Change and contact in Pomoan stress pa2erns

GeneBuckleyUniversityofPennsylvania

GroupinAmericanIndianLanguagesUCBerkeley

2May2019

Outline of talk

• Pomoanstress– reconstructionofprotostress– synchronicpatterns

• changesthathaveoccurred– generalizationsandanalysis

• adjacentlanguages– possiblecontactinfluencesonreanalysis

• implicationsforlearning– responsestoambiguousgeneralizations– factorsandbiasesinreanalysis

2

Pomoan family

• sevenlanguagesinnorthernCalifornia– timedepthcomparedtoGermanic

• varietyofchangesindescendents– maintained(nearly)intactinseveral– moresignificantlymodifiedinothers– radicallychangedinoneofthem

• languagetransmission– whatdoesthistellusaboutlearningstresspatterns?

3

Language families of California

4

Pomoan languages

5

California

NorthernNortheastern

Southeastern

Southern

Central

Eastern

Kashaya

Internal rela4onships

6

Proto-Pomo

SouthernGroup

WesternBranch

Kashaya NorthernCentralSouthern Northeastern Eastern Southeastern

Proto-Pomo

• reconstructedbyMcLendon(1973)– I’llmainlyacceptherassumptions

– butwillmakecertainminorchangesunrelatedtostress

• proto-languageprobablylocatedaroundterritoryofEandSElanguages– ClearLakeregion

• phasedmovements

7

NorthernNortheastern

Southeastern

Southern

Central

Eastern

Kashaya

Reconstructing proto-stress

8

• actuallocationofstressinmodernlanguages– N,E,SE,Carerelativelyconsistent– NEalsolendssomesupport– KandespeciallySarenowquitedifferent

• aphesisofinitialsyllables→unstressed– completelossofCVwithinitial/ʔ,h/– pervasiveinalllanguagesexceptK,S,sometimesNE– evenK,Shaveittoamorelimiteddegree

• voweldeletionininitialsyllables– retentionofnon-laryngealonsetconsonant– commoninC,pervasiveinSE

• syncopeinpost-tonicsyllables– precedeschangeinK,Sstresspatterns

Stress on second syllable

9

‘duck’ ‘bear’ ‘woman’ ‘angelica’K qʼajál buṭaqá ʔima:ta baʔtʃʼowáS kʼá:jan bu:ṭáka baʔtʃʼowhaC kʼjá:n pʼṭáka má:taN kʼaján bitá: má:ta batʃʼówaNE kʼajá:- bóɾo- himá:taE qʼa:já:n bu:ráqal má:- archaic ba:kʼó:SE kʼján bṭéqal ʔkʼó-bPP *qʼa:ján *bu:ṭáqa(l) *ʔimá:ta *baʔkʼówa

excludingK,S,sometimesNE:thelanguagesshowstressonsecondsyllable

Loss of first syllable

10

‘eye,face’ ‘fat’ ‘fire’ ‘water’K huʔúj ʔihpʰúj ʔoho ʔahqʰaS húʔuj ʔíhpʰuj ʔóh:o ʔáhkʰaC ʔúj pʰúj hó kʰáN ʔúj pʰúj hó kʰáNE ʔúj fí: ʔóho kʰáE ʔúj pʰúj xó xáSE ʔúj fúj χó χáPP *huʔúj *ʔihpʰúj *ʔohχó *ʔahqʰá

initialsyllablemusthavebeenunstressed– therefore2ndsyllablewasstressed

Pomoan instrumental prefixes

• around20prelixesoftheshapeCV-– expressmanner,cause,orobjectofaction*bi- ‘bycollecting,byencircling,bysewing’*pʰu- ‘byblowing,bylloatingintheair’*qa- ‘betweentwoforces,bybiting’

• overwhelminglycommoninverbs– Kdictionarycontains4222unsuflixedverbstems– ofthese,3681(or87%)containprelixes– alsoinnounsderivedfromsuchverbs

• heretherootisthesecondsyllableoftheword– stressalignedwithleftedgeofroot:σ{σp σ– locationcanbeexpressedbyreferencetomorphology

11

Prefixed verbs

12

‘bite’ ‘carry’ ‘fly, float’ ‘smell,stink’K qane- biʔdi- pʰudi- mihʃe-S ka:ne- biʔdi- mehʃe-C ka:né- pʰdé- mʃé-N kané- pʰide- miʃé-NE kána- fuʔdú- méhʃe-E qa:né- bi:dí[:l] pʰu:dí- mi:ʃé-SE qné- bdéy- -di- mxé-PP *qa-:né- *bi-ʔdí- *pʰu-dí- *mi-hʃé-

likedisyllabicroots,thesetakestressonsecondsyllableoftheword

Post-tonic syncope: Southern

13

• deletionofavowelinthethirdsyllable– unexpectedifthatsyllableisstressed– complementsevidencethatstresswasnotinitial

• ifnotinitialandnotonthird,thenonsecond• assumingleft-orientation,whichseemssecure

• still-productivesyncopeinS/ʔe-hkʰe-matʃ-in/ → ʔehkʰémtʃin ‘movein!’/ʔa-htʃa-mok-a/ → ʔahtʃámko ‘flewinto’/ʔa-hpʰ-alametʃ’-in/ → ʔappʰalmétʃ’in ‘carrydown!’

