Ball and stick molecular structure of sarin. Space filling molecular structure of aspirin.

Department of Chemistry

CH111: Principles of Chemistry Writing Project

Fall 2006

Introduction

This is a compilation of student writing projects in the Principles of Chemistry course at Gordon College in the fall of 2006.

Each group of three to four students, designated by an element, chose a subject from a list provided and composed and addressed a number of questions on chemistry and non­chemistry topics. At least one of the questions to be answered had to be open­ended. Each group worked collaboratively and was responsible for the entire content and presentation of its paper.

In general, limited editing was made to the original papers while creating this compilation.

Hope you will enjoy reading these papers.

Dr. Dwight Tshudy Department of Chemistry January 2007

Table of Contents

Introduction

1. Marie Curie: A short reflection upon her life and scientific career by P. Anderson, B. Fagundes, Z. Schwamb and M. Zeigler ....................... 1

2. The controversy behind DDT by G. Akallo, S. Coffin and R. Toombs ....................................................... 7

3. The problem of OxyContin by G. Aldershof , M. Wright­Schmidt, N. Stippa and N. Rheault .............. 13

4. Thalidomide, a disastrous accident of the past, but a hope for the future by A. Barse, N. D’Angona, E. Fisher and S. Hackworthy......................... 23

5. The utilization of aspirin, a nonsteroidal anti­inflammatory drug on contemporary society by H.­K. Park, N. Moskevitz, E. Smith and R. Walker .............................. 29

6. Lise Meitner’s Contributions to Chemistry by K. Moore, G. Gioranino, A. Celella and C. Gilman............................. 35

7. ‘Something Wicked This Way Comes’ by K. Turley, N. Fisher and T. Schutz....................................................... 41

8. 1995: Japan’s Deadly Terrorist Attack by D. Mack, C. Peters, K. Quackenbush and M. Schetne ......................... 47

9. Green Chemistry: Are Ionic Liquids the Solution? by J. Ellis, M. McCarty, T. Monchamp and E. Thames ............................ 53

10. To DDT or not to DDT by K. Barse, K. Jetter, E. Peirce and Z. Reynolds .................................... 61

11. The Impact of DNA Fingerprinting and PCR in Today’s World by R. Cappa, J. Herrle, J. Levchuck and M. Phipps ................................. 67

12. Thalidomide Babies by D. Feitosa, S. Gaston and M. Wilkinson .............................................. 75

13. The 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry – Olefin Metathesis by D. Campbell, E. Clements, C. Hope and R. Zimmerer ......................... 81

14. Hydrogen: Fuel of the Future? by A. Greeley, B. Kearney, B. Padilla and C. Tanga ................................ 91

iii (continued)

Table of Contents (continued)

15. Does Your Gas Smell Like French Fries? by J. Cooper, M. Kaminski, R. Shirron and J. Toews ............................... 99

16. DNA Fingerprinting by K. Trippett, C. Gutierrez, R. Harris and L. Clements ........................ 107

17. The Green Chemistry Presidential Awards by A. Rossman, A. Ballou, J. Derechinsky and T. Blandin ..................... 115

18. Oxycontin: A Wonder Drug? by D. Green, M. Roth, D. Simpson and L. Stevenson ............................. 123

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1

Marie Curie: A short reflection upon her life

and scientific career

Group: Bismuth Peter Anderson, Bethany Fagundes, Zackary Schwamb and Michelle Zeigler

A pioneer in chemistry and physics, Marie Curie is remembered most for her discovery of radium, an element known for its destructive power as well as its medical capabilities. As a woman in a competitive, male­dominated field, Curie pursued her passion with resolve and proved her competence by receiving two Nobel Prizes, one for her work in chemistry, and the other for physics. By harnessing the power of radium in World War I for the use of x­rays, Curie contributed to the war effort and helped save countless lives. Her contributions to science can clearly be felt in the present day.

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Marie Sklodowska, the fifth child to be born of Vladislav and Bronislawa Sklodowska, was born on November 7 th , 1867 in Warsaw, Poland. Her mother, Bronislawa, was the headmistress at a private school. After Marie was born, her family moved to a new area where Marie’s father, Vladislav, took the job of a high school teacher. However, not too long into his job, Vladislav was fired by his Russian boss for political reasons. 11

During these times money was extremely tight. As a result, Marie’s family opened their home for visitors to board as a supplement to their low income. The family did well and made good money, but unfortunately Marie’s sister caught typhus from a boarder and soon died. After her sister died, Marie’s mother was the next to pass. Bronislawa had been suffering with tuberculosis for five years and finally died around the year 1870. Now the only remaining family members were Marie’s father, brother (Joseph), and two sisters (Bronya and Hela). 1,11

Throughout these hard times, Vladislav had a love for mathematics. When he had the time, Marie’s father would teach them math and physics and help them with portions of their schooling. Marie achieved excellence in all her subjects but was especially good at mathematics. After high school, Marie attended the Floating University, an illegal night school where women were welcome to come and learn. Marie particularly enjoyed her time here. Staying up late, she would broaden her skills in mathematics and physics and other branches of study. Besides this work, as well as a day job, Marie continued her education by reading textbooks, taking chemistry classes, and receiving laboratory experience. She also wrote her father and asked him to send her more math lessons. It was not until around 1891 that Marie had saved up enough money to be able to attend Sorbonne University in the fall. It was here that she continued her work in math, physics, and chemistry. 1

In need of lab space to carry out her experimentation, Marie became connected with Pierre Curie, a chief laboratory instructor at a leading school in Paris, France. Their relationship quickly blossomed, fueled by a shared passion for chemistry and physics, and they married in July of 1895. 1

In the following year, Marie chose to research the experiments of Henri Bequerel for her doctoral thesis. Bequerel had discovered “uranium rays” (or “Bequerel rays”) in 1895 by observing that “a compound of uranium, put on a photographic plate wrapped in black paper, left an image on the plate.” 9 This was especially interesting because these “rays” did not need light to create an image. Marie, fascinated by this curious phenomenon, was intent on discovering its cause.

She began her study by repeating the experiments of Henri Bequerel: “Using the electrometer designed by Pierre and his brother, she was able to make precise measurements of the very faint electric fields that uranium rays generated as they passed through the air.” 8 By testing the “radioactivity” (a term coined by Curie) of uranium, Marie observed that “it didn’t seem to matter if the compound was heated, in solution, or in powdered form. Only one thing affected the amount of radioactivity – the amount of radium present.” 11 Marie then theorized that the “rays” produced by the uranium were originating from something inside the uranium metal; therefore, a separate substance must be present within the sample that produced these “rays.” 8 The discovery of this substance was exactly what Marie was seeking.

As a starting point, Marie realized that she needed to isolate this radioactive substance by locating it within uranium. This would be a long and difficult process. In an effort to speed up this procedure and join the exciting quest for a new element, Marie’s husband Pierre halted his

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own work and commenced work with his wife. They began with a mineral of uranium called pitchblende, which exhibited a radioactivity far greater than a uranium sample. 8 In order to find the unknown element the Curies would need to isolate the substance producing radioactivity within the sample of pitchblende. The difficulties were fourfold: “the complex chemical composition of pitchblende itself, the primitive laboratory facilities at their disposal, the expense of carrying out the research, and the decline in the Curie’s health” all proved to be factors working against Pierre and Marie. 8

To achieve a higher concentration of the radioactive material, Marie used a process called “fractional crystallization” where she heated the pitchblende and then allowed it to cool and crystallize. 8 By disposing of the non­radioactive substances, Marie “found that the greatest radioactivity was concentrated in two compounds, one containing bismuth and the other containing barium.” 8 The Curies believed that each of these elements contained separate radioactive substances; the first they named polonium (after Polonia, which is Latin for Poland), and the second they named radium. 3

This, however, was not the end of Marie’s adventures. In order to completely satisfy the scientific community, she would have to isolate the radium and polonium even further, creating enough of a pure substance to determine an atomic number. 8 This in turn would require lots of pitchblende and lots of time. The Curies located a mine in Eastern Europe that produced an excess of pitchblende and were more than happy to get rid of it. “The pitchblende waste arrived from the mine in bags of brown dust mixed with pine needles….This was then dissolved in a chorine solution, from which radium barium precipitated in chloride form, and could be filtered out.” 11 Eventually, after refining eight tons of pitchblende, the Curies were left with one gram of radium which was enough to calculate its atomic weight. 2 At last, Marie was credited with the discovery of a new element!

Throughout this time, the Curies continued to publish all of their findings, yet they chose not to patent their work because they “agreed that it would be wrong to benefit personally from their scientific discoveries.” 8 As a result, a radium industry quickly developed and produced new products for consumers. Denise Grady, author of “A Glow in the Dark, and a Lesson in Scientific Peril,” states that “radium's bluish glow caught people's fancy, and companies in the United States began mining it and selling it as a novelty: for glow­in­the­dark light pulls, and bogus cure­all patent medicines that actually killed people.” 3 Glowing watches and illuminated instrument panels for army vehicles were also manufactured. 3 Unfortunately, the public continued to remain ignorant of the harmful effects of this radioactive substance for quite some time.

In 1903, Pierre and Marie Curie along with Henri Bequerel were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Unfortunately, neither Pierre nor Marie were able to attend the ceremony in person because Marie had fallen ill and Pierre was in search of much needed work. But this need was satisfied when fame brought by the award elevated Pierre to a professorship position at Sorbonne University while Marie became a lecturer at a prominent women’s university. 11

With the exciting discovery of this new element and the honor of receiving the Nobel Prize, Marie seemed to be at the pinnacle of her success; yet tragedy was soon to strike. On April 19 th , 1906, Marie’s husband Pierre was struck by a wagon and killed. Marie remained strong, however, and returned to her work just one day after her husband’s funeral. With the death of her husband, Marie “went from female scientific collaborator to the perhaps more difficult

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position of independent woman scientist.” 9 Although the French government offered to support Marie and her children, Marie refused, saying, “crushed by the blow, I did not feel able to face the future. I could not forget, however, what my husband used to say, that even deprived of him, I ought to continue my work.” 1

Marie did continue on, winning a second Nobel Prize in 1911 for her work in radioactivity, becoming the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, as well as the only person to win two Nobel Prizes for separate areas of scientific work. 7 This honor led to many more achievements in Marie’s career, one being that she was the first woman asked to teach at Sorbonne. All of these accomplishments proved that Marie had triumphed in the face of tragedy.

World War I began in August of 1914, and Marie dedicated herself to the war effort because she realized the great potential that x­rays held for healing soldiers inflicted with shrapnel wounds or broken bones. She went on to develop a means of mobilizing x­ray stations to the frontlines of battle. This was completed by her “petite curies” (radiology cars – automobiles with x­ray stations inside); along with her training of one hundred and fifty female technicians, including her daughter, Irene, who was only seventeen. These x­ray technicians faced much opposition from the seasoned military doctors who were slow to accept the fact that such technology belonged on the battlefields. However, once these women were permitted to complete their x­rays it was undeniable that they had a very advantageous skill. Through the use of x­ray pictures and geometry these women could pinpoint exactly where shrapnel was located within the body or where a bone was broken. 8

During the war, Marie also kept busy collecting radon gas from the radium that she spent so much time handling. She sent these capsulated tubes of radon to hospitals worldwide in order to help save the lives of countless cancer patients. By­products of radium such as radium salts and radon­charged water were gaining popularity among doctors in Marie’s time. 4 Although managing the radium was highly beneficial to the rest of mankind, it was extremely detrimental to Marie’s body. As she worked with this radium, large amounts of energy came in contact her body, killing many cells in a slow, invisible process. 7 “For forty­eight hours after every radon session, she felt utterly exhausted. By now, she had been exposed to more radiation than any other human being.” 5

Despite all of Marie’s dedication, the French government refused to recognize the fact that she was responsible for aiding over one million soldiers. They refused to supply her with any kind of federal funding for her Radium Institute. Marie decided to go to outside sources for funding, just as she had done with her “petite curie” project. It was her introduction to American journalist, Mrs. William Brown Meloney, that led to the acquiring of over $150,000. Meloney understood Marie’s role as scientist, mother, and healer, and expressed overwhelming interest in Marie’s cause. Thus, the Radium Institute was established and ready to become one of the world’s primary hubs for nuclear research. It was within this entirely non­government subsidized institute that discoveries, including artificial radioactivity and the element Francium, were made.

After an incredibly successful life, the very substance that Marie used to save countless lives caused her own death. For, according to a study conducted by V. Rericha, et al., radon has been a proven cause of leukemia. 10 On July 4, 1934, in a nursing home in the French Alps, Marie died of leukemia. After her death, Marie was exhumed from her original burial place and moved to the Pantheon in Paris, an honor reserved for only France’s most exemplary citizens. Curium, the ninety­sixth element of the periodic table, was named in honor of Marie and her husband Pierre.

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Works Cited

1. American Institute of Physics. Marie Curie­Tragedy and Adjustment. http://www.aip.org/history/curie/contents_text.htm (accessed October 18, 2006).

