LS), clayey sand (CS).

2. The Sandy Loams = sandy loam (SL).

3. The Loams = Loam (L); sandy clay loam (SCL); Silty loam (ZL).

4. The Clay loams = Clay loam (CL).

5. The Light Clays = light clay (LC).

6. The Medium-Heavy Clays = Medium clay (MC), Heavy clay (HC). soil texture qualifiers - used as a prefix to refine texture description as follows:

Coarse sandy - Coarse to touch; sand grains can be seen with the naked eye.

Fine sandy - Can be felt and often heard when bolus is manipulated; sand grains seen under hand lens of 10 times magnification.

Gritty - More than 35% very coarse sand and very fine (1-3mm) gravel.

Gravelly - 35-70% of gravel by volume.

Stony - 35-70% of stones by volume.

Table G3. Soil texture from behaviour of a moist bolus (ball) (modified from McDonald et al., 1990) Texture Code Ribbon

(mm)

Ball Feel and approximate clay content

Sand S nil coherence nil to very slight

Cannot be moulded.

Clay is < 5%.

Loamy sand LS 5 mm coherence nil to very slight

Cannot be moulded.

Clay is 5-10%.



Clayey sand CS 5-15 mm coherence very slight

Cannot be moulded.

Clay is 5-10%.

Sandy loam SL 15-25 mm coherence slight

Sandy to touch.

Clay is 10-20%

Loam L 25 mm coherent and rather spongy

Smooth feel when manipulated but with no obvious sandiness; may be greasy to touch if organic matter is present. Clay is about 25%.

Silty Loam ZL 25 mm coherent and rather spongy

As above but more silky feel

Sandy clay loam

SCL 25-40 mm strongly coherent

Sandy to touch; medium size sands grains visible in finer matrix. Clay is about 20% - 30%.

Clay loam CL 40-50 mm

coherent and plastic

Smooth to manipulate. Clay is about 30% - 35%.

Silty clay loam

ZCL 40-50 mm Coherent, plastic, silky

Smooth and silky to touch. Clay is about 30% - 35% and silt >25%.

Light clay LC 50-75 mm plastic Smooth to touch; slight to shearing between thumb and forefinger. Clay is about 35% - 40%.

Medium clay MC >75 mm smooth plastic

Handles like plasticine and can be moulded into rods without fracture; has some resistance to ribboning shear. Clay is about 45% - 55%.

Heavy clay HC >75 mm smooth plastic

Handles like stiff plasticine; can be moulded into rods without fracture; has firm resistance to ribboning shear. Clay is >55%

Texture modifies (e.g. silt =Z) precede clay texture codes: ZLC = silty light clay

soil texture (laboratory method): sandy loam - soil material that contains 7-20% clay, >52% sand, and the percentage of silt plus twice the percentage of clay is 30 or more; or less than 7% clay, less than 50% silt, and more than 43% sand.

clay loam - soil material that contains 27-40% clay and 20-45% sand.

loam - soil material that contains 7-27% clay, 28-50% silt, and <52% sand.

loamy sand - soil material that contains between 70-91% sand and the percentage of silt plus 1.5 times the percentage of clay is 15 or more; and the percentage of silt plus twice the percentage of clay is less than 30.

sandy clay loam - soil material that contains 20-35% clay, <28% silt, and >45% sand.

sandy loam - soil material that contains 7-20% clay, >52% sand, and the percentage of silt plus twice the percentage of clay is 30 or more; or less than 7% clay, less than 50% silt, and more than 43% sand.

soil colour - This is the most readily identified morphological characteristic. Although the presence and form of iron oxides (red and yellow) and organic matter (dark colours) are the main features determining a soil's colour, it can also be influenced by other minerals such as calcium carbonate (white). Colour is commonly used to identify horizon changes down a profile. It can also provide an indicator of the soil's organic matter content and fertility levels, as well as redox condition, which relates to soil aeration (drainage). Dark browns or blacks typically result from high organic matter content. High chroma reds and yellows are typically found where iron minerals are present under oxidising conditions. Properties influenced by coloured iron oxides



include retention of anions such as phosphate. Uniform bright reds commonly indicate good drainage. Pale colours indicate the absence of iron oxide, due to its removal through leaching or reduction. Low chroma gley (bluish or greenish grey) may be found in severely waterlogged conditions where reduction is almost complete. Mottles (patches of red, orange or yellow in a pale matrix) are concentrations of iron oxides formed by redistribution during periodic waterlogging.

While soil colour differences are easily recognized by most people, absolute colours are difficult to describe quantitatively and there are inconsistencies between individuals. This variability can be overcome by using the Munsell Soil Colour Chart system, developed to standardise soil colour descriptions.

soil structure - relates to the way soil particles are arranged and bound together. It can be described from the visible appearance of in-situ soil in a dry to slightly moist state. The size, shape and nature of soil aggregates play a major role in determining profile hydrology and the ease of root penetration. Where soil particles are bound together in natural forming aggregates (peds) separated by irregular spaces, the soil is described as having structure. The degree and nature of structure development is largely determined by clay mineralogy and organic matter content. Where peds are absent, the soil is described as being uniform or structureless. In a single-grained material, the soil is loose and incoherent. In a massive material, it is structureless and coherent. Soils that are single-grained or have moderately to strongly developed small peds tend to be well aerated and freely drained. Plant roots grow easily through these soils and water infiltrates readily. Where the soil is composed of accommodated peds, there are often restrictions to penetration of roots, air and water, and drainage may be poor. Similar problems can be experienced in massive soils, depending on the soil texture and consistence.

soil consistence - is a measure of the strength and coherence of a soil. Soil consistence or consistency is also called rupture resistance and is a very readily observed feature in the field. In agricultural systems, this morphological attribute gives an indication of root impedance. Factors that influence consistence include soil texture, mechanical compaction, organic matter content and cementing agents. Soil consistence can be very readily measured in the field by determining the magnitude of finger, foot or hammer force needed to cause disruption or distortion to a 25 to 30 mm block of soil. Soil consistence in a dry state may be loose, soft, hard or rigid, wheras in a moist state it may be loose, friable, firm or rigid (Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993). It is very important to record the soil moisture status when describing consistence, as this has a great influence on the degree of coherence. For example the same material may be described as being both slightly hard (dry) and friable (moist).

concentrations (or segregations) - are accumulations of distinct mineral particles such as iron oxides or calcium carbonates. They occur in a variety of sizes, shapes and forms and can be either soft or hard. Segregations/concentrations can have a major influence on soil chemical and physical properties. For example, in the drained marshlands, cemented ironstone fragments formed by high temperature (>500 degrees centigrade) burning are common. Very high concentrations of cemented ironstone fragments will increase permeability and provide a physical restriction to the root growth of sensitive plants.

Being composed mostly of gravel (up to 60%), these soils have larger pores than those found in finer textured soils. Because these large pores have a poor ability to hold water, the gravely silty loams are well to rapidly drained and have a poor ability to hold water and nutrients. As most of the burnt soils have surface layers with low clay and organic matter contents, profiles with various ped structures are not common in this region. Consequently, these gravely silty soils display mostly either single grained or massive structure.



Appendix 1 Summary of field and laboratory methods

Soil and sediment sampling

Core samples

A Dormer Engineering “Undisturbed Wet Sampler” was used to collect sediment cores in PVC tube. Cutting tip diameter is 34mm and PVC tube 35mm Pit samples Pits were dug using a spade and grab samples taken from the interior of sediment blocks of around 10cm x 15cm x 20cm excavated with the spade. Sample storage Cores and grab samples were sub-sampled into 100g opaque polystyrene jars. Larger samples were placed in clip seal PVC bags. All samples were transferred to a freezer on return to Australia kept frozen until further processing occurred. Water sampling

Samples of surface and pore waters were obtained as grab samples. Electrical conductivity, pH and alkalinity were measured in the field on an unfiltered sample.. The remainder was collected in a 125mL polyethylene bottle and preserved with analytical reagent grade hydrochloric acid for the analysis of major ions and nutrients. Prior to each sampling trip, all sampling bottles and filtering equipment were washed in P-free detergent and in a mild acid bath before thorough rinsing with distilled deionised water.

Field tests

pH and Eh measurement

Sulfides and hydrogen sulfide gas can poison the reference electrode of combined pH and combined ORP (Redox/Eh) electrodes. Double junction or similar (eg Ionode IJ series intermediate junction electrodes) should be used and the filling solution changed at regular intervals according to the manufacturers instructions. Eh values are always corrected to the value versus the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) for reporting. Platinum electrodes can also be poisoned and the calibration should be regularly checked using solutions recommended by the manufacturer. Alternatively, Bartlett (1986) provides detailed instructions on the care and calibration of platinum electrodes. Note for field measurements where there are no strong redox couples, good calibration and response to Zobell’s solution does not guarantee adequate field performance. The correction from the field meter reading depends on whether a silver-silver chloride or calomel reference was used and the concentration of the filling solution. Robust field meters should be used as the environment is aggressive.

Peroxide test

We recommend the use of analytical reagent grade hydrogen peroxide (30% vol/vol). Hydrogen peroxide is stabilised with acid (sulfuric or phosphoric) and technical grade can have both a low pH and considerable acidity. The pH of each batch of hydrogen peroxide should be tested and if necessary the pH of the hydrogen peroxide used in the field should be adjusted with a solution of sodium hydroxide. Note that once the pH has been adjusted the hydrogen peroxide decomposes and should be discarded at the end of the trip.



Analyte methods for soil samples Analyte Method Reference

Electrical Conductivity (EC) pH1:5 , pH0.01M CaCl2

and Cl–

These parameters were determined in a 1:5 soil water extract. pH and EC are measured directly in the extract and chloride in a filtered sub-sample.

Australian Laboratory Handbook Of Soil And Water Chemical Methods 3A1,4A1, 4B2 and 5A2

Total carbon and total sulfur

These analytes were determined by high frequency induction furnace with infra red detection (LECO CNS2000)

Australian Laboratory Handbook Of Soil And Water Chemical Method 6B3,

Carbonate Carbonate is determined manometrically

Australian Laboratory Handbook Of Soil And Water Chemical Method 19B1

Chromium reducible sulfur

Reduced sulfur was determined by reacting the sample with Cr powder in HCl, followed by collection of the evolved H2S(g) and its titration

Southern Cross University Environmental Analysis Laboratory: Acid Sulfate Soils Laboratory Methods Guidelines November 1997

Acid extractable elements

A multi-element acid leach followed by ICP OES analysis of the digest

US EPA Method 3051: Microwave assisted acid digestion of sediments, sludges, soils, and oils. In Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, 3rd edition, 3rd update; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 1995.

Total elements

A mixed acid digestion (incl. HF/HClO4) of the sample followed by ICP-OES and ICP-MS. Al, Ba, Cr, Ti, W, Zr, Sn are acid soluble values only. K may report low due to the solubility of potassium perchlorate.

AMDEL Methods IC3E,M and R



Appendix 2 – Site description, morphological description of soil profiles and samples, field measurement of soil and water (pH, EC, Eh)

Soil pits were dug to a depth of about 75 cm and a hand auger was used to sample soils down to 1.5m. A representative profile face in the pit was selected and the master horizons demarcated and photographed. Soils were described according to the USDA Field book for describing and sampling soils, Version 2.0 (Schoeneberger et al., 2002) and Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook (McDonald et al., 1990; See also Glossary for soil texture criteria). Soils were classified according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999) and The World Reference Base for soil resources (WRB) (FAO, 1998). The following morphological features were described:

Horizon thickness (cm).

Horizon type using horizonation nomenclature from: Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999) and Schoeneberger et al., (2002). Where: p = ploughed layer, z = pedogenic salts more soluble than gypsum, y = pedogenic gypsum, m = strong cementation; t = clay accumulation, k = pedogenic carbonates, n = high ESP; g=strong gley; a = highly decomposed organic matter, c = concretions, e = moderately decomposed organic matter).

Horizon boundary (Bnd) (mm): VA= very abrupt(<5), A=abrupt(5-20), C=Clear (20-50), G=Gradual (50-150), D=Diffuse (>150). / S=Smooth, W=Wavy, I=Irregular, B=Broken.

Matrix color, mottle colour using the standard soil munsell colur notation, mottle type abundance, size contrast).

Texture, using the Australian Soil and Land Survey: Field Handbook: McDonald et al. (1990) (see Glossary). Where: S=Sand, LS=Loamy Sand, CS=Clayey Sand, SL=Sandy Loam, L=Loam, ZL=Silty loam, ZCL= Silty Clay Loam, ZLC= Silty Light Clay, MC=Medium Clay, HC=Heavy clay.

Consistence (dry/force/strength): L=Loose; S=Soft; SH= Sligtly Hard; MH= Moderately Hard; HA = Hard; VH=Very Hard; EH= Extremely Hard; R= Rigid; VR= Very Rigid.

Structure, gr=Granular; abk=Angular blocky; sbk=Subangular blocky; pl=Platy; WEG=wedge; sg= single grain; m=Massive); pr=Prismatic; cpr=Columnar; PO=Polyhedral; Grade: 0=structureless/apedal; 1=weak; 2=moderate; 3=strong. Size (mm): vf(<2); f(2-5); m(5-10); co(50-100); vc(100-500); ec(>500).

Pores/roots: none=No roots or pores; 1=Few (<1/area); 2=Common (1-5/area); 3=Many(>5/area). Size Class: (mm): MACROPORES of DIAMETER (mm): vf= Very fine(<2), f=Fine(1-2), m=Medium(2-5); co=Coarse (>5); vc= (>5); Dt= Dendtitic; IG= Irregular; TU=Tubuylar; VE= Vesicular. Cracks = see reference #5.

Concentrations: FD=finely disseminated, M=Masses, N=Nodules, C=concretions; X=Crystals, CA = calcite/carbonates, GY=Gypsum, SA=Salts, B= biological; SF=Shell fragments; RS=root sheaths; SI =Silica, CB= Clay bodies. ABUNDANCE (%): f= few(<2), c=Few(2-20), m=Many (>20).SIZE (mm): 1=Fine(<2); 2=Medium(2-6); 3= Coarse(6-20); 4=Very Coarse(20-76); 5=Extremely Coarse(>76). SHAPE: C= cylindrical; D=Dendritic; I = Irregular; P=Platy; R= Reticulate; S=Spherical; T=Threads; LOCATION: MAT=matrix; PED faces= APF; on surfaces along pores = SPO; on surfaces along root channels = RPO. CONTRAST: S=Sharp, C=Clear, D=Diffuse



Rock and other fragments (texture modifiers): gravelly (15-35%), very gravelly (35-<60), extremely gravelly (60-90); WD = Woody; MK = Mucky, PT = Peaty; CEM = Cemented; GYP = Gypsiferous.

Reaction or fizz to 1N HCl (H2)/calcareous: NE= Noneffervescent/ no bubbles; VS= very slightly effervescent; SL=slightly effervescent; ST=strongly effervescent; VE= violently effervescent.

Soil profile/sample notation used: IM where I=Iraq; M=marshlands (IM 1 to IM 24)

Water sample notation used: W 1- 17

Region: Al Azair

Tuesday 10th February, 2004 Area: Shakhra village (IM 1 and IM 2 are adjacent paired sites).

IM 1 Non productive, degraded site (no wheat/barley being grown). Highly saline area approximately 500 m from canal. Area was drained in about 1982 (i.e. for over

20 years). The area is barren - almost devoid of vegetation (Figure 15). Apparently, the military did not permit farmers to irrigate this area. According to the local farmers the area has never been irrigated since it was drained. Dispersed clayey surface crusts are clearly evident in patches (50 – 80 cm diameter) covering most of the area (70% of area). Salt crusts (0-0.5cm) are also evident in places (30%) with salt efflorescences (appears to be mixture of halite, carbonates, Mg and sulfate salts (sample taken for XRD – to confirm type of salts: see Table 2).

GPS: N: 3120 40.8; E: 473116.1

Saline Gypseous soil (Tables 4 and 5) (Saline/sodic calcareous grey soil with high amounts of gypsum accumulation at depth (>50cm)

Gypsic Aquisalid (Soil Survey Staff, 1999) transitional to: Typic Natrigypsid or Sodic Haplocalcid (Soil Survey Staff, 1999)

Gypsi-Gleyic Calcisol (Sodic) transitional to Calci-Gleyic Gypsisol (Sodic) (FAO, 1998).

Sample number

Depth (cm) Horizon Bnd Colour (Munsell) Texture

Consis-tence (dry)

Struc-ture Pores Roots

HCl fizz

Concentrations CAX=calcite GYX=gypsum SAX=salts)

IM 1.1 0-1 Az AW 10YR 4/1 Dark grey ZCL SH 2m, pl 1,vf,DT 1,f,P ST,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 1.2 0-5 Akg1 CW 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark grey ZCL MH 1f, pl 1,vf, DT None VE,H2 CAX,f,2,T,MAT,C IM 1.3 5-10 Akg2 CW 2.5Y 4/2 Dark grey ZCL HA 2m,sbk 1,vf, DT None VE,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 1.4 10-20 Btkg1 CW 2.5Y 4/2 Dark grey ZLC VH 2m,sbk 1,vf, DT None VE,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 1.5 20-50 2Btk2 CW 10YR 5/2 Greyish brown ZLC VH m 1,vf, DT None VE,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 1.6 50-70 2Btky1 GW 10YR 5/3 Brown ZLC VH m 2,vf, DT None VE,H2 CAX/GYX,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 1.7 70-80 2Btky2 CW 10YR 5/3 Brown ZLC VH m 2,vf, DT None VE,H2 CAX/GYX,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 1.8 90-100 2Btky3 GW 10YR 4/2 Dark grey-brown ZLC VH m 2,vf, DT None VE,H2 CAX/GYX,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 1.9 >120 2Btky4 10YR 5/3 Brown ZLC VH m 1,vf, DT None VE,H2 CAX/GYX,f,1,T,MAT,C

IM 2 Productive wheat/barley site – approximately 100 m from canal and 200 m from site IM 1.

There is no evidence of surface soil salinity (salt efflorescences) at the site but there is clear evidence there is are dispersed sodic clay layers/crusts in places. Where the crust is thick (2-4mm) there is reduced barley yields (See photograph in figure 5). The soils is a deep sodic, calcareous brownish soil with gypsum accumulation at depth (>80cm).

GPS: N: 3120 40.8; E: 473116.1



Gypsic grey soil (Tables 4 and 5)

Sodic calcareous soil with gypsum accumulation at depth

Typic Natrigypsid or Sodic Haplocalcid (Soil Survey Staff, 1999)

Calci-Gleyic Gypsisol (Sodic) or Gypsi-Gleyic Calcisol (Sodic) (FAO, 1998).

Sample number


Consis-

Tence(dry)


HCl fizz

Concentrations CAX=carbonate GYX=gypsum SAX=salts)

IM 2.1 0-5 An AW 5Y 6/1 Grey ZCL SH 2m,pl 1,vf, DT 2,f,P ST,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 2.2 5-25 Akg1 AW 2.5Y 4/1 Dark grey ZCL MH 2m,pl 1,vf, DT 1,f,P VE,H2CAX,c,1,T,MAT,C IM 2.3 25-50 2Btkg AW 2.5Y 4/1 Dark grey ZLC MH 2m,sbk 1,vf, DT 1,f,P VE,H2CAX,c,1,T,MAT,C IM 2.4 50-120 2Btky1 GW 2.5Y 5/2 Greyish brown ZLC MH m 1,vf, DT None VE,H2CAX/GYX,c,1,T,MAT,C IM 2.5 >120 2Btky3 10YR 5/3 Brown ZLC MH m 1,vf, DT None VE,H2 CAX/GYX,c,1,T,MAT,C

Water: (Notation used: W 1 where W = water; 1 --- = sample number); Area: Shakhra village W 1: Canal water – from Tigris River

EC: 2.41 dS/m

Ph: 8.36

T: 15.9

W 2: Canal water – from Tigris River

EC: 2.38 dS/m

Ph: 8.30

T: 15.8

W 3: Canal water – from Tigris River

EC: 2.24 dS/m

Ph: 8.31

T: 16.2

Area: Prosperity River (small village) IM 3 Strongly salt-affected and waterlogged area - immediately adjacent (50m) to bund wall - in

drained area that was once marshland (Figure 16). The area has a scattering of houses and water is polluted. Samples were taken of the white and yellowish salt efflorescences for analyses.

Saline Calcareous soil (Tables 4 and 5)

Calic Aquisalid (Soil Survey Staff, 1999)



Gleyic-Calcic Solonchak (Aridic) (FAO, 1998).

Sample number


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz

Concentrations CAX=calcite GYX=gypsum SAX=salts)

IM 3.1 0-1 Az AW 2.5Y 7/4 Pale yellow Silty clay loam L m 1,vf, DT None ST,H2 White salt IM 3.2 0-1 Az AW 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark grey Silty clay loam L m 1,vf, DT None ST,H2 Yellowish salt IM 3.3 1-5 Bkg 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark grey LC-silty SH m 1,vf, DT None ST,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C

Water: W 4: Beside road adjacent to culverts in Prosperity River – from Tigris River

EC: 1.9 dS/m

Ph: 8.73

T: 16.7

W 5: Surface sample (10cm) From boat in Prosperity River – from Tigris River:

EC: 1.81 dS/m

Ph: 8.57

T: 16.3

W 5: Sub-surface (1m) From boat in Prosperity River – from Tigris River

EC: 1.80 dS/m

Ph: 8.59

T: 15.6

Region: Al Kahla Date: Wednesday 11th February, 2004 Area: Um Sbeta village (IM 4 and IM 5 are adjacent paired sites). IM 4 Strongly salt-affected and waterlogged area - immediately adjacent to canal and between road

(elevated with steep slopes). NOTE: several “surface drains” (50 – 80 cm deep) have been excavated around this area in an attempt to drain or flush salts from the area (saline waterlogged land).