• can’tdependonmodernpenultimatestress– oftendeletesunderlyingpenult

/ʔahtʃamó ko/– somustbebasedonearlierstresssystem

Post-tonic syncope: Kashaya

14

• similarpattern,butlexicalized,inKkinshipmi-ṭʼikí ‘youryoungersibling’ <*mi-ṭʼíki ?mi-tʃú-ṭʼki ‘yoursister’sson’ <*mi-tʃú-ṭʼiki ?

• presumedorigin– 2ndsyllablestress,deletionof(nonfinal)post-tonicvowel*mi-ṭʼíki > mi-ṭʼiki*mi-tʃú-ṭʼiki > mi-tʃu-ṭʼki

• mightalsoexplainanablautpatterninKkinship– stemwithlongvowelifmonosyllabicprefix,otherwiseshort

mi-de·ki´ ‘youroldersister’ <*mi-dé:ki ?dikí-nʼ ‘myoldersister’miyá:-diki ‘hisoldersister’

– i.e.longvowelifstemstartsatsecondsyllable,whichwouldhaveoriginallybeenstressed

Monosyllabic stems

15

‘come’ ‘hear’ ‘leave’ ‘claw’K wa:d-u´ ʃotʃ- qʼa:-´ he:tʃʼ´S hwá:d-u ʃo:tʃi- hé:tʃʼC wá:d- ʃó:tʃ- ʔé:tʃʼN wá:d- ʃó:- kʼá- hétsʼNE hé:tʃʼaE wád[u:ki] ʃó:kʰ qʼá-SE (xko-) qʼá-PP *(h)wá:d- *ʃó:k- *qʼá(:)- *hé:tsʼ

hereproto-stressisonthefirstsyllable– itcan’tbeassignedpasttheroot

Proto-Pomo stress

16

• appearstoberegular– thoughbestevidencecomesfromnouns

• stresson2ndsyllableofword– whetherprelixedornot– {σσp ,σ{σp

• butstaysonaninitialmonosyllabicroot– {σp }σ– noreconstructedprelixedrootswithtwosyllables

• butintherelevantdaughterlanguages,• stressremainsonlirstrootsyllableregardlessofwordlength

• initialstressinvocativeofkinshipterms?– limitedevidence;willsetthisaside

Analysis of PP stress

• prelixedstemscouldrefertomorphology– stressalignedwithleftedgeofroot: σ{σp σ– possiblesourceof“2ndsyllable”generalization– butonceestablished,itrequiresaphonologicalanalysis

• noreferencetovowellengthorclosedsyllables– requiresleft-edgeextrametricality: <σ>(σp σ– or quantity-insensitiveiamb: (σσp )σ– eitherapproachisuncommonandmarked

• monosyllabicstemsarealsoalignedtotheroot– therejusthappenstobenoprelix: {σp }...

• remainsonthisrootsyllabledespiteadditionofsuflixes– revocationofextrametricality,or nonbranchingfoot

17

Modern stress: Eastern Pomo

18

NorthernNortheastern

Southeastern

Southern

Central

Eastern

Kashaya

• mainlythesameasprotolanguage

• secondsyllableofmostwords– includingallprefixedroots

– alternatingsecondarystress

• firstsyllable– monosyllabicroots(somebyaphesis)

– certaindisyllabicstemshavetobelexicallymarked

Eastern Pomo second syllable

• instrumentalprefixesarenow/CV:/– manyofthesederivefrom*CV{hCVor*CV{ʔCVdu:{qá}ṭʼki: ‘pulloff,pluck’ma:{tʼó}qaja ‘roasted(themeat)’ka:{lú}:ski: ‘sitonsomethingsticky’bi:{dí}m ‘holdinhandwithoutmoving’– noreferencetoVlengthinplacementon2ndsyllable

• similarinmostwordswithnoapparentprefixbu:ráqal ‘bear’di:lé ‘forehead’qa:lí ‘sky’

19

Eastern Pomo initial stress

• unpredictablyonlirstsyllableforcertainwordskaju ‘atthebeginning’du:ʃux ‘quiet’tsʼa:mal ‘lly’

• somearehistoricallyfromaphesistʰıja ‘bigʼ <*ʔahtʰıjtʰo:no ‘seaweedʼ <*ʔo:tʰono

• allthenumbershaveinitialstresskʼali ‘one’le:ma ‘live’tsʼa:di ‘six’hadaqal ‘ten’

20

Eastern Pomo loanwords

• somelikelyfromneighboringlanguagesháju ‘dog’ (widelydiffused)hí:baja ‘menʼ (identicaltoNEPomo)

• initialstressinmorerecentloanwords– similartoSEPomo;someperhapsborrowedthroughitkáhonʔ ‘box’ <Sp.cajónkálawa ‘nailʼ <Sp.clavopáʃalʔ ‘tovisitʼ <Sp.pasarpápelʔ ‘paperʼ <Sp.papelrí:koʔ ‘richʼ <Sp.rico

• whateverthesource,theyexist– lexicalexceptionstoleft-edgeextrametricality?