2. Coppes­Zantinga, A. R.; Coppes, M. J. The Early Years of Radiation Protection: A Tribute to Madame Curie. Canadian Med. Assoc. J. 1998, 159, 1389­1391. http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=9&hid=104&sid=6ce71786­721e­4ae2­88bb­ bbfcb0c56984%40sessionmgr105 (Accessed through EBSCO on November 15, 2006).

3. Grady, Denise. A Glow in the Dark, and a Lesson in Scientific Peril. New York Times on the Web, October 6, 1998. http://www.nytimes.com/library/national/science/100698sci­ radium.html (accessed November 15, 2006).

4. Jacobus J. Answer to Question #1376 Submitted to "Ask the Experts." Health Physics Society. May 20, 2005. http://www.hps.org/publicinformation/ate/q1376.html (accessed November 13, 2006)

5. McGrayne, S. B. Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their lives, Struggles and Discoveries. Birch Lane Press: New York, 1993, pp 11­36, 117­143.

6. The Nobel Foundation. Marie Curie. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/marie­curie­bio.html (accessed November 2, 2006).

7. Quinn, S. Marie Curie: A life. Simon and Schuster: New York, 1995, pp 409, 362­370, 429­ 433.

8. Pasachoff, N. Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity. Oxford University Press: New York, 1996, Chapter 3.

9. Rayner­Canham, M.; Rayner­Canham, G. A Devotion to Their Science: Pioneer Women of Radioactivity. McGill­Queens: New York, 1997, pp 31­50.

10. Rericha, V.; Kulich, M.; Rericha, R.; Shore, D. L.; Sandler, D. P. Incidence of Leukemia, Lymphoma, and Multiple Myeloma in Czech Uranium Miners: A Case­Cohort Study. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2006, 114, No. 6, pp 818­822.

11. Strathern, P. Curie and Radioactivity. Doubleday: New York, 1997.

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7

The Controversy behind DDT

Group: Molybdenum Grace Akallo, Sarah Coffin and Rebecca Toombs

The pesticide DDT has been the area of much debate for many years because it has proved to be one of the best methods for preventing malaria known to date, yet severe side effects with the use of DDT have been suspected. Studying the chemical characteristics of DDT and the impact that DDT has on both the environment and living organisms provided the information necessary to make a judgment about whether or not DDT should be banned from controlling malaria. After researching the pros and cons of DDT as well as alternative methods of disease control, it was concluded that malaria is the best preventative measure against malaria.

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Background What has now become the focus of much controversy due to its potential role in both

illness and health was once viewed as a rather unremarkable discovery. 1 Just prior to World War II, it was revealed that this compound possessed the ability to kill “a broad spectrum of insects.” 1 As a result, DDT, as this compound was called, became an important disease­fighting chemical during World War II, especially as a means of fighting typhus. 1 With the discovery of such a potent insect­killer, the post­World War II world saw DDT as a potential method by which other diseases could be eradicated. Therefore, in 1955, the World Health Organization recognized DDT as the principal insecticide in the global war against malaria. 1 For the past fifty years, there has been abundant controversy regarding the use of DDT because it has shown to have negative effects on human, animal, and environmental health while at the same time proving to be an effective method of controlling malaria. As a result, alternative methods of eradicating malaria have been explored to determine if a method that combines safety, efficacy, and feasibility can be used in place of DDT. The controversy surrounding DDT has no easy answers; pros and cons must be weighed to determine which side tips the balance.

Chemical Characteristics DDT is the abbreviation for dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (C14H9Cl5) and is the

product of a reaction between trichloroethanol and chlorobenzene. 2,3 It is classified as a chlorinated hydrocarbon because it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine. 4 Some intensive properties of DDT include its white color, crystalline structure, lack of taste, and near­ absence of odor. 5 This insecticide is hydrophobic which implies it is insoluble in water; however, it is very soluble in oil and fats, thereby causing it to concentrate in fatty tissues of humans and animals when ingested. 4 Also, DDT is a stable compound and therefore tends to persist for relatively long periods of time in the environment and in the tissues of living organisms. 4 These chemical characteristics of DDT all play a role in its effects on the environment, animals, humans, and insects.

Impact on the Environment and Living Organisms The spraying of DDT on crops to control pests leads to a vicious cycle that involves the

spreading of DDT over long distances and the contamination of many different parts of the environment. For example, DDT that has been sprayed on soil often sticks to the earth and therefore becomes included in the run­off that occurs during erosion. 5 It may then evaporate from contaminated water sources, be carried through the atmosphere, and be deposited on land or water. 5 Due to the persistent nature of DDT, this cycle can occur many times and cause the chemical to be transported far from where it originally started. Bodies of water that contain DDT lead to the accumulation of this fat­soluble compound in the adipose tissue of fish and marine mammals. 5 The consumption of large amounts of fish or crops that have been sprayed with DDT can also cause the accumulation of DDT in the fatty tissues of humans; between 1986 and 1991, the average adult ingested about 0.8 micrograms of DDT every day. 5

Human exposure to DDT has shown some negative effects, but the results from studies have not been strong enough to lead to concrete conclusions about DDT’s role in human health.

9

It has been proposed that DDT acts as a carcinogen; however, nothing conclusive is really known. 3 There is stronger evidence, however, that this chemical disrupts the normal functioning of the nervous system, thereby causing tremors and seizures. 5 Also, because DDT is fat­soluble, it is stored in adipose tissue and may require a lot of time to leave the body. 5 When it does exit the body, it may leave in breast milk, possibly seeking storage in the fatty tissue of the child. 5

The reason behind DDT’s ability to wreak havoc on the nervous system of humans can be seen by studying its fatal effects on insects. In the human body, the stimulation of nerve impulses is a complex process; however, a main reason behind impulse initiation is an increase in the electrical charge within a nerve cell (the inside of the cell becomes less negative). This increase in charge is due to the influx of sodium ions (Na + ) from the extracellular space. When a certain charge is reached within the cell, a nerve impulse is stimulated. In insects, it has been discovered that DDT causes more Na + channels to open in the membrane, thereby increasing the influx of Na + into the nerve cell. 3 The neuron fires spontaneously, leading to spasms and, ultimately, to the death of the insect. 3 Therefore, DDT is very effective at killing insects, especially mosquitoes, and as a result it has become an important component of the war against malaria. However, do the pros associated with DDT outweigh the cons?

Should DDT be used to prevent malaria?

Malaria afflicts between 300 million and 500 million people every year. 6 The World Health Organization estimates that around 1 million people die of malaria and malaria­related illnesses every year. 6 About 90% of these deaths occur in Africa, mostly to children under the age of five. 3 The economic impact includes increased costs of healthcare, the loss of work and school days due to sickness, decreased productivity as a result of brain damage from cerebral malaria, and loss of investment and tourism. 3 In some countries with a heavy malaria burden, the disease may account for as much as 40% of public health expenditure, 30­50% of inpatient admissions, and up to 50% of outpatient visits. 3 Malaria is quite costly in the areas of both finances and lives. In light of this high cost, a remedy is necessary, and DDT may be that remedy.

The claim that DDT is a significant risk to humans’ health and environment has not been confirmed by replicated scientific inquires. A recent study conducted by the University of California Berkeley suggests children who have been exposed to DDT while in the womb have a greater chance of experiencing developmental problems. 7 In addition, some evidence suggests a link between DDT and cancer in humans. 8 On the other hand, other studies have not shown an increase of breast cancer with DDT exposure. 5 Therefore, it has been difficult to make conclusive statements about the harmful effects of DDT. All these studies are suggestions of possible harm that could happen, but death is occurring due to malaria. 6 More damage may be caused by malaria than the effect of DDT on humans and the environment.

Alternatives to DDT have been suggested such as vaccinating people against malaria, but to create a malaria vaccine that delivers long­lasting protection has proved more difficult than scientists first imagined. 9 Also, other insecticides have been mentioned, but these methods are either expensive or ineffective. 9 If DDT is used together with other methods, like drugs and

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health services, then malaria can be tackled from every side. In addition, this approach could limit overuse of DDT, thereby attenuating its harmful effects on humans and the environment.

Since effective and feasible alternatives to DDT have not found, this pesticide remains the most effective means of preventing malaria especially in Africa and other countries heavily infested with the disease. In light of both this information and the rate at which malaria is killing people, DDT should be used to prevent malaria.

Alternatives to DDT Although DDT has been proven to work well in many parts of the world, alternatives to

DDT are being studied in the hopes of finding a less controversial substitute. 10 However, current replacements are more expensive, have harsher side effects, and aren’t as effective as the pesticide. 10 Presently, prophylactic drugs and mosquito eradication are two of the chief alternatives to DDT. 9

Prophylactic drugs such as mefloquine (Larium), doxycylcine, and atovaquone proguanil hydrochloride (Malarone), are usually drugs that are used preventatively. 9 The extremely high costs and wide range of side effects of the drugs make them significantly unaffordable to poorer countries, so usually they are only used by visitors to countries and regions that are at an increased risk for malaria. 9

These drugs are used on a short term basis, which means they are used only while the visitor is in the contaminated area, as well as a period before arriving and after leaving. 9 Typically, the average person using a prophylactic drug takes them daily or weekly; he starts them one to two weeks before arriving in the area and continues until roughly four weeks after leaving. 9

The second alternative to DDT, mosquito eradication, consists of three different options: draining the wetland breeding grounds, Gambusia (or similar predators), and preventing mosquito bites. 9 In a few different countries, such as the U.S. and Europe, draining the wetland breeding grounds has significantly helped the malaria problem because it has eliminated mosquito breeding, reducing the number of mosquitoes that transmit malaria. 9 However, in large areas of the world, Africa being just one example, the draining of the wetland areas failed to be a sufficient alternative to DDT. 9

In India an experiment was conducted with a larvae­eating fish called Gambusia. 10 This fish was placed in many of the mosquito breeding grounds to eat the larvae. 10 However, this experiment was unsuccessful because the Gambusia fish could not deplete the mosquito larvae as fast as it was being produced. 10 Other predators, such as guppies or carp, can also be used for the same purposes but have similar results. 11 Bacteria are often used but many times can lead to the threat of endangering another species. 11

To reduce the transmission of malaria by preventing mosquito bites, mosquito nets and bedclothes were created. These can be quite effective as mosquitoes feed at night. 9 These are sometimes treated with insecticides, which makes them two times more effective then those not treated with insecticides. 9 Insecticide treated nets (ITN) usually need to be treated every six months to be effective; however, there is one net called the Olyset mosquito net, that can go up to five years before it needs to be re­treated. 9 The most commonly used insecticide to treat mosquito nets and bedclothes is permethrin. 9 There are other advantages to the Olyset net. 9 Not

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only does it have an extended use, but it also protects people under the net while it kills mosquitoes that touch the net. 9 It can also provide some limited protection to people in the same room. 9

Although bed clothes and mosquito nets are one of the most cost­effective methods of malaria prevention, it is still quite expensive, costing about $4.00 12 for the average net, and $5.50 for the Olyset net. 9 This, many times, is too much for the poorer countries. 9 They need a cheaper alternative, 9 which is why DDT is such a good prevention to malaria.

Lastly, there is the matter of vaccinations. Currently there are no known vaccinations to cure malaria, although many studies are being done on the subject. 9

Recent Developments Several dates within the past several years have been key to the continuing debate

regarding DDT. In 1972, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) banned the use of DDT. 13 Consquently, malaria seemed to spread, and in May 2004 the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants took place. 2 During this convention, the use of twelve industrial chemicals was outlawed; DDT was among them. 2 However, an exemption clause was added, allowing “malaria­endemic nations to use DDT strictly for indoor residual wall spraying.” 2 Although residual wall spraying has been permitted, its use has not been encouraged since the early 1980s. 14 Just two months ago, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced that they are now promoting the use of DDT for malaria prevention and that DDT will assume a major role in their efforts to eradicate the disease and, hopefully, save lives. 14 It is yet to be seen if DDT is truly the best method of controlling malaria; however, when considering the lack of concrete evidence of extremely harmful effects on health as well as the mass number of people that die from malaria every year, the pros of DDT outweigh the cons.

References

1 Stapleton, D.H. Technology and Culture [Online] 2005, 46.3, 513­540. Available from Project MUSE. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/technology_and_culture/ (accessed 11/8/2006).

2 Kapp, C. Bulletin of the World Health Organization [Online] 2004, 82.6,472. Available from Academic OneFile. http://find.galegroup.com (accessed 9/29/2006).

3 Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. DDT; last updated October 30, 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDT (accessed 10/13/2006).

4 Silent Spring Revisited. Marco, G. J.; Hollingworth, R. M.; Durham, W., Eds.; American Chemical Society: Washington D.C., 1987; p.163­164.

5 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Public Health Statement for DDT, DDE, and DDD; Summary chapter from the Toxicological Profile for DDT, DDE, and DDD, September 2002. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs35.html (accessed 10/13/2006).

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6 World Health Organization. World Malaria Report 2005 Executive Summary, 2005. http://www.rbm.who.int/wmr2005/html/exsummary_en.htm (accessed 11/15/2006).

7 DDT ‘Link’ to Slow Child Progress. BBC News [Online], UK, July 5, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/5145450.stm (accessed 11/15/2006).