GPS: N: 31 2040.8; E: 473126.1

Saline Calcareous soil (Table 4)



Sample

number

Depth

(cm) Horizon Bnd Colour(Munsell) Texture

Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 4.1 0-1 Apz AW 2.5Y 4/2 Dark grey-brown ZCL L 2,co, pl 2,vf,DT None ST,H2 White salt efflorescences/crust IM 4.2 0-1 Apz AW 2.5Y 4/2 Dark grey-brown ZCL L m 2,vf,DT None ST,H2 Yellowish-brown salt efflorescences IM 4.3 0-5 Apak GW 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark grey ZCL SH m 2,vf,DT None ST,H2 Peat CAX,c,2,T,MAT,C IM 4.4 5-20 Bakg1 GW 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark grey ZCL SH m 2,vf,DT None ST,H2 Peat CAX,c,2,T,MAT,C IM 4.5 20-30 Bakg2 GW 5Y 5/2 Olive grey ZLC HA m 1,vf,DT None VE,H2 Peat CAX,c,2,T,MAT,C IM 4.6 30-65 2Btkg1 GW 5Y 5/2 Olive grey ZLC VH m 1,vf,DT None VE,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C; few mottles IM 4.7 65-75 2Btkg2 5Y 6/2 Light olive grey ZMC VH m 1,vf,DT None VE,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C; few mottles Water table at 50cm:

EC 10.4dS/m, pH 7.62



Water: W 6: Canal water – from Tigris River

EC: 2.02 dS/m

Ph: 8.90

T: 15.6

W 7: Canal water – from Tigris River/ turbidity is high.

EC: 2.1 dS/m

Ph: 8.55

T: 15.2

IM 5 Productive wheat/barley site – approximately 300 m from canal and 3 km from site IM 4.

The soil is cultivated and a fairly good stand of wheat has been produced (see photograph: figure 1A.4). Sampled approximately 40 m from site immediately adjacent to the main road (just prior to turn-off to Turaba).

Duplex sodic soil (Tables 4 and 5)

Typic Natrigypsid or Sodic Haplocalcid (Soil Survey Staff, 1999)


Sample

number

Depth

(cm) Horizon Bnd Colour (Munsell) Texture

Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 5.1 0-1 Apn AW 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark grey ZCL MH 2,co, pl 2,f,DT 2,f,P ST,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 5.2 0-5 Apkn AW 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark grey ZCL SH 1,m, pl 2,f,DT 2,f,P ST,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 5.3 5-20 Apk GW 2.5Y 4/1 Dark grey ZCL MH 2,m,sbk 2,f,DT 2,f,P ST,H2 CAX,c,1,T,MAT,C IM 5.4 20-33 Bekg GW 2.5Y 4/1 Dark grey ZCL MH 2,m,sbk 1,vf,DT 2,vf,P ST,H2 CAX,c,1,T,MAT,C IM 5.5 33-50 2Btkg GW 5Y 6/2 Light olive grey ZLC VH 2,m,sbk 1,vf,DT 1,vf,P VE,H2 CAX,c,1,T,MAT,C IM 5.6 50-100 2Btkg GW 5Y 6/2 Light olive grey ZLC VH 2,m,sbk 1,vf,DT None VE,H2 CAX,c,1,T,MAT,C IM 5.7 100-120 3Btkgy 10 YR 5/3 Brown ZLC VH 2,m,sbk 2,f,DT None VE,H2 CAX/GYX,c,1,T,MAT,C Water table at 50cm: EC 10.4dS/m; pH 7.62

IM 6 Cultivated / irrigated area - approximately 40 m from the dirt road (between Um Sbetha and Al-

Kahla – approximately 2 km from the school in saline field). Large cracks and salt efflorescences (appears to be mixture of halite, carbonates, Mg and sulfate salts - sample taken for XRD – to confirm type of salts; See photograph) occur in all depression areas. We excavated a pit (photo) in the depression, which clearly shows the large cracks and a sodic columnar B horizon / and no or very poor crop growth occurs in these areas. This occurs primarily in the depression areas. On the mounds (50 cm high) the wheat growth is substantially improved because of better drainage and soil tilth. Samples were also taken of salt layers / efflorescences in the immediately adjacent uncultivated area, which was never irrigated. Huge expansive area of salt-affected soils. Clearly, the salt has accumulated in these areas because there is poor drainage at these sites. Layer 0-0.5cm has salt efflorescences (mixture of salts) and is highly friable clay layer because of clay flocculation by high salt contents in the surface layers of the soil.



E: 38 7233 47; N: 3487531.


Calic Haplosalid (Soil Survey Staff, 1999)

Vertic-Calcic Solonchak (Aridic) (FAO, 1998)

Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 6.1 0-0.5 Apz AW 10YR 4/2 Dark grey-brown ZLC L m 1,vf,DT None ST,H2 White salt efflorescences. IM 6.2 0-15 Apky AW 10YR 5/3 Brown ZMC VH 2,m,sbk 1,vf,DT None ST,H2 CAX/GYX,c,1,T,MAT,C IM 6.3 15-50 Bky 10YR 5/3 Brown ZMC VH 2,m,pl 1,vf,DT None ST,H2 CAX/GYX,c,1,T,HPF,C

Water W 8: Canal water – from Tigris River

EC: 2.55 dS/m

pH: 8.1

T: 16.5

Region: Al Chibayish Thursday 12th February, 2004. Area: Al Chibayish village (IM 7 and 8; W 9)

IM 7 (IM 7 and IM 8 are adjacent paired sites). Al Chibayish village area. Productive wheat/barley area, which is anly 50 m from the canal.

There is no evidence of salinity in the cultivated lands (IM 7) but there is some evidence (clay dispersion) that most layers / horizons are sodic. At depth the soil is clayey (heavy clay), grey matrix with few mottles and weakly calcareous (See photograph). However, immediately adjacent to the site (50 m) in a fallow row there is clear evidence of salinity (salt efflorescences IM 8).

E: 38686601; N: 3426359.

Calcic grey soil (Tables 4 and 5) Sodic calcareous soil with gleyed silty medium clay at depth.

Aquic Haplocalcid (Soil Survey Staff, 1999)

Gleyic-Calcisol (Sodic) (FAO, 1998)

Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 7.1 0-5 Apk GW 2.5Y 4/1 Dark grey ZLC MA 2,m,sbk 1,vf,DT 2,f,T ST,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C Crusts is in places. IM 7.2 5-25 Bgk GW 2.5Y 4/1 Dark grey ZLC HA m 1,vf,DT 2,vf,T ST,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C Crusts is in places. IM 7.3 25-50 Bgk GW 2.5Y 4/2 Dark grey-brown ZMC VH m 1,vf,DT 1,vf,T VE,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C; SFB,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 7.4 50-88 Bgk AW 2.5Y 4/2 Dark grey-brown ZMC VH m None None VE,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C; SFB,c,2,I,MAT,C IM 7.5 88-115 Bgkc 2.5Y 3/1 Dark grey ZMC VH m None None VE,H2 CAX,c,2,S,MAT,C; SFB,c,2,I,MAT,C

IM 8 Salt efflorescences (mixture of salts) and friable clay layer because of clay flocculation by high

salt contents in the surface layers of the soil.




Calic Haplosalid (Soil Survey Staff, 1999)

Vertic-Calcic Solonchak (Aridic) (FAO, 1998)

Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 8.1` 0-1 Azk AW 2.5Y 4/2 Dark grey-brown ZLC MA 2,co, pl 1,vf,DT None ST,H2 White salt efflorescences on crust

Water W 9: Canal water – from Tigris River tributary canal for transport of sweat water to region.

EC: 1.65 dS/m

pH: 8.42

T: 25

IM 9 Area: Al Chibayish area with islands that were drained over 20 years but which are now being

reflooded from water from the Euphrates river (Figures 1 to 3). Marsh Arab family recently (past thee weeks) moved back to live on island (Figure 4). Samples were taken on the island from recent pits that were excavated by the farmer to grow trees (Figure A1.X). Soils on the island are probably thousands of years old. There is evidence that the top 0-40 cm layer has been mostly transported to mound Island – possibly 1000’s of years ago – but that it has had copious amounts of kitchen refuse (fishbones, shells etc.) added to the soil – because of its black colour and high organic matter (Black peaty silty loam) with few lime and gypsum crystals.

E: 38694472; N: 3428034.

Anthropogenic dredgic soil (Tables 4 and 5).

Plaggic Anthrosol (FAO, 1998) has a “plaggic horizon”, which is produced by long-continued addition of “pot stable” bedding material, mixture of organic manure (buffalo) and earth (dredged material from marshlands) or Hortic Anthrosol has a black “hortic properties”, which is formed by addition of kitchen refuse (fishbones, shells etc.).

Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 9.1 0-15 Ck AW 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark grey ZLC SH 1,f,pl 1,vf,DT 1,vf,T ST,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C Crusts is in places. IM 9.2 15-40 Cke AW 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark grey ZLC MH 1,f,sbk 1,vf,DT 1,vf,T ST,H2 Peat CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C IM 9.3 40-70 2Bgkya 10YR 5/2 Greyish brown ZMC VH m 1,vf,DT 1,vf,T VE,H2 Peat CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C

IM 10 IM 10.1 (0-15 cm) is a composite sample collected from 4 sites on Island. The samples consist of

a light grey dispersed silty clay loam; mostly transported to mound Island – possibly 1000’s of years ago.

Anthropogenic dredgic soil (Tables 4 and 5)

Plaggic Anthrosol (FAO, 1998)



Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


Sample Depth Horizon Bnd Colour Texture Consis- Struc- Pores Roots HCl Concentrations IM 10.1 0-15 Ck 2.5Y 3/1 Very dark grey ZLC SH 1,f,pl 1,vf,DT 1,vf,T ST,H2 CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C Crusts is in places

W 12: Recently flooded water from Euphrates surrounding the island.

EC: 3.87 dS/m

pH: 8.50

T: 24.3

There is clear evidence for high dissolved organic carbon content and high iron content in the reflooded waters surrounding the island (i.e. reddish iron colorations to water along the edges of island).

IM 11 Area: Al Chibayish small village: (IM 11 and M1 12 are paired sites: drained burnt soil and

drained soil comparison)

E: 38700659; N: 3427096.

This marshland soil was drained over 20 years ago and was subsequently subjected to strong burning. Temperatures must have reached over 500 C because between 15 to 50 cm of the topsoil layer has been irreversibly transformed into hard cemented (fused) ceramic-like porous fragments. These fragments constitute 60 to 90% of the soil (hence gravelly modifier). The strongly burnt soil fragments have a reddish to pink to cream color. A black weakly burnt layer consisting of mainly of charcoal occurs at a depth of 15-50 cm. These two soil layers have a high magnetic susceptibility (see Appendix 2). According farmers soils that comprise high amounts of burned soil do not produce good crops. These drained burnt soils are not able to classified correctly because such criteria do not exist in any soil classification system. Consequently, new criteria, based on properties acquired from this study will be submitted to both International bodies. Clearly, this soil constitutes a new soil type.

Anthropogenic Fusic (burned) soil (Tables 4 and 5) Sodic calcareous soil with relict gleying, silty medium clay at depth and high amounts (>60%) of cemented burnt fragments.

Sodic Haplocalcid (Soil Survey Staff, 1999)

Hypercalcic-Calcisol (Sodic/cemented burnt fragments) (FAO, 1998)

Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 11.1 0-15 Am AW 7.5YR 5/4 Brown ZLgravelly EH ceramic 3,f,DT None VS,H2 10YR 7/4 pale brown (dry) red, pink, cream Strongly burnt magnetic IM 11.2 15-20 Oe AW 2.5Y 2.5/1 Black ZCL SH 1,f,sbk 3,f,DT None ST,H2 Weakly burnt (>500 C) charcoal; magnetic IM 11.3 20-50 Btgk 2.5Y 4/1 Dark grey ZLC MH 2,f,sbk 3,f,DT 2,vf,T ST,H2 SFB/CAX,f,1,T,MAT,C Few shells

IM 12 Drained soil – as above but no evidence of burning. The surface layer (0-10 cm) comprises a

dried peaty silty loam with abundant remnants of marshland roots present. Some small shells, few lime and gypsum crystals are also evident – and salts.



Calcic Grey soil (Tables 4 and 5) Sodic calcareous soil with “relict gleying”, silty medium clay at depth.



Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 12.1 0-10 Oeg AW 2.5Y 3/1 Dark grey ZCL SH 1,f,sbk 3,f,DT 2,vf,T VS,H2 Mottles 7.5YR 5/6 Strg brown, M, EX, f; 1, D IM 12.2 10-25 Oekg AW 2.5Y 3/1 Dark grey ZLC MH 2,f,sbk 3,f,DT 2,vf,T ST,H2 Mottles 7.5 YR 5/6 Strg brown, M, EX, f; 1, D IM 12.3 25-50 Bgk AW 2.5Y 4/2 Dark grey-brown ZLC VH m 1,f,DT None ST,H2 Mottles 10YR 6/4 yell- brown, M, EX, f; 1, F SFB/CAX,f,1,T,MAT,F IM 12.4 300-350 2Bgk 2.5Y 6/3 Light grey ZLC VH m 1,f,DT None ST,H2 Mottles 10YR 6/4 yell- brown, M, EX, f; 1, D SFB/CAX,f,1,T,MAT,F

Region: Al Kahla Saturday 14th February, 2004 Area: Taruba IM 14 E: 38737915; N: 348801 (200 m from Levee bank and 20 m from road, water is deep because of

close locality to deep canal). Cultivated land. Locals want to continue to cultivate this land because of relatively good yields. However, there is some evidence that soil could be sodic.


Typic Natrigypsid or Typic Calcigypsid


Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 14.1 0-5 Ap AW 2.5Y 2.5/1 Black ZCL SH 1,f,gr 2,vf,DT 3,vf,T ST,H2 CAX, f,1,T,MAT,C IM 14.2 5-25 Bgky1 GW 5Y 7/3 Pale yellow ZLC MH m 1,vf,DT 1,vf,T ST,H2 CAX/GYX,m,2,I,MAT,C IM 14.3 25-50 Bgky2 GW 5Y 6/3 Pale olive ZLC MH m 2,vf,DT None VE,H2 CAX/GYX,m,2,I,MAT,C IM 14.4 50-80 Bgky3 2.5Y 5/2 Greyish brown ZLC MH m 2,vf,DT None VE,H3 CAX/GYX,m,2,I,MAT,C

IM 15 E: 38 739 021; N: 3488790. Uncultivated site on island (possibly been cultivated and inhabited

for 1000’s of years) this area was never drained. Composite sample taken of soil around the island from five sites.

Anthropogenic garbic soil (Tables 4 and 5)

Plaggic Anthrosol (FAO, 1998) has a “plaggic horizon”, which is produced by long-continued addition of “pot stable” bedding material, mixture of organic manure (buffalo) and earth (dredged material from marshlands) or Hortic Anthrosol has a black “hortic properties”, which is formed by addition of kitchen refuse (fishbones, shells etc.).

Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 15.1 0-20 C GW 10YR 5/3 Brown ZLC MH 1,f,sbk 1,vf,DT 1,vf,T ST,H2 Composite sample; burned ceramic frags



IM 16 E: 38 739 682; N: 3488581. Uncultivated site 25 metres from levee. A highly saline water table

(38.7 dS/m) is at 50cm. This marshland soil was drained over 20 years ago and was subsequently subjected to strong burning. Temperatures must have reached over 500 C because between 15 to 50 cm of the topsoil layer has been irreversibly transformed into hard cemented (fused) ceramic-like porous fragments. The burned soil layer has a much higher magnetic susceptibility than the unburned soil layer (see Appendix 2). According farmers soils that comprise high amounts of burned soil do not produce good crops. The EC of water taken at a depth of 50 cm indicates that this soil is progressively becoming saline and sodic.


Typic Natrigypsid


Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 16.1 0-1a A AW 5Y 5/1 Grey ZCL SH 1,f,gr 1,vf,DT 1,vf,T ST,H2 Unburned crust 0-1b A AW Black ZCL SH ceramic 1,vf,DT None ST,H3 Burned crust; ceramic, charcoal fragments 0-5 Ak GW 5Y 5/1 Grey ZCL SH 1,f,gr 1,vf,DT 1,vf,T ST,H4 CAX, f,1,T,MAT,C IM 16.2 5-25 Bkgy1 GW 5Y 6/2 Light olive grey ZLC HA 1,f,sbk 1,vf,DT 1,vf,T ST,H2 CAX/GYX,f,1,I,MAT,C IM 16.3 25-50 Bkyg2 AW 5Y 5/2 Olive grey ZLC HA m 2,vf,DT None ST,H2 CAX/GYX,m,2,I,MAT,C IM 16.4 50-72 2Wg 2.5Y 5/2 Greyish brown ZMC HA m 2,vf,DT None ST,H3 CAX/GYX,m,2,I,MAT,C

W 13: Water from water table at 50 to 75cm.

EC: 38.7 dS/m

pH: 7.56

T: 21.2

W 12: Water from seepage in levee bank

EC: 23.4 dS/m

pH: 8.21

T: 21.2

IM 17 E: 38 740496; N: 3486575. Uncultivated site on island (possibly been cultivated and inhabited

for 1000’s of years) this area was never drained. Composite sample taken of soil around the island from two sites.

W 14: Water from water table at 35 cm.

EC: 2.16 dS/m; pH: 7.88; Temp: 21.2 C

Region: Al Kahla, Sunday 15th February, 2004) Area: Taruba IM 18 E: 38 740445; N: 3485433. Marshland site drained and burned, uncultivated site.

This marshland soil was drained 15 years ago and was subsequently subjected to strong burning. Temperatures must have reached over 500 C because between 20 to 50 cm of the topsoil has been irreversibly transformed into hard cemented (fused) ceramic-like porous fragments.



These fragments constitute 60 to 90% of the soil (hence gravelly modifier). The strongly burned soil fragments have a reddish to pink to cream color. A black weakly burnt layer consisting of mainly of charcoal occurs at a depth of 20-50 cm. These two soil layers have high magnetic susceptibility (see Appendix 4) because of the formation of maghemite, which forms at high temperatures (>400 C) under reducing conditions (high carbon monoxide concentrations.

According farmers soils that comprise high amounts of burned soil do not produce good crops. Similar to site IM 11, this drained burnt soil cannot be classified correctly because suitable criteria have not yet been published in any major soil classification system. Consequently, this soil will form the basis to develop new criteria. In this soil several very hard burnt and unburned ferruginous pipestems will be studied.

Anthropogenic Fusic (burned) soil (Tables 4 and 5). Sodic calcareous soil with relict gleying, silty medium clay at depth and high amounts (>60%) of cemented burnt fragments.



Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 18.1a 0-20 Am AW 7.5 YR 5/4 Brown (80%) ZLgravelly EH ceramic 3,f,DT None SL,H2 porous ceramic-like 10YR 7/4 pale brown (Dry) cemented 7.5YR 7/4 ink (dry) 15% burned high T >500 C 2.5YR 5/6 red (dry) 5% IM 18.1b 0-20 Am AW 10R 3/4 Dusky red ZLgravelly VR ceramic f,vf,DT None VS,H2 Feruginous pipestem Burned IM 18.1c 0-20 Am AW 10YR 5/6 Yellowish brown ZLgravelly VR ceramic f,vf,DT None VS,H3 Feruginous pipestem Unburned IM 18.2 20-50 Oe AW 10YR 2/1 Black ZCLpeaty SH 2,f,sbk 3,f,DT None ST,H2 Charcoal fragments IM 18.3 50-100 Btg AW 5Y 3/1 Very dark grey ZLC MH 2,vk,pl 3,f,DT 2,vf,T ST,H2 SFB/CAX,f,1,T,MAT,F IM 18.4 100-300 2Bg 5Y 6/3 Pale olive ZLC VH 2,vk,pl 2,f,DT 2,vf,T ST,H2 Mottles 7.5 YR 5/6 Strong brown, M, EX, f; 1, D SFB/CAX,f,1,T,MAT,F

IM 19 E: 38 740497; N: 3486699. Uncultivated site on island (possibly been cultivated and inhabited

for 1000’s of years) this area was never drained. Sample taken of soil on edge of island (see Photo) around island from two sites. There is evidence (layering) for the occurrence of buried layers of oganic matter.

Wet Sulfidic soil (Tables 4 and 5)

Protothionic-Fibrohistic Fluvisol (Stagnic) (FAO, 1998)

(Protothionic infers presence of sulfidic materials within 100 cm from soil surface and Fibrohistic infers having within 40cm from soil surface, a histic horizon with two thirds (by volume) organic soil material consisting of recognizable plant material.

Thapto-Histic Sulfaquents (Soil Survey Staff, 1999)

Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 19.1 0-10 Oi AW 5Y 3/1 Very dark grey ZL L m None None SL,H2 Sulfidic - dried at 80C 2.5Y 5/1 Light grey (dry) IM 19.2 10-25 2Bg 5Y 3/1 Very dark grey ZCL SH m None None VE,H2 Sulfidic - dried at 80C 2.5Y 5/1 Light grey (dry) EC = 2.4 dS/m pH 7.23, Eh -150 mV

W 15: Water from edge of island in marshland: EC: 1.75 dS/m, pH: 8.13, T: 22.8



Region: Suq Al-Shiukh Sunday 15th February, 2004) Area: Bani Asad village - Hammar reflooded marshland IM 20 N 30 51 4741 E 46 40 3877

The surface layer (0-15 cm) of mulch from the addition of reeds surrounding the houses and other dead pant materials following drainage of the marshland – provides more than adequate – food for bacterial reduction of sulfate in the water. At 15-30 cm the black sulfidic material has a very strong hydrogen sulfide smell.

Wet sulfidic soil (Tables 4 and 5) - when this layer is trampled (see photograph) sulfidic material rises to the surface.




Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 20.1 0-15 Oi AW 5Y 5/2 Olive grey ZL L m None None SL,H2 Sulfidic - dried at 80C 2.5Y 7/1 Light grey (dry) EC = 20.9 dS/m, pH 6.94, Eh -205 mV IM 20.2 15-20 2Bg 5Y 5/2 Olive grey ZCL SH m None None VE,H2 Sulfidic - dried at 80C 2.5Y 7/1 Light grey (dry) EC = 20.4 dS/m pH 7.04, Eh -348 mV

Water Flooded water – from Euphrates – surrounding island

Area: Bani Asad village

IM 21 IM 21.1 (10 – 30 cm) under water on edge of island.

Under water on edge of island, Very black while wet.

Wet sulfidic soil (Table XX)




Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 21.1 0-10 Oe AW 5Y 5/2 Olive grey ZL L m None None SL,H2 H2S2 gas bubbles; 5Y 7/2 Light grey (dry) EC = 4.47 dS/m, pH 8.23, Eh -157 mV



IM 21.2 10-30 2Wg 5Y 5/2 Olive grey ZCL SH m None None VE,H2 Sulfidic (dried at 80C). 5Y 7/2 Light grey (dry) H2S2 gas bubbles EC = 12.4 dS/m pH 8.12, Eh -305 mV

Sub-sample of fresh sample is frozen in RMH's freezer.

IM 22 This clay underlies soils described at IM 20 and 21. IM 22.1 is a silty light clay material at a depth of 10 – 30 cm, which is used to elevate or mound the islands. This silty clay is also used to make their houses.

Anthropogenic dredgic soil (Tables 4 and 5)

Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 22.1 10-30 Cg AW 5Y 7/2 Light grey ZMC VH m None None SL,H2 mounded on island

IM 23 Sample of white salt efflorescences/crust from a saline slick on the edge of the Hammar marsh.




Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 23.1 0-5 Az AW 5Y 5/2 Olive grey ZLC L 1,f,pl 1,vf,DT None ST,H2 White salt efflorescences/crust

IM 24 Area Turaba village Sample of white salt efflorescences/crust from a saline slick adjacent to the irrigation canal in the

village at Turaba.




Sample

number

Depth


Consis-tence (dry)


HCl fizz


IM 24.1 0-2 Az AW 5Y 5/2 Olive grey ZLC L 1,f,pl 1,vf,DT None ST, H2 White salt efflorescences/crust



Appendix 3 –Soil chemical and geochemical analyses

Table A3.1: Electrical conductivity, pH, chloride, organic carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and bicarbonate extractable P

A.D. E.C. pH pH Total Total Total HCO3-

Sample Moist (0.01M Cl C(Leco) Org.C N(Leco) S(Leco) ext.PI.D. % dS/m CaCl2) mg/kg % % % % mg/kgIM 1.2 0-5 6.4 11.4 8.2 8.2 14800 6.6 3.0 0.30 2.1 49IM 1.3 5-10 4.9 15.4 8.4 8.4 22700 5.5 2.0 0.18 0.9 17IM 1.4 10-20 6.4 12.2 8.5 8.5 15700 5.3 1.0 0.10 0.7 12IM 1.5 20-50 4.1 13.1 8.6 8.5 18300 4.6 0.3 0.05 0.5 8IM 1.6 50-70 4.5 9.8 8.7 8.6 11100 4.2 0.2 0.03 1.3 5IM 1.7 70-80 5.2 5.9 8.7 8.6 5200 4.1 0.1 0.02 2.2 6IM 1.8 90-100 4.1 5.9 8.7 8.6 4900 4.3 0.1 0.02 1.4 10IM 1.9 >120 5.3 6.8 8.7 8.6 6100 3.5 0.2 0.03 0.9 9IM 2.1 0-5 11IM 2.2 5-25 6.2 3.5 8.2 8.1 1300 6.7 1.9 0.17 0.6 15IM 2.3 25-50 5.3 4.0 8.4 8.3 2100 6.3 1.4 0.14 0.5 14IM 2.4 50-120 5.6 3.6 8.5 8.4 1600 5.0 0.2 0.03 2.1 5IM 2.5 >120 4.3 3.8 8.6 8.5 1600 5.3 0.1 0.02 1.7 6IM 3.1 0-1 6.0 75.0 9.5 9.4 83200 5.1 4.1 0.32 10.0 310IM 3.2 0-1 7.3 73.0 8.8 8.8 146000 6.4 5.2 0.39 6.2 230IM 3.3 1-5 6.7 32.0 8.7 8.7 50600 9.4 7.4 0.57 3.3 290IM 4.1 0-1 66.2 9.1 9.1 18900 2.8 1.7 0.2 7.1 22IM 4.2 0-1 62IM 4.3 0-5 10.2 18.0 8.7 8.7 20900 8.3 5.3 0.50 3.2 58IM 4.4 5-20 10.4 8.5 8.2 8.1 6200 10.9 8.3 0.68 2.6 37IM 4.5 20-30 5.2 5.7 8.1 8.0 2900 10.9 7.0 0.51 1.8 28IM 4.6 30-65 3.1 3.4 8.2 8.1 540 6.2 1.1 0.08 0.7 11IM 4.7 65-75 3.6 2.9 8.2 8.1 230 5.3 0.3 0.03 1.0 5IM 5.1 0-1 4.5 3.2 7.6 7.5 990 8.6 6.2 0.56 0.8 40IM 5.2 0-5 4.4 3.7 7.9 7.8 1600 6.4 4.3 0.42 0.9 53IM 5.3 5-20 9.3 4.1 8.0 7.9 1900 8.3 5.6 0.51 1.6 37IM 5.4 20-33 4.1 4.1 8.1 8.0 2300 7.1 2.5 0.20 1.0 20IM 5.5 33-50 3.5 4.4 8.1 8.0 2500 6.5 1.7 0.13 0.8 8IM 5.6 50-100 3.9 4.0 8.2 8.1 2000 5.4 0.5 0.04 1.2 4IM 5.7 100-120 3.4 4.0 8.4 8.3 2100 3.7 0.1 0.02 0.8 5IM 6.1 0-0.5 3.9 42.3 9.3 9.3 58200 2.4 0.3 0.04 3.8 37IM 6.2 0-15 4.4 9.1 9.1 9.0 8600 2.9 0.4 0.05 2.7 47IM 6.3 15-50 2.6 6.7 9.0 8.8 5100 3.4 0.1 0.03 0.7 19IM 7.1 0-5 4.2 4.0 8.2 8.1 2300 6.0 2.7 0.25 0.9 38IM 7.2 5-25 4.1 4.3 8.3 8.1 2400 5.8 2.5 0.23 1.0 86IM 7.3 25-50 3.5 2.9 8.4 8.2 1700 4.6 0.7 0.07 0.2 8IM 7.4 50-88 3.6 3.2 8.5 8.3 2500 5.1 1.0 0.09 0.2 9IM 7.5 88-115 2.6 2.8 8.8 8.5 2700 5.8 1.1 0.05 0.1 7IM 9.1 0-15 3.3 0.8 8.6 7.9 490 4.9 1.9 0.18 0.1 42IM 9.2 15-40 3.6 0.9 8.4 7.9 300 4.5 1.6 0.16 0.1 13IM 9.3 40-70 3.4 1.5 8.2 8.0 630 3.7 0.4 0.07 0.1 6IM 10.1 0-15 4.1 3.5 8.0 7.9 2200 4.4 1.4 0.15 0.4 17IM 11.1 0-15 1.4 0.3 8.7 8.1 44 3.1 0.1 0.02 0.1 44IM 11.2 15-20 2.8 2.4 7.8 7.7 900 4.8 1.9 0.24 0.2 120IM 11.3 20-50 3.2 2.6 7.8 7.7 1000 6.2 3.2 0.30 0.3 39IM 12.1 0-10 3.3 1.5 7.7 7.5 200 7.4 4.4 0.38 0.2 49IM 12.2 10-25 3.3 4.5 7.8 7.7 3200 6.6 3.8 0.36 0.5 54IM 12.3 25-50 3.0 2.6 8.3 8.1 2900 4.4 1.1 0.13 0.1 12IM 12.4 300-350 2.9 5.9 8.1 8.0 10200 4.7 0.3 0.03 0.1 11IM 14.1 0-5 2.6 4.0 8.1 8.0 3000 9.0 2.4 0.27 0.9 26IM 14.2 5-25 2.7 4.2 8.4 8.3 2700 7.3 1.4 0.09 0.8 9IM 14.3 25-50 5.2 3.9 8.4 8.3 2300 3.9 0.0 0.03 2.9 2IM 14.4 50-80 3.5 4.5 8.7 8.5 2800 4.5 0.0 0.02 1.5 2IM 15.1 0-20 5.7 7.9 8.1 8.0 9000 5.7 2.6 0.27 0.8 42IM 16.1 0-1a 6.2 2.6 8.1 8.0 260 7.5 4.3 0.38 3.2 26IM 16.2 5-25 3.4 7.0 8.5 8.4 8000 7.8 2.3 0.16 1.4 9IM 16.3 25-50 2.6 4.2 8.7 8.5 4100 6.0 0.4 0.04 0.4 2IM 16.4 50-72 5.1 5.3 8.6 8.5 3900 4.1 0.2 0.04 2.2 2IM 18.1 0-20 2.3 2.0 7.9 7.8 74 2.3 0.7 0.09 0.4 120IM 18.2 20-50 4.1 2.8 7.7 7.6 690 4.6 2.8 0.33 0.6 150IM 18.3 50-100 4.9 4.4 7.8 7.7 5200 6.4 3.5 0.40 0.5 28IM 18.4 100-300 3.0 4.1 7.9 7.8 2300 7.2 2.3 0.25 0.6 33IM 19.1 0-10 4.0 3.2 7.8 7.6 3700 7.2 4.6 0.36 0.3 81IM 20.1 0-15 2.6 11.3 8.5 8.4 8300 7.9 2.1 0.18 1.4 35IM 21.1 0-10 3.1 1.5 8.1 7.8 720 6.9 2.1 0.16 0.4 27IM 22.1 10-30 4.0 2.8 8.0 7.9 840 6.8 1.7 0.13 0.6 22

(1:5 soil:water)



Table A3.2: Exchangeable cations, cation exchange capacity and ESP C.E.C.

Sample Ca Mg Na K Total (NH4) ESPI.D. %IM 1.2 0-5 8.2 6.1 5.9 0.89 21.1 14.9 40IM 1.3 5-10 5.7 7.2 8.5 1.15 22.6 17.1 49IM 1.4 10-20 5.6 6.0 7.2 1.00 19.8 14.4 50IM 1.5 20-50 5.3 4.8 7.6 1.02 18.8 14.0 54IM 1.6 50-70 5.6 4.6 7.3 0.84 18.4 13.0 56IM 1.7 70-80 5.5 4.8 7.7 0.73 18.8 13.7 56IM 1.8 90-100 5.4 5.4 7.9 0.67 19.2 13.4 59IM 1.9 >120 5.6 7.4 11.1 1.15 25.2 22.1 50IM 2.1 0-5IM 2.2 5-25 8.7 6.5 4.7 0.85 20.8 16.7 28IM 2.3 25-50 7.1 6.9 5.9 0.87 20.7 15.5 38IM 2.4 50-120 6.6 4.9 4.7 0.67 16.8 10.7 44IM 2.5 >120 5.6 4.4 6.1 0.57 16.7 10.5 58IM 3.1 0-1 1.7 25.3 286 1.97 314.9 126.1 N/AIM 3.2 0-1 1.8 22.0 189 2.10 214.7 100.4 N/AIM 3.3 1-5 2.2 24.9 56 3.71 86.5 29.0 N/AIM 4.1 0-1 2.0 20.4 256 0.7 278.7 183.4 N/AIM 4.2 0-1IM 4.3 0-5 2.0 28.7 34.6 0.98 66.2 30.1 N/AIM 4.4 5-20 4.0 23.5 18.7 0.71 46.9 35.8 52IM 4.5 20-30 5.2 19.8 12.4 0.49 37.8 29.8 42IM 4.6 30-65 6.1 9.0 5.6 0.50 21.3 17.8 32IM 4.7 65-75 7.5 7.5 3.6 0.49 19.1 15.3 24IM 5.1 0-1 23.5 7.9 1.9 1.88 35.2 32.4 6IM 5.2 0-5 17.8 8.7 5.1 2.25 33.9 29.1 17IM 5.3 5-20 16.2 12.6 5.9 1.21 35.9 32.9 18IM 5.4 20-33 10.3 8.8 4.7 0.54 24.4 22.0 21IM 5.5 33-50 8.9 7.8 4.9 0.54 22.2 26.9 18IM 5.6 50-100 8.1 7.4 4.0 0.42 19.9 17.0 23IM 5.7 100-120 6.3 10.1 5.1 0.56 22.1 19.3 26IM 6.1 0-0.5 1.1 4.8 121 0.77 127.2 45.8 N/AIM 6.2 0-15 3.9 1.7 12.9 0.86 19.4 10.5 N/AIM 6.3 15-50 4.6 1.0 11.9 0.66 18.2 13.4 89IM 7.1 0-5 9.1 10.5 4.2 0.71 24.4 25.6 16IM 7.2 5-25 9.0 11.8 5.3 0.68 26.8 24.3 22IM 7.3 25-50 7.1 10.9 7.0 0.54 25.6 24.9 28IM 7.4 50-88 7.3 12.6 7.9 0.50 28.3 26.7 30IM 7.5 88-115 4.5 8.5 5.3 0.45 18.7 16.6 32IM 9.1 0-15 14.7 4.4 3.3 1.26 23.6 26.9 12IM 9.2 15-40 16.1 6.7 2.4 0.31 25.4 27.5 9IM 9.3 40-70 16.8 7.7 2.5 0.34 27.4 24.9 10IM 10.1 0-15 18.1 6.1 3.4 0.47 28.1 23.9 14IM 11.1 0-15 9.4 1.8 0.4 1.73 13.4 12.9 3IM 11.2 15-20 17.4 4.5 1.9 1.26 25.0 20.9 9IM 11.3 20-50 17.9 6.0 1.9 1.33 27.1 22.9 8IM 12.1 0-10 21.7 3.9 0.6 1.09 27.2 25.2 2IM 12.2 10-25 16.8 7.2 2.9 0.95 27.9 24.6 12IM 12.3 25-50 15.6 6.8 3.8 0.35 26.5 23.4 16IM 12.4 300-350 10.7 4.7 3.3 0.41 19.0 17.1 19IM 14.1 0-5 10.6 6.5 2.8 0.71 20.6 13.3 21IM 14.2 5-25 7.3 7.0 4.0 0.56 18.9 11.7 34IM 14.3 25-50 8.0 9.7 5.6 0.49 23.9 16.7 34IM 14.4 50-80 6.8 9.5 4.3 0.42 21.0 14.2 31IM 15.1 0-20 13.5 9.2 5.6 0.76 29.0 23.5 24IM 16.1 0-1a 20.0 7.2 0.7 1.04 28.9 21.0 3IM 16.2 5-25 6.0 9.6 5.5 0.35 21.4 12.2 45IM 16.3 25-50 5.2 8.2 6.8 0.48 20.7 13.9 49IM 16.4 50-72 6.0 9.4 8.0 0.53 23.9 15.2 53IM 18.1 0-20 14.5 2.0 0.8 1.96 19.2 19.6 4IM 18.2 20-50 25.1 4.9 1.4 1.82 33.3 28.0 5IM 18.3 50-100 21.6 6.8 3.8 0.73 32.9 28.7 13IM 18.4 100-300 9.2 6.3 3.5 0.47 19.5 15.5 22IM 19.1 0-10 15.9 5.0 1.8 1.33 24.0 26.9 7IM 20.1 0-15 6.1 14.0 6.9 1.64 28.7 15.9 44IM 21.1 0-10 11.9 5.9 1.9 0.87 20.6 19.5 10IM 22.1 10-30 14.6 8.7 2.5 0.86 26.7 23.1 11

I---------------------------- cmol(+)/kg ----------------------------I

I--------------- Exch.Cations pH 8.5 ---------------I



Table A3.3: DTPA extractable Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn; KCl extractable Al, calcium carbonate content and particle size analysis

KCl ext.Al CO3 asSample Cu Fe Mn Zn cmol(+) CaCO3 Clay Silt SandI.D. /kg % % % % IM 1.2 0-5 1.6 8.0 6.9 0.7 0.007 29.9 23.8 25.4 12.4IM 1.3 5-10 2.2 13.1 2.2 0.4 0.006 28.9 30.8 16.5 11.7IM 1.4 10-20 1.6 8.4 1.3 0.2 0.006 36.3 28.2 14.4 12.3IM 1.5 20-50 1.6 7.1 0.6 0.2 0.005 35.1 30.4 15.5 13.1IM 1.6 50-70 1.4 7.8 0.9 0.2 0.006 33.8 28.1 16.8 13.6IM 1.7 70-80 0.9 7.1 1.0 0.2 0.007 33.2 23.8 21.4 13.5IM 1.8 90-100 1.0 8.7 1.3 0.2 0.006 34.9 26.1 18.2 13.9IM 1.9 >120 1.0 8.4 1.9 0.2 0.004 27.0 41.3 23.2 3.1IM 2.1 0-5 38.5IM 2.2 5-25 1.7 15.8 2.6 0.5 0.005 39.9 29.4 17.3 10.7IM 2.3 25-50 1.8 12.4 2.2 0.4 0.006 40.3 29.9 18.2 11.9IM 2.4 50-120 1.2 4.2 0.9 0.2 0.006 40.4 24.1 21.4 9.0IM 2.5 >120 0.8 5.0 1.0 0.1 0.004 42.6 26.0 22.5 6.2IM 3.1 0-1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 16.4 11.2 4.8IM 3.2 0-1 1.5 9.2 8.1 1.3 0.110 9.7 15.2 13.5 10.9IM 3.3 1-5 2.2 38.7 13.2 2.4 0.035 16.0 20.6 25.1 18.1IM 4.1 0-1 9.0IM 4.2 0-1 0.037IM 4.3 0-5 2.3 16.4 9.2 1.5 0.006 24.8 32.4 21.5 11.9IM 4.4 5-20 5.0 68.9 10.8 1.5 0.004 21.6 38.2 23.1 12.1IM 4.5 20-30 4.7 130.8 14.5 1.5 0.010 32.4 37.7 22.5 10.7IM 4.6 30-65 3.1 36.9 6.7 0.4 0.010 43.3 30.1 15.3 9.7IM 4.7 65-75 1.6 14.9 2.7 0.2 0.013 42.0 27.9 18.1 12.2IM 5.1 0-1 3.0 16.4 15.6 1.2 0.008 20.4 34.6 29.5 18.7IM 5.2 0-5 1.8 12.6 6.6 1.0 0.008 17.4 30.5 24.0 29.5IM 5.3 5-20 2.7 8.3 4.0 0.7 0.008 22.0 36.3 26.2 16.2IM 5.4 20-33 2.4 11.7 2.7 0.5 0.005 38.8 33.7 19.5 9.8IM 5.5 33-50 2.4 11.3 1.9 0.4 0.006 40.6 30.1 16.3 8.3IM 5.6 50-100 2.1 10.4 1.1 0.2 0.012 41.0 3.1 36.8 13.3IM 5.7 100-120 2.1 20.7 2.8 0.2 0.005 30.0 31.0 24.8 11.0IM 6.1 0-0.5 1.1 1.7 4.9 0.2 0.009 17.7 14.1 16.5 22.2IM 6.2 0-15 1.4 3.8 2.1 0.2 0.009 20.8 20.4 21.6 23.9IM 6.3 15-50 1.7 9.7 2.0 0.2 0.005 27.7 16.9 23.1 29.0IM 7.1 0-5 2.5 29.2 4.1 0.6 0.006 27.0 31.8 29.7 12.0IM 7.2 5-25 2.6 29.4 4.5 0.6 0.005 27.6 33.4 29.2 11.7IM 7.3 25-50 3.2 20.6 2.5 0.3 0.004 32.3 37.2 22.2 7.2IM 7.4 50-88 3.7 20.2 2.9 0.4 0.005 34.4 37.3 17.7 9.0IM 7.5 88-115 2.0 16.3 1.8 0.4 0.003 39.1 26.2 11.7 16.5IM 9.1 0-15 1.9 19.0 4.2 0.4 0.004 25.1 35.8 31.0 12.0IM 9.2 15-40 2.5 30.8 2.7 0.3 0.004 24.3 38.6 29.4 11.4IM 9.3 40-70 2.0 18.4 3.7 0.2 0.003 27.4 38.1 29.1 5.5IM 10.1 0-15 1.8 12.5 3.8 0.3 0.003 24.3 34.9 30.9 10.7IM 11.1 0-15 0.7 18.6 1.9 0.3 0.003 24.9 3.7 14.8 54.0IM 11.2 15-20 1.0 20.1 21.5 0.6 0.004 24.2 21.5 32.9 26.6IM 11.3 20-50 2.7 28.2 12.8 0.6 0.005 24.5 24.8 30.8 22.2IM 12.1 0-10 2.1 31.6 16.0 0.5 0.005 25.0 21.0 31.3 25.1IM 12.2 10-25 2.1 29.9 36.1 0.8 0.005 23.4 20.6 33.5 21.4IM 12.3 25-50 3.3 23.1 4.3 0.3 0.003 27.7 32.9 29.0 14.7IM 12.4 300-350 1.9 14.5 8.6 0.3 0.003 36.6 30.0 19.2 13.5IM 14.1 0-5 1.3 28.7 3.8 0.6 0.003 54.6 13.8 16.1 14.1IM 14.2 5-25 1.9 30.2 1.5 0.2 0.005 49.7 20.5 16.3 11.8IM 14.3 25-50 2.4 28.6 1.7 0.2 0.006 32.8 30.0 21.9 7.8IM 14.4 50-80 2.1 21.3 2.7 0.2 0.006 37.1 26.3 22.6 11.3IM 15.1 0-20 2.2 10.5 6.1 0.7 0.006 25.6 26.7 28.7 19.8IM 16.1 0-1a 1.8 26.8 7.7 0.4 0.003 26.4 14.4 28.5 22.0IM 16.2 5-25 2.0 18.3 2.7 0.3 0.004 46.0 18.7 14.8 10.1IM 16.3 25-50 1.9 19.7 1.6 0.2 0.007 46.6 27.7 17.9 10.2IM 16.4 50-72 2.0 15.9 1.2 0.2 0.005 32.3 31.0 23.1 7.1IM 18.1 0-20 9.7 32.5 9.7 0.5 0.002 13.9 6.6 12.0 65.6IM 18.2 20-50 1.8 24.9 8.2 0.9 0.004 15.1 29.4 30.9 25.9IM 18.3 50-100 2.9 32.1 9.7 0.7 0.006 23.8 42.3 29.2 6.1IM 18.4 100-300 2.3 33.6 28.9 0.9 0.005 40.5 20.9 30.2 13.6IM 19.1 0-10 4.7 30.8 29.4 3.0 0.006 21.7 31.1 33.5 15.2IM 20.1 0-15 4.8 70.7 26.3 0.7 0.005 48.1 21.6 13.4 10.1IM 21.1 0-10 7.8 204.9 18.2 0.5 0.003 39.5 25.8 22.9 14.2IM 22.1 10-30 2.3 13.9 3.3 0.4 0.003 42.2 22.9 19.5 13.6