21

Eastern Pomo initial CVC

• initialCVCisnotfrequent,buttakesstress– couldstressbeattractedtoVCbutnottoV:?– perhaps(historical)compoundsandreduplicatedroots,nowlexicalized

botʰqo ‘forearm’lıkʰlikʰ ‘sparrowhawk’tıχtiχ ‘snipe’

• verbswithinitialCVCaremonosyllabicroots– thereforeexpectinitialstressanyway{ka}mli: ‘tipover,wreck(acar)’{ʔe}tʃʰki: ‘sneeze’

22

Eastern Pomo analysis

• followsgeneralPomopattern– left-edgeextrametricality– stressatleftedgeofdomain– blockedbymonosyllabic,unprefixedroot

• lexicalexceptions– extrametricalityblockedforcertainroots

• morecommonthaninsomeotherPomoanlanguages?– includesclassessuchasloansandnumbers

• heavyinitialsyllables– mightbetrueweightsensitivity

• thoughnotevidentinothercontexts,orwithCV:– probablyjustmarkedasexceptionsliketheothercases

23

Modern stress: Northern Pomo

24

NorthernNortheastern

Southeastern

Southern

Central

Eastern

Kashaya

• similartoprotolanguage

• secondsyllableofdisyllabicroots– aswellasprefixedmonosyllables

• firstsyllableofmonosyllabicroot– includingwhereaphesishasoccurred

• pitchaccentrealization– predictablebasedonsyllablestructure

Northern Pomo second syllable

• disyllabic(orlonger)root{dilej} ‘all’{batʃʼowa} ‘angelica’{da:wak}a ‘goout’{duhu}doj ‘theysayheleft’{kawı}namjatʃuʔ ‘ofthechild’{mina}t~inhe ‘Iheard(thebaby)cryonce’

• prelix,yieldingdisyllabicstemsi{ju:}t~in ‘recognizetaste(ofliquid)’mi{ʃe:}tal ‘befeeling(emotion)’da{sej} ‘wash’da{tsʼap}na ‘musthaveslapped’

25

Northern Pomo first syllable

• monosyllabicroot{pʰó}moʔo ‘marryeachother’{ṭʰáʔ}a ‘play(COLLECTIVE)’{tʃá}nhe ‘Ihearditjump(inthewater)’{lók}ta ‘fall,dropmultipletimes’

• historicalaphesis{má:ta} ‘woman’ <*ʔimá:ta

• otherreasons,suchasonomatopoeia?{xó:ta}manhe ‘Ihearhimsnoring’

• analysishastopermitsomeexceptions– noinitialextrametricality,oranunderlyingstress– butmostformscanbegeneratedquiteregularly

26

Northern Pomo analysis

• generalPomopattern– left-edgeextrametricality– stressatleftedgeofdomain– blockedbymonosyllabic,unprefixedroot

• exceptionsappeartobequitelimited– thoughstressisoftennotwritteninsources– sodataissomewhatlimited

• realizedwithpredictablepitchaccent– risingonshortVandmostVC– fallingonshortVC=laryngealorejective– fallingonV:

27

Modern stress: Central Pomo

28

NorthernNortheastern

Southeastern

Southern

Central

Eastern

Kashaya

• similartoprotolanguage

• secondsyllableofdisyllabicroots– aswellasprefixedmonosyllables

• firstsyllableofmonosyllabicroot– includingwherevoweldeletionhasoccurred

– thereforemoreoftenword-initial

Central Pomo second syllable

• disyllabic(orlonger)roots{matúl} ‘oldlady’{maʔá} ‘food’{masá:nja} ‘white(person)’{tʃa:nó}:n ‘talks’– noeffectofvowellength

• syllabicprefix,yieldingdisyllabicstemba{yí}:tʃʼ ‘learnedtotalk’ʃa{ʔá}ma:tʃatʃ ‘(we)usedtogather’qa:{wá}tan ‘eat(habitually)’da{lí}da{li}w ‘wavethehand’

29

Central Pomo first syllable

• monosyllabicroots{lów}a:tʃʼa:tʃʼ ‘(we)don’ttalk’{mí}taqʼ ‘theysay’{tʃá:ʔ}jem ‘oldman’

• historicalvoweldeletion,inprefixorwithinrootm{ʃé}m{ʃe}w ‘sniffat’ <*mihʃé-ʃ{dí:}jaw ‘carried(thebody)’ <?*tʃʰiʔdí- /ʃuʔdí-{ʔwéni} ‘yesterday’ <*duwéni

• initialinloanwords,orotherreasons{sómle:lo} ‘hat’ <Sp.sombrero{háju} ‘dog’ locallydiffused{ʔúda:w} ‘lots’

30

Central Pomo analysis

• generalPomopattern– left-edgeextrametricality– stressatleftedgeofdomain– blockedbymonosyllabic,unprefixedroot

• lexicalexceptions– extrametricalityblockedforcertainroots– predictableinpresenceofinitialCCcluster

• extrasyllabicCblocksextrametricalsyllable?• morefrequentstressonfirstsyllableofword– comparedtoEandN– sincevoweldeletionwasmorewidespreadinC