8 Zheng, T.; Holford, T. R.; Mayne, S. T.; Ward, B.; Carter, D.; Owens, P. H.; Dubrow, R.; Zahm, S. H.; Boyle, P.; Archibeque, S.; Tessari, J. Am. J. Epidemiol [Online] 1999, 150, 453­ 458. Available from Oxford Journals http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/150/5/453 (accessed 11/15/2006).

9 Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, Malaria; last updated October 30, 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria (accessed 10/13/06).

10 Stolberg, Sheryl Gay. DDT, Target of Global Ban, Finds Defenders in Experts on Malaria. The New York Times [Online], New York, August 29, 1999. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9C07EEDA133BF93AA1575BC0A 96F958260 (accessed 10/15/2006).

11 Boseley, Sarah. The Guardian, August 30, 1999. Malaria Foundation International. http://www.malaria.org/DDT_Guardian_VIII_99.html (accessed 10/15/2006).

12 Okonski, Kendra, and Roger Bate. When Politics Kills: Malaria and the DDT Story, September 20, 2006. iGreens, Individual Environmentalists. http://www.igreens.org.uk/malaria_and_ddt.htm (accessed 10/15/06).

13 Murdock, D. Human Events [Online] 2001, 57, 11. Available from Academic Search Premier. http://web.ebscohost.com (accessed 9/29/2006).

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The Problem of OxyContin

Group: Germanium Grace Aldershof , Mariam Wright­Schmidt, Nigel Stippa and Nathan Rheault

OxyContin is a highly addictive pain killer that is used in a variety of cases. As in many pain killers, OxyContin is being readily abused all over the country. Rigorous research was done to address five major issues: what makes it addictive, the drugs social and political effects, its effect on the body, OxyContin’s function in the brain, and what should be done concerning its legality. It is conclusive, given the facts, that there must be alterations in the administration of OxyContin.

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In recent years one of the top priorities for the US government has become drug enforcement. Drug addiction and the effects thereof have devastated many communities. A large subset of illegal substances currently abused is prescription drugs. Among these, one of the more commonly abused substances is OxyContin, the prescription name for Oxycodone, a pain killer used for cancer patients and those in severe pain. OxyContin functions much like an opiate in the body. However if it is given in a time release capsule it is a valuable medication that allows for a great deal of pain relief. Unfortunately if the capsule is crushed the time release is broken and OxyContin provides a ‘high’. This fact brings to light many questions; what are the effects of OxyContin abuse on society, on the body, on the brain and on the individual? One thing remains clear; OxyContin abuse is a serious issue that requires both understanding and addressing. What makes OxyContin addictive?

Oxycodone HCl is an opioid antagonist. Opioid antagonists act by attaching to specific proteins called opioid receptors, found in the brain, spinal cord, and gastrointestinal tract. When these opioids attach to receptors in the brain and spinal cord, they can block the transmission of pain messages to the brain. 1

Oxycodone HCl has with a potential for addiction, similar to that of morphine. One might ask what makes this “miracle drug” so highly addictive. Why would someone take OxyContin pills for reasons other than cancer treatments or dealing with severe chronic pain? It is important to note that the main ingredient in OxyContin is Oxycodone, an ingredient in the prescription drugs, Percocet, Percodan and Tylox, in much weaker strengths than OxyContin. Oxycodone has been around for decades and taken by millions of people for “post surgical pain, broken bones, arthritis, migraines and back pain. While Percocet and Percodan have about five milligrams of oxycodone, OxyContin tablets contain OxyContin in amounts of 10, 20, 40 and 80 milligrams. 2

The widespread use of OxyContin is due mainly to the “heroin­like rush” it delivers to the abuser. Many patients being treated for pain become dependent on the painkiller for its illicit effects over the course of their treatment.

Addicts are “motivated by their desire to experience the hedonic (e.g. rewarding) effects of the drug as well as from the desire to avoid the anhedonia [“a psychological condition characterized by inability to experience pleasure in acts which normally produce it” 4 ] and aversive consequences of drug withdrawal. Recent discoveries found that repeated drug use induces long­lasting adaptations in neural systems that mediate a subcomponent of drug reward, termed incentive salience.” 3

An emphasis should be placed on the difference between psychological addiction and dependence. Dependence can be unavoidable and develops when an individual is exposed to a drug at a high enough dosage for long enough that the body adapts and develops a tolerance for the drug. Taking OxyContin daily can result in physical dependence, a condition in which the body shows signs of narcotic withdrawal if the OxyContin is stopped suddenly. This is not the same as addiction, in which people obtain and take narcotics because of a psychological need, not just to treat a legitimate condition. Physical dependence can be treated under the guidance of

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a physician by slowing decreasing the OxyContin dose when it is no longer needed for the treatment of pain. 2

Opiate addiction, such as OxyContin addiction, according to scientific research done on animal systems, is “a chronically relapsing disorder that is characterized by compulsive drug taking, an inability to limit intake and bouts of intense drug craving that can be precipitated by the mere presence of people, places, or objects previously associated with drug use.” 3 Drugs such as OxyContin can lead to “compulsive patterns of drug seeking and the vulnerability to relapse that persists long after the cessation of drug use.” 3 Many studies examining the neural basis of opiate addiction focus on the effects on the peripheral nervous system (the part of the nervous system that comprises the spinal nerves and the cranial nerves) and less on its effect on the central nervous system (the part of the nervous system which integrates nervous function and physical activity 4 ). In addition to the study of these mechanisms, a more holistic approach to what induces opiate addiction in the life of a potential addict is needed.

Unlike heroin or cocaine, many opiate addicts are introduced to their drug of choice in a hospital setting. Another underlying factor is that doctors over prescribe certain ‘brand name’ drugs and are often unfamiliar with the first signs of opiate drug addiction. One important factor in drug addiction relapse is that “the safety of OxyContin is based on taking the drug exactly as intended”, says Deborah Leiderman, M.D. and director of the Food and Drug Administration’s controlled substance staff.

Unfortunately, a recent survey conducted by the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University in New York showed that nearly half of primary care physicians have difficulty talking about substance abuse with patients. 1 Thereby leaving many patients in a position in which they are more likely to abuse prescriptions.

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) began a physician training program in the year 2000 to help address the lack of informed doctors. H. Westley Clark, M.D., J.D., director of SAMHSA, said that the joint project with Health Resources and Services Administration will train faculty members in health professions. “It’s not only for doctors,” Clark explains. “Other health professionals, including nurses and pharmacists, should also learn about recognizing the signs of substance abuse, talking about it, and knowing when patients should be referred for treatment.” 1

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Figure 1. Physician supervision and appropriate use is critical for all prescription drugs. However, many physicians are under trained and find it difficult to deal with patients abusing prescription drugs. 5

There is hope for OxyContin addicts; it has been emphasized by many studies that a targeted approach to drug abuse would be more effective than current treatment programs. In The Psychology of Science, by Abraham Maslow, a group therapy project in which former drug dependent people counsel current addicts, referred to as Synanon, was lauded. The principle that “only a cured drug addict can fully understand, communicate with, help, and cure another drug addict” is supported with evidence from former drug abusers. The main concept of this treatment program is that addiction, to painkillers, for example, cannot be cured with a rehabilitation program or another drug that fulfills the addict’s dependence. According to Maslow addiction the greatest hope for those struggling with OxyContin and other addictions is through the “Synanon type of treatment.” 6

OxyContin’s effects on the body OxyContin’s opioid potency degrades and debilitates the human body in part and as a

system. Respiratory depression, necrosis of the nasal passage, and addictive tendencies are a few of the most prevalent effects of this incapacitating drug.

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Respiratory depression is the leading hazard of all opioids; this frequently occurs in elderly or debilitated patients. Respiratory depression usually follows large initial doses in non­ tolerant patients. In certain patients, common therapeutic doses of morphine may increase airway resistance and decrease respiratory drive to the point of apnea, 13 a technical term for temporary absence of breathing. 14 During apnea there is no movement of the muscles of respiration and the volume of the lungs remains unchanged. The main concern surrounding this effect is that the abuser may not know that he or she falls under the category of a debilitated patient. Respiratory depression in a non­elderly patient could occur, for example, in the case an adolescent does not know that he or she is asthmatic. The patient could suffer from severe respiratory depression and enter respiratory arrest (e.g. apnea).

Total necrosis, meaning death of cells and tissue, 15 of the intranasal structures and soft palate is a result of nasal inhalation of crushed OxyContin. The highly vascular mucosa of the nasal cavity provides a rapid entry site for narcotic drugs. It is uncertain what precisely causes necrosis of the nasal tissue. However, a confirmed hypothesis leads researchers to believe that this is a result of the inflammatory response to the crushed tablets. A number of additional effects of nasal inhalation and necrosis have also been found. Some of these effects include nasal collapse, septal perforation, and pharyngeal wall ulceration. Septal perforation is the formation of a hole in the septum, the tissue that separates the nostrils. This hole can lead to a complete nasal collapse. 16 Pharyngeal wall ulcerations are ulcers, a lesion of the mucus membrane caused by inflammation, which form on the wall of the pharynx. All of the preceding effects were most commonly found before the advent of OxyContin, with the inhalation of cocaine. These effects are being repeatedly observed as effects of inhalation of OxyContin. Considering the narcotics’ recent popularity, it is alarming that there have already been cases in which these effects were observed with OxyContin. 17 Physicians are saying that this problem is soon to be quite ubiquitous. OxyContin’s Function

OxyContin affects the user by altering how pain is perceived. Before we can grasp how OxyContin affects pain perception we must first discuss how pain is perceived biologically as a result of interactions among nerve cells, neurotransmitters, and specific neurotransmitter receptors in the brain

The nerve cell, or neuron, (depicted in figure 2) is comprised of the cell body and the axon. 19 The branched extensions on the cell body known as dendrites are what actually receive the pain stimulus. When the dendrites of a sensory neuron are stimulated (by touching a hot stove for example), sodium ion channels open and the nerve cell that is normally negatively charged in its resting state (no stimulus present) quickly becomes positive. This process is known as depolarization. Depolarization continues down the axon of the cell toward the synapse, the space between nerve cells (see figure 2) until the depolarization reaches the plasma membrane at the synaptic terminal. When this occurs, calcium ion channels open and the calcium ion concentration inside the cell increases. This, in turn, causes vesicles containing neurotransmitters near the synapse to fuse with the synaptic terminal membrane. 19 The neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and bind to receptors on the dendrites of the next neuron, stimulating the neuron by opening ion channels (directly as in fig 2 or indirectly via a signal transduction

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pathway) and thus relaying the electrical signal. This process of relaying the electrical signal occurs until it reaches the brain and it is perceived as a feeling of discomfort. 19

Figure Figure 2: Neurotransmitters

The nerve cell, or neuron, (depicted in figure 2) is comprised of the cell body and the axon. 19 The branched extensions on the cell body known as dendrites are what actually receive the pain stimulus. When the dendrites of a sensory neuron are stimulated (by touching a hot stove for example), sodium ion channels open and the nerve cell that is normally negatively charged in its resting state (no stimulus present) quickly becomes positive. This process is known as depolarization. Depolarization continues down the axon of the cell toward the synapse, the space between nerve cells (see figure 2) until the depolarization reaches the plasma membrane at the synaptic terminal. When this occurs, calcium ion channels open and the calcium ion concentration inside the cell increases. This, in turn, causes vesicles containing neurotransmitters near the synapse to fuse with the synaptic terminal membrane. 19 The neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and bind to receptors on the dendrites of the next neuron, stimulating the neuron by opening ion channels (directly as in fig 2 or indirectly via a signal transduction pathway) and thus relaying the electrical signal. This process of relaying the electrical signal occurs until it reaches the brain and it is perceived as a feeling of discomfort. 19

OxyContin decreases pain perception by inhibiting the release of nocicepive neurotransmitters such as GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid), dopamine, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine. 20 OxyContin inhibits the release of pain­receptive neurotransmitters by attaching to oxycodone receptors such as µ­opioid receptors, κ­opioid receptors, and δ­opioid receptors.

(1) depolarization of the cell along the axon stimulates calcium ion (Ca+) to open, increasing the ion concentration (2) calcium ion concentration causes the synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitters (green) into the synapse (3) neurotransmitter binds to specific receptors on the dendrite of the following neuron and causes channels to open, relaying the impulse

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The binding of OxyContin to these receptors affects the signal transduction pathway by stimulating the exchange of guanosine triphosphate (GTP), an energy molecule, for guanosine diphosphate (GDP), another energy molecule. This exchange hinders the ability of the system that specifically modulates the release of the nociceptive neurotransmitters, cyclic adenosince monophosphate (cAMP) and adenylate cyclase. 20 Thus the pain signal is not transmitted and pain is not perceived.

OxyContin and society In the United States today, few societal problems weigh more heavily on communities

than drug abuse. Nine percent of Americans have, at one point in their lives illegally used a pain killer and one of the most commonly abused pain medications is OxyContin. 7 Abuse of OxyContin has left a deep impression on both individuals, and US society.