I------------------ mg/kg ------------------I

I---------------- DTPA ext ---------------I



Table A3.4: Soil saturation extract data Sample Sat Ext pH E.C. Alkalinity SAR Cl Ca K Mg Na SI.D. % (paste) dS/m meq/L meq/L meq/L meq/L meq/L meq/L meq/LIM 1.2 0-5 59 7.7 59.1 2.4 50 716 118 3.7 123 545 72IM 1.3 5-10 65 7.8 73.1 1.4 69 686 81 5.1 184 790 116IM 1.4 10-20 60 7.9 60.2 1.0 61 798 72 4.3 134 620 111IM 1.5 20-50 66 8.0 63.3 0.6 67 736 76 4.3 125 675 106IM 1.6 50-70 64 8.2 45.1 0.5 54 488 59 3.0 81 449 104IM 1.7 70-80 63 8.3 26.3 0.4 37 223 41 1.8 47 245 104IM 1.8 90-100 67 8.4 27.7 0.4 35 199 39 1.6 46 226 104IM 1.9 >120 85 8.3 24.5 0.4 35 191 37 1.6 45 224 109IM 2.1 0-5IM 2.2 5-25 63 7.8 10.6 2.9 15 55 30 1.1 26 79 81IM 2.3 25-50 65 8.0 14.6 1.7 21 87 31 1.3 34 120 97IM 2.4 50-120 61 8.1 12.6 0.8 20 71 29 1.2 25 105 91IM 2.5 >120 64 8.3 13.1 0.6 24 65 27 0.9 21 117 102IM 3.1 0-1IM 3.2 0-1IM 3.3 1-5 75 8.1 121.8 9.1 107 1537 32 77.4 650 1979 1039IM 4.1 0-1IM 4.2 0-1IM 4.3 0-5 76 8.2 73.5 7.2 65 710 34 4.4 445 1000 727IM 4.4 5-20 99 7.8 25.2 4.7 31 168 29 1.0 89 242 194IM 4.5 20-30 88 7.7 17.7 3.5 22 89 27 0.7 69 153 162IM 4.6 30-65 69 7.9 8.9 1.3 13 19 22 0.5 31 67 104IM 4.7 65-75 64 7.9 6.1 1.0 9 9 23 0.4 25 43 85IM 5.1 0-1 85 7.3 6.9 7.4 5 32 46 2.1 24 27 44IM 5.2 0-5 79 7.6 9.1 5.3 9 55 37 1.5 26 52 57IM 5.3 5-20 80 7.6 10.5 5.0 12 63 36 0.9 32 67 68IM 5.4 20-33 72 7.6 13.0 3.0 14 87 38 0.7 39 88 71IM 5.5 33-50 70 7.6 14.1 2.2 15 95 39 0.6 41 95 71IM 5.6 50-100 62 7.7 13.1 1.1 14 86 36 0.6 41 87 73IM 5.7 100-120 68 8.1 14.0 0.8 15 83 31 0.7 52 99 97IM 6.1 0-0.5IM 6.2 0-15 48 8.7 53.4 1.6 140 450 30 4.6 15 663 296IM 6.3 15-50 51 8.7 36.2 0.8 99 268 29 2.1 7 418 203IM 7.1 0-5 71 7.8 12.9 3.1 13 90 36 1.0 47 81 76IM 7.2 5-25 72 8.0 13.8 2.7 15 92 34 0.7 49 95 87IM 7.3 25-50 80 8.0 11.6 1.5 15 60 27 0.5 36 86 94IM 7.4 50-88 81 8.0 13.7 1.4 17 82 29 0.5 44 104 99IM 7.5 88-115 70 8.3 15.9 0.8 19 105 29 0.7 50 122 101IM 9.1 0-15 59 7.8 4.5 4.1 11 22 13 0.8 5 33 22IM 9.2 15-40 64 7.7 4.5 2.3 6 13 22 0.2 11 25 37IM 9.3 40-70 71 7.8 6.5 1.3 7 24 33 0.2 19 34 48IM 10.1 0-15 57 7.7 14.1 1.5 12 101 58 0.5 28 78 45IM 11.1 0-15IM 11.2 15-20IM 11.3 20-50 68 7.6 8.3 3.4 7 41 42 2.3 21 39 49IM 12.1 0-10 80 7.5 4.0 4.6 2 8 38 1.5 10 10 40IM 12.2 10-25 69 7.5 18.0 4.5 12 122 75 2.2 51 99 54IM 12.3 25-50 66 7.7 15.7 1.4 15 122 54 0.5 32 95 46IM 12.4 300-350 66 7.5 36.8 0.7 18 426 159 1.2 93 197 32IM 14.1 0-5 62 7.6 15.7 3.8 14 124 44 1.6 48 95 65IM 14.2 5-25 57 8.0 17.2 1.2 20 118 33 1.3 49 128 95IM 14.3 25-50 63 8.1 15.0 0.7 17 97 30 0.7 51 108 98IM 14.4 50-80 61 8.4 17.7 0.7 19 121 31 0.7 62 130 108IM 15.1 0-20 60 7.6 37.0 1.8 25 382 90 2.0 113 255 59IM 16.1 0-1aIM 16.2 5-25 57 7.9 37.3 1.7 30 376 50 1.0 138 292 112IM 16.3 25-50 76 8.3 19.8 0.8 24 142 31 0.7 55 158 110IM 16.4 50-72 76 8.4 19.7 0.8 24 135 31 0.7 56 160 119IM 18.1 0-20 64 7.7 3.0 2.5 1 4 32 0.8 8 4 39IM 18.2 20-50IM 18.3 50-100 80 7.3 19.9 3.4 13 171 84 1.1 43 107 44IM 18.4 100-300 64 7.6 15.0 3.5 15 93 47 0.8 41 98 69IM 19.1 0-10 79 7.2 15.7 7.6 7 124 102 2.6 40 58 71IM 20.1 0-15 76 8.1 35.4 2.8 26 303 55 6.3 178 281 232IM 21.1 0-10 74 7.5 6.9 4.2 6 30 46 1.3 24 37 85IM 22.1 10-30



Table A3.5: Results of the acid dissolution of samples using US EPA method 3051A (ICP OES) Sample Al B Ca Cr Cu Fe K Mg Mn Na Ni P S ZnI.D. mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kgIM 1.2 0-5 24000 57 140000 98 24 25000 6900 30000 460 10000 110 710 26000 53IM 1.3 5-10 28000 48 130000 110 25 27000 8300 30000 540 16000 130 720 8700 58IM 1.4 10-20 25000 41 140000 100 22 25000 7600 28000 520 13000 120 690 7800 52IM 1.5 20-50 27000 41 130000 110 25 27000 8000 31000 530 13000 130 690 4800 56IM 1.6 50-70 26000 36 140000 110 23 26000 7700 30000 490 9200 120 590 17000 54IM 1.7 70-80 25000 34 140000 110 23 25000 6900 28000 480 5500 120 490 25000 51IM 1.8 90-100 25000 36 140000 110 24 26000 6800 30000 510 5200 130 520 17000 52IM 1.9 >120 39000 45 110000 130 31 33000 10000 29000 590 7100 160 500 17000 68IM 2.1 0-5 24000 41 150000 94 24 24000 7000 29000 530 2600 110 650 4800 53IM 2.2 5-25 26000 44 150000 100 25 26000 7300 29000 520 2600 120 680 6100 59IM 2.3 25-50 25000 41 160000 96 29 25000 7000 30000 550 3500 120 680 5700 58IM 2.4 50-120 24000 35 160000 91 29 24000 7100 29000 460 2800 100 530 21000 52IM 2.5 >120 26000 35 170000 95 30 24000 7600 27000 490 3100 110 500 17000 54IM 3.1 0-1 10000 55 38000 42 23 10000 7500 31000 210 170000 53 770 110000 29IM 3.2 0-1 12000 56 48000 47 28 12000 8900 36000 240 130000 58 790 69000 33IM 3.3 1-5 19000 82 82000 79 33 20000 8400 34000 410 41400 100 1200 34000 54IM 4.1 0-1 9500 85 54000 36 21 9300 3300 30000 160 140000 46 240 130000 28IM 4.2 0-1 7100 110 39000 26 16 7000 2400 42000 120 120000 37 210 120000 23IM 4.3 0-5 28000 71 120000 99 41 25000 6900 27000 450 25000 130 640 34000 74IM 4.4 5-20 34000 51 100000 120 47 28000 8300 24000 480 9700 150 630 25000 71IM 4.5 20-30 27000 44 130000 100 37 25000 6800 22000 440 6100 130 650 19000 58IM 4.6 30-65 26000 32 160000 100 32 25000 6700 23000 430 2700 120 500 8100 55IM 4.7 65-75 25000 30 160000 100 28 25000 6100 25000 500 1700 120 490 12000 52IM 5.1 0-1 37000 47 90000 130 48 32000 9300 25000 490 1900 160 720 9300 73IM 5.2 0-5 42000 52 70000 150 51 34000 10000 27000 480 3400 170 770 10000 80IM 5.3 5-20 37000 50 100000 130 48 31000 9300 25000 480 3400 160 690 16000 71IM 5.4 20-33 28000 37 150000 110 32 26000 7100 24000 470 3300 130 600 12000 56IM 5.5 33-50 27000 34 160000 100 29 25000 6900 24000 460 3100 120 500 10000 54IM 5.6 50-100 25000 30 160000 100 24 24000 6400 24000 480 2700 120 480 14000 50IM 5.7 100-120 31000 30 110000 140 35 32000 7000 29000 650 3000 170 500 9400 66IM 6.1 0-0.5 20000 82 87000 90 25 22000 5700 29000 460 71000 110 540 42000 46IM 6.2 0-15 27000 79 100000 110 31 27000 7100 36000 580 12000 130 650 28000 58IM 6.3 15-50 29000 35 110000 130 32 30000 7100 27000 650 7800 150 600 8100 61IM 7.1 0-5 33000 47 110000 130 31 31000 7600 28000 560 2800 160 690 9700 71IM 7.2 5-25 32000 44 110000 120 31 30000 7500 27000 550 3200 150 760 10000 69IM 7.3 25-50 33000 35 120000 130 39 32000 7100 27000 600 3300 170 550 2500 69IM 7.4 50-88 33000 36 130000 130 42 31000 6800 25000 540 3800 160 550 2700 67IM 7.5 88-115 24000 35 160000 97 27 24000 5900 20000 490 3800 120 430 2100 48IM 9.1 0-15 38000 40 95000 140 37 35000 9400 27000 680 1800 170 690 1000 76IM 9.2 15-40 37000 35 92000 140 35 34000 8000 26000 680 1300 170 820 1100 74IM 9.3 40-70 40000 35 99000 140 37 36000 9200 27000 720 1600 180 550 1200 75IM 10.1 0-15 37000 38 97000 140 38 34000 8500 27000 700 2500 170 600 4400 73IM 11.1 0-15 37000 37 100000 130 30 33000 8900 26000 930 2000 160 920 1200 77IM 11.2 15-20 33000 36 93000 130 34 31000 7400 27000 690 1700 150 790 2500 72IM 11.3 20-50 34000 40 96000 130 33 30000 8300 26000 690 1900 140 740 3800 70IM 12.1 0-10 31000 41 96000 120 32 28000 7500 24000 670 930 140 790 2900 67IM 12.2 10-25 30000 43 99000 120 32 29000 7200 25000 820 3000 130 760 6100 66IM 12.3 25-50 34000 31 110000 140 40 33000 7600 26000 630 2900 160 610 1200 70IM 12.4 300-350 31000 35 130000 120 32 30000 8200 28000 590 4700 160 490 960 61IM 14.1 0-5 17000 32 210000 65 29 16000 4400 17000 330 3400 80 530 9600 38IM 14.2 5-25 20000 29 190000 83 23 20000 5500 20000 420 3300 97 470 8100 42IM 14.3 25-50 29000 30 140000 120 30 27000 7100 26000 510 3000 140 440 26000 57IM 14.4 50-80 26000 30 140000 120 27 27000 6300 29000 540 3200 140 490 14000 56IM 15.1 0-20 29000 35 100000 120 31 29000 7000 30000 530 6200 150 690 9900 63IM 16.1 0-1a 23000 70 130000 93 26 23000 5900 27000 380 1100 100 640 33000 51IM 16.2 5-25 18000 33 200000 69 22 18000 4300 19000 380 6100 81 430 12000 38IM 16.3 25-50 25000 33 160000 99 26 24000 6600 26000 490 4500 120 450 4700 50IM 16.4 50-72 30000 38 140000 120 33 28000 7700 28000 550 4800 140 470 21000 61IM 18.1 0-20 41000 47 59000 160 81 99000 9200 31000 620 2500 200 910 4100 89IM 18.2 20-50 42000 53 66000 160 40 38000 10000 33000 410 2100 180 990 6400 91IM 18.3 50-100 40000 44 86000 150 34 34000 9800 32000 400 3700 170 760 5100 81IM 18.4 100-300 26000 40 140000 99 28 24000 7400 26000 570 2800 110 640 6400 60IM 19.1 0-10 38000 40 91000 140 49 32000 10000 29000 520 2100 160 820 3000 94IM 20.1 0-15 20000 45 190000 80 26 19000 5200 20000 410 6700 100 470 13000 41IM 21.1 0-10 27000 32 150000 110 35 26000 6300 22000 520 1600 140 550 5100 55IM 22.1 10-30 25000 33 160000 97 31 24000 5600 21000 470 1800 130 650 6300 50



Table A3.5: Results of the acid dissolution of samples using US EPA method 3051A (ICP MS) Sample Li Be Sc Ti V Co Ga Ge As Se Rb SrI.D. mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kgIM 1.2 0-5 21 ND 2.1 298 57 13 23 0.6 3.6 1.5 23 724IM 1.3 5-10 25 ND 2.7 315 63 15 27 0.6 4.4 2.0 27 483IM 1.4 10-20 21 ND 2.3 277 57 14 26 0.7 4.5 -0.2 23 468IM 1.5 20-50 23 ND 2.7 333 65 16 27 0.7 5.4 0.5 27 666IM 1.6 50-70 23 ND 2.5 313 63 15 23 0.6 4.6 1.1 25 648IM 1.7 70-80 23 ND 2.5 316 63 15 23 0.7 4.6 1.1 25 652IM 1.8 90-100 21 ND 2.5 312 58 15 19 0.6 4.8 0.8 25 645IM 1.9 >120 23 ND 2.5 316 61 15 18 0.7 4.8 1.5 25 505IM 2.1 0-5 22 ND 2.4 220 58 13 24 0.7 4.0 0.3 22 480IM 2.2 5-25 25 ND 2.5 340 64 15 28 0.7 4.9 0.4 25 510IM 2.3 25-50 25 ND 2.5 337 65 15 25 0.7 5.1 0.4 25 527IM 2.4 50-120 22 ND 2.4 275 59 14 15 0.7 5.0 0.5 26 729IM 2.5 >120 23 ND 2.5 229 63 14 15 0.7 5.0 0.9 29 584IM 3.1 0-1 12 ND 1.1 138 34 6 10 0.3 3.4 0.2 11 233IM 3.2 0-1 13 ND 1.3 191 36 7 11 0.4 3.6 2.6 11 257IM 3.3 1-5 19 ND 1.9 277 58 12 18 0.5 6.0 2.1 16 406IM 4.1 0-1 14 ND 1.0 126 30 6 10 0.3 3.2 5.6 10 560IM 4.2 0-1 12 ND 0.8 102 26 5 8 0.2 2.8 5.2 8 360IM 4.3 0-5 26 ND 2.6 265 86 16 26 0.7 7.7 3.7 26 595IM 4.4 5-20 29 ND 3.1 243 106 17 31 0.8 7.5 4.6 35 441IM 4.5 20-30 25 ND 2.7 274 84 16 27 0.8 5.7 3.4 29 631IM 4.6 30-65 27 ND 2.7 227 62 16 29 0.7 3.9 0.8 27 742IM 4.7 65-75 27 ND 2.7 332 64 16 29 0.7 4.8 1.0 25 580IM 5.1 0-1 33 1.0 3.3 313 96 19 33 0.9 6.9 2.7 36 376IM 5.2 0-5 29 1.1 3.8 313 104 20 33 0.9 7.5 2.3 40 334IM 5.3 5-20 31 ND 3.3 284 96 18 33 1.0 7.4 2.8 37 416IM 5.4 20-33 27 ND 2.7 271 71 15 31 0.7 5.0 1.4 27 645IM 5.5 33-50 27 ND 2.5 290 64 15 31 0.7 4.3 2.0 27 662IM 5.6 50-100 25 ND 2.5 312 58 15 29 0.6 4.2 0.0 23 956IM 5.7 100-120 27 ND 3.0 393 76 20 23 0.7 8.7 1.0 28 610IM 6.1 0-0.5 20 ND 2.1 353 52 13 16 0.5 4.6 0.7 19 457IM 6.2 0-15 23 ND 2.5 397 65 15 21 0.6 5.6 1.4 25 459IM 6.3 15-50 25 ND 2.7 410 68 17 21 0.7 5.9 1.6 27 267IM 7.1 0-5 27 ND 2.9 208 69 18 25 0.7 4.4 1.4 29 396IM 7.2 5-25 27 1.1 3.1 333 75 18 27 0.8 5.0 0.2 31 417IM 7.3 25-50 29 1.1 3.3 435 83 21 29 0.9 5.0 1.3 31 393IM 7.4 50-88 29 1.1 3.1 352 87 19 29 0.9 6.8 1.0 29 456IM 7.5 88-115 21 ND 2.3 287 72 14 27 0.6 9.2 0.5 25 513IM 9.1 0-15 31 1.1 3.5 392 83 20 29 1.0 6.0 1.1 37 248IM 9.2 15-40 31 1.2 3.3 394 79 20 27 0.8 4.1 0.0 33 228IM 9.3 40-70 33 1.2 3.5 352 87 21 29 0.9 7.9 0.6 37 227IM 10.1 0-15 30 1.1 3.4 354 80 20 27 0.8 6.0 1.5 36 260IM 11.1 0-15 16 1.1 3.2 446 81 19 39 0.7 4.1 1.3 36 324IM 11.2 15-20 27 0.9 3.1 432 74 19 29 0.7 3.7 0.6 31 247IM 11.3 20-50 27 0.9 3.1 392 70 18 29 0.8 3.3 0.6 33 268IM 12.1 0-10 25 0.9 2.9 392 66 17 31 0.6 3.3 2.1 29 269IM 12.2 10-25 25 ND 2.9 393 64 17 27 0.9 4.3 1.6 29 310IM 12.3 25-50 27 1.0 3.1 371 76 19 25 0.9 3.9 2.9 31 268IM 12.4 300-350 27 ND 2.9 309 74 18 21 0.7 7.2 0.5 33 329IM 14.1 0-5 17 ND 1.8 226 55 10 31 0.5 4.5 0.8 16 1191IM 14.2 5-25 21 ND 2.0 287 51 12 31 0.5 3.9 0.9 21 945IM 14.3 25-50 25 ND 2.7 337 67 16 21 0.7 4.4 0.5 29 652IM 14.4 50-80 25 ND 2.5 352 64 16 17 0.7 5.6 1.1 25 476IM 15.1 0-20 27 ND 2.7 402 72 18 21 0.7 5.5 0.9 27 317IM 16.1 0-1a 23 ND 2.1 340 66 13 23 0.6 5.7 4.2 21 977IM 16.2 5-25 20 ND 1.8 248 49 10 30 0.6 4.2 1.3 18 1169IM 16.3 25-50 25 ND 2.5 308 60 14 27 0.7 5.5 0.4 25 739IM 16.4 50-72 29 ND 2.7 336 67 16 23 0.7 5.0 0.8 29 757IM 18.1 0-20 25 1.1 3.7 348 106 41 33 0.9 12.3 1.2 39 225IM 18.2 20-50 33 1.2 3.7 375 104 21 31 0.8 5.4 2.0 40 229IM 18.3 50-100 38 1.3 3.6 315 92 21 25 1.1 3.1 1.4 40 252IM 18.4 100-300 23 ND 2.5 247 62 13 21 0.6 3.1 1.0 29 330IM 19.1 0-10 31 1.0 3.3 291 85 20 29 0.9 4.4 2.1 40 250IM 20.1 0-15 20 ND 2.1 267 57 12 31 0.5 8.8 1.3 20 1087IM 21.1 0-10 25 ND 2.9 309 74 17 29 0.7 9.9 0.7 25 639IM 22.1 10-30 21 ND 2.5 333 77 15 33 0.6 10.4 0.8 23 707

ND means not detected at the solution level presented.