31

Languages with 2nd syllable stress

32

Proto-Pomo

SOUTHERN GROUP

WESTERN BRANCH

Kashaya NorthernCentralSouthern Northeastern Eastern Southeastern

Modern stress: Southeastern Pomo

33

NorthernNortheastern

Southeastern

Southern

Central

Eastern

Kashaya

• stressisalwaysinitial– historicallossoflirstvowelorsyllable

• remainsonsamesyllableasinprotolanguage– butsimplersynchronicgeneralization

• lost longvowels– theonlyPomoanlanguagetolosehistorical length

– marginallyreintroduced

Southeastern Pomo diachrony

• initialunstressedsyllableslosevowel*seʔe >sʔe ‘chaparral’*nahpʰo >mfo ‘people’*mihjan >mjan ‘throat’*ba:laj >blaj ‘blood’

• completeaphesiswithlaryngealonset*hi:mo >mo ‘hole’*hiʔbal >bal ‘tongue’*ʔoho >ho ‘lire’*ʔahχaj >χaj ‘wood’

• initialstressedsyllablesaremaintained*tʃʼaj >tsʼaj-tsʼaj ‘scrubjay’*qʼa(:)- >qʼa- ‘leave(behind)’

34

Southeastern Pomo first syllable

• nativewordswithinitialstress– regardlessofwordlengthxéla ‘friend’xélataj ‘friends’tsáqlamat ‘itflewtotheground’háliqmattat ‘(two)discuss,plan’

• sameinSpanishborrowings– regardlessofstressinsourcelanguagesómlilu ‘hat’ <sombreromántikija ‘butter’ <mantequillapílatu ‘dish’ <plato

• verysimplegeneralizationof“firstsyllable”– historicallossofunfootedmaterialatthebeginningoftheword– evidenceofavoidingdegeneratefeetforsecondarystress

35

Modern stress: Northeastern Pomo

36

NorthernNortheastern

Southeastern

Southern

Central

Eastern

Kashaya

• lessconsistentwithprotolanguage

• often2ndsyllableofdisyllabicroots– aswellasprelixedmonosyllables

• but1stofmanydisyllabicroots– apparentlypriortoaphesis

• tendencytopenult?– openquestions

Northeastern Pomo second syllable

• thesefollowthegeneralPomopattern• insomedisyllabic(orlonger)roots– matchesprotostress{ʃahko}ka: ‘grasshopper’ <*ʃahqot{hima:ta} ‘woman’ <*ʔima:ta{~iʔba} ‘body’ <*~iʔba{ʔaha:} ‘wood’ <*ʔahχaj

• syllabicprelix,yieldingdisyllabicstem– alsotypicaloftheotherlanguagesfu{ʔdu} ‘lloat’ <*pʰu-ʔduʃo{ʔkʼom}on ‘cutoff’da{ʔdı}ma ‘lay(rock)down’

37

Northeastern Pomo first syllable

• insomedisyllabicroots– hasshiftedleftwardfromprotostress{dúwe} ‘night’ <*duwwé{béhʃe} ‘deer’ <*bihʃé{táno} ‘speech’ <*kahnó{máʔa} ‘acorn’ <*maʔá

• monosyllabicroots– oftenfromaphesis,basedonprotostress{ʔá} ‘horn’ <*haʔá{fó:} ‘magnesite’ <*ʔipʰó:(l)

– noaphesisifstressshiftedleftward:{ʔóho} ‘fire’ <*ʔohχó

38

Northeastern Pomo variation

• someformsaretranscribedvariably– withstresson1stand2ndsyllables– noapparentdifferenceincontext

• possibletendencyforpenultimatestress– basedonshiftundersuflixationma:ti ‘day’ma:tı-min ‘sunrise’

• butsomerootstressappearstobestable– ifwecanrelyonsomewhatlimiteddata

39

Northeastern Pomo rhythm?

• mayshiftbetween1stand2ndsyllables– dependingonoverallrhythmofsentenceʃilíma ‘sitdown!’ʔámaʃílima ‘yousitdown!’mahkú:i ‘handkerchief’tína:máhku:i ‘kerchiefforhead’

• tentativehypothesis– rhythmdoesinfluenceshiftingstress

• between1stand2nd,withiterativeeffects– buttheoptionsremainwithinthePomopattern– variableextrametricality,or footheadedness?

40

Modern stress: Southern Pomo

41

NorthernNortheastern

Southeastern

Southern

Central

Eastern

Kashaya

• regularpenultimatestress– reportedtobeonthephrase,notjusttheword

• outlierinPomoan– right-orientation– allothersareleft-oriented(butNE?)