To understand why the abuse of OxyContin is such a major policy issue, we need to first look at the statistics surrounding the abuse of this drug. “The use of over­the­counter narcotics such as OxyContin has risen to as much as 9 percent among students in middle schools and high school. …Overdoses of OxyContin have increased by 450 percent in recent years. …Over 1.5 million tablets of the drug were stolen from pharmacies between 2001 and 2003.” 9 And about 1 in 20 high school seniors acknowledges taking the drug. 10 Beyond the sheer numbers of the crisis, the stories are unavoidable. From Ohio where, “A heroin addict who learned about OxyContin at a methadone clinic committed at least seven aggravated robberies in early 2000 attempting to finance his 800­mg­a­day OxyContin habit.” 8 To the New York Times’ grisly report of a town devastated by OxyContin use where the addict who showed reporters around was “pointing out criminal activity in every second home” 11 .

Illegal drug use falls under the interstate commerce clause of article 1 section 8 of the US Constitution and hence the illegal use of OxyContin is under the jurisdiction of federal law. “Oxycodone, including OxyContin, are Schedule II drugs under the federal Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act.” 8 At this point OxyContin is deemed legal for prescription use as a painkiller, though legislation has been introduced to congress to ban its use, thereby minimizing access for illegal purposes. This legislation states, “The burdens of this drug to the public health outweigh its potential therapeutic benefits, and given that alternative pain medicines and methods are widely available, OxyContin should be banned.” 9 This bill cites OxyContin as “the first brand­name product to be targeted for monitoring by the DEA.”

Another major problem that appears in enforcement is the inability of local police to address this issue. The legality of Oxycodone “has meant a major conceptual shift for law­ enforcement officials who are used to combating narcotics produced by international drug lords, not international corporations.” 11 OxyContin abuse has, in many rural areas especially, overwhelmed the capacity of the police. In January of 2004, the makers of OxyContin, Purdue Pharma, were found guilty of misleading the public and medical professionals about the safety and addictive potential of their medication. “In his ruling, Judge Stein [the presiding judge] wrote that ‘Purdue made a deliberate decision to misrepresent to the P.T.O. [patent office] a ‘theoretical argument’ and an ‘expectation’ as a precisely quantified ‘result’ or ‘discovery’.’” 12

The abuse of OxyContin is not only an intriguing chemical phenomenon, but a serious danger to US communities and to individual lives. It has become a problem we cannot afford to

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ignore as a society. Untold fiscal expense goes into law enforcement and treatment of individuals suffering from OxyContin addiction, as well as that money that is lost during drug store robberies or criminal activity enabling users of the drug to finance their habits. Productivity and revenue is lost when small communities find themselves in a drug crisis. There is a tremendous spiritual and emotional cost to families facing a loved one’s addiction. And most tragically of all, there has been a tremendous cost in human lives lost to addiction and overdose.

The Question of Legality Clearly, the effects of OxyContin addiction on both the human body and on society need

to be addressed in order to prevent unnecessary loss of life and communal loss. Laws have been proposed amounting to a complete ban on this medication, even for medicinal use. The difficulty of this debate arises when we look to severe or chronic pain patients. Finding an adequate pain medication is difficult, and the high amount allowed by the time release function make this drug perfect “to treat moderate to severe chronic pain (e.g., cancer pain). This medication acts on certain centers in the brain to give you pain relief. It is a long­acting narcotic pain reliever (opiate­type).” 21

So, balancing the detrimental effects and the beneficial effects to those in need, we come to a compromise: increase the degree of drug abuse awareness among at­risk people groups who see the drug as safe due to it’s legal prescription status and provide a ‘black­box’ warning label to alert prescribing physicians to the dangers of the medication, but keep OxyContin legal for pain patients.

OxyContin has had serious effects on society, and the lives of individuals. Though it remains a necessary medication for the purpose of pain relief, much is needed to prevent individuals from abusing this medication for illegal purposes. A chemical understanding of this medication will be the first step in finding effective solutions to the problem of abuse and toward the treatment of those who currently are addicted to this medication.

Works Cited

1 Meadows, Michelle. Prescription Drugs and Abuse. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Office of Public Affairs. FDA Consumer Magazine. September­October 2001.

2 Stop Abuse. OxyContin Addiction Help Website. October 6, 2005. Law Partners and Affiliates throughout the United States. <http://www.oxycontin­addiction­ help.com/pages/fda/html> (Accessed October 28, 2006)

3 De Vries, Taco J. and Toni S. Shippenerg. “Neural Systems Underlying Opiate Addiction.” Journal of Neuroscience. May 1, 2002. <Pub Med@ pubmed.gov. Journal of Nueroscience. 2002. May 1.

4 Merriam­Webster Inc. The Merriam­Webster Dictionary. Merriam­Webster Incorporated. Springfield, MA. 2004.

5 Macey, Josiah Jr., benefactor. Missed Opportunity: A National Survey of Primary Care Physicians and Patients on Substance Abuse. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columia University (CASA), New York.

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6 Maslow, Abraham H. Experimental and Spectator Knowledge. The Psychology of Science A Reconnaissance. 1 st Ed. John Dewey Lecture Series; Brandeis University. Harper & Row: New York, 1966. 58­60.

7 US Drug Enforcement Administration. OxyContin Fact sheet. http://www.dea.gov/concern/oxycodone_factsheet.html (Accessed October 2006)

8 US Department of Justice. OxyContin Diversion and Abuse. http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs/651/651p.pdf January 2001 (Accessed October 2006)

9 Lynch, Stephen. Act to Ban OxyContin. H.R.2195, http://www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpd?bill=h109­2195 May 5, 2005 (Accessed October, 2006)

10 Arnold, Chris. Teen Abuse of Painkiller Oxycontin on the Rise. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5061674. December 19, 2005 (Accessed October 2005)

11 Tough, Paul. The Alchemy of Oxycontin. New York Times, July 29, 2001 12 Harris, Gardiner. Judge Says Maker of Oxycontin Misled Officials to Win Patents. New York

Times, January 6, 2004 13 BLTC Research. Narcotic Analgesics. <http://opioids.com/oxycodone/prescribe.htm>

(Accessed November 12, 2006)

14 “apnea.” The American Heritage® Stedman’s Medical Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company. <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/apnea> (Accessed November 16, 2006)

15 “necrosis.” The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. <http://dictionary.reference,com/browse/necrosis> (Accessed November 16, 2006)

16 Kridel, Russell. Septal Perforation: What Can You Do? <http://www.septalperforations.com> (Accessed November 8, 2006)

17 Green, David. ENT: Ear, Nose and Throat Journal. 2005, Vol81, 512­516.

18 Narconon of Oklahoma. Oxycodone Information. 2004 <http://www.stopaddiction.com/narconon_drugs_oxycodone.html> (Accessed November 9, 2006)

19 Campell, Neil A. and Jane B. Reece. Biology Seventh Edition. Pearson Benjamin Cummings: San Francisco, 2005. 1014.

20 Oxycodone. Clinical Pharmacology. Ebsco. Updated April 6, 2004. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,cpid&custid=gor& db=czh&AN=000004649&site=ehost­live&scope=site ( Accessed October 25, 2006)

21 OxyContin Oral WebMD. Updated: 2005­2006 <http://www.webmd.com/drugs/drug­2798­ OxyContin.aspx?drugid=2798&drugname=OxyContin >(accessed: November 2006)

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Thalidomide, a disastrous accident of the past,

but a hope for the future Group: Osmium

Alyssa Barse, Natalie D’Angona, Elizabeth Fisher and Sarah Hackworthy

Thalidomide is a drug that was a popular sedative and nausea relief in the late 1950’s. Unknown to doctors, it had a very adverse upon many children whose mothers took the drug. It causes severe phocomelia, a disorder involving malformed limbs during fetal development. The history, effects and chemical composition are crucial to the understanding of this controversial drug. Thalidomide is currently being brought back into medicinal use for the treatment of complications in the disease leprosy. The determination of whether to use or ban the drug must be addressed from a knowledgeable perspective that takes into account the drug’s implications in the world today.

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The History of Thalidomide In the United States, during the time of the Thalidomide crisis, the drug was only

experimentally used, due to the fact that it failed to be approved for general use by the Federal Food and Drug Administration. 1 Its use, however, was widespread in West Germany and other countries throughout Europe; eventually almost every country possessed access to the drug. Many children born in these countries after 1959 had deformed limbs and other abnormalities which, unknown to the doctors, were caused by the then­popular drug. The reason for such widespread use lies in the world history of the era. 2

During the aftermath of World War II, many individuals were negatively affected, not only in terms of the economy, but also emotionally and mentally. 3 Because of these stressful times, many people found sleeping to be a difficult task. As a result of this, “Tranquilizers and sleeping pills played a large role in the uncertain Utopia of the 1950s.” 2 Thalidomide was first synthesized by CIBA, a Swiss pharmaceutical company, but it was quickly rejected because it seemed to have neither harmful nor beneficial effects. Later, Chemie Grunenthal guessed from thalidomide’s structure that it could work as an anticonvulsant and brought it back into existence to test this hypothesis. The idea proved to be wrong, but in the testing process the company found that thalidomide was effective as a mild hypnotic and a sedative. 4 On October 1, 1957, Chemie Grunenthal introduced thalidomide to the pharmaceutical market as a sedative. It was discovered that the drug also aids in the relief of nausea, including the nausea associated with morning sickness of pregnancy. 5 Thalidomide was marketed in every major country except the United States and women were able to obtain it without a prescription because it was considered to be a safe drug. 4 By 1958, women worldwide began using thalidomide, marketed under a total of thirty­seven different names, for easement of this nausea. 2 It was after this that deformities in the children of these women began to appear. For two reasons it was not readily apparent to the German medical community that there could be any drug causing these severe deformities. First, the belief that the mother’s placenta protected the fetus from all toxins was still heavily relied upon in Germany. Also, the hospitals were under the impression that their cases of phocomelia were isolated events, certainly not occurring all over Europe. Dr. William McBride of Australia first discovered the connection between birth abnormalities and thalidomide. He himself had prescribed the drugs to patients and made the connection by observing the affects on the children of his patients. Widukind Lenz also had studied the birth defect cases in previous years and began interviewing women; he started to realize thalidomide seemed to be the likely cause of these abnormalities. On November 18, 1961, a Pediatrician’s Association meeting was held, which Lenz attended. Lenz spoke of a drug that was responsible for the birth defect epidemic, but did not specifically name Contergan. On this same day Grunenthal sent out tens of thousands of letters to German doctors, “[Thalidomide] is a safe drug.” it stated. Later in the week the Ministry of the Interior forced Grunenthal to remove thalidomide from the market 2 .

The Effects of Thalidomide Women who take the thalidomide drug increase the risk of the child being born with

Phocomelia Syndrome (PS), a rare birth defect that causes severe physiological alterations, especially of the upper limbs 6 . Phocomelia occurs almost 100% of the time when a child is born from a mother who used the drug during early and most crucial stages of fetus development 7 .

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There are many physiological effects that can occur due to the phocomelia which alter several different anatomical and internal structures. Birth defects can occur in any bone or muscle in the body, although the bones and muscles of the skull, face, spine, hips, legs, and feet are the most affected. The fingers commonly will fuse together and bones and muscles may develop incompletely or may even be absent. For instance the child might be born without an arm or have a hand coming directly out of its shoulder 5 (as in the image below). 8

An extreme case of phocomelia would result in the child having both upper and lower extremity defects 5 . A child with one limb or joint abnormality is also often afflicted with another related abnormality. 7

In addition to defects that appear externally, problems also may arise internally. Heart defects, kidney problems, and defects in the ears, eyes, and nose also apply to Phocomelia Syndrome patients. Abnormalities of the ears can include absence of one or both the ears, and absent or reduced auditory canal. The eyes can be affected by anophthalmia, absence of one or both eyes, and microphthalmia, abnormally small eyes. These can occur with or without associated facial paralysis. Alterations of internal organs include congenital cardiac disease, genital abnormality of the gastrointestinal tract and urinary tract. About 40 % of thalidomide babies will die immediately after birth. 7

The Chemistry of Thalidomide Derived from glutamic acid, a naturally­occurring amino acid, thalidomide is a molecule

composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. (Figure1). Its function as a sedative reflects its structure, which resembles that of other barbiturates.

Throughout the entire thalidomide epidemic, Chemie Grunenthal insisted that the drug was perfectly safe, as laboratory experiments had not even been able to determine a lethal dose in any animal. Because taking large amounts of the drug did not prove fatal, thalidomide could not be used by patients for suicide attempts; it also lacked the addictive properties of other barbiturates. It was also desirable because it produced a more healthy and natural sleep than other hypnotics 2 . It acted very quickly and supposedly had minimal side effects. Although it originally seemed to be a miracle drug, thalidomide proved to be a very harmful substance indeed.