Table A3.5: Results of the acid dissolution of samples using US EPA method 3051A (ICP MS) Sample Zr Nb Mo Ru Pd Ag Cd Sn Sb Te I Cs BaI.D. mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kgIM 1.2 0-5 7.7 0.34 0.40 ND 0.03 0.08 0.32 1.1 0.32 ND 11 1.9 157IM 1.3 5-10 7.8 0.17 0.29 ND 0.06 0.10 0.50 1.0 0.31 ND 8 2.1 187IM 1.4 10-20 6.0 0.05 0.16 ND 0.02 0.09 0.23 1.0 0.28 ND 6 2.0 170IM 1.5 20-50 7.3 0.12 0.13 ND 0.06 0.05 0.46 1.3 0.29 ND 5 2.1 177IM 1.6 50-70 7.1 0.07 0.15 ND 0.03 0.04 0.40 0.9 0.29 ND 5 2.1 150IM 1.7 70-80 7.2 0.07 0.15 ND 0.03 0.04 0.40 0.9 0.29 ND 5 2.1 151IM 1.8 90-100 6.9 0.10 0.29 ND 0.02 0.03 0.27 0.8 0.31 ND 7 2.0 115IM 1.9 >120 6.7 0.07 0.32 ND 0.05 0.03 0.36 0.9 0.27 ND 8 2.0 114IM 2.1 0-5 4.0 0.02 0.24 ND 0.04 0.06 0.19 0.8 0.24 ND 7 1.9 160IM 2.2 5-25 7.6 0.32 0.34 ND 0.04 0.08 0.28 0.9 0.34 ND 10 2.1 181IM 2.3 25-50 8.0 0.34 0.38 ND 0.04 0.07 0.40 1.0 0.36 ND 8 2.0 175IM 2.4 50-120 7.1 0.08 0.27 ND 0.05 0.04 0.45 1.1 0.24 ND 8 2.1 90IM 2.5 >120 7.3 0.04 0.40 ND 0.04 0.03 0.38 0.8 0.23 ND 15 2.3 90IM 3.1 0-1 4.7 0.30 1.8 ND 0.01 0.03 0.20 0.3 0.23 ND 11 0.8 59IM 3.2 0-1 4.7 0.41 3.4 ND 0.02 0.03 1.46 0.5 0.30 ND 11 0.9 67IM 3.3 1-5 6.6 0.64 2.0 ND 0.03 0.05 0.77 0.7 0.43 ND 23 1.4 111IM 4.1 0-1 3.8 0.32 6.6 ND 0.03 ND 1.20 1.0 0.26 ND 11 0.8 58IM 4.2 0-1 3.4 0.30 12.0 ND 0.02 0.02 0.17 0.2 0.28 ND 17 0.5 46IM 4.3 0-5 8.6 0.53 3.7 ND 0.03 0.04 0.53 1.0 0.51 ND 26 2.2 174IM 4.4 5-20 8.4 0.16 2.2 ND 0.04 0.07 0.60 1.1 0.49 ND 33 2.6 192IM 4.5 20-30 8.2 0.40 1.9 ND 0.02 0.07 1.05 0.9 0.38 ND 19 2.1 181IM 4.6 30-65 4.7 0.02 0.33 ND 0.05 0.07 0.74 0.9 0.25 ND 12 2.1 190IM 4.7 65-75 7.5 0.15 0.20 ND 0.05 0.06 0.35 1.0 0.29 ND 7 2.1 191IM 5.1 0-1 9.6 0.36 1.13 ND 0.03 0.07 0.58 1.2 0.40 ND 15 2.9 209IM 5.2 0-5 9.4 0.21 0.90 ND 0.01 0.07 0.58 1.4 0.48 ND 13 3.1 209IM 5.3 5-20 9.2 0.20 1.09 ND 0.07 0.07 2.01 1.2 0.44 ND 16 2.8 212IM 5.4 20-33 7.5 0.18 0.71 ND 0.03 0.07 0.52 0.9 0.35 ND 8 2.1 208IM 5.5 33-50 7.0 0.11 0.58 ND 0.05 0.07 2.69 0.9 0.31 ND 7 2.1 207IM 5.6 50-100 6.9 0.10 0.25 ND 0.06 0.07 0.25 0.8 0.27 ND 7 1.9 199IM 5.7 100-120 7.9 0.08 0.62 ND 0.05 0.03 0.59 0.9 0.36 ND 6 2.3 150IM 6.1 0-0.5 6.0 0.29 0.46 ND 0.07 0.09 0.20 0.8 0.29 ND 4 1.5 100IM 6.2 0-15 6.7 0.20 0.33 ND 0.05 0.08 0.50 1.0 0.29 ND 4 2.0 134IM 6.3 15-50 5.9 0.12 0.33 ND 0.03 0.04 1.52 1.1 0.33 ND 4 2.1 135IM 7.1 0-5 5.8 0.02 0.40 ND 0.03 0.06 0.46 1.0 0.25 ND 11 2.5 173IM 7.2 5-25 7.9 0.08 0.48 ND 0.03 0.05 0.33 1.1 0.29 ND 9 2.5 185IM 7.3 25-50 10.8 0.15 0.23 ND 0.06 0.06 0.46 1.2 0.29 ND 6 2.7 191IM 7.4 50-88 10.1 0.07 0.23 ND 0.05 0.05 0.37 1.1 0.35 ND 7 2.7 199IM 7.5 88-115 7.2 0.11 0.82 ND 0.04 0.03 0.47 0.8 0.33 ND 6 2.0 174IM 9.1 0-15 9.1 0.14 0.25 ND 0.02 0.06 0.43 1.3 0.31 ND 6 3.1 190IM 9.2 15-40 8.3 0.15 0.29 ND 0.03 0.06 0.31 1.2 0.27 ND 7 2.9 184IM 9.3 40-70 8.1 0.05 0.37 ND 0.01 0.05 0.29 1.3 0.37 ND 4 3.1 190IM 10.1 0-15 7.7 0.10 0.39 ND 0.04 0.06 0.83 1.1 0.31 ND 6 3.0 178IM 11.1 0-15 8.3 0.15 0.41 ND 0.03 0.05 0.87 1.3 0.39 ND 4 2.8 264IM 11.2 15-20 9.3 0.41 0.33 ND 0.04 0.06 0.45 1.2 0.37 ND 8 2.7 201IM 11.3 20-50 8.9 0.23 0.43 ND 0.04 0.05 0.99 1.2 0.33 ND 12 2.7 194IM 12.1 0-10 8.1 0.35 0.41 ND 0.05 0.05 1.45 1.0 0.29 ND 17 2.3 207IM 12.2 10-25 8.1 0.31 0.39 ND 0.02 0.06 1.86 1.1 0.29 ND 16 2.3 190IM 12.3 25-50 7.2 0.14 0.27 ND 0.03 0.05 3.92 1.1 0.25 ND 7 2.7 173IM 12.4 300-350 7.8 0.04 0.56 ND 0.04 0.03 0.37 1.0 0.27 ND 4 2.5 126IM 14.1 0-5 5.5 0.23 0.94 ND 0.07 0.05 0.31 0.6 0.45 ND 7 1.3 205IM 14.2 5-25 6.6 0.31 1.46 ND 0.04 0.04 0.45 0.7 0.33 ND 5 1.6 205IM 14.3 25-50 8.2 0.15 0.63 ND 0.05 0.04 1.20 0.9 0.32 ND 4 2.3 135IM 14.4 50-80 7.5 0.17 0.48 ND 0.02 ND 0.62 0.8 0.29 ND 17 2.1 110IM 15.1 0-20 8.9 0.59 0.68 ND 0.04 0.04 0.18 1.0 0.34 ND 20 2.3 142IM 16.1 0-1a 8.5 0.70 0.28 ND 0.07 0.07 1.00 0.8 0.38 ND 40 1.8 161IM 16.2 5-25 6.1 0.38 0.36 ND 0.05 0.06 0.66 0.6 0.22 ND 13 1.5 207IM 16.3 25-50 7.2 0.20 0.27 ND 0.04 0.07 0.99 0.8 0.31 ND 10 2.0 185IM 16.4 50-72 8.0 0.12 0.16 ND 0.07 0.07 0.34 1.0 0.29 ND 8 2.3 164IM 18.1 0-20 7.6 0.12 1.53 ND 0.01 0.09 0.78 2.3 1.10 ND 9 3.3 205IM 18.2 20-50 11.0 0.44 1.02 ND 0.05 0.08 0.46 1.4 0.73 ND 12 3.5 208IM 18.3 50-100 9.2 0.17 0.34 ND 0.03 0.07 0.44 1.2 0.44 ND 12 3.4 172IM 18.4 100-300 7.2 0.27 1.09 ND 0.04 0.06 1.07 0.9 0.35 ND 31 2.3 136IM 19.1 0-10 7.7 0.14 0.37 ND 0.04 0.07 0.56 1.5 0.48 ND 23 3.1 196IM 20.1 0-15 9.4 0.21 1.81 ND 0.05 0.04 0.17 0.8 0.43 ND 13 1.7 205IM 21.1 0-10 7.2 0.07 1.36 ND 0.02 0.04 0.31 0.8 0.45 ND 9 2.1 206IM 22.1 10-30 9.6 0.23 0.83 ND 0.01 0.03 0.77 0.8 0.67 ND 7 2.0 229




Table A3.5: Results of the acid dissolution of samples using US EPA method 3051A (ICP MS) Sample La Ce Pr Nb Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Er Tm Yb LuI.D. mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kgIM 1.2 0-5 13 30 2.8 11 2.1 0.6 2.8 0.3 1.6 0.9 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 1.3 5-10 16 36 3.4 14 2.7 0.7 3.4 0.4 2.0 1.0 0.2 0.8 0.1IM 1.4 10-20 14 32 3.2 12 2.3 0.6 3.0 0.3 1.8 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 1.5 20-50 16 35 3.3 14 2.7 0.6 3.3 0.4 2.0 1.1 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 1.6 50-70 15 33 3.1 13 2.5 0.6 3.1 0.4 1.8 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 1.7 70-80 15 34 3.2 13 2.5 0.6 3.2 0.4 1.9 1.1 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 1.8 90-100 14 31 2.9 12 2.3 0.6 2.9 0.3 1.7 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 1.9 >120 15 34 3.2 13 2.5 0.7 3.2 0.4 1.9 1.1 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 2.1 0-5 15 32 3.0 12.4 2.4 0.6 3.0 0.3 1.8 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 2.2 5-25 16 34 3.4 13.4 2.5 0.6 3.2 0.4 1.8 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 2.3 25-50 16 36 3.4 13.3 2.5 0.6 3.2 0.4 1.9 1.1 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 2.4 50-120 14 32 3.2 12.7 2.4 0.6 3.0 0.3 1.9 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 2.5 >120 15 33 3.1 12.9 2.5 0.6 3.1 0.4 1.9 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 3.1 0-1 5 11 1.1 4.0 0.8 0.2 1.1 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.0IM 3.2 0-1 6 14 1.4 5.4 1.2 0.3 1.4 0.2 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.0IM 3.3 1-5 10 23 2.1 9.2 1.9 0.5 2.1 0.3 1.4 0.8 0.1 0.6 0.1IM 4.1 0-1 4 9 0.9 3.4 0.7 0.2 0.9 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.0IM 4.2 0-1 3 7 0.7 2.6 0.5 0.1 0.7 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.0IM 4.3 0-5 11 24 2.4 9.7 2.0 0.5 2.4 0.3 1.4 0.8 0.1 0.6 0.1IM 4.4 5-20 13 29 2.9 11.3 2.4 0.6 2.6 0.3 1.7 0.9 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 4.5 20-30 13 29 2.7 10.7 2.1 0.5 2.7 0.3 1.6 0.9 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 4.6 30-65 14 31 3.1 12.0 2.5 0.6 3.1 0.4 1.8 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 4.7 65-75 15 33 3.3 13.3 2.5 0.6 3.3 0.4 2.0 1.0 0.1 0.8 0.1IM 5.1 0-1 17 38 3.6 14.4 2.9 0.7 3.3 0.4 2.1 1.1 0.2 0.9 0.1IM 5.2 0-5 18 40 3.8 15.0 2.9 0.7 3.5 0.4 2.1 1.2 0.2 0.8 0.1IM 5.3 5-20 16 35 3.5 13.6 2.6 0.6 3.1 0.4 1.9 1.0 0.1 0.8 0.1IM 5.4 20-33 14 31 2.9 11.9 2.3 0.6 2.9 0.3 1.8 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 5.5 33-50 14 31 3.1 11.8 2.3 0.6 2.7 0.3 1.7 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 5.6 50-100 14 31 2.9 12.0 2.3 0.6 2.9 0.4 1.8 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 5.7 100-120 18 40 3.9 15.3 3.1 0.7 3.8 0.4 2.3 1.3 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 6.1 0-0.5 13 29 2.9 11.0 2.3 0.5 2.9 0.3 1.8 1.0 0.1 0.6 0.1IM 6.2 0-15 16 38 3.5 14.0 2.9 0.7 3.5 0.4 2.1 1.2 0.2 0.9 0.1IM 6.3 15-50 19 43 4.1 16.0 3.3 0.8 4.1 0.5 2.5 1.4 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 7.1 0-5 17 40 3.8 14.2 2.9 0.7 3.5 0.4 2.3 1.3 0.2 0.9 0.1IM 7.2 5-25 18 42 4.0 14.8 2.9 0.7 3.5 0.4 2.1 1.3 0.2 0.9 0.1IM 7.3 25-50 20 43 4.1 16.2 3.3 0.8 4.1 0.5 2.5 1.4 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 7.4 50-88 17 39 3.7 14.3 2.9 0.7 3.5 0.4 2.1 1.3 0.2 0.9 0.1IM 7.5 88-115 15 33 3.1 11.9 2.5 0.6 2.7 0.3 1.8 0.9 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 9.1 0-15 21 47 4.5 18.0 3.7 0.8 4.3 0.5 2.5 1.5 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 9.2 15-40 20 48 4.4 17.4 3.3 0.8 4.4 0.5 2.5 1.4 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 9.3 40-70 21 48 4.3 17.0 3.5 0.8 4.1 0.5 2.5 1.4 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 10.1 0-15 20 47 4.4 17.4 3.4 0.8 4.2 0.5 2.5 1.4 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 11.1 0-15 22 53 5.1 19.3 3.6 0.9 4.5 0.5 2.6 1.4 0.2 1.1 0.1IM 11.2 15-20 21 47 4.5 17.3 3.5 0.8 4.5 0.5 2.5 1.5 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 11.3 20-50 21 47 4.5 17.8 3.5 0.8 4.1 0.5 2.5 1.4 0.2 1.1 0.1IM 12.1 0-10 20 45 4.3 16.9 3.3 0.8 3.9 0.5 2.3 1.3 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 12.2 10-25 20 45 4.1 16.9 3.3 0.8 3.9 0.5 2.3 1.3 0.2 0.9 0.1IM 12.3 25-50 20 47 4.3 17.3 3.5 0.8 4.1 0.5 2.5 1.4 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 12.4 300-350 17 39 3.7 14.2 2.9 0.7 3.5 0.4 2.1 1.2 0.1 0.8 0.1IM 14.1 0-5 10 23 2.1 8.4 1.7 0.4 2.1 0.2 1.2 0.7 0.1 0.5 0.1IM 14.2 5-25 13 29 2.9 10.9 2.1 0.5 2.7 0.3 1.6 0.9 0.1 0.6 0.1IM 14.3 25-50 15 36 3.4 13.0 2.7 0.7 3.4 0.4 2.0 1.1 0.1 0.8 0.1IM 14.4 50-80 16 35 3.3 14.1 2.7 0.7 3.1 0.4 2.0 1.1 0.1 0.8 0.1IM 15.1 0-20 19 42 4.0 16.1 3.2 0.8 3.8 0.5 2.1 1.3 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 16.1 0-1a 15 32 3.0 12.1 2.3 0.6 3.0 0.3 1.7 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 16.2 5-25 11 24 2.4 9.1 1.9 0.4 2.2 0.2 1.3 0.8 0.1 0.5 0.1IM 16.3 25-50 15 35 3.3 12.3 2.7 0.6 3.1 0.3 1.8 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 16.4 50-72 16 36 3.4 13.5 2.5 0.7 3.4 0.4 2.0 1.2 0.1 0.8 0.1IM 18.1 0-20 23 53 4.9 19.0 3.5 0.9 4.3 0.5 2.3 1.4 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 18.2 20-50 23 52 4.8 19.6 4.0 0.9 4.6 0.5 2.5 1.5 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 18.3 50-100 20 46 4.2 16.8 3.4 0.8 3.8 0.5 2.3 1.2 0.2 0.9 0.1IM 18.4 100-300 17 39 3.7 14.2 2.7 0.7 3.3 0.4 1.9 1.0 0.1 0.7 0.1IM 19.1 0-10 20 46 4.4 17.5 3.3 0.8 4.2 0.5 2.5 1.4 0.2 1.0 0.1IM 20.1 0-15 11 25 2.3 8.8 2.0 0.4 2.1 0.3 1.4 0.8 0.1 0.6 0.1IM 21.1 0-10 16 33 3.1 12.8 2.5 0.6 3.1 0.4 1.9 1.1 0.2 0.8 0.1IM 22.1 10-30 15 33 3.1 12.1 2.5 0.6 2.7 0.3 1.8 1.0 0.1 0.8 0.1



Table A3.5: Results of the acid dissolution of samples using US EPA method 3051A (ICP MS) Sample Hf Ta W Re Os Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Th UI.D. mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kgIM 1.2 0-5 0.4 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND ND 0.10 8.9 0.11 3.2 1.7IM 1.3 5-10 0.5 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.14 9.0 0.12 3.8 2.1IM 1.4 10-20 0.3 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.12 8.3 0.10 3.6 2.1IM 1.5 20-50 0.4 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND 0.12 8.3 0.12 3.7 1.7IM 1.6 50-70 0.4 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.11 8.1 0.11 3.6 1.2IM 1.7 70-80 0.4 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.11 8.2 0.11 3.6 1.2IM 1.8 90-100 0.4 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.11 6.9 0.10 3.3 0.9IM 1.9 >120 0.3 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND 0.12 6.7 0.11 4.4 1.1IM 2.1 0-5 0.2 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.11 7.8 0.11 3.4 1.6IM 2.2 5-25 0.4 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.14 9.1 0.11 3.6 1.7IM 2.3 25-50 0.4 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND ND 0.12 9.1 0.12 3.8 1.5IM 2.4 50-120 0.4 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND 0.12 7.2 0.11 3.4 1.2IM 2.5 >120 0.4 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND 0.13 6.9 0.12 3.5 1.3IM 3.1 0-1 0.3 ND 0.05 0.03 ND ND ND ND 0.05 4.7 0.05 1.4 2.8IM 3.2 0-1 0.3 ND 0.08 0.04 ND ND ND ND 0.05 6.2 0.06 1.6 5.8IM 3.3 1-5 0.3 ND 0.09 0.05 ND ND ND ND 0.08 8.3 0.09 2.6 3.2IM 4.1 0-1 0.2 ND 0.10 0.02 ND ND ND ND 0.03 3.0 0.04 1.2 10.0IM 4.2 0-1 0.2 ND 0.09 0.05 ND ND ND 0.1 0.02 2.4 0.03 0.9 22.0IM 4.3 0-5 0.5 ND 0.11 0.03 ND ND ND ND 0.13 9.0 0.11 3.3 6.2IM 4.4 5-20 0.5 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.16 9.7 0.14 3.5 4.4IM 4.5 20-30 0.5 ND 0.05 ND ND ND ND ND 0.14 8.0 0.12 3.4 4.0IM 4.6 30-65 0.2 ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.13 7.4 0.12 3.5 1.4IM 4.7 65-75 0.4 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND ND 0.12 7.5 0.11 3.7 1.6IM 5.1 0-1 0.6 ND 0.05 ND ND ND ND ND 0.18 10.9 0.16 4.6 2.5IM 5.2 0-5 0.6 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.18 11.7 0.16 4.6 2.7IM 5.3 5-20 0.6 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND ND 0.17 9.8 0.14 4.2 2.6IM 5.4 20-33 0.4 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND 0.13 7.9 0.12 3.7 2.3IM 5.5 33-50 0.4 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.11 7.5 0.11 3.5 2.1IM 5.6 50-100 0.3 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.11 7.1 0.10 3.3 1.6IM 5.7 100-120 0.3 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND ND 0.13 9.8 0.15 4.7 1.1IM 6.1 0-0.5 0.4 ND 0.07 ND ND ND ND ND 0.08 7.5 0.10 3.1 1.3IM 6.2 0-15 0.3 ND 0.05 ND ND ND ND 0.1 0.12 9.2 0.13 4.0 1.5IM 6.3 15-50 0.3 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND ND 0.13 8.6 0.14 4.5 1.0IM 7.1 0-5 0.3 ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.14 10.0 0.15 4.8 1.8IM 7.2 5-25 0.4 ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.12 10.2 0.13 4.6 1.7IM 7.3 25-50 0.5 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND 0.13 10.8 0.16 5.2 1.4IM 7.4 50-88 0.5 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.16 9.9 0.15 4.8 1.5IM 7.5 88-115 0.3 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.11 6.4 0.11 3.5 2.0IM 9.1 0-15 0.5 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.16 12.0 0.16 5.4 1.1IM 9.2 15-40 0.4 ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.1 0.16 10.8 0.17 5.2 1.0IM 9.3 40-70 0.4 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.17 11.2 0.18 5.4 0.8IM 10.1 0-15 0.4 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.16 11.1 0.17 5.1 0.9IM 11.1 0-15 0.4 ND 0.05 ND ND ND ND ND 0.16 13.2 0.15 5.3 1.6IM 11.2 15-20 0.5 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND ND 0.16 11.5 0.17 5.3 1.6IM 11.3 20-50 0.5 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND 0.16 10.9 0.15 5.2 1.3IM 12.1 0-10 0.5 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.14 10.1 0.14 4.8 1.4IM 12.2 10-25 0.5 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.13 9.9 0.14 4.8 1.2IM 12.3 25-50 0.4 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND 0.15 10.3 0.15 4.9 0.9IM 12.4 300-350 0.4 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.13 8.4 0.13 4.1 1.1IM 14.1 0-5 0.3 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.09 5.1 0.07 2.7 4.3IM 14.2 5-25 0.3 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND 0.08 6.0 0.08 3.1 2.5IM 14.3 25-50 0.4 ND 0.05 ND ND ND ND ND 0.12 8.2 0.13 4.0 1.2IM 14.4 50-80 0.4 ND 0.06 ND ND ND ND ND 0.12 7.5 0.12 3.9 1.3IM 15.1 0-20 0.5 ND 0.06 ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.15 9.5 0.14 4.4 1.6IM 16.1 0-1a 0.6 ND 0.07 ND ND ND ND ND 0.12 7.2 0.10 3.4 2.1IM 16.2 5-25 0.4 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND ND 0.09 5.4 0.08 2.6 1.6IM 16.3 25-50 0.4 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND 0.11 7.2 0.11 3.7 1.6IM 16.4 50-72 0.4 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND ND 0.13 8.0 0.15 4.0 1.2IM 18.1 0-20 0.4 ND 0.39 ND ND ND ND ND 0.19 12.9 0.16 5.3 3.3IM 18.2 20-50 0.7 ND 0.05 ND ND ND ND ND 0.23 14.0 0.20 5.6 4.2IM 18.3 50-100 0.5 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.15 11.7 0.17 4.8 1.9IM 18.4 100-300 0.5 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.14 9.1 0.12 3.7 1.5IM 19.1 0-10 0.4 ND ND ND ND ND ND 1.2 0.18 15.0 0.17 5.2 1.8IM 20.1 0-15 0.5 ND 0.03 ND ND ND ND 0.0 0.10 6.4 0.10 2.9 2.9IM 21.1 0-10 0.3 ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.1 0.11 8.2 0.13 3.9 2.7IM 22.1 10-30 0.5 ND 0.04 ND ND ND ND 0.1 0.09 7.3 0.11 3.7 3.7