• secondarystress– onalternatingsyllablesprecedingthepenult

Southern Pomo penult

• mainstressonpenult(kʰaʔbe) ‘rock’kʰaʔ(be-ʔwan) ‘rock-DET.OB JECT ’kʰaʔ(be-jej) ‘Rock(Man)-AGENT ’

• clashingsecondarystressintrisyllables– transcribedexplicitlyforjustafewwords– butdescribedasageneralpattern(bu:)(taka) ‘bear’(kıt)(tsıdu) ‘small(COLLECT IVE)’

42

Southern Pomo phrasal

• phrasalstress– canincludeencliticsandmultiplewords(bàh)(ṭʰé=kʼo) ‘withmany’(sí:ma)(pʰìʔtʼa)(wáʔ=to) ‘Ifeelsleepy’(hùʔtʼa)(yì:li)(wáʔ=ʔa)(ʃó:tʃiw)

‘whenitcametomake(noise)Iheardit’• alternationinstressduetophrasalcontext– I’llreturntothislater(béhʃe) ‘deer’beh(ʃèdah)(lá:li) ‘deer,Ithink’

43

Southern Pomo analysis

• quantity-insensitivetrochees,primarystressatright(σNσ) (σNσ) (σPσ)

– iterativefromrighttoleft,averycommonpattern• canbeconstructedacrossphrases

– sharesthispropertywithKashaya• antepenultintrisyllablesisstressed,andtypicallyheavy

(σN) (σPσ)– historically,tomeetaminimumsizeoftwomoras?– ifcorrect,wouldsimplifysomereconstructions

• notclearwhetherthisfootoccursinlongerwords– theorieswouldgenerallypredictit

? (σN) (σNσ) (σPσ)

44

Modern stress: Kashaya

45

NorthernNortheastern

Southeastern

Southern

Central

Eastern

Kashaya

• mostcomplexofall– butstillleft-oriented

• iambsfromtheleft– firstsyllableisextrametrical

– unlessthatwouldleavetherootunfooted

• clearquantitysensitivity– unliketheotherlanguages

– specialroleforlongvowels

Kashaya iambic feet

• extrametricalityoffirstsyllablebydefault– stresson2ndsyllableifheavy,else3rd– iambiclengtheningof(most)stressedvowels

• mainevidenceforsecondarystressfeet• trueofunprefixeddisyllabicroots

{qaʔtʃʼáṭʼ}kʰetʰin ‘shouldn’tcry’{qaʔtʃʼaṭ}á:dutʃe:du ‘usedtocryandcry’

• aswellasallprefixedroots– whethertherootismonosyllabicorlongertʃa{qʰám}muʔ ‘cutpiecesapartfromeachother’tʃa{qʰam}á:lawi:biʔ ‘starttocutdownward’bi{lukú}mciʔ ‘eatwithone’smouthclosed’

46

Kashaya monosyllabic root

• extrametricalityisblocked– asintheotherPomoanlanguages{kel}mula:dutʃe:du ‘keeppeeringaround’{mo}mu:litʃʼe:du ‘runincircles’{tʃad}u:tʃedun ‘whilelooking’

• buttherootitselfisstilloftenunstressed– thefoot(notthestress)hastooverlaptheroot– evaluatedviathevowel,asthesyllablehead* {tʃad}utʃe:dun = tʃa(dutʃe:)dun

• theotherlanguageskeepstressontheroot– sameformalstatementiftheyaretrochaic

47

Kashaya analysis

• iambicfeetfromlefttoright– extrametricalitybydefault

• retainsmuchofgeneralPomopattern– left-edgeextrametricality– stressatleftedgeofdomain– blockedbymonosyllabic,unprefixedroot

• syllableweightplayscentralrole– unlikeintheotherlanguages

• lexicalexceptions– extrametricalityblockedforafewroots– alsofixedstressonsomeloans

48

Kashaya phrasal stress

• twowordsgroupedasonestress– optionalbutcommon(ma+ qáʔ)(tʃʼaṭem) ‘whenyoucry’<ʔo>(ho+ dúh)(samu:)tʃi ‘tendthefire!’<ʔah>(qʰa+ bá)(ṭʰe:)=li ‘withlotsofwater’

• mostoftenyieldsinitialstressinsecondword– influenceofinitialstressinotherlanguages?

• morecomplexpatternwithlongvowels– accentshiftsfrom(CV:)tofollowingfoot– doesn’tchangefootstructure– willsetthisissueasidehere

49

Kashaya degenerate feet

• finalstressondisyllabicwords<ʔah>(qʰá) ‘water’<qa>(né) ‘bite!’

• phrasalgroupingavoidsthis<bih>(ʃé) ‘deer’<bih>(ʃebó)(ʔotaʔ)(tʰuʔ) ‘don’thuntdeer!’

• degeneratefootcanbeunaccented– thatis,nopitchaccentonthatmetricalstructure<bih>(ʃe)<bo>(ʔotáʔ)(tʰuʔ) ‘don’thuntdeer!’

• strategiestominimizeroleofsuchfeet– eventhoughtheyareoftencreated– suchfeetarealsocharacteristicofgeneralPomo

50

Summary of stress patterns

Stem: Disyllabic Prefixed Monosyllabic

PP {σσP} σ{σP} {σP}σE {σσP} ( ~ {σPσ} ) σ{σP} {σP}σN {σσP} ( ~ {σPσ} ) σ{σP} {σP}σC {σσP} , {CσP} σ{σP} , C{σP} {σP}σSE {CσP} C{σP} {σP}σNE {σσP} ~ {σPσ} ? σ{σP} ? {σP}σ ?S {σσP}σ , {σPσ} σ{σP}σ , σP{σ} {σ}σPσ , {σP}σK {σσ}σ , {σσ}σP σ{σ}σ , σ{σ}σP {σ}σ , {σ}σP