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Figure1. ©2004 Dr. Rainer Glaser's group Molecular Structure of Thalidomide Molecular formula: C13H10N2O4

As is now known, thalidomide was far from being “safe”; its tragic effects were devastating to thousands of families 10 . Chemie Grunenthal’s failure to study the drug more carefully played a major role in the cause of the thalidomide tragedy. One of their biggest mistakes was that complete animal testing was not conducted. While they did use animals to test the effects of thalidomide, they did not test pregnant animals, so they did not see the disastrous effects the drug would have on the human fetus. Chemie Grunenthal also did not know that thalidomide is composed of two enantiomers: one has a sedative effect; the other is teratogenic, or destructive. 2 Attempts have been made to separate the two and isolate the good enantiomer since this discovery, but it is impossible to do so. It has been found that both enantiomers interconvert under normal conditions in vivo, so removing the teratogenic enantiomer would not prevent the resulting birth defects of the drug. 11

When a pregnant mother takes thalidomide, it is carried throughout her whole bloodstream, and affecting the fetus inside her. The drug does indeed reach the fetus, contrary to the belief of the earlier German doctors. 2 Thalidomide does cross the placental barrier and cause disastrous events to occur in the fetus. Thalidomide obstructs angiogenesis, the creating of new blood vessels, in both the fetus and the mother. The destruction of this essential process prevents nutrients and the hormone, growth factor, from being carried throughout the body, thus inhibiting limb growth of the rapidly developing fetus. 11

Thalidomide Today One might ask how there could possibly be a way for this drug to steal its way back into

the pharmaceutical scene. It seems like the appropriate thing to do with it would be to eradicate it from the world, but quite the contrary has occurred. The fact is that there has been evidence that thalidomide has qualities never before investigated. It has come to the attention of doctors and

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scientists that, aside from the severe birth defects and several other side effects, thalidomide might have a purpose in this world after all. It has been discovered that thalidomide can be effectively used to treat an aspect of the horrific disease known as leprosy. 7 There has also been experimental thought regarding its treatment of various forms of cancer 10 , as well as HIV and AIDS 2 . The question that now arises is whether thalidomide being used for this purpose is worth the risk. It is obvious that the suffering of the victims of thalidomide can never be undone, but if there was to be a redeeming quality in the situation, allowing the drug to aid those who are victims these terrible diseases should be it.

After considering the effects of thalidomide and its history as a drug, it becomes time to analyze its role in the present day. A program called S.T.E.P.S. has been implemented by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the control of thalidomide distribution. This program intends to regulate the use of the drug and allows only a prescription for thalidomide to be given to a patient under specific conditions. S.T.E.P.S. has been a measure of unprecedented regulatory authority on the part of the FDA. Patient warnings are extraordinarily clear about the risks of the drug. 8 It is required that the patient sign a document stating that all measures to avoid pregnancy will be taken in his or her life. This is quite a step upward from the days of using thalidomide for morning sickness. Only time will tell if the newly implemented control of the drug will actually work. Although many people question the judgment of the FDA, until the appearance of another “thalidomide baby” the situation appears to be held under control.

End Notes

1 Thalidomide. Encyclopedia Americana. Scholastic Library Publishing, Inc. Danbury CT, 2005; pp 595­596.

2 Stephens, T.; Brynner, R. Dark Remedy. Perseus Publishing. New York, 2001.

3 World War II. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 13 Nov. 2006 http://www.britannica.com/eb/article­9110199.

4 Yeon, Howard B. Thalidomide Revisited. Harvard Law School: Library Legal Electronic Document Archive. http://leda.law.harvard.edu/leda/data/199/hyeon.rtf (accessed November 2006).

5 Thalidomide: Global Tragedy. American Decades 1960­1969; Gale Research Inc.: Detroit, MI, 1995; pp. 399­400, 403­404.

6 Phocomelia. Wikipedia. 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phocomelia (Accessed November 2006).

7 Sato E. I., Assis L. S. S., Lourenzi V. P., Andrade L. E. C.. Long­term thalidomide use in refractory cutaneous lesions of systemic lupus erythematosus. Rev. Assoc. Med. Bras. 1998 Dec http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php. (Accessed November 2006); 44(4): 289­293.

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8 Thalidomide. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research; July 7, 2005; http://www.fda.gov/cder/news/thalidomide.htm (Accessed November 2006).

9 Limb and Joint Defects. The Merck Manual of Medical Information. 2 nd Ed; Merck and Co. Inc.: Whitehouse Station, NJ, 2003; pp 1523­1524.

10 Meikle, James. Thalidomide May Fight Cancer. Guardian Unlimited. January 26, 2001. http://society.guardian.co.uk/health/news/0,8363,428663,00.html (Accessed November 2006).

11 Silverman, William A. The Schizophrenic Career of a “Monster Drug”; April 22, 2002; Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics; http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/110/2/404 (accessed November 2006).

12 Berkholz, Herbert. Giving Thalidomide a Second Chance. WebMD Public Information. http://www.webmd.com/content/article/4/1680_50217.htm (Accessed November 11, 2006).

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The utilization of aspirin, a nonsteroidal anti­ inflammatory drug on contemporary society

Group: Niobium Hee­Kyoung Park, Nikita J. Moskevitz, Evan B. Smith, Rowan L. Walker

The purpose of this paper is to explore the effects of aspirin on society. Research was conducted through examination of academically recognized sources both online and in published texts. Other materials used were provided for by discussion within the group. Aspirin is a widely used analgesic that inhibits enzymatic activity to produce its pharmacological effects. Aspirin portrays effects both positive; aiding in the treatment of cancer, strokes and heart attacks, and negative; GI bleeding, Reye’s syndrome, and asthma. These results reached the inevitable conclusion that aspirin, overall, has a positive effect on society but should be used with caution.

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Structure and Background Belonging to the family of drugs called salicylates, acetylsalicylic acid plays a major role

in the controlling of pain. First produced by the German pharmaceutical company, Friedrich Bayer & Co., acetylsalicylic acid is better known by the generic name of Aspirin. Controversy shrouds the identity of the chemist who prepared the first sample of pure acetylsalicylic acid, although the discovery is generally attributed to Arthur Eichengrün. 1 Aspirin was first introduced as a pain killer in 1899, production then began immediately. 1 From that point on, production has increased rapidly and aspirin has become a staple medication in numerous homes around the globe. The widespread use of aspirin stems from the fact that it is available to anyone without prescription. Reading early accounts of aspirin, one would come across the phrase, “wonder drug” in reference to the several therapeutic properties of aspirin.

Designated by the chemical formula, C9H8O4 (C6H4(OCOCH3)COOH), aspirin is taken to reduce fevers, to relieve minor aches and pains, especially those caused by arthritis, and also as a preventative measure against strokes and heart attacks. 2

Figure 1 The structural formula for aspirin Figure 2 Space­filling mode Black represents carbon, white hydrogen, and red oxygen

Aspirin is now being manufactured in various different ways including normal white tablets, chewing gum, and rectal suppositories. The tablets also come in coated, chewable, buffered, and extended release versions. 2 These different forms might alter the actions of aspirin slightly but the overall effects on the body remain the same.

Mechanism Aspirin belongs to a group of compounds known as non­steroidal anti­inflammatory

drugs (NSAIDs). Much of the mechanism of Aspirin is similar to the other drugs in this category and very similar to the mechanism of Tylenol (paracetamol). 3 It is an analgesic, anti­ inflammatory, anti­pyretic, and an inhibitor of platelet aggregation. All this is to say that Aspirin is a “painkiller”, brings down inflammation, reduces fever, and thins the blood. In a very basic method of action, aspirin produces its pharmacological effects by inhibiting the formation of cyclo­oxygenase products including prostaglandins, thromboxanes and prostacyclin. Inhibition of the formation of prostaglandins is the main target of NSAIDs and more specifically aspirin;

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thus, understanding the process of prostaglandin synthesis is essential for the understanding the main mechanism of action of aspirin. Prostaglandins don’t necessarily cause pain; but they continue to a different process, which they raise the actual pain receptors to an excitable state.

The synthesis of prostaglandins is described by Jurgen Steinmeyer written for the Arthritis Research foundation. He describes the synthesis process as follows: Cyclo­oxygenase is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of arachidonic acid (C20H32O2), an omega­6 fatty acid, into the prostaglandin endoperoxides PGG2 and PGH2 with the addition of two oxygen molecules. In this pathway, two reaction steps can be differentiated, catalyzed by different domains of the cyclo­oxygenase protein. The first is the cyclo­oxygenase reaction (in which the formation of a C5 ring system occurs, leading to the formation of PGG2), and the second is the peroxidase reaction (in which the peroxide group at C­15 is reduced to an alcohol with the formation of PGH2). PGH2 is the precursor for the biologically active prostaglandins and thromboxanes. NSAIDs inhibit only the cyclo­oxygenase reaction of the PGH synthase. 4 This process produces the prostaglandins and other cyclo­oxygenase products. Therefore, if this process goes to completion, it will participate in thrombocyte aggregation, inflammatory processes, pain and fever induction, and many other processes.

Aspirin stops this process by inhibiting the action of cyclo­oxygenase via acetylation, introduction of an acetyl functional group into an organic compound, of the active site of the enzyme. 5 Once cyclo­oxygenase is deactivated, the process the produces prostaglandins ceases, and the analgesic, anti­pyretic, and anti­inflammatory purposes of aspirin are achieved.

Side Effects However, prostaglandins are not the only thing inhibited as seen in Figure 3. Figure 3

also shows the separation of cyclo­oxygenase into two isoforms (COX – 1 and COX – 2), which have different effects in different areas of the body. Aspirin also inhibits prostacyclin, thrombaxanes, and prostaglandins (which can have negative effects as well). Prostacyclin regulates the thickness of the stomach lining, and so when inhibited, gastric ulcers are a common result. The inhibition of thrombaxanes and prostaglandins also contribute to the thinning of blood and the reduction of platelet aggregation. All of the side effects will be discussed later on in this paper.

An excessive dose of aspirin can cause stomach problems, such as gastrointestinal bleeding. As the result of gastrointestinal bleeding, the body loses iron, causing fatigue. It also causes kidney problems, loss of vitamin C and Folic Acid in urine. Metabolic acidosis, a drop in the blood pH, is also a negative effect resulted in overdosing of aspirin. It is found when the excessive aspirin or acid alters the acid­base balance in the body. As this condition develops, the patient may go into shock or die. Hyperpyrexia, elevated body temperature, may also occur as aspirin lowers the efficiency of cellular respiration.

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Figure 3 6

Reye’s syndrome is also one of the side effects of aspirin, seemingly the most serious consequence of the aspirin overdose. It is found in children from age 4 to 12, with a pinnacle incidence at age 6. The syndrome is caused when children are treated with aspirin­containing medicine for chickenpox (varicella virus infection) or the flu (influenza virus infection). Reye’s syndrome involves brain and liver damage; the cause for this is unknown. It begins with vomiting, and as the condition continues, the child may become semi­conscious or stuporous. Ultimately, seizures and coma develop, which can quickly lead to death.

It is also shown that aspirin triggers asthma in the individuals with asthma. A study reported that one in five asthma patients are sensitive to aspirin. The prevalence of aspirin­ induced asthma is 21% for adults and 5% for children. 7 Though its result can be fatal, it is not clear how aspirin causes the syndrome.

Preventative Uses In the world today one of the deadliest diseases is cancer which does not have a cure.

One of the only things that can be done for cancer treatment is taking medications to reduce the risk. These medications can cost hundreds of dollars or the change in your pocket at the local drugstore. This inexpensive medication is your ordinary painkiller, aspirin. This painkiller can be used as a preventative in many types of cancer, namely women’s breast cancer. “Aspirin . . . can help . . . to reduce women's chances of developing the most common type of breast cancer”. 7 It is said that if aspirin is taken every day then it will prevent cancer from occurring. This is because aspirin interferes with the development of estrogen which fuels the production of cancer. “It may be that people need to take aspirin every day . . . in order to see some sort of cancer prevention”. 8 For aspirin to have results in the battle of cancer it has to be taken for a series of years. This enables the slow working aspirin to take full effectiveness to the body. Without regular guidance from a doctor, taking aspirin can be dangerous and may not work in the way which should be specified.

Aspirin is proven to help in the case of heart attacks before, during and after the attack. “Not only can a daily low­dose aspirin (75 to 150 mg) lower the risk of a repeat heart attack, but

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it can lower the odds of a first time attack as well. . .”. 8 The American Heart Association recommends the use of aspirin if a heart attack has already been had because it will decrease the chances of it ever happening again. Research shows that taking an aspirin early in the handling of a heart attack, can significantly improve your chances of survival.

Negative Affects In spite of the many negative effects of the aspirin, it is unavoidable to take aspirin under

certain circumstances. Considering the contributions of aspirin on reducing the risk of other disease, it can be used in many significant ways. However, before encouraging the use of aspirin, the importance of reducing the negative effects of aspirin should be emphasized. There are few studies still on process in how to minimize the negative side –effects of aspirin.

For example, it is found that the extract of licorice, known as DGL, can (deglycyrrhizinated licorice) help reduce the gastrointestinal bleeding caused by aspirin. “They also help to repair ulcers caused by aspirin or related nonsteroidal anti­inflammatory drugs, such as indomethacin. One animal study also showed DGL and the acid­blocking drug Tagamet work together more effectively than either alone for preventing negative effects of aspirin.” 9 Also, studies discovered that a condiment called Cayenne, capsicum frutescens, helps protect against ulcer formation. It contains a chemical called capsaicin, which can be used to stimulate the nerves that line the stomach. “In a human trial, eating 20 grams of cayenne peppers before taking aspirin was reported to help protect against ulcer formation.” 9

These studies mentioned previously play a significant role in effective use of aspirin. More importantly, the negative effects are possible to overcome by frequent consulting with a doctor before taking the aspirin. Many people are not informed about the negative effects of aspirin. The use of aspirin should be done with care, and individuals should be aware of the harm that can be caused when taking aspirin.