Appendix 4 –Mass magnetic susceptibility Background Mineral magnetic techniques are a relatively recent development (post 1971) and have now become a very powerful and widely used research tool to characterise natural materials in landscapes (Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). Palaeomagnetic and mineral magnetic measurements have been most effectively applied to soils, soil parent materials, bedrock, river sediments and estuarine cores in studies of whole catchments. For example, mineral magnetic techniques have been used in a wide range of environmental studies such as sourcing sediments in reservoir catchments; establishing stream arm sediment contributions at river confluences; sourcing estuarine sediments; characterisation of soils; tracing overland soil movement; and identification of fire-induced magnetic oxides in soils and lake sediments. Soil magnetic properties can be used in conjunction with other pedological and mineralogical methods to trace sources of alluvium to measure the extent of erosion and deposition in eroding landscapes. These magnetic techniques can also be used for relative soil age dating and for the determination of soil and parent material discontinuities (e.g. evidence for buried soil layers).

Magnetic susceptibility measurements can detect the presence of iron oxides in soils at lower concentrations than other methods such as X-ray diffraction analyses. In soils, their magnetic properties reflect the varied magnetic behaviour of the bulk of soil minerals present. In many soil samples, the magnetic susceptibility is largely determined by the ferrimagnetic mineral present such as magnetite and maghemite (Table A3.1). Other major soil constituents may also affect magnetic susceptibility values. Quartz, calcium carbonate, orthoclase, organic matter and water are diamagnetic and, in most soils, these dilute the magnetic properties. In extreme cases, such as pure silica sands and pure limestone, the diamagnetic component will have a significant effect on the magnetic susceptibility of the sample. Paramagnetic soil minerals are those rich in iron but low in ferrimagnetic properties. They may make a significant contribution to bulk magnetic susceptibility. Antiferrimagnetic minerals will also increase magnetic susceptibility values. Of these, goethite and hematite are the most abundant (Table A3.1) and therefore can make an important contribution to the magnetic properties of soils. Magnetic susceptibility is essentially a measure of how "magnetisable" a mineral is (Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). Volume susceptibility, κ, is defined by the relation, κ = M/H, where M is the volume magnetisation induced in a material with susceptibility, κ, by an applied field, H. Mass specific magnetic susceptibility, χ, is the volume susceptibility divided by the sample density, χ = κ/ρ, and has units of m3kg-1. The ferrimagnetic Fe oxides, such as magnetite, maghemite, titanomagnetite and titanomaghemite, commonly dominate the magnetic signature of a soil, rock or sediment. These minerals have strong, positive mass specific magnetic susceptibilities of the order of 20,000 to 50,000 x 10-8 m3kg-1. They are attracted to the weak magnetic field of a hand magnet, which provides a useful field test for their presence in a sample. In contrast, the other Fe oxides have magnetic susceptibilities in the order of 20 to 100 x 10-8 m3kg-1. These values are comparable to or slightly greater than those of other common soil minerals and are not particularly diagnostic. Fifteen oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides of Fe have been recognised (Table A3.1). Of these, twelve occur naturally, but only eight are common in soils or other surface environments. The magnetic susceptibility of a mixed-mineral sample is influenced by the composition, size and shape of the ferrimagnetic crystals, but it is primarily determined by their concentration. Thus, magnetic susceptibility measurements from a set of related samples commonly show a positive, linear relationship to magnetite or maghemite content (e.g. da Costa, et al., 1999).



Table A4.1. Oxides, hydroxides and oxyhydroxides of iron (from Bigham et al. 2002) Oxides Hydroxides Oxyhydroxides

Mineral Formula Mineral Formula Mineral Formula

Hematite† α - Fe2O3‡ Bernalite Fe(OH)3 Goethite α - FeOOH

Maghemite γ - Fe2O3 Ferrihydrite Fe5HO8.4H2O Lepidocrocite γ - FeOOH

Magnetite Fe3O4 Green rust § see below Akaganéite β - FeOOH.Cl

Wüstite FeO Fe(OH)2 Feroxyhyte δ' - FeOOH

β -Fe2O3¶ Schwertmannite Fe808(OH)6SO4

ε - Fe2O3 δ - FeOOH

† Minerals that have been reported as naturally occurring in soils are in bold. Minerals in normal type occur under more restricted conditions.

‡ Greek letters (α, β, γ etc.) are used to distinguish minerals or compounds that have the same chemical composition but different structures.

§ Refers to a group of compounds with the basic Fe(OH)2 structure. Charge arising from partial oxidation of Fe(II) is balanced by various interlayer anions, typically Cl- , SO4

2-, and CO32- as per: Fe(II)1-xFe(III)x(OH)2(Cl-, SO4

2-, CO3-)x.

¶ Formulas given without corresponding mineral names indicate compounds that have been synthesised in the laboratory but have not been found as naturally-occurring, inorganic phases.

Many studies have documented that the magnetic susceptibility of surface soil is commonly higher than that of underlying materials (e.g. Thompson and Oldfield 1986). This “magnetic enhancement” can result from:

• burning of the soil and the conversion of goethite, hematite or lepidocrocite to maghemite;

• accumulation of primary ferrimagnetic minerals (e.g. Ti-maghemite) that are resistant to weathering or transport;

• neoformation of maghemite or magnetite from the soil solution;

• accumulation of ferrimagnetic minerals through atmospheric deposition; and

• cultivation of abrasive soils (Fitzpatrick and Riley, 1990).

Mass magnetic susceptibility method

Mass specific magnetic susceptibility (χ) determinations were conducted on 10 gram aliquots of whole soil. Mass magnetic susceptibility was measured at low (0.46 kHz; χLF) and high frequencies (4.6 kHz; χHF) using a Bartington magnetic susceptibility meter model MS2 (Bartington Instruments Ltd., Oxford, England) equipped with a 32 mm diameter dual frequency sensor, type MS2B (Thompson and Oldfield, 1986).



Table A4:2: Mass magnetic susceptibility results

Sample number χLF χHF Freq. Dep%IM 1.2 49 46 4.92Im 1.3 25 23 6.12IM 1.4 23 24 -1.29IM 1.5 34 32 7.29IM 1.6 37 35 1.41IM 1.7 44 42 5.68IM 1.8 52 51 2.31IM 1.9 55 53 3.66IM 2.1 32 31.1 3.72IM 2.2 21 20 2.86IM 2.3 23 23 0.87IM 2.4 38 36 3.71IM 2.5 43 41 3.05IM 3.2 64 61 4.52IM 3.3 114 104 8.18IM 4.3 178 167 6.4IM 4.4 74 74 0.54IM 4.5 26 24 7.84IM 4.6 16 17 -3.13IM 4.7 16 15 2.58IM 5.1 133 122 7.92IM 5.2 312 288 7.97IM 5.3 60 57 4.69IM 5.4 26 24 6.18IM 5.5 19 19 0.52IM 5.6 21 20 3.4IM 5.7 65 64 1.38IM 6.1 74 72 1.76IM 6.2 85 84 0.83IM 6.3 83 85 -2.77IM 7.1 36 36 0.82IM 7.2 38 39 -2.12IM 7.3 45 45 0.44IM 7.4 40 41 -0.5IM 7.5 16 18 -12.35IM 9.1 43 41 4.42IM 9.2 36 37 -2.24IM 9.3 35 36 -2.83IM 10 (composite) 39 38 2.33IM 11.1 1206 1076 10.83IM 11.2 222 198 10.65IM 11.3 46 44 4.14IM 12.1 34 33 2.09IM 12.2 46 44 3.53IM 12.3 37 36 1.64IM 12.4 30 30 1.67IM 14.1 166 153 7.72IM 14.2 24 24 0IM 14.3 17 16.7 -1.21IM 14.4 36 35 2.78IM 15.1 42 41 3.55IM 16.1 34 33 4.37



IM 16.2 12 11 7.5IM 16.3 16 15 5.7IM 16.4 34 34 1.47IM 18.1 <2mm 2916 2829.3 2.96IM 18.2 <2mm 437 408 6.81IM 18.3 <2mm 21 20 0.97IM 18.3 19 18 8.38IM 18.4 <2mm 18 18 1.65IM 19.1 73 69 4.79IM 20.1 34 34 0.29IM 21.1 26 24 10.65IM 22.1 34 33 4.09IM 18.1a 1024 942 8.05IM 18.1a (+/- 0.02g) 1030 948 8.04IM 18.1b (+/-0.005g) 5161 4720 8.53IM 18.1b (+/- 0.02g) 5279 4782 9.41IM 18.1c (+/-0.005g) 5779 5676 1.77IM 18.1c (+/-0.02g) 6025 5909 1.91IM 18.2 279 258 7.86IM 18.4 16 17 -3.7IM 24.1 128 119 7.26IM 3.2-R 65 61 6.77IM 3.3-R 115 108 5.85

Magnetic susceptibility results on Profile IM 18 (burned)

The magnetic susceptibility data for soil profile IM 18 (Appendix 2) is shown in Table A4.2 and the trend pattern plotted in Figure A4.2. The magnetic susceptibility values for the burned surface horizons (0–20 cm) are approximately 2000 times higher than in the lower horizons (80-150 cm). The high magnetic susceptibility value in the burned surface horizons is due to the formation of maghemite from burning. Maghemite forms at high temperatures (>400 C) under reducing conditions caused by high carbon monoxide and dioxide concentrations during burning. The decrease in the mass magnetic susceptibility with depth (>80 cm) in the lower part of the Btkg and 2Btkg horizons is due to the corresponding increase in both diamagnetic quartz particles (silt) and carbonates (Table A4.1).

Within the upper 1-50 cm the layer silicates and iron oxides have been completely destroyed or substantially depleted to form high concentrations of cemented / ceramic-like gravel (>60%). These fragments may have important implications for chemical and physical processes in the soil. Very high concentrations of cemented ironstone fragments (>60%) will increase permeability and provide a physical restriction to the root growth of sensitive plants.

The relatively high coefficient of frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility values (%CFD) recorded (Table A4.2 i.e. around 13%), indicates the persistence of superparamagnetic, ferrimagnetic phases with grains of the order of <0.01 µm in size (Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). This ferrimagnetic mineral phase, which is not readily identified by XRD techniques, is possibly poorly crystalline isomorphously substituted maghemite and/or hematite.

where:

CFD(%)=χm (low frequency) - χm(high frequency) X 100.

χm (low frequency)



Table A4.2: Magnetic susceptibility results for profile IM 18

Av.depth (cm) *Magnetic susceptibility Freq. Dep%

10 2000 >12

35 180 >13

75 3 >12

150 2 >10

*Mass magnetic susceptibility (χm) 10-8 m-3 kg (low frequency)

Profile depth versus magnetic susceptibility

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

0 500 1000 1500 2000

Magnetic Susceptibilty (χ)

Dep

th (c

m)

Figure A4.2: The magnetic susceptibility pattern for profile IM 18



Appendix 5 – CSIRO Land and Water recommendation for purchase of laboratory and field equipment to determine chemical and physical properties of soil and water samples in Iraq

Dr Peter Reiss requested recommendations for purchase of laboratory and field equipment to determine chemical and physical properties of soil and water samples in Iraq. The following information was sent to Dr Peter Reiss on 16 April 2004:

Water analysis $US

1 Lachat automated flow analyser model QuikChem 8000 series 2 channel but with extra chemistries for changeover: $51,800

2 Plus IC option for anions (for halide separations in hypersaline systems) $13,300

3 Atomic absorption spectrophotometer - Varian flame $31,100

4 AAS graphite furnace option for low detection limits $20,000

5 WTW (or YSI) multiprobe for pH, EC, Temp, DO, Redox: 2x $6,500

5 Hach colorimetry system for field analysis of eg Fe2+: $2,400

7 pH meter / auto titrator (for alkalinity) $11,100

Soil Analysis - additional to above

8 Mechanical vacuum soil extractor 24 place (ex cats/ sat paste) $4,800

9 Fifty place digestion block with digest tubes (US EPA 3050) $7,400

10 Total C, N, S analyser LECO TruSpec $62,900

11 Soil drying oven $4,400

12 Electrical conductivity meter $1,500

Additional laboratory equipment

13 Water purification system for RO / DI water $8,900

14 Drying oven for lab ware $3,000

15 Range of laboratory balances (4 dec pl, 3 dec pl & 1 dec pl) $5,900

16 Centrifuge bench top normal speed Eppindorf 5810 $5,900

17 Consumables for initial range of tests (chemicals, gases, containers) $14,800

Total $255,700 Further options

19 TOC instrument Skalar (high temperature) and gas purifier $44,400

20 Soil grinding soil preparation to <2mm $16,300

Complied by Mr Adrian Beech (Manager, Analytical Services) and Rob Fitzpatrick 16 April 2004.

The items listed 1 to 17 are considered essential to the operation of a routine soil and water laboratory of this type.



STEP 1: CSIRO recommends that at least two Iraqi scientists attend a one to two week intensive training program using the above equipment in the CSIRO Land and Water Adelaide soil and water testing laboratory. This will include preliminary laboratory design, equipment set-up, quality control requirements and undertaking routine sample analysis.

STEP 2: Once this has been completed, these scientists will return to Iraq and prepare the laboratory infrastructure (benches, electrical and water supplies etc).

STEP 3: Then equipment will be transported to Iraq.

STEP 4: Following this step, two Australian scientists will travel to Iraq for approximately one week to complete the installation of these instruments and equipment.

Costs for the training and installation have not been included in the above budget. Note also that the two additional items numbered 19 and 20 have not been included. The total value of $255.7K will be significantly reduced from the above amount to well under $250K when the full tender process is applied. Also some items (eg soil extractor #8 and LECO CNS #10) could be purchased cheaper in the USA and transported directly to Iraq.



Appendix 6: Semi quantitative analysis of mineral composition using powder X-ray diffraction (XRD)

Semi quantitative analysis of mineral composition was undertaken using power X-ray diffraction (XRD). Samples were finely ground with an agate mortar and pestle (salt efflorescences) or in a McCrone micronizing mill under ethanol (1g sub-sample for 10 minutes) and oven dried at 60°C then thoroughly mixed in an agate mortar and pestle. Powdered samples were lightly pressed in aluminium sample holders for X-ray diffraction analysis. XRD patterns were recorded with a Philips PW1800 microprocessor-controlled diffractometer using Co K-alpha radiation, variable divergence slit, and graphite monochromator. Diffraction patterns were recorded in steps of 0.05° 2 theta with a 3.0 second counting time per step, and logged to permanent data files using instrument control programs developed by Self (1988, 1989). Analysis of the data was carried out using the program XPLOT (Raven, 1990). Codes used to indicate abundance are: D - dominant (>60%), CD - co-dominant (sum of components >60%), SD - sub-dominant (20 to 60%), M - minor (5 to 20%), T - trace (<5%).



Mineralogical composition of soils from XRD analysis Sample No. Qz Ct Hl Alb Or Dt Gy Ka/Ch Mi Sm Arg Then Bl Eug Hm Mh Gt Anh Bas Jr Lt Ab Pk Py

IM3.1 Salt T SD T T D SD T

IM3.2 Salt T M D SD SD T

IM4.1 Salt T M M T SD D M

IM4.2 Salt M M M T D T

IM6.1A Salt

Brown

CD CD SD T T M T M M M T M

IM6.2B Salt

White

CD CD CD M T M T T T M T T

IM18.1A CD CD M T T T T M SD T

IM18.1B

Red

T M M SD D M T T

IM18.1C

Yellow

T M M M SD D T T

IM18.4A SD D T T M T T T M

IM23 Salt M CD M T T T CD SD T

IM1.1 M SD D T M M T M M T

IM1.2 SD D T T T M M T T M T

IM1.3 SD D M T T M T T T M T

IM1.4 SD D M M T M M T T M T

IM1.5 CD CD M M T M T T M M T

IM1.6 SD D M M T M M T M M T T

IM1.7 SD D T M T M M T M M T

IM1.8 SD D T M T M M T M M T

IM1.9 CD CD T M T M M T M M T T

IM2.1 SD D M T M T T T M T T

IM2.2 SD D M T M T T M M T T

IM2.3 SD D M T M T T M M T

IM2.4 SD D T T M M T T M T

IM2.5 SD D T T M M T M M T

IM3.1 T M D T T T SD SD T

IM3.2 M T D T T M SD T

IM3.3 CD SD CD T T M M T T T T T

IM4.1 M D T T T T M SD M

IM4.2 T M M T T T D T

IM4.3 SD D M T T T M T T M T T T

IM4.4 SD D T T T M T T M T


IM4.6 SD D T T T T T M M T




IM5.1 CD CD M T T T T M M T

IM5.2 CD CD M T T T T M M T T

IM5.3 CD CD M T T M T M M T T

IM5.4 SD D M T T M T M M T T T

IM5.5 M D M T T T T T M T T

IM5.6 M D M T T M T M M T

IM5.7 CD CD M T M M T M M T T

IM6.1 CD CD CD M T M M T T T T

IM6.2 D SD T M T T M T T M T T

IM6.3 CD CD T M T M T T M M T

Where: Quartz = Qz, Calcite = Ct, Halite = Hl, Albite= Alb, Orthoclase = Or, Dolomite= Dt, Gypsum Gy, Kaolin = Ka and/or Chlorite = Ch, Mica = Mi, Smectite St, Aragonite = Arg, Thenardite = Then, Blodite = Bl, Eugsterite = Eug, Hematite = Hm, Maghemite = Mh, Goethite = Gt, Anhydrite = Anh, Bassanite = Bas, Jarosite = Jr, Lepidocrocite = Lt, Amphibole = Ab, Palygorskite = Pk, Pyrite = Py.�



Continued Mineralogical composition of soils from XRD analysis Sample No Qz Ct Hl Alb Or Dt Gy Ka/Ch Mi Sm Arg Then Bl Eug Hm Mh Gt Anh Bas Jr Lt Ab Pk Py

IM7.1 CD CD T T T T T T M T

IM7.2 CD CD M T M T T T M T


IM7.4 SD D M T T T T T M T

IM7.5 SD D M T M T T T T

IM9.1 D SD M T M T T M

IM9.2 CD CD M T T T T M T


IM10.1 CD CD M T M T T M M

IM11.1 D SD M T T M M T

IM11.2 CD CD M T M T T M M T


IM12.1 CD CD M T M T T T M

IM12.2 D SD M T M T T T M T


IM12.4 CD CD T M T M T T T M T

IM14.1 M D T T T T T T T T

IM14.2 M D T T T T T T T

IM14.3 CD CD T T M M T T M T

IM14.4 SD D T T M M T T M T

IM15.1 D SD T M T M T T T M T T

IM16.1 SD D M T T M T T M T

IM16.2 M D T T T T T T T T T

IM16.3 M D T T T T T T T M T

IM16.4 SD D T T T M T T M T

IM18.1 D SD T T T T T M M M T

IM18.2 D M M T M T T T M T T

IM18.3 CD CD T T M T T T M T

IM18.4 SD D T T M T T T M

IM19.1 CD CD T T M T T M T

IM20.1 M D T T T T T T M T T

IM21.1 SD D T T T T T M T T

IM22.1 CD CD T T T T T T M T T

Where: Quartz = Qz, Calcite = Ct, Halite = Hl, Albite= Alb, Orthoclase = Or, Dolomite= Dt, Gypsum Gy, Kaolin = Ka and/or Chlorite = Ch, Mica = Mi, Smectite St, Aragonite = Arg, Thenardite = Then, Blodite = Bl, Eugsterite = Eug, Hematite = Hm, Maghemite = Mh, Goethite = Gt, Anhydrite = Anh, Bassanite = Bas, Jarosite = Jr, Lepidocrocite = Lt, Amphibole = Ab, Palygorskite = Pk, Pyrite = Py.�



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 37- 1465 THENARDITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN

File Name: d:\xrddat~1\12033blk.102

IM 3.1 Salts

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

9.186 7.6147.053 5.503

4.671

4.556

4.288

4.1244.0403.979

3.844

3.807

3.430

3.341

3.289

3.257

3.183

3.079

3.0352.971

2.9292.864

2.8222.786

2.734

2.688

2.649

2.587

2.5452.4972.4542.345

2.330

2.298

2.277

2.2132.194

2.1712.1562.1412.1102.094

2.027

1.995

1.9611.9351.925

1.894

1.866

1.843

1.817

1.801

1.784

1.7501.698

1.681

1.6781.6631.630

1.606

1.568

1.554

1.5431.5191.514

1.499

1.465

1.4301.411



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 37- 1465 THENARDITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN


IM 3.2 Salts

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

10

20

30

40

50

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

5.512

4.657

4.554

4.273

4.1223.9823.8493.796

3.426

3.341

3.288

3.251

3.182

3.078

3.029

2.970

2.9292.889

2.821

2.7862.735

2.687

2.648

2.5862.458 2.327

2.2772.1712.1292.090

2.027

1.995

1.9581.9351.9251.906

1.8661.8171.784 1.7011.6781.663

1.630

1.6001.5661.5521.5431.5191.499

1.437

1.411



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 37- 1465 THENARDITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN


IM 4.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

3

6

9

12

15

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

9.176

7.6686.312

5.482

4.664

4.549

4.489

4.444

4.282

4.1173.977

3.8553.803

3.6213.583

3.424

3.344

3.286

3.253

3.179

3.149

3.077

3.064

3.033

2.968

2.927

2.8882.863

2.819

2.789

2.763

2.7472.734

2.6852.670

2.647

2.584

2.5422.490

2.4572.420

2.387

2.332

2.315

2.294

2.275

2.2312.2102.193

2.169

2.158

2.142

2.128

2.112

2.089

2.026

1.994

1.960

1.948

1.9341.924

1.909

1.901

1.874

1.866

1.8451.8301.816

1.800

1.784

1.761

1.7121.700

1.677

1.662

1.629

1.619

1.602

1.568

1.5521.542

1.528

1.5181.498

1.486 1.4491.4381.410



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 37- 1465 THENARDITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN


IM 4.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

3

6

9

12

15

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

9.1717.650

5.4804.655

4.550

4.476

4.282

4.1193.977

3.858

3.803

3.423

3.345

3.2863.253

3.178

3.155

3.057

3.033

2.968

2.926

2.878

2.8202.733

2.680

2.648

2.584

2.5422.5132.490

2.457

2.3132.297

2.276

2.2342.191

2.169

2.1582.136

2.112

2.089

2.026

1.993

1.960

1.9341.924

1.908

1.903

1.8711.862

1.8191.792

1.786

1.7501.724

1.6761.672

1.665

1.629

1.607

1.601

1.567

1.5501.5421.524

1.518

1.5001.500

1.488

1.449

1.438

1.4191.409



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 37- 1465 THENARDITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 36- 426 DOLOMITE 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED


IM 6.1A Salt brown

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

4

8

12

16

20

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.045

9.9619.165 7.6047.084

5.4804.997

4.649

4.5834.485

4.252

4.1884.0223.949

3.846

3.7633.6583.525

3.456

3.423

3.339

3.317

3.253

3.186

3.139

3.063

3.032

2.926

2.881

2.854

2.819

2.783

2.7602.747

2.673

2.642

2.5902.5612.541

2.4902.456

2.384

2.327

2.280

2.2342.1662.125

2.089

1.994

1.9801.924

1.9111.8711.8651.816

1.8001.783 1.6971.680

1.6691.660

1.627

1.6031.6001.552

1.542

1.5381.5231.5071.498

1.453

1.4381.411





IM 6.1B Salt white

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

4

8

12

16

20

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.2769.9649.168

7.6097.085

5.5034.978

4.651

4.5904.481

4.252

4.2014.145

4.034

3.846

3.7633.6823.540

3.423

3.340

3.254

3.187

3.0763.063

3.033

2.926

2.887

2.819

2.783

2.747

2.679

2.646

2.5842.560

2.4902.456

2.387

2.328

2.280

2.2342.1942.159

2.128

2.092

1.994

1.9831.922

1.909

1.894

1.8731.866

1.8421.826

1.817

1.8021.785 1.7131.700

1.6811.6711.662

1.629

1.622

1.603

1.600

1.553

1.542

1.523

1.496 1.4531.4401.4351.4291.418

1.411



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 36- 426 DOLOMITE 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 33- 664 HEMATITE, SYN 13- 135 MONTMORILLONITE-15A


IM 18.1a

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

13.66410.047

8.3697.5787.0764.978

4.477

4.253

4.0353.846

3.7763.6653.513

3.345

3.234

3.188

3.032

2.933

2.887

2.693

2.5712.519

2.4902.457

2.280

2.234

2.185

2.128

2.092

1.9801.926

1.9111.872

1.817

1.8021.786

1.671

1.6591.622

1.602

1.542

1.5221.509

1.4731.4521.4371.418



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 33- 664 HEMATITE, SYN 39- 1346 MAGHEMITE-C, SYN 37- 1496 ANHYDRITE, SYN 29- 713 GOETHITE 22- 827 JAROSITE, SYN


IM 18.1b red

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

8

16

24

32

40

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

7.627

5.0824.829

4.289

4.1873.8483.807

3.687

3.5043.4023.347

3.063

3.028

2.952

2.874

2.785

2.701

2.594

2.515

2.453

2.4112.281

2.205

2.086

1.993

1.9031.868

1.840

1.779

1.696

1.6651.620

1.604

1.567 1.522

1.486

1.475

1.453



5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 39- 1346 MAGHEMITE-C, SYN 37- 1496 ANHYDRITE, SYN 29- 713 GOETHITE 44- 1415 LEPIDOCROCITE, SYN


IM 18.1c yellow

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

3

6

9

12

15

18

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

7.622

6.278

5.003

4.286

4.185

3.850

3.806

3.571

3.446

3.3913.339

3.2963.218

3.110

3.069

3.026

2.959

2.873

2.8532.784

2.6962.689

2.585

2.525

2.518

2.491

2.481

2.452

2.257

2.216

2.191

2.086

2.0151.981

1.9201.900

1.881

1.807

1.776

1.722

1.6931.691

1.6601.619

1.608

1.564

1.511

1.478

1.455

1.422

1.395



5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 36- 426 DOLOMITE 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1


IM 18.4a

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

8

16

24

32

40

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.149 9.965 7.6097.064 4.9624.470

4.254

4.035

3.847

3.7853.535

3.345

3.248

3.188

3.033

2.887

2.8412.679

2.571

2.491

2.4562.407

2.280

2.2342.1912.128

2.092

2.0151.980

1.924

1.9111.872

1.817

1.8051.786 1.6721.659

1.624

1.602 1.5421.523

1.5061.471

1.4381.418



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 37- 1465 THENARDITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1


IM 23

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

3

6

9

12

15

18

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

9.9279.133

7.613

7.0905.4794.993

4.664

4.549

4.262

4.1304.0373.979

3.845

3.803

3.659

3.346

3.286

3.248

3.180

3.077

3.032

2.9672.886

2.820

2.784

2.733

2.685

2.647

2.5842.490

2.456

2.382

2.328

2.280

2.2122.1662.125

2.089

2.026

1.994

1.960

1.9211.908

1.894

1.866

1.842

1.8171.800

1.784

1.747

1.6811.662

1.6291.603

1.567

1.553

1.542

1.516

1.500

1.465

1.4381.429

1.412



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1475 ARAGONITE


IM 1.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

9

18

27

36

45

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.276 10.009

7.596

7.1094.9934.739

4.482

4.260

4.0303.8523.8033.6673.5303.402

3.344

3.2583.190

3.064

3.031

2.889

2.822

2.7062.6852.6022.563

2.492

2.4592.4012.375

2.282

2.2362.1922.127

2.091

2.016

1.995

1.9341.925

1.9101.873

1.818

1.8041.7881.7411.7001.672

1.657

1.628

1.601 1.5411.5231.506

1.4721.4521.438

1.420

1.410



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE


IM 1.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

5

10

15

20

25

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.405 9.9628.458

7.614

7.0874.709

4.495

4.281

4.036

3.846

3.803

3.6833.548

3.345

3.2363.188

3.063

3.032

2.885

2.820

2.789

2.6852.5962.559

2.490

2.456

2.408

2.280

2.2362.2162.194

2.128

2.089

1.994

1.979

1.922

1.9111.871

1.816

1.8041.7781.666

1.6221.601

1.583

1.5421.5221.506

1.470

1.437

1.418





IM 1.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

5

10

15

20

25

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.40510.5849.962

8.021

7.611

7.0876.385 5.0084.730

4.495

4.254

4.022

3.846

3.6593.536

3.345

3.254

3.188

3.068

3.032

2.933

2.8862.820

2.6802.5902.555

2.490

2.456

2.403

2.280

2.2342.1912.128

2.089

1.994

1.982

1.924

1.9091.872

1.819

1.7841.6711.6631.6271.623

1.601

1.569

1.542

1.523

1.507

1.470

1.438

1.419





IM 1.4

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.23210.5159.9278.369

7.611

7.088

6.3744.9934.7104.467

4.266

4.036

3.846

3.8033.6593.536

3.345

3.248

3.188

3.126

3.062

3.032

2.8872.820

2.7122.679

2.5962.554

2.490

2.456

2.4032.381

2.280

2.2342.1912.128

2.089

2.015

1.994

1.9801.922

1.9081.871

1.817

1.8051.7861.700

1.6711.625

1.599

1.583

1.5421.522

1.509

1.469

1.4361.420





IM 1.5

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.405 9.989

7.633

7.1086.404 5.008

4.7194.513

4.261

4.030

3.852

3.6893.541

3.344

3.259

3.193

3.031

2.8902.823

2.685

2.5622.539

2.492

2.455

2.404

2.282

2.2362.199

2.127

2.091

1.995

1.979

1.924

1.9101.873

1.818

1.8041.785

1.6721.657

1.627

1.601 1.5431.5221.506

1.468

1.438

1.421





IM 1.6

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.22910.5849.966

8.413

7.615

7.0874.9794.730

4.467

4.254

4.023

3.8473.803

3.6473.536

3.345

3.1883.063

3.033

2.887

2.820

2.685

2.584

2.491

2.457

2.387

2.280

2.2342.1912.128

2.089

2.015

1.9941.923

1.911

1.872

1.819

1.7861.7781.671

1.623

1.602 1.542

1.5231.509

1.453

1.438





IM 1.7

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.27610.6559.967

7.613

7.088

6.385 4.9934.7304.470

4.260

4.035

3.8473.803

3.6713.5363.488

3.345

3.242

3.189

3.063

3.033

2.886

2.8432.8192.685

2.6342.5862.559

2.491

2.456

2.403

2.280

2.2342.2162.191

2.128

2.090

2.0171.9941.979

1.923

1.9091.872

1.846

1.819

1.8021.786 1.671

1.662

1.624

1.6021.542

1.5231.509

1.4711.453

1.438

1.421





IM 1.8

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.23410.5849.968

7.610

7.085

6.4004.9774.710

4.482

4.254

4.028

3.8473.802

3.643

3.536

3.344

3.1883.066

3.032

2.887

2.8242.6792.5942.542

2.490

2.456

2.4072.337

2.280

2.2382.1912.128

2.089

2.0151.9911.9791.924

1.909

1.898

1.874

1.816

1.8051.786 1.6711.621

1.600

1.565

1.542

1.5231.509

1.4711.453

1.438

1.420





IM 1.9

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.23210.46010.051

8.369

7.607

7.088

6.673 4.9774.729

4.485

4.253

4.028

3.8473.802

3.658

3.536

3.340

3.235

3.187

3.063

3.032

2.887

2.8192.679

2.5602.536

2.490

2.456

2.404

2.280

2.2342.194

2.128

2.090

2.013

1.9941.980

1.923

1.9111.872

1.817

1.783

1.6711.658

1.622

1.6021.542

1.5231.507

1.4691.455

1.438

1.420





IM 2.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.536 10.5159.963 7.6087.0884.9784.730

4.495

4.253

4.036

3.848

3.8033.6673.536

3.345

3.229

3.188

3.032

2.887

2.834 2.6672.563

2.490

2.457

2.387

2.280

2.2342.1912.128

2.089

2.0151.980

1.924

1.909

1.872

1.845

1.819

1.7841.671

1.6581.623

1.6011.5421.522

1.506

1.4711.453

1.437

1.421





IM 2.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.27610.6559.962

8.415

7.6047.086

6.4254.9774.709

4.485

4.252

4.023

3.846

3.533

3.340

3.216

3.187

3.031

2.887

2.834 2.5902.551

2.490

2.456

2.403

2.280

2.2342.1942.128

2.089

2.0151.980

1.924

1.908

1.871

1.819

1.8021.7841.671 1.621

1.6001.5421.522

1.509

1.4691.454

1.438

1.420





IM 2.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

8

16

24

32

40

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.40510.5729.966 7.6097.0884.9784.709

4.482

4.253

4.028

3.846

3.541

3.340

3.254

3.188

3.113

3.032

2.887

2.8432.672

2.5902.544

2.490

2.457

2.397

2.280

2.2342.1912.128

2.089

2.0151.980

1.924

1.9091.872

1.816

1.8031.783

1.6711.623

1.601

1.5421.5221.508

1.470

1.4371.420





IM 2.4

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.0259.966

7.610

7.0904.9624.744

4.504

4.253

4.022

3.8473.802

3.6833.535

3.344

3.242

3.188

3.066

3.033

2.887

2.841

2.7822.6802.5942.559

2.491

2.456

2.403

2.280

2.2342.1912.128

2.090

2.0171.994

1.924

1.9111.872

1.817

1.8021.786 1.6721.622

1.6021.542

1.5231.507

1.4711.452

1.438

1.419





IM 2.5

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.229 9.967

7.612

7.085

6.400 4.9784.7174.503

4.254

4.022

3.8473.803

3.536

3.340

3.2443.195

3.032

2.887

2.843 2.6832.5962.559

2.491

2.456

2.404

2.280

2.2382.1942.128

2.092

2.0151.9801.953

1.924

1.9111.872

1.817

1.8021.786

1.6721.624

1.602

1.5421.5231.505

1.4711.453

1.438

1.418



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 37- 1465 THENARDITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN


IM 3.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

10.0529.2397.6097.076 6.083

5.478

4.664

4.549

4.268

4.1303.976

3.845

3.8043.513

3.423

3.345

3.286

3.2543.1793.076

3.032

2.968

2.9262.883

2.820

2.784

2.733

2.685

2.647

2.5842.490

2.456

2.328

2.279

2.2122.1732.0932.026

1.994

1.9601.9341.9241.911

1.865

1.8421.8191.800 1.700

1.6811.662

1.629

1.604

1.553

1.5401.5181.498 1.429

1.420

1.411



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 37- 1465 THENARDITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN


IM 3.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

10

20

30

40

50

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

9.186 7.611 5.477

4.664

4.550

4.2824.1184.0053.858

3.8023.423

3.344

3.286

3.254

3.188

3.075

3.0322.968

2.933

2.820

2.7842.733

2.685

2.647

2.584

2.5362.4852.456 2.3282.2942.275

2.1952.1692.1412.112

2.026

1.994

1.9601.9341.924

1.9081.863

1.8301.8161.7861.786 1.700

1.629

1.6001.5501.542 1.500

1.488

1.411



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN


IM 3.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

3

6

9

12

15

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.025

10.0829.197

7.634

7.1026.358

5.490 4.6234.482

4.287

4.041

3.851

3.780

3.6743.5403.436

3.349

3.258

3.191

3.070

3.035

2.932

2.875

2.823

2.749

2.6812.594

2.5622.538

2.4922.459

2.407

2.282

2.130

2.090

2.074

1.995

1.9841.924

1.912

1.875

1.849

1.820

1.786 1.671

1.630

1.600

1.543

1.5261.503

1.470

1.438

1.420

1.411



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 37- 1465 THENARDITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1


IM 4.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

4

8

12

16

20

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

9.989

9.179

7.617

7.0856.305

5.943

5.4814.6454.597

4.548

4.487

4.449

4.2774.256

4.1174.0443.985

3.847

3.803

3.625

3.423

3.345

3.286

3.247

3.209

3.1773.149

3.066

3.032

2.967

2.927

2.8912.865

2.819

2.790

2.758

2.746

2.723

2.6852.668

2.647

2.5892.5842.542

2.512

2.490

2.457

2.3822.328

2.294

2.279

2.2302.211

2.1732.1562.1392.128

2.109

2.089

2.067

2.026

1.994

1.960

1.9361.9241.908

1.874

1.868

1.8301.8181.782

1.7601.711

1.6981.6741.660

1.6291.620

1.601

1.5641.552

1.5421.525

1.518

1.5011.438



5- 628 HALITE, SYN 37- 1465 THENARDITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH


IM 4.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

5

10

15

20

25

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

9.192

7.628

7.0766.299

5.487

4.662

4.556

4.495

4.288

4.1243.982

3.862

3.806

3.426

3.341

3.2893.252

3.189

3.062

3.035

2.971

2.936

2.873

2.822

2.792

2.735

2.683

2.649

2.586

2.5382.4872.4532.421

2.314

2.296

2.277

2.196

2.171

2.1582.1412.114

2.090

2.0271.992

1.961

1.935

1.925

1.863

1.8291.812

1.785

1.725

1.6771.665

1.630

1.602

1.5681.5501.543

1.519

1.501

1.4881.439



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE


IM 4.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

5

10

15

20

25

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.2089.956

7.608

7.067 4.737

4.513

4.281

4.0353.947

3.8463.802

3.536

3.340

3.2533.186

3.067

3.027

2.872

2.819

2.784

2.6852.5922.565

2.490

2.456

2.403

2.280

2.217

2.128

2.089

2.073

1.994

1.9781.952

1.921

1.9081.871

1.819

1.7971.778 1.6711.661

1.6301.621

1.601

1.5421.523

1.506

1.471

1.437

1.4191.402



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE


IM 4.4

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

4

8

12

16

20

24

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.276 10.311

7.611

7.131

4.503

4.281

4.0223.8453.803

3.556

3.345

3.187

3.067

3.032

2.872

2.789

2.6852.596

2.563

2.490

2.456

2.403

2.342

2.280

2.2342.216

2.128

2.089

1.984

1.922

1.9081.872

1.817

1.780 1.6681.645

1.622

1.601

1.5421.5221.506

1.4711.453

1.438

1.420



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 35- 487 EUGSTERITE, SYN 19- 1215 BLODITE 41- 586 ANKERITE


IM 4.5

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.025 9.962

7.612

7.0874.9934.728

4.485

4.267

4.035

3.846

3.8033.6753.548

3.345

3.187

3.032

2.903

2.887

2.7892.6852.5962.536

2.489

2.456

2.280

2.2382.1942.128

2.089

1.9911.980

1.922

1.909

1.872

1.817

1.671

1.621

1.600

1.5421.522

1.5091.469

1.437

1.421





IM 4.6

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

8

16

24

32

40

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.149 9.969

7.613

7.0864.993 4.495

4.253

4.023

3.846

3.8023.6603.536

3.344

3.235

3.188

3.032

2.887

2.8402.706

2.5902.559

2.490

2.457

2.280

2.2362.1912.128

2.089

2.0151.984

1.922

1.909

1.872

1.819

1.8031.786 1.6721.621

1.600

1.5421.5221.518

1.507

1.469

1.437

1.418





IM 4.7

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.2349.968

7.613

7.0886.400 4.9934.720

4.507

4.254

4.035

3.846

3.8033.675

3.541

3.345

3.235

3.190

3.032

2.887

2.8412.680

2.5962.560

2.490

2.456

2.404

2.280

2.2342.1902.128

2.089

2.0201.980

1.922

1.9091.871

1.817

1.8051.786 1.6721.623

1.6001.5421.521

1.5051.469

1.4361.420





IM 5.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

4

8

12

16

20

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.233

10.5849.964

7.608

7.0884.993

4.744

4.495

4.253

4.022

3.846

3.7683.6703.536

3.345

3.188

3.032

2.886

2.8412.710

2.5942.567

2.490

2.457

2.280

2.238

2.128

2.092

1.995

1.9791.922

1.909

1.872

1.819

1.7981.783

1.671 1.621

1.601 1.542

1.5221.506

1.4721.452

1.438

1.418





IM 5.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

4

8

12

16

20

24

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.138 9.963

8.458

7.611

7.1395.008

4.495

4.266

4.035

3.846

3.6593.533

3.346

3.242

3.188

3.131

3.033

2.886

2.8482.7872.686

2.5932.559

2.490

2.457

2.397

2.280

2.2382.190

2.128

2.092

1.9801.924

1.908

1.8721.819

1.797

1.6711.6601.623

1.601

1.542

1.5221.505

1.4711.4531.438

1.419



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 42- 1340 PYRITE


IM 5.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

5

10

15

20

25

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.229 9.962

7.605

7.087 4.729

4.485

4.259

4.022

3.8453.7893.535

3.339

3.242

3.188

3.112

3.063

3.027

2.872

2.8392.7822.706

2.6852.5902.566

2.490

2.456

2.4242.407

2.280

2.2382.216

2.128

2.089

1.9901.922

1.9081.871

1.817

1.783

1.6711.6601.623

1.600 1.5421.5231.506

1.471

1.438

1.419



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 42- 1340 PYRITE


IM 5.4

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.14910.6559.9678.413

7.607

7.0846.374 4.9794.744

4.466

4.253

4.022

3.845

3.6703.533

3.340

3.235

3.195

3.027

2.886

2.8342.7122.587

2.485

2.454

2.279

2.2332.128

2.089

1.980

1.921

1.9081.871

1.817

1.7981.781

1.6721.6491.621

1.599

1.5421.5221.504

1.469

1.437

1.420



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 42- 1340 PYRITE 13- 135 MONTMORILLONITE-15A