51

Diachronic tendencies

• shiftfrom2ndto1stsyllable– scatteredexamplesinE,N,C– commoninNE

• deletionyieldsinitialstress– withlaryngealonsetsinE,N,C,someNE– vowelafternonlaryngealinSE,someinC

• majorchangesintwolanguages– penultimateinS– iambicinK

• doeslanguagecontactexplainsomeofit?52

Languages near Pomoan

53

Nomlaki

Patwin

Yuki

LakeMiwok

CoastMiwok

Wappo

Kato

• Athabaskan– Kato

• Yuki-Wappo– CoastYuki,Yuki,andHuchnom

– Wappo• Wintun– Nomlaki(N.branch)– Patwin(S.branch)

• Miwok-Costanoan– LakeMiwok– CoastMiwok

HuchnomCoastYuki

POMOAN

Stress in Kato (or Wailaki)

54

Nomlaki

Patwin

YukiCoastYuki

LakeMiwok

CoastMiwok

Wappo

Kato

• nodescriptionofstressinKato– notevenmarked

• dataforcloselyrelatedWailaki– 1stsyllableofroot

• alsoofword,forbasicnouns

– canbeprecededbymanyprefixes• typicalAthabaskanverbstructure

• notsimilartootherlanguagesinarea– includingPomoan

Huchnom

POMOAN

Wailaki

Yuki-Wappo languages

55

Nomlaki

Patwin

Yuki

LakeMiwok

CoastMiwok

Wappo

Kato

• Yukian– severalcloselyrelatedlanguages

– stressusuallyon1stsyllableofroot• excludes(rare)prelixes

– somedisyllabicrootshavestresson2ndsyllable

– limitedpitchaccent• Wappo

– stresson1stsyllableofroot• excludesprelixes,morecommonthaninYukian

• bothsimilartoPomoan– unlikelysourceofchange– butperhapsoldcontact

HuchnomCoastYuki

POMOAN

Wintun languages

56

Nomlaki

Patwin

Yuki

LakeMiwok

CoastMiwok

Wappo

Kato

• Nomlaki– nostressdescription

• Wintu– justnorthofNomlaki,andgroupedwithit• souseasstand-in

– two-syllablewindow– stressonsecondsyllableifheavy,otherwisefirst

• Patwin– again,stressonfirstorsecondsyllable

– seemstocorrelatefairlywellwithsyllableweight

• weightnotcentralinPomoan– exceptindistantKashaya

HuchnomCoastYuki

POMOAN

Wintu

Interim summary

• Kato,Wailakinotespeciallyrelevant– firstsyllableofrootislikeotherlanguages– longstringofprefixesisonlyinAthabaskan

• Yuki-Wappostressesfirstrootsyllable– mayespeciallyhaveaffectedNE– YukimightalsorelatetopitchaccentinN

• Wintunhasfirst/secondsyllablestress– withimportantroleforsyllableweight– potentiallygermanetoNE,thoughfactsuncertain

• ofcourse,Pomoanmayhaveinfluencedthem– suchassecond-syllablestressesinYukian

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Western Miwok

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Nomlaki

Patwin

Yuki

LakeMiwok

CoastMiwok

Wappo

Kato

• twonearbyvarieties– LakeMiwokadjacenttoEandSE

– CoastMiwokadjacenttoKandS

• BodegaMiwok– northwestdialectofCoastMiwok

– immediatelyadjacenttoKandS

– discussionbasedonformsindictionary(Callaghan1970)

HuchnomCoastYuki

POMOAN

Miwok stress

• reportedLakeMiwokstress(Callaghan1971)– stressonleftmostCVV– otherwiseonleftmostCVC– otherwiseoninitialsyllable

• datasuggeststhatstressrarelymovespastthesecondsyllable– consistentwithProto-Pomoexceptforsyllableweight– andinEandNEnearby

• BodegaMiwokissimilartoLakeMiwok,exceptthat– “stressmayshifttothepenult”

• importantsinceadjacentShaspenultimatestress– butwhatexactlydoesthatdescriptionmean?

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Bodega Miwok stress

• disyllableshaveinitialstressunlesslinallongvowelkole ‘grass’kenum ‘every’hu:ma ‘lisheggs’ʔelle: ‘lish’

• longerwordsmostlypenultimate– rightwardshiftundersuflixationtamal ‘west,coast’ tamal-to ‘onthecoast’ko:ja ‘girl’ ko:ja-ko ‘girls’jolum ‘eat’ jolum-ne ‘feed’tawuh ‘think,guess’ tawuh-mi ‘guess!’tolpa ‘answer’ tolpa-mmi ‘answer!’tolle-pa ‘letgoof’ tollepa-mmi ‘letgoofit!’