Society’s Dependence In this day and age our society is dependant on a plethora of man­made items for

everyday survival. One of these necessities is pain killers used for the everyday ache and pain along with severe pain. They reduce much pain that would otherwise have to be endured by many people. Aspirin is a factor that is relied heavily upon by the people in our culture because without it we would have a profusion of pain more frequently. According to the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, in 2004, 67% of hospital outpatient visits involved drug therapy. Two point eight drugs were provided or ordered per visit most frequently from the non­steroidal anti­inflammatory drug class. There have been cases in which people have taken aspirin on too much of a regular basis. This lead to addiction of the pain killers and it would be hard to stop. “Addiction to prescription painkillers is a disease that has become increasingly prevalent in the United States and elsewhere.” 10 Because of this people have now become increasingly vulnerable to pain since the natural pain killers, endorphins, in the brain will stop working. “The body stops producing endorphins (the body’s natural painkillers) because it is receiving opiates instead.” 10 One’s brain chemistry can be altered by the painkillers which is uncontrolled by the individual. “Addiction is a chemical, physical disease. . .” 10 It is appropriate to say that in certain areas our society does depend on painkillers. It is not impossible for our

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society to be independent from painkillers, but because of the many beneficial sides of them, often it is hard to resist the desire to use painkillers.

Conclusion Overall, aspirin demonstrates many positive aspects beneficial to society and is a noteworthy discovery. There are still many unknowns about aspirin and further drug research on aspirin and other pain killers is yet to be conducted. Future research will continue, and this will only benefit the society at large.

Works Cited

1 Sneader, W. The discovery of aspirin: a reappraisal. BMJ. [Online] 2006, 321, 1591­1594. 2 Ross­Flanlgan, N. Aspirin. In Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine; 2nd Ed. Longe, J.L., Ed. Gale

Group: Boston, 2002;Vol, pp 18­20 3 Pharmweb. Mechanism of Action of Paracetamol. Last updated October 26, 2006, posted by

Pharmweb. www.pharmweb.net/pwmirror/pwy/paracetamol/pharmwebpicmechs.html 4 Steinmeyer, J. Pharmacological basis for the therapy of pain and inflammation with

nonsteroidal anti­inflammatory drugs. Arthritis Res. [Online] 2000, 2(5): 379–385. DOI: 10.1186/ar116.

5 Virginia.edu. How Aspirin and NSAIDs Work. Last updated October 26, 2006 posted by Virginia. Edu. http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~cmg/Demo/pdb/cycox/cycox.html

6 Vane J. Towards a better aspirin. Nature. 1994;367:215­216. [PubMed] 7 Dr. Mike Harrington, Aspirin, written by Mike Harrington, PhD as a supplement for BIOL

107 course, updated August 9, 2006, http://www.biology.ualberta.ca/people/mike_harrington/biol107/aspirin/aspirin.htm (accessed October 15th).

8 Jacobs, Eric. "Major Study Debunks Aspirin, Vitamin E for Cancer Prevention." 08 July 2005. American Cancer Society, Inc. 4 Nov. 2006. www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Major_Study_Debunks_Aspirin_Vitami n_E_for_Cancer_Prevention.asp.

9 Virtual Health, LLC, Aspirin (Acetylsalicylic Acid), 1998, http://www.vitaminevi.com/Drug/Aspirin.htm (accessed October 15th).

10 Bernstein, Clifford A. Pain Killer Addiction Treatment. http://spine­ health.com/topics/conserv/painkiller/painkiller01.html (accessed 10/14/06), Spine­ health.com.

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Lise Meitner’s Contributions to Chemistry

Group: Scandium Kelsey Moore, Gina Gioranino, Andy Celella, and Chelsea Gilman

Lise Meitner’s Contribution to Chemistry is a research project done to present the important findings of Lise Meitner and how they have influenced the chemical world. Lise Meitner was intensively researched using primary sources and various collections of data. An emphasis on Meitner’s background, contributions, and controversies was placed in the research and shown in the paper. Meitner’s work as a physicist lead her to relations with other chemists, and produced some of the greatest results of science: nuclear fission, the discovery of the element protactinium, and the discovery of the augur effect. Though controversies have left Meitner without credit for her most distinguishable work, she is remembered for her discoveries. Lise Meitner’s research and contributions to the world of science show us the many aspects of chemistry that can be experimented with and reveals the possibilities of the world that have yet to be discovered.

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Lise Meitner made many discoveries throughout her long and productive career that changed the chemical and physical world. Meitner will always be remembered and credited with the monumental discovery of nuclear fission as well as her many other significant scientific contributions. Her involvement in physics and collaboration with chemists not only lead to the discovery of nuclear fission, but also the element protactinium and a measured absorption of gamma rays among other things. 1 The controversy over the Nobel Prize that was earned by Meitner will always be present. Lise Meitner was an influential and prolific physicist who contributed greatly to the world of chemistry.

Elise Meitner was born November 7, 1878, in Vienna, Austria. She was the third of eight children born into the Viennese Jewish family of Philip Meitner and his wife Hedwig. 2 As Lise was growing up, she showed a remarkable passion for math and science. Otto Robert Frisch, Lise’s nephew, commented that Lise was, “an eight­year­old who kept a math book under her pillow, and would askew about the colors of an oil slick and remember what she was told about thin films and the interference effects of reflected light”. 3 Lise attended a private school to become a French teacher; however her mind was set on a different career. Education was very limited for female scientists at the time, and Lise’s parents were opposed to her entering university. 4 Fortunately, just as Meitner was coming of age, universities were slowly beginning to admit women as students. 3

Meitner entered the University of Vienna in 1901, studying under Ludwig Boltzmann. 4 She began her studies with a heavy load of classes including calculus, chemistry, botany, and her favorite, physics. Boltzmann’s enthusiasm quickly confirmed Meitner’s calling to physics .3 In 1905, Meitner became the first woman to receive her PhD in physics at the University of Vienna. 4

Meitner moved to Berlin after receiving her doctorate, and began to study with Max Planck. She also collaborated with the chemist Otto Hahn for 30 years. 5 They were a team: Hahn focused on chemistry, while Meitner focused on physics. Together, their significant discoveries and results competed with Irène­Curie, Frédéric­Joliot, and other foreign groups. 2

After Nazi Germany annexed Austria in 1938, Meitner fled to Stockholm, Sweden due to her Jewish heritage. Meitner was denied a current passport, because of her heritage, and was almost arrested when a German guard asked to see her passport, which was ten years out of date. Luckily, the guard said nothing, and Meitner safely crossed into the Netherlands. She continued her work in Stockholm, though it was not easy with the prejudice against women scientists. 4 Lise Meitner’s work led to many influential findings and results: nuclear fission.

In order to truly understand Lise Meitner’s contribution to nuclear fission we must first understand the basics of it. The atom has a certain unique structure. There are two parts the outer sphere and the inner sphere. Tiny particles known as electrons have a negative charge of 1.60217733 x 10¯ 19 coulombs. These tiny particles orbit around the smaller sphere in groups or clusters called electron clouds. Electron clouds are areas in which one can mathematically predict where an electron is at a certain point in time. The clouds are only an estimation of the probability of the location of electrons. The clouds circle around the smaller inner sphere known as the nucleus. 6

The nucleus contains two main components collectively known as nucleons. Nucleons are protons and neutrons. Protons carry a positive charge and have a mass of 1.67262158 × 10 ­24

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grams. Since we know that like charges repel one another, it is hard to imagine how all these positively charged particles can stay bound together. That is where neutrons take on a vital role in holding the nucleus together. Because neutrons have no charge they can assist the strong atomic binding force to keep protons from repelling one another. Neutrons, which weigh 1.67492716 × 10 ­24 grams, play a tremendous role in nuclear fission. 6

In 1932, James Chadwick discovered the neutron which brought about an idea that elements larger than uranium could be produced. When Meitner teamed up with German chemists, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, they joined the scientific race to create an element larger than uranium. 7 As the Nazis rose to power Meitner was forced to leave the country because of her Jewish heritage. She went to work at the Manne Siegbahn Institute in Stockholm, Sweden with her nephew, Otto Robert Frisch. Meitner, communicating with Hahn and Strassmann, discovered that when a neutron is fired at a heavy element it usually splits into barium and krypton and releases an extraordinary amount of energy, rather than forming a larger element. 7 The energy released is 200 mega electron volts (MeV) which compares to only 10 electron volts (eV) that is released when one atom of carbon is burned as coal. 8 Nuclear fission was never really intended to occur; the original idea was to create a larger element than uranium.

While Meitner was in Stockholm, Hahn continued to do experiments and finally published his idea of nuclear fission in January 1939. Because of the Nazi’s holding government power, it was impossible for Meitner to publish with Hahn. The next month Meitner published with Frisch and named the process nuclear fission. 9

In order to carry out nuclear fission, Meitner developed an equation that would reveal something she called the “Fissionability Parameter.” This determined how easily an element can be fissioned. The fissionability parameter can be found mathematically, and the closer the answer is to 1, the more fissionable it becomes. To find the fissionability parameter the atomic number must be squared, divided by the mass number, and again divided by 45. An example of the equation is given below with the “Z” representing the atomic number and “A” representing the mass number.

F.P. = (Z²/A)/45

Iron (Fe) is the least fissionable element, with a fissionability parameter of .27. Uranium is very fissionable with a fissionability parameter of .80.

After the fissionability of an element is found, one can add mass to split the nucleus. When a neutron is added to the nucleus, the atom will attempt to conserve energy by reducing the binding force that holds the nucleus together. The nucleus then breaks apart because the positive charges of protons will repel each other. As the nucleus breaks apart into two smaller daughter nuclei, 200 MeV of energy and neutrons is released. The neutrons then collide with other nuclei and create a chain reaction that releases a tremendous amount of energy; a product of nuclear fission. 8

With the discovery of this energy that was released, the Nazi regime tried to harness the energy to create a powerful weapon. Meitner, Hahn, and Bohr had no idea that nuclear fission would be used as a weapon. This prompted Albert Einstein to write a letter to the President of the United States, Harry Truman, warning him of the Nazi’s plans. This letter prompted the formation of the Manhattan Project. The Manhattan Project brought together great scientists, including Einstein, Leo Szilard, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner, to create a weapon before

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the Germans did. Lise Meitner refused to work on the project, because she never intended for her contributions to be used in a destructive way. 7 Later, Meitner and Hahn spoke against the misuse of nuclear energy as weapons.

In addition to her most distinguished work on nuclear fission, Lise Meitner also assisted in the discovery of the element protactinium. Soon after Meitner returned from her service in the First World War she was reunited with Otto Hahn at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Dahlem. They began their research by searching for the mother substance of actinium. 10 To accomplish this, the two of them started by searching for suitable raw material. 10 This is how the process is described,

We inspected the leftover material that results from the treatment of pitchblende with nitric acid…Careful work revealed that it contained very small quantities of radium, radiolead, and ionium, but also virtually all the tantalum­like substances of the pitchblende…The suspicion that pitchblende residue was a useful raw material turned out to be correct. 10

They determined that this new discovery was an unknown element and it was in fact the mother substance of actinium. Meitner and Hahn decided to name this new element proto­ actinium, which was later combined to form the name protactinium. Both the Lebiniz Medal from the Berlin Academic of Science and the Leibniz Prize from the Austrian Academy of Science were awarded to Meitner for her contributions in this work. 11 Discovery of protactinium was a major accomplishment in Lise Meitner’s life in addition to her work on nuclear fission.

Another major achievement of Meitner was the discovery of the auger effect. This was discovered by both Pierre Auger and Meitner at separate times during the 1920’s. 12 Pierre Auger was given credit for the Auger effect by way of his name, but Meitner first reported the discovery. The Auger effect is described as follows,

The Auger effect occurs because the incident electrons can remove a core state election from a surface atom. This core state can be filled by an outer shell electron from the same atom, in which the electron moves to a lower energy state, and the energy associated with the transition is the difference in orbital energies. 12

The auger effect was an important find to science, because it allowed the composition of a surface atom to be determined.