IM 5.5

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.276 9.9648.458

7.613

7.086 4.7284.485

4.253

4.028

3.846

3.6593.541

3.345

3.189

3.032

2.933

2.886

2.8412.706

2.594

2.489

2.457

2.424

2.279

2.2382.1962.128

2.089

2.0151.9921.980

1.921

1.9081.871

1.819

1.8001.783 1.6711.622

1.600

1.5421.5221.507

1.4711.453

1.437

1.418



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 13- 135 MONTMORILLONITE-15A


IM 5.6

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.045 9.9688.369

7.609

7.086

6.400 4.9984.7304.485

4.266

4.036

3.846

3.8033.536

3.345

3.235

3.188

3.122

3.032

2.886

2.843 2.6802.5932.565

2.489

2.456

2.401

2.280

2.234 2.125

2.089

2.0171.980

1.924

1.911

1.872

1.817

1.783 1.6711.6601.620

1.600

1.5421.5221.509

1.4691.454

1.437

1.421





IM 5.7

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.229 9.966

8.458

7.607

7.087

6.4004.9774.710

4.482

4.253

4.023

3.847

3.7853.659

3.536

3.340

3.234

3.188

3.032

2.887

2.8432.689

2.602

2.490

2.456

2.404

2.280

2.2342.1912.161

2.128

2.090

2.0151.9801.924

1.909

1.872

1.817

1.786 1.674 1.623

1.6021.542

1.5221.509

1.4711.453

1.4381.419





IM 6.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

5

10

15

20

25

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.059

9.967

9.169

7.610

7.083

6.3845.9425.5054.9784.709

4.583

4.470

4.254

4.0233.8463.803

3.659

3.5353.444

3.340

3.254

3.188

3.059

3.032

2.925

2.886

2.819

2.754

2.6792.5962.554

2.4902.456

2.387

2.280

2.234

2.128

2.090

1.994

1.924

1.9111.8741.817

1.800

1.783 1.6711.660

1.629

1.603

1.542

1.523

1.4741.453

1.4381.411





IM 6.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.225

9.966

8.413

7.616

7.0884.977

4.728

4.450

4.268

4.036

3.846

3.8033.672

3.536

3.345

3.235

3.188

3.067

3.033

2.886

2.8202.6852.593

2.4912.456

2.403

2.281

2.2382.190

2.128

2.089

2.074

1.991

1.9791.924

1.9111.8741.819

1.8021.7861.671 1.6231.603

1.542

1.5231.508

1.473

1.4381.422





IM 6.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

8

16

24

32

40

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.22212.687

9.972

8.411

7.612

7.087

6.3874.9784.7274.485

4.254

4.024

3.847

3.7763.6593.535

3.345

3.234

3.189

3.129

3.033

2.887

2.8262.679

2.578

2.4912.457

2.407

2.280

2.2342.190

2.128

2.092

2.015

1.9911.980

1.924

1.9111.8741.819

1.8021.7861.671

1.6251.602

1.542

1.5231.509

1.4531.438

1.420





IM 7.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.230 9.969

8.416

7.608

7.087

6.3744.9784.728

4.485

4.253

4.038

3.846

3.7763.6593.533

3.340

3.242

3.188

3.149

3.032

2.886

2.8392.680

2.590

2.490

2.456

2.401

2.280

2.2342.194

2.128

2.089

2.0501.9911.980

1.924

1.9091.872

1.817

1.783

1.671 1.622

1.6001.542

1.5211.506

1.4701.453

1.4381.418





IM 7.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.149 9.9678.413

7.6087.088

6.374 4.9784.717

4.466

4.254

4.022

3.846

3.7853.6673.536

3.344

3.244

3.187

3.123

3.032

2.886

2.8412.7912.7102.679

2.5932.560

2.490

2.456

2.382

2.280

2.2362.191

2.128

2.089

2.0151.9911.980

1.922

1.9091.871

1.817

1.802

1.6711.660

1.623

1.6011.542

1.5221.505

1.4721.453

1.437

1.420





IM 7.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.149 9.973

8.4207.6147.0886.400 4.9764.729

4.467

4.254

4.036

3.847

3.7753.6713.536

3.478

3.345

3.242

3.188

3.131

3.032

2.887

2.8402.590

2.490

2.457

2.3972.342

2.280

2.2382.191

2.128

2.089

1.9801.921

1.9081.871

1.819

1.6711.6601.622

1.6011.542

1.5221.505

1.470

1.438

1.420





IM 7.4

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.149 9.966

8.4137.6087.086

4.9784.717

4.482

4.252

4.023

3.845

3.7633.6593.536

3.340

3.244

3.188

3.027

2.942

2.887

2.8402.702

2.590

2.485

2.456

2.280

2.2382.1902.125

2.089

1.980

1.922

1.908

1.871

1.817

1.8021.671

1.6581.621

1.6001.542

1.5221.507

1.469

1.437

1.419





IM 7.5

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.149 9.9627.578

7.0856.374 5.0084.744

4.482

4.253

4.036

3.846

3.7633.6593.533

3.345

3.243

3.189

3.027

2.887

2.8342.699

2.560

2.490

2.456

2.404

2.280

2.2342.1912.128

2.089

1.977

1.924

1.907

1.871

1.817

1.8041.7861.670

1.660

1.623

1.6011.542

1.5221.509

1.468

1.437

1.420





IM 9.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

9

18

27

36

45

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.24210.515

9.968 7.0896.400 4.9984.730

4.484

4.253

4.0363.846

3.7753.6703.536

3.341

3.248

3.188

3.032

2.9912.933

2.886

2.8342.710

2.571

2.4902.456

2.397

2.280

2.2352.190

2.128

2.092

2.0151.980

1.924

1.9091.8721.819

1.8021.786

1.6711.623

1.601

1.542

1.5221.505

1.4711.4531.438

1.420





IM 9.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.8069.974

8.414

7.088

4.9784.728

4.484

4.253

4.036

3.847

3.7643.667

3.536

3.345

3.235

3.189

3.032

2.887

2.8342.706

2.5942.548

2.490

2.457

2.382

2.280

2.2342.191

2.128

2.092

2.0151.9801.922

1.9111.872

1.819

1.786

1.6711.6601.623

1.601

1.542

1.5231.507

1.4691.451

1.440

1.419





IM 9.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.534

9.9697.614

7.0924.9784.730

4.485

4.253

4.024

3.848

3.7703.671

3.536

3.345

3.195

3.033

2.9962.949

2.887

2.8412.8012.706

2.593

2.560

2.491

2.456

2.391

2.280

2.2382.191

2.128

2.092

1.9991.980

1.924

1.911

1.874

1.819

1.784

1.671

1.6601.625

1.602

1.542

1.5231.505

1.4691.453

1.438

1.419





IM 10.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.2399.965

7.6047.087

5.5654.9774.717

4.485

4.253

4.023

3.846

3.7633.658

3.536

3.340

3.242

3.188

3.032

2.886

2.8242.706

2.5902.560

2.490

2.456

2.382

2.280

2.2342.190

2.128

2.090

1.9931.9801.924

1.9111.872

1.817

1.8021.786

1.6711.623

1.601

1.540

1.5231.506

1.4711.453

1.4381.4371.421





IM 11.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

13.78210.050

8.413 6.386 5.0234.858

4.487

4.254

4.0363.846

3.7633.6713.510

3.345

3.235

3.189

3.103

3.033

2.890 2.594

2.490

2.457

2.280

2.2342.128

2.092

1.9801.922

1.9111.874

1.819

1.8021.781

1.6711.6601.625

1.601

1.542

1.5231.509

1.4711.453

1.4371.418





IM 11.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.227 9.9698.418

7.578

7.0876.400

4.9784.7294.502

4.254

4.0233.847

3.7753.6583.536

3.345

3.234

3.190

3.148

3.033

2.887

2.8412.548

2.491

2.456

2.404

2.281

2.2342.191

2.128

2.092

2.0151.9941.9801.924

1.9091.874

1.819

1.8041.7861.671

1.6571.625

1.602

1.542

1.5221.504

1.453

1.4381.420





IM 11.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.2369.970

8.4587.614

7.089

6.4254.9784.711

4.476

4.254

4.024

3.848

3.7753.6713.536

3.345

3.242

3.189

3.137

3.033

2.887

2.8342.710

2.593

2.4912.456

2.401

2.280

2.2382.191

2.128

2.090

2.0111.9801.924

1.9111.8741.819

1.7861.671

1.623

1.603

1.581

1.542

1.5231.5041.453

1.437

1.417





IM 12.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.2319.964 7.086

6.4004.9784.730

4.495

4.253

4.035

3.847

3.7753.670

3.536

3.340

3.242

3.188

3.032

2.926

2.887

2.834

2.5962.565

2.490

2.456

2.383

2.280

2.2342.191

2.128

2.092

2.0121.9941.9801.924

1.9111.8721.817

1.786 1.716

1.6711.623

1.601

1.585

1.542

1.5231.502

1.4691.453

1.4371.418





IM 12.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.149 9.9728.4217.614

7.087

6.400 4.9784.7114.486

4.254

4.0233.847

3.7753.6703.536

3.345

3.248

3.188

3.130

3.033

2.992

2.887

2.8342.685

2.5902.560

2.491

2.457

2.403

2.280

2.2352.190

2.128

2.089

1.9911.9801.924

1.9091.8721.819

1.8051.784

1.6711.623

1.602

1.585

1.542

1.5231.5061.453

1.438

1.420





IM 12.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.229 9.965

8.4137.607

7.085

6.3494.979

4.730

4.485

4.253

4.036

3.847

3.7633.670

3.536

3.340

3.248

3.188

3.130

3.032

2.887

2.8412.699

2.563

2.4902.456

2.401

2.280

2.2342.191

2.128

2.090

2.0151.9911.980

1.924

1.9091.872

1.817

1.8041.783 1.685

1.6711.6601.623

1.601

1.542

1.5231.505

1.4691.4631.453

1.437

1.419





IM 12.4

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.627 9.9678.4137.650

7.0886.382 5.024

4.7104.467

4.254

4.023

3.847

3.7753.6673.536

3.345

3.248

3.187

3.032

2.887

2.819

2.666

2.5962.560

2.490

2.456

2.404

2.280

2.2352.1912.128

2.090

2.0121.9941.9801.924

1.9091.872

1.819

1.8021.7861.744

1.6711.6601.625

1.6021.542

1.5231.506

1.4711.454

1.438

1.418



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 13- 135 MONTMORILLONITE-15A 41- 1475 ARAGONITE


IM 14.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

9

18

27

36

45

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.149 9.9637.610

7.0856.400 4.9934.7064.495

4.259

4.037

3.846

3.536

3.345

3.248

3.195

3.032

2.9412.886

2.8412.7892.685

2.489

2.4572.397

2.280

2.2382.1902.128

2.089

2.0171.9911.977

1.921

1.9091.872

1.819

1.786 1.671

1.621

1.599

1.5421.522

1.5091.469

1.437

1.420





IM 14.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

8

16

24

32

40

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.405 9.9708.413

7.6127.087

4.9624.7094.467

4.265

4.037

3.846

3.6713.531

3.345

3.248

3.188

3.032

2.942

2.887

2.841 2.6852.5942.563

2.486

2.4562.404

2.280

2.2382.1942.125

2.089

2.0171.980

1.921

1.909

1.871

1.817

1.8001.783 1.6871.672

1.621

1.600

1.587

1.5421.522

1.5081.469

1.437

1.418





IM 14.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.22310.4469.965

7.606

7.086

5.0084.727

4.485

4.253

4.035

3.8453.801

3.6593.535

3.340

3.248

3.188

3.113

3.063

3.031

2.886

2.841 2.6792.5942.563

2.490

2.456

2.403

2.280

2.2332.194

2.128

2.089

2.0151.9901.980

1.922

1.9081.872

1.816

1.786

1.671 1.623

1.601 1.5421.522

1.509

1.4711.453

1.438

1.420





IM 14.4

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.048 9.969

7.609

7.087

4.9784.7204.485

4.254

4.023

3.846

3.802

3.6593.536

3.340

3.235

3.189

3.143

3.062

3.032

2.926

2.887

2.8412.689

2.5962.559

2.490

2.456

2.394

2.280

2.2342.191

2.125

2.090

2.0151.9911.980

1.924

1.9091.872

1.848

1.817

1.786 1.671 1.621

1.602 1.542

1.5221.507

1.453

1.4381.418





IM 15.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.051 9.968

8.413

7.606

7.0884.9784.710

4.477

4.253

4.022

3.847

3.7943.6583.536

3.340

3.234

3.188

3.032

2.886

2.8192.685

2.5982.555

2.490

2.456

2.4032.384

2.280

2.2342.1912.128

2.089

2.0151.9941.9801.923

1.9111.874

1.817

1.8021.7831.671 1.622

1.601

1.542

1.5231.507

1.472

1.438

1.419





IM 16.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

4

8

12

16

20

24

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.670 9.965

7.613

7.086

6.3744.9784.730

4.476

4.282

4.036

3.846

3.803

3.6583.536

3.345

3.242

3.188

3.067

3.033

2.885

2.789

2.6852.5902.5542.536

2.490

2.456

2.413

2.280

2.2382.217

2.196

2.128

2.089

2.074

2.0151.9901.977

1.953

1.922

1.9111.872

1.8191.797

1.783

1.6711.621

1.601

1.587

1.5421.522

1.510

1.4711.453

1.438

1.420





IM 16.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

8

16

24

32

40

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.149 9.9678.413

7.613

7.076 5.0004.7444.466

4.280

4.038

3.846

3.8123.6833.536

3.346

3.188

3.032

2.894

2.8202.7832.6802.590

2.489

2.457

2.280

2.2342.2122.1912.128

2.089

1.9941.980

1.922

1.911

1.872

1.8171.8021.7841.744 1.671

1.622

1.600

1.585

1.542

1.522

1.5071.470

1.437

1.419





IM 16.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

8

16

24

32

40

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

13.902 9.963 7.6117.0856.400 5.0244.7034.467

4.253

4.021

3.845

3.6833.536

3.345

3.243

3.194

3.032

2.888

2.8402.712

2.590

2.489

2.457

2.377

2.280

2.2382.1912.128

2.089

2.0151.980

1.922

1.908

1.871

1.817

1.7861.700

1.671 1.621

1.600

1.5421.5221.5161.508

1.469

1.437

1.418





IM 16.4

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.14210.5659.970

7.612

7.0876.374 5.0244.717

4.485

4.266

4.028

3.846

3.803

3.6593.536

3.344

3.242

3.195

3.066

3.032

2.8862.875

2.841 2.6802.593

2.560

2.490

2.456

2.403

2.280

2.2382.2202.191

2.128

2.089

2.0151.980

1.924

1.9091.872

1.817

1.7831.671

1.621

1.601 1.5421.5231.506

1.472

1.438

1.418



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 13- 135 MONTMORILLONITE-15A 33- 664 HEMATITE, SYN


IM 18.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.276 10.0517.604 4.979

4.486

4.253

4.0233.8463.7633.6653.518

3.345

3.244

3.187

3.033

2.943

2.8872.6992.590

2.5132.4902.457

2.403

2.280

2.2362.1902.128

2.092

1.9791.924

1.9111.872

1.819

1.800 1.6981.6711.6621.623

1.603

1.542

1.5231.5091.473

1.4531.4381.418





IM 18.2

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.27610.5849.9678.4137.6087.131

6.4004.978

4.476

4.253

4.0233.846

3.7753.6593.547

3.340

3.2353.188

3.067

3.033

2.991

2.887

2.693

2.5962.5652.4902.457

2.391

2.280

2.2382.1912.128

2.089

2.0151.980

1.924

1.9091.872

1.817

1.8001.783

1.713

1.6721.623

1.602

1.542

1.506

1.4531.4381.421





IM 18.3

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

4

8

12

16

20

24

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.04710.6559.927

7.607

7.085

5.0084.730

4.485

4.252

4.023

3.846

3.683

3.536

3.340

3.254

3.188

3.032

2.887

2.834

2.554

2.490

2.456

2.391

2.280

2.2342.1902.128

2.090

2.066

2.0151.9801.924

1.9111.872

1.817

1.8041.786 1.671

1.6581.623

1.600

1.540

1.5221.504

1.472

1.438





IM 18.4

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

8

16

24

32

40

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.276 9.9669.328

7.6067.0834.9934.7174.458

4.253

4.028

3.847

3.6833.525

3.340

3.2433.1883.062

3.032

2.886

2.839 2.560

2.491

2.4562.403

2.280

2.2342.1912.128

2.090

2.0151.9801.924

1.9111.872

1.817

1.784 1.6711.623

1.601

1.567

1.5421.523

1.5081.4711.453

1.438

1.420





IM 19.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

5

10

15

20

25

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.27610.5159.965 7.088

6.3744.9794.717

4.495

4.252

4.036

3.847

3.7633.670

3.536

3.488

3.345

3.244

3.188

3.033

2.887

2.8412.706

2.5902.565

2.491

2.456

2.3982.378

2.280

2.2382.194

2.125

2.090

2.0151.980

1.924

1.9111.874

1.817

1.8021.784

1.671

1.6601.623

1.6021.542

1.5231.507

1.4731.453

1.438

1.418



46- 1045 QUARTZ, SYN 5- 586 CALCITE, SYN 5- 628 HALITE, SYN 9- 466 ALBITE, ORDERED 36- 426 DOLOMITE 33- 311 GYPSUM, SYN 14- 164 KAOLINITE-1A 29- 701 CLINOCHLORE-1MIIB, FE-RICH 6- 263 MUSCOVITE-2M1 41- 1366 ACTINOLITE 31- 966 ORTHOCLASE 13- 135 MONTMORILLONITE-15A 41- 224 BASSANITE, SYN


IM 20.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

8

16

24

32

40

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.405 9.9898.414 7.107 6.0134.9934.703

4.5034.2534.023

3.845

3.7853.6673.467

3.345

3.235

3.196

3.026

2.8862.8042.706 2.567

2.486

2.457

2.279

2.238 2.128

2.089

1.9941.980

1.921

1.9051.869

1.8501.817

1.786 1.6931.6711.621

1.598

1.540

1.521

1.5091.468

1.453

1.435

1.418





IM 21.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

6

12

18

24

30

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.058 9.964

8.412

7.083

6.3494.978

4.7104.470

4.252

4.023

3.845

3.7633.658

3.536

3.402

3.340

3.2443.188

3.026

2.8872.8332.8042.703

2.554

2.486

2.456

2.279

2.2342.190

2.128

2.089

1.9901.977

1.921

1.9081.869

1.817

1.786 1.6711.622

1.599

1.5421.5221.505

1.471

1.437

1.419





IM 22.1

2-Theta Angle (deg)10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00

7

14

21

28

35

Inte

nsity

(Cou

nts)

X 1

00

14.335 10.0108.446

7.6387.111

4.9934.7444.507

4.261

4.042

3.851

3.6833.5413.395

3.344

3.248

3.192

3.030

2.8902.890

2.7092.6802.599

2.488

2.459

2.385

2.282

2.2372.127

2.091

1.982

1.922

1.910

1.870

1.835

1.818

1.718

1.672

1.623

1.600

1.586

1.5431.5221.517

1.5061.470

1.437

1.420

Xray Diffraction data - Appendix 6 2010/02/15 - 14:09


Appendix 7: Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of selected samples

This appendix has not been included in this version of the report because of its large size, which includes 45 scanning electron micrographs. However, the following 10 representative scanning electron micrographs have been selected and included in the body of the report: Figures 5, 8, 9, 10, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, and 32. Methods of specimen preparation and examination A7: 1-2 The specimens were selectively sub-sampled to show the appropriate phases, often fractured to expose fresh surfaces, and then oriented and mounted onto aluminum specimen mounts using "Araldite" 5-minute epoxy resin. The samples were subsequently dried in a vacuum desiccator overnight, had the surfaces blown cleaned with a Nitrogen jet, and then coated with a conductive layer.

Where imaging of the composition was required, specimens were evaporatively coated with 30nm of carbon, using an EmScope SC500 coating unit, to provide electrical conductivity and maximize Backscattered Electron (BE) phase contrast. Carbon coating also minimizes extraneous x-ray peaks from the characteristic X-ray spectrum.

Specimens were placed in a “Phillips” XL30 FEG-SEM, with an attached “EDAX” DX4 energy dispersive x-ray system. Sample examination was done using a primary electron beam energy of 20 KeV. Imaging was performed using the Secondary Electron (SE) signal where information about surface topography was required. The SE signal primarily carries information about the local topography because the signal is dependent on the angle of incidence of the primary beam. Imaging was also performed using the Backscattered Electron (BE) signal where information about composition and phase was required. The backscattered electron signal primarily carries information about the average atomic number and the density of the sample commonly called "atomic number contrast or Z contrast". The characteristic x-ray signals were also collected at selected positions for qualitative Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. EDX analysis is possible within the volume over which the electron beam interacts (approximately four cubic micrometers), for all elements of atomic number greater than 6 with detection limits in the order of 0.1 to 5 wt % depending on the energy of the characteristic x-ray line.

Table of specimens prepared for SEM A7: 2-6 SEM Micrographs of samples examined A7: 7-53 EDX spectra of samples examined A7: 54-66 EDX analyses of samples examined A7: 67-91

changes in soil and water characteristics of natural ... · that occur when submerged soils and...

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