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Bodega Miwok extrametricality

• certainsuflixesappeartobeignoredforstress– stressisantepenultimateunlessthepenultisheavylu:ta ‘poke(alire)’lu:ta-ja ‘apoker’lu:ta-<ti> ‘poke’(PERFECT IVE)julu ‘beangry’jullu-m-<ti> ‘quarrel’(REC IP,PERF)kenne ‘one’kenne-tto ‘together’(A LLAT IVE)kenne-<wa> ‘oneplace’(LO CAT IVE)kenne-wa-tto ‘inoneplace’

• residueofunexplainedexceptions– antepenultimatewithoutthesesuflixes– penultimateonlightsyllablebeforethesesuflixes

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Miwok and Southern Pomo

• around89%penultimatestressinBodegaMiwok– partlyduetolargenumberofdisyllables– linallongvowelsarequiteuncommon

• thusoverwhelminglyonepatterninMiwokdata– especiallyiftakeextrametricalityintoaccount– thosesuflixesexcludedfrompenultimatedomain

• appearstobethebasisofSPomoinnovation– adjacencytothispatternissurelynotacoincidence– pastperiodofsignilicantbilingualism?

• perhapsalsorelatedtoambiguitiesinSwords– trisyllableswithstressonsecondsyllable– matchesbothinheritedandpenultimateanalysis

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Southern Pomo reanalysis

• textsinSshowmanytrisyllabicwords– ambiguousbetween“second”and“penultimate”kʰa:léʔwankúʔmudi:látsʼaw,kʰaʔbéjej

‘Rockbrokeallthetreesbyfallingonthem’• reanalysisaspenultimatesystem– supposenativespeakersofMiwokmarryingintoPomocommunities

– childrenexposedtobothlanguages– ortoMiwok-accentedPomowithtendencytousepenultimatestress

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Southern Pomo phrases

• stressinphrasespossiblyrelatedtoreanalysis*<beh>(ʃé) originalpattern<beh>(ʃé)<dah>(lá:li) independentfootingon2nd~ beh(ʃédah)(lá:li) or iterativefrompenult(béhʃe) newpenultimatepattern

• periodofvariationbehʃé~ béhʃe mayevenhaveledtophrase-levelpattern– speakersconceivablypreferredthevariantthatledtobettersentencerhythm

– forminisolationthenstabilizedaspenultimate64

Kashaya reanalysis

• doesn’tabandontheoldsystemlikeSdoes– keepsleft-orientation– butdevelopsitfurther

• repeatswhatmayhaveoccurredinProto-Pomo– perhapsPre-Proto-PomowasYirst-in-root:σ{σP} , {σPσ}– laterdevelopssecond-in-word forlongerroots:{σσP}

• likelyaroleagainforprelixstructure– overwhelminglycommoninverbs

• dependsonambiguouspatterninσ{σP}– 2ndinword,or1stinroot

• bilingualismforCentralandKashaya?65

Central versus Kashaya: prefixed

• originalgeneralizationwithprelix– putstressonlirstsyllableofroot– whichisthesecondsyllableoftheword

*mi-{hʃe}-c-im‘smellit!’

• lossofvowelorlirstsyllableinC,notK– C:putstressonlirst(remaining)syllable:

mʃecim– pre-K:stillputstressonsecondsyllable:

*mihʃecim– orisitthelirstsyllableoftheroot?

• factsareambiguoustothelearner66

Central versus Kashaya: unprefixed

• originalgeneralizationwithunprefixedword– putstressonsecondsyllableoftheword– can’treferto“root”asdistinctinthiscase

*duwéni‘yesterday’

• lossofvowelorfirstsyllableinC,notK– C:putstressonfirst (remaining)syllable:

ʔwéni– pre-K:stillputstressonsecond syllable:

*duwéni– differenceispurelyphonological

• learnercan’trefertoaprefix67

Kashaya speaker learning Central

• overwhelmingcognaterelations– lossofvowelsorentirelirstsyllableinC– createsphonologicalmismatchwithK– ifsignilicantbilingualism,couldplayimportantrole

• morphologicalgeneralization– “putstressonlirstrootsyllable”– sameashistoricalpattern,predictsnochange

• phonologicalgeneralization– “putstressonsecondsyllableofword”– ignorescognatesyllable,butasimplergeneralization

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Kashaya speaker learning Central

• exampleofsimpleword– historical*duwenionsecondsyllable– Central/ʔweni/afterlossofvowel

• faithfultoprotolocation,butnotrelativeposition– Pre-Kashaya/duweni/withoutachange

• supposeKspeakerappliesKruletoCform– “secondsyllable”amongsurvivingvowels

• thiswillmostoftenbeonesyllablefurthertotheright– thereforeCentral?/ʔwenı/withKashayarule

• transferredbacktocognateKashayasyllable– wouldyield/duwenı/– thisisthemodernform

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Kashaya syllable weight

• presumedvariationinstresslocationbeforethecompletedreanalysis– duwéni~duwení

• incomplexverbs,syllableshapevariesbysuflixes– mi{hʃé}C.CV~mi{hʃe}C.CV[– mi{hʃé}.CV~mi{hʃe}.CV[

• maintainsrightwardshiftonlywhen2ndsyllableislight– newroleforsyllableweight– notpreviouslyrelevantinCorK

• shiftfromlight2ndtoheavy3rdalsoperceptuallysupported– mayhaveplayedaroleinthedevelopmentofiambiclengthening

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Why syllable weight?