A personal accomplishment of Meitner’s was her longtime work as a Professor. Lise Meitner first gained the position of professor at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute. She was first asked to assist Hahn in the lab, and soon after was granted to position of assistant professor for Theoretical Physics. 11 This was an incredible accomplishment for a woman in Germany during this time period. She was the first woman to acquire a position on such a distinguished level. The outbreak of the First World War prevented her and Hahn from continuing their collaborative work shortly after she began this position. Meitner served as a volunteer X­ray technician in the Austrian army. 11 After she returned from her war service and completed her work on protactinium, Meitner accepted a position of beginning a radioactive physics department at the Kaiser Wilhem Institute. Hahn remained in the chemistry department, which resulted in Meitner and Hahn no longer able to work together. Meitner continued to acquire many accolades including the Ellen Richards Prize. 11

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Though Lise Mietner had many significant discoveries, much of her work was not given credit to. Each autumn the Nobel Prize is given to recognize scientists in physics, physiology and medicine, chemistry, literature, and peace. In 1944, upon the announcement of the Nobel Peace Prize winners, controversy broke out. Rumors had been floating throughout October and November that Lise Meitner would share in at least one of the prizes. On November 16 th the decisions were announced and both the chemistry and physics prizes went to other scientists. The chemistry prize went to Otto Hahn and the physics prize to Wolfgang Pauli. 13 Hans Petterson a fellow physicist and friend of Meitner’s stated, “We are indignant about the one­ sidedness of the distribution of the Nobel Prize. We are certainly glad the Hahn got the chemistry prize, but by all rights the physics prize should have gone to you”. 13 There were also problems because Meitner was overlooked when the decision for the chemistry prize was made. Meitner had left Germany in 1938 because of emigration; leaving behind her four year stretch on the uranium project with Hahn. She had a large role in helping Otto Hahn in his discoveries which won him the noble prize. The outrage in the science community led to reconsideration of the prizes. This was an unprecedented move. Just the fact that they were reconsidering the verdict showed a flawed decision, and how important Lise Meitner was to the science world in the 1940’s. The 1944 decision had changed due to new information from America and France regarding Meitner’s contributions to the discovery of U­239. In November of 1945 a revote occurred and only a slim majority voted to leave the award unchanged. 13 The verdict reached was that Hahn was the sentimental favorite at the time, leaving Meitner in the dark and giving Hahn a political edge. Sweden needed the boost while their ties with Germany were crumbling. Not noticing how much physics and chemistry were interwoven, Meitner’s achievements were over looked.

Some of Lise Meitner’s other unaccredited accomplishments included the discovery of barium, element 91, and the study of radio elements. 14 Barium was discovered in 1938 by Meitner, Strassman and Otto Hahn. Publishing of this find was not allowed, once again due to her heritage. Luckily, Meitner was able to publish with her nephew Otto Frisch, naming this process of splitting of the uranium nucleus nuclear fission. Meitner also did much research on radio elements. She was one of the chief pioneers in discovering and working with alpha and beta decay and the scattering of metal atoms.

Lise Meitner died on October 27, 1968 in Cambridge, England. Element 109 is named meitnerium in her honor. 4 Her contribution of nuclear fission brings about a lingering question: What would the world be like without Meitner’s accidental discovery? Lise Meitner’s work with nuclear fission along with many other significant contributions have greatly contributed to our modern world and will always be remembered.

Works Cited

1. Byers, Nina. CWP at Physics; March 16, 2001, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Meitner,_Lise@844904033.html (accessed September 30, 2006).

2. Maisal, Merry, and Laura Smart. Women in Science; 1997, San Diego Supercomputer Center. http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/meitner.html (accessed September 30, 2006).

3. Barron, Rachel. Lise Meitner Discoverer of Nuclear Fission; Morgan Reynolds Incorporated: Greensboro, NC, 2000.

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4. Wikipedia. Lise Meitner; September 29, 2006. Wikimedia Foundation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitner (accessed October 1, 2006).

5. ORCBS. Radiation Safety, 2006, Michigan State University. http://www.orcbs.msu.edu/radiation/resources_links/historical_figures/meitner.htm (accessed October 12, 2006)

6. Brown, Theodore L., H. Eugene LeMay, Jr., and Bruce E. Bursten. Chemistry: The Central Science. 1977. 10th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006.

7. Sime, Ruth. Lise Meitner and The Discovery of Nuclear Fission; Scientific American 278.1 (Jan. 1998): 80. EBSCO. Jan. 1998. http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=8&hid=103&sid=91627b08­fcd6­ 47daa0625f4b5227cd35%40sessionmgr106 (accessed November 9, 2006)

8. Clark, Ronald W. The Greatest Power on Earth­The Story of Nuclear Fission. New York: Sidgewick & Jackson, 1980.

9. Clarke, Brenda. Women and Science. New York: Wayland , 1989.

10. Weintraun, Bob. Lise Meitner (1878­1968): Protactinium, Fission, and Meitnerium; Weizmann Institute of Science. http:// www.weizmann.ac.il/ICS/booklet/21/pdf/ bob_weintraub.pdf (accessed October 14, 2006)

11. Meitner, Lise (1878­1968): Narrative Biography. Encyclopedia of World Biography. Thomson Gale, 1998. NA. Academic OneFile. Thomson Gale. Gordon College. http://find.galegroup.com/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC­ Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T001&prodId=AONE&docId=A148478243&source=gale&s rcprod=AONE&userGroupName=mlin_n_gordon&version=1.0 (accessed October 14, 2006)

12. Wikipedia. Auger electron spectroscopy; August 10, 2005. Wikimedia Foundation. . http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Auger_electron_spectroscopy (accessed October 14, 2006).

13. Cropper, William. Great Physicists: The Life and Times of Leading Physicists From Galiled to Hawking; University of Oxford Press: New York,NY,2001.

14. Sime, Ruth. Lise Meitner A Life In Physics; University of California Press: Los Angeles, CA,1996

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‘Something Wicked This Way Comes’ Group: Ruthenium

Karen Turley, Nicole Fisher and Tai Schutz

The Sarin gas attacks of Tokyo, Japan in 1995 involved 5000 civilians, and was the fault of the Aum Shinrikyo cult. An investigation into the history of the gas, the purpose behind the Aum Shinrikyo cult’s attack, and the effects of the gas on the human body was made to examine the question of euthanasia for those severely injured in the attacks. Articles and scientific papers were researched for the necessary information. The culmination of the research led to the decision that there cannot be a concrete answer to the question of euthanasia that is acceptable to all humankind.

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On March 20, 1995 the Aum Shinrikyo cult released a deathly cloud of sarin gas into an underground subway system in Tokyo, Japan. The Japanese subway system was normally very crowded with standing room only. This enabled the terrorists to expose a large number of people in a very short amount of time. The terrorists left punctured sarin filled containers in five separate subway cars, injuring a total of 5,500 people. Sadly, 12 people died from the invisible, gaseous state of the nerve agent while many others were left to suffer from nerve damage. 1 This paper is an investigation into the history behind the Sarin gas attacks, including the origins of Sarin gas, its chemical makeup, its effects on the human body, and the aim of the Aum Shinrikyo cult. Tied into this is an analysis of the morally ambiguous question of euthanasia: whether it is better to live with suffering, or to die peacefully.

The History of Sarin Gas Most nerve agents fall into the chemical category of “organophosphates;” the first of

these chemicals were designed in 1845 as pesticides to save crops. Sarin is similar in chemical structure and biological activity to some commonly used insecticides like Malathion and is also similar to carbamates used in insecticides such as Sevin. The first nerve agent was named “Tabun” or “GA” and was created for military use by Germany in 1936. “Sarin” or “GB” was produced in 1938 and “Soman” or “GD” was made in 1944. Sarin is the most toxic of the four G­agents made by Germany. Sarin was discovered by Germany before WWII in 1938 in Wuppertal­Elberfeld in the Ruhr valley of Germany by two German scientists who were attempting to create stronger pesticides. Sarin was named in honor of Gerhard Schrader, Ambrose, Rüdiger, and Van der Linde. 2 Then in mid 1939 the formula for Sarin was passed on to the chemical warfare section of the German Army’s Weapons Office which brought it into mass production for the war effort, a number of secret factories were built during WWII. It is estimated that the total amount of Sarin produced by Nazi Germany ranged from 500 kg to 10 tons. But Germany did not use nerve agents against Allied targets because they were unaware that the Allies had not developed similar compounds. The Germans believed that the Allies’ ability to reach German targets would prove devastating in a chemical war.

The U.S. and Russia produced and stockpiled nerve agents after WWII. In the early 1950’s NATO adopted Sarin as a standard chemical warfare agent and both Russia and the US used it for military purposes. In 1953 Maddison, a Royal Air Force engineer, died in a human testing facility in Wiltshire. He had been told that he was participating in a test to “cure the common cold”. Ten days after his death an inquest was held in secret which returned a verdict of “misadventure”. In 2004 the inquest was reopened and, after a 64 day hearing the jury ruled that Maddison had been unlawfully killed by the “application of a nerve agent in a non therapeutic experiment”. In 1993 Sarin gas was classified as a weapon of mass destruction by the U.S. according to the U.N. Resolution 687, and both its production and stockpiling were outlawed by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993. 3

Sarin gas, “O­Isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate” or “2­(fluoro­methyl­phosphoryl) oxypropane” is one of the most dangerous and toxic chemicals man has produced: it is 500 times more toxic than Cyanide. The chemical formula for Sarin is C4H10FO2P. The feedstock chemicals which are required for GB production are hydrofluoric acid, methylphosphonic dichloride (dichlor) and isopropyl alcohol, calcium chloride brine for refrigeration, and methlene chloride as the heat transfer agent, and a stabilizing additive. The shelf life of unitary or pure Sarin may be lengthened by increasing the purity of the precursor and intermediate chemicals

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and refining the production process. 4 A person need only be exposed to 0.5 milligrams of Sarin for it to prove fatal. Sarin is colorless and odorless in pure form, very volatile, dissolves completely in water, and evaporates quickly. Like other nerve agents Sarin attacks the nervous system of a living organism. Atropine is an acetylcholine inhibitor used to treat the physiological symptoms of poisoning, while Pralidoxine can regenerate cholinesterase if administered within 5 hours.

The Cult of AUM SHINRIKYO Among the religious militant groups of the past fifty years, Aum Shinrikyo stands out

from the others as having “a bizarre and seemingly irrational agenda with…its repeated attempts to kill a large number of Japanese civilians.” 5 The apocalyptic religion of Aum Shinrikyo, meaning “Supreme Truth,” 6 found its origins in Asahara Shoko – a man who lived his life by the ideals of yoga, Hinduism, Taoism and Buddhism. This Japanese man believed himself to be divinely commanded by the Hindu god Shiva to build the utopian Buddhist millennial kingdom on earth. In addition, he claimed the ability to predict the future and enable others to achieve enlightenment. These enlightened followers of Asahara (the guru) became ascetic monks responsible for founding enlightened communities, called Lotus Villages. As an infallible Buddha, Asahara prophesied that he and his followers could prevent the Armageddon if enough Lotus Villages were founded throughout the world. Such prophesy highly invigorated missionary monks to spread Aum Shinrikyo. After all, they believed that instead of a future of impending doom, they were bringing about a utopian millennial kingdom.

However, Asahara faced repeated failures in the endeavor to realize his divine mission. He felt discouraged by local Japanese who stubbornly refused to sell him their land for Lotus Villages and sharply criticized his method of converting the youth into monks. Like many who attempt to save the world, Asahara himself questioned if such a task was even possible. After reading John’s Revelation, he came to change his mind about the Armageddon, deciding it was inevitable, and thence teaching that only those living in the Lotus Villages would be saved.

After such a decision concerning the end times, Asahara Shoko faced a daunting problem: If ever his prophesies about the Armageddon were to be disconfirmed, then his image as an infallible Buddha would crumble before the people. Thus, he and his inner circle of followers began a forceful pursuit to produce and maintain biochemical and nuclear weapons of mass destruction. They reverted to mass destruction in order to bring about the end of the world and verify the Aum Shinrikyo religion. Murder suddenly became legitimate; and as skepticism in Aum Shinkriyo mounted in 1989, Asaraha began to murder dissidents (including his own family). 7 Thus, a religion intended for the salvation of the world was warped by the greedy desire for pride and power of one man. Asahara was doomed for eventual downfall as his plots dangerously twisted into the murder and torture of many innocent Japanese, culminating with the sarin gas attack on Tokyo in 1995.

Initial Japanese response to Aum Shinrikyo were unusually favorable. So unlike many other religious militant groups, this religion attracted the highly educated, successful, and brilliant young men of Japan. Asahara Shoko gave these elites definite answers to their religious needs. In him, they could find enlightenment, peace, and eventual salvation. 8 This hope turned awry, however, when Asahara changed his view about the Armageddon. Regardless, elitist financial support and the efficient expertise of these intelligent Japanese scientists lent to the Aum Shinrikyo’s ability to produce, maintain and implement CBWs. (Chemical and Biological

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Weapons) They effectively executed murder missions with intricate plots. However, Asahara Shoko eventually faced conflict with those who disdained his tactics of converting the youth into monks. Naturally, the Japanese people were outraged when the Aum Shinrikyo religion turned violently fanatical. Asahara Shoko himself was condemned, sentenced to death in February, 2004.

Effects on the Human body To better understand the outward physical effects of Sarin gas on the human body, it

would be beneficial to understand the events taking place at a neural level. Sarin gas is classified as a ‘nerve agent’ which can be defined as ‘a toxic gas that is inhaled or absorbed through the skin and has harmful effects on the nervous and respiratory system.’ 9 To understand the effects of a nerve agent on a human’s nervous system, it will be helpful to understand how nerves work.