• stressesonclosed2ndsyllablearemoreperceptible– reinforcedbygreaterenergyofsyllable(Gordon2004)– moretokensofnon-shiftedstressaresuccessfullyperceivedbylearnersexposedtovariation

• childlearnersmakingsenseofthisbiasedperceiveddistribution– stressvariesbetween1stand2ndsyllable,byweight– formalizedasquantity-sensitiveiambs

• noothernearbylanguagehasthispattern– weightisrelevantinWintunandMiwok– butinquitedifferentwaysthaninK

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Pitch alignment

• perhapsalsoaroleforphoneticdelayinrealizationofHpitchaccent– supposerealizationofHwasdelayedabitpastthefirstmoraofthestressedsyllable

– wouldremainin2ndsyllableifheavy,butoverlapsinto3rdsyllableif2ndislight

– easesre-assignmentofstressto3rdsyllablepreciselywhere2ndislight

• parallelinmodernKashaya– Hshiftsfrom(CV:)footontonextfoot(Buckley2019)

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Summary: Extrametricality

• Proto-Pomohadleftextrametricality– thisitselfwasprobablyaninnovation– skippingofprelix→skippingofanylirstsyllable– Iassumethisratherthanquantity-insensitiveiamb

• somelanguagesabandonthiselement– SEdeletestheextrametricalsyllable– Scompletelyreplacesthesystem– NEmighthavevariableextrametricality

• majorityofthelanguagesmaintainit– despitehowmarkeditis– evenmoremarkedtohave3rdsyllablestressinK

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Summary: Degenerate feet

• Proto-Pomohadfrequentdegeneratefeet– indisyllableswithlinalCV– madenecessarybyextrametricality

• mostlanguagesmaintainthiselement– SEdevelopsevenmoresinceitlosesvowellength– createmorewordsshapedCVbyaphesis– onlySclearlyavoidsit,byfootingbothsyllables

• yetthatrequireddeepcontactwithMiwok,itseems• twomarkedelements– bothsurvivewidely– supporteachotherformally

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Implications

• degeneratefeetare,typologically,quitemarked– ifmarkednesshasanyeffect,thisshouldbepenalized– yettheypersistacrosstimeinnearlyallthelanguages– justminorremediesinsynchronicfooting(SE,K)

• languagetransmissionheredependsonwhatthechildhears,notmarkednessbiases– whetherinheritedorbycontact– ifthesebiasesexist,theymustbeweak

• specialroleforpatternsinshorter,simplerwords?– suchasSouthernbehʃé ~béhʃe ‘deer,meat’– learnedearlier,soperhapsanoutsizerole– lessmorphologicalconfounding

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Implica4ons

• leftextrametricalityisquiterare– yetitsurvivesinmostofthelanguages– whereitdiminishes,couldbeduetocontact

• theKashayasystemisespeciallyunusual– mayhavearisenduetoveryspecialcircumstances– acloselyrelatedlanguagethatlostinitialsyllables– combinedwithproximityandbilingualism

• specialexplanationforanunusualpattern– computationallyunexceptional– butunlikelytoarisehistorically– Kashayajusthappenedtobeintherightplaceattherighttime

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Selected references

• Buckley,Eugene.1994.TheoreticalaspectsofKashayaphonologyandmorphology.CSLI,StanfordUniversity.

• Buckley,Eugene.2019.Kashayafootextrametricalityaspost-accentuation. ProceedingsofAMP2018.

• Hayes,Bruce.1995.Metricalstresstheory:Principlesandcasestudies.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

• McLendon,Sally.1973.Proto-Pomo (UniversityofCaliforniaPublicationsinLinguistics71).Berkeley&LosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

• McLendon,Sally.1975.AgrammarofEasternPomo (UniversityofCaliforniaPublicationsinLinguistics74).Berkeley&LosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

• Moshinsky,Julius.1974.AGrammarofSoutheasternPomo (UniversityofCaliforniaPublicationsinLinguistics72).Berkeley&LosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

• O’Connor,M.C.1992.TopicsinNorthernPomogrammar.[GarlandSeriesofOutstandingDissertationsinLinguistics].NewYork:GarlandPublishing.

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Selected references

• Oswalt,RobertL.1961.AKashayagrammar(SouthwesternPomo).Doctoraldissertation,UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.

• Vihman,Eero.1976.OnpitchaccentinNorthernPomo.InMargaretLangdon&ShirleySilver(eds.),Hokanstudies:PapersfromtheFirstConferenceonHokanLanguages,heldinSanDiego,California,April23–25,1970,77–83.Berlin:MoutondeGruyter.

• Walker,N.Alexander.2013.AgrammarofSouthernPomo:AnindigenouslanguageofCalifornia.SantaBarbara,CA:UniversityofCaliforniadissertation.

• Walker,N.Alexander.2016.AssessingtheeffectsoflanguagecontactonNortheasternPomo.InA.L.Berez-Kroeker,DianeM.Hintz&CarmenJany(eds.),LanguagecontactandchangeintheAmericas:StudiesinhonorofMarianneMithun,67–90.Amsterdam&Philadelphia:JohnBenjamins.

• Whistler,KennethW.1988.Pomoprehistory:Acaseforarchaeologicallinguistics.JournaloftheStewardAnthropologicalSociety 15(1-2).64–98.

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