Nerves are spread throughout the entire body, but they are not all in direct contact with each other. In order for information to travel from one nerve to the other, it must cross the synaptic cleft, the space between two nerve cells. To cross the synaptic cleft, the information is transmitted using the enzyme acetylcholine (or ACh), which stimulates the next nerve cell in the chain. But this stimulation cannot last longer than is necessary to transmit the required information, so another enzyme is needed to break it down. This enzyme is called acetylcholinesterase, or AChE. 10 What a nerve agent—like Sarin gas—does, is inhibit the body’s production of AChE, which results in a buildup of ACh. This means that the nerves of the body are in constant stimulation, with no way to stop transmitting their signals. 11

This over stimulation of the nervous system results in a host of outward effects on the human body. Common effects are a runny nose, watery eyes, small or pinpoint pupils, eye pain, blurred vision, drooling and excessive sweating, coughing, chest tightness, rapid breathing, diarrhea, increased urination, confusion, drowsiness, weakness, headache, nausea, vomiting, and/or abdominal pain, slow or fast heart rate, and low or high blood pressure. All of these symptoms can come from either mild or severe exposures to Sarin gas, but exposure to large amounts of Sarin gas results in loss of consciousness, convulsions, paralysis, and respiratory failure possibly leading to death. 12

All of these effects on the body listed so far are merely the short term consequences of exposure to Sarin gas. The effects on the nervous system are permanent and cannot be reversed, as well as the trauma of having been infected. A long term study of the victims of the 1995 Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway systems shows certain psychological effects: ‘57% of the respondents still had depression, nightmares, and flashbacks, and had panic attacks when they boarded trains,’ and continuing physical effects: ‘the most common complaint of the victims was weakened vision, which affected 77% of the respondents. According to the Yomiuri Shimbun newspaper, others complained of sharp pains and one 35­year­old woman remained paralysed. An even higher proportion of the survivors had mental scars; a number rely on sleeping pills and alcohol to ease their nerves; and 72% of respondents showed signs of psychological disorder.’ 1

Both the short and long term effects of Sarin gas on the human body and brain are terrible and horrific. The amount of pain suffered by those who died immediately upon infection, and those who continue to live is immense. There is truly no pleasant way to die, but the human race has certainly come up with another horrible one.

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Now that the history of Sarin gas, its effects on the human body, and the application of it by the Aum Shinrikyo have been clarified, it is possible to analyze the moral question of euthanasia. A typical negative stance to euthanasia is found in Catholic theology. Such a response declares that euthanasia is wrong because it is a form of suicide, and therefore it defies the will of God: to live and glorify him, this is the chief end of man. It has long been accepted that if a person is conscious and able to breathe on their own, terminating their life is immoral. Yet it would be well to consider those who did not die in the Sarin gas attack of 1995. Thousands of Japanese civilians continue to suffer from the devastating physical damage of the nerve agent. These people live in constant pain every single moment of their lives, and they always will. In extreme cases, it can almost be viewed as more merciful to assist such victims in the act of suicide. In our opinion, if given the choice of immediate death or Sarin gas poisoning, we would choose death. But this opinion cannot be imposed on other peoples’ lives. We would like to believe that life is still worth living after being exposed to Sarin gas, but have no basis for a concrete opinion without experiencing its traumatic effects.

The devastating attack of the Aum Shinrikyo cult proved both man’s genius and twisted motives in their ability to produce and use lethal nerve agents like Sarin Gas. The effects of the gas on the human body are truly horrific, making survival after exposure nearly unbearable. The initial attempt of the Aum Shinkrikyo cult to save the world was warped into a scheme of mass destruction; a scheme that created a dilemma of moral and intellectual integrity: is it better to die or live with suffering? After investigating all of these topics fully, we have attempted to shed some light on the question of euthanasia, but we cannot give a definite answer that is acceptable to everyone. Though this controversy remains, it is impossible to either escape or forget the devastation wrought by Sarin gas.

References:

1. “Clouds of death: Tokyo subway poison gas attack raises fears in US, world.” Current Events, a Weekly Reader publication 94.n24 (April 17, 1995): 1 (2). InfoTracOneFile. Thomson Gale. Gordon College. 11Oct.2006 http://find.galegroup.com/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC­

2. Neuroscience for Kids­Nerve Agents; chemical weapons nerve agents, August 15 th , 2003; neuroscience for kids 10/20/06; file://volumes/USB20FD/neuroscience%20for%kids%20­ %20neuroscienceforkids­nerveagents

3. Robert Jay; Aum Shinrikyo Aum Supreme Truth; Aum Shinrikyo Aleph; March 12, 2005, religion news blog, 10/20/2006; file://F:\Aum ShinrikyomApologetics reserch resources.htm

4. Croni, Audrey Kurth, Defense & Security Analysis Dec2004, Vol. 20 Issue 4, p313­320, Terrorist Motivations for Chemical and Biological Weapons Use: Placing the Threat in Context. Accessed 11/7/2006. p314

5. BBC News, Profile: Shoko Asahara, 2/27/2004, BBC News International version, Accessed 11/7/2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia­pacific/3504237.stm

6. Wessinger, Catherine, Utopian Studies 2002, Vol. 13 Issue 1, p.229, Aum Shinrikyo and Japanese Youth. P 229­231. Aum Shinrikyo and Japanese Youth (Book by Daniel A. Metraux). Accessed 11/7/2006

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7. Foard, James H, History of Religions Aug2003, Vol.43 Issue 1, p81­82, Religious Violence in Contemporary Japan: The Case of Aum Shinrikyo (Book by Ian Reader). Accessed 11/7/2006.

8. Miller, George A. Definition of Nerve Agent; Page last modified 2005, http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=nerve%20agent (accessed 10/16/06) part of WordNet: An Electronic Lexical Database http://wordnet.princeton.edu (accessed 10/16/06)

9. Definitions of Acetylcholine and Acetylcholinesterase; page last modified October 16, 2006, MedicineNet, http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/hp.asp, (accessed 10/16/06)

10. McDonough, John H. Performance Impacts of Nerve Agents and Their Pharmocological Countermeasures; Military Psychology, April 2002, Vol. 14 Issue 2, p93­119, 27p

11. Department for Health and Human Services. Facts About Sarin; Page last modified May 17, 2004, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/sarin/basics/facts.asp, (accessed 10/11/06)

12. Watts, Jonathan. Tokyo Terrorist Attack: Effects Still Felt 4 Years On. Lancet, 02/13/99, Vol. 353, Issue 9152

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1995: Japan’s Deadly Terrorist Attack

Group Tellurium: Danny Mack, Christin Peters, Kevin Quackenbush and Mat Schetne

In 1995, the Japanese terrorist group known as AUM carried out a terrorist attack on the crowded Tokyo subway. Many people were killed or injured. Sarin gas is a poisonous nerve agent. A single drop of sarin the size of a pinhead can kill an adult (3). Victims of sarin poisoning experience a variety of symptoms including convulsions, vomiting, and eventually death by suffocation. Sarin was originally developed as a pesticide, but due to its lethal nature it is now illegal to posses except for research. There is debate as to whether or not countries should be able to produce and stockpile such poisons for any purposes.

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What Happened March 20, 1995 is a day that will forever remain in infamy in Japan. On what seemed

like a normal workday in the busy city of Tokyo, a national catastrophe took place. Terrorists of the group called Aum Shinrikyo (AUM), meaning “supreme truth”(1), brought death and destruction upon many innocent civilians in Japan through a deadly attack on the busy Tokyo subway system.

The terrorist attack was scripted and planned well ahead of time. The attack took place the day before a national holiday. During rush hour, the Tokyo subway transports millions of people, often cramming passengers into cars so tightly that it is nearly impossible to move once inside (Figure 1). The plan was to release the toxic chemical sarin in trains passing through Kasumigaseki and Nagatacho, home to the Japanese government (2).

Ten men from AUM formed into five groups. Each group consisted of two men: one getaway driver and one detonator. At 7:39 AM the first detonator boarded an inbound subway car. He carried with him two packets containing about a liter of liquid sarin in total and an umbrella with a sharpened tip. After boarding the car, he quietly set down the packets and punctured them many times with the sharp tip of his umbrella. He then fled the car at the next stop where his getaway driver was waiting. All five groups followed this procedure releasing deadly sarin into a total of five subway cars simultaneously (6).

The results of the attacks were deadly and costly. Many said that the subways resembled battlefields. On that day, hospitals saw thousands of patients all concerned with the affects of the toxic gas. In total, twelve people were killed, fifty­four were critically injured, and thousands developed minor injuries and side effects (6).

The reasoning behind the terrorist attack is still uncertain. One theory states that the AUM wanted to overthrow the Japanese government and install their leader as emperor of Japan. Another hypothesis is that the attack was carried out in attempt to hasten the apocalypse. Still others believe that it was a backfiring plan, attempting to divert attention away from AUM. Whatever the motives for the attack, nearly all who were involved faced trial and many received the death penalty. A small following of AUM exists to date, however it is kept under a close watch (6, 1).

Figure 1 People being pushed into a crowded subway train in Tokyo. http://images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/sharemed/tar gets/images/pho/t028/T028954A.jpg

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Sarin Gas Sarin gas is a highly toxic nerve agent. Nerve agents are commonly called nerve gasses

and contain phosphorous organic chemicals that disrupt the way that nerves transfer messages to organs. They do this by preventing the breakdown of acetylcholine, which is a neurotransmitter that causes the contraction of muscles or organs. This acetylcholine builds up and the muscle contractions do not stop. People poisoned by nerve agents experience a wide variety of symptoms, including convulsions, involuntary urination, profuse salivation, and death by asphyxiation (3, 4).

In 1938, four German scientists who were trying to create stronger pesticides discovered sarin gas. Sarin was never truly used as a pesticide, but instead was mass­produced as a chemical weapon by Germany beginning in 1939. Legal action was not taken until The Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993, when it made production and stockpiling illegal. Today it is classified as a weapon of mass destruction by the United Nations (4).

Sarin’s chemical formula is C4H10FO2P, and its most commonly used chemical name is isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate (Figure 2). At room temperature in its pure form and vapor form, it is odorless and colorless. Sarin has a relatively high vapor pressure (2.9 mm Hg @ 25º C), and this means that it evaporates quickly. People can be exposed to sarin through the skin, the eyes, and through breathing its vapors. Also, sarin mixes easily with water, and people can be exposed to it by drinking it. Its shelf life is short, and at most, it will last a few months, making it difficult to stockpile (5).

How People Were Affected The main target of the terrorists was the daily commuters of Tokyo’s subway system, but

policemen, firemen, EMT’s, and hospital staff were also victims of the toxic effects of sarin gas. Sarin gas has can have a large variety of harmful affects on humans both physically and psychologically. The sarin gas attack on Japan was a disastrous event and the variety of ways the victims were affected verifies this.

The first victims to seek medical attention exhibited symptoms of eye pain, mild dyspnea (shortness of breath), and lacrimation (crying). Through examination of these first patients, medical personnel observed that they had pinpointed pupils, which is a common symptom of organophosphate poisoning. Staff of St. Luke’s International Hospital in Tokyo concluded that the victims being admitted had been exposed to sarin gas, and began treating critical patients with intravenous 2­pyridine aldoxime methiodide, which is an antidote for sarin. The gas affected some people involved in rescue operations themselves. Many of the people who reported to medical centers were experiencing psychological symptoms. These individuals had no chemical injuries resulting from exposure to sarin gas, however they still requested medical attention. Many victims of the gas attack still suffer from the traumatic event (6).

Figure 2 Molecular structure of sarin. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin_gas

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Some people were more exposed to the gas than others. Some victims onboard the subway trains did not detect the odor of the sarin gas before it began to choke them. Other individuals stated that that the odor was similar to burning rubber or mustard, indicating that the sarin was not completely pure. On other trains there were more severe symptoms expressed by passengers. Passengers of these trains began coughing, vomiting, and convulsing shortly after the sarin gas had been released. Rescue crews reported that victims of the gas attack in the subway station were stumbling around in pandemonium because of impaired vision and difficulty breathing. Symptoms of some victims began to get worse while being transported to medical centers. Many victims that experienced more severe symptoms were scattered about the walkways and exits to the subway station unable to successfully move. Some of these victims were also foaming at the mouth, vomiting, and convulsing (6).

The sarin gas attacks had an effect on a wide variety of people. The initial rescue personnel, EMT’s, police, and fire department personnel were wearing their routine work clothing when they first came upon the scene. The EMT’s and police officials were not equipped with protective respiration gear, and were injured by gas exposure. Roughly ten percent of the firefighters who rushed to the scenes of the sarin attacks were injured due to sarin exposure. The firefighters however did not possess any serious injuries. As they reached the hospital, some EMT’s began to experience the same symptoms of the victims they were transporting. Approximately ten percent of the medical staff on duty during the day of the attacks expressed symptoms of vision impairment from secondary exposure to the sarin gas that was left as a residue on admitted patients. The police and firefighters that were treated for symptoms of eye irritations and headaches were released that afternoon (6).

Almost all patients that were hospitalized from the sarin exposure were released by the following April. Only one victim who suffered from severe anoxic brain damage was not released. Rescue crew and hospital personnel who attended victims also began to experience the after effects of the sarin attack (6). Many victims of the attacks exhibited post­traumatic stress disorder. Low­level exposure has some effect over time in lab mice, including causing changes to structures of the brain critical for memory and cognition (8). However, not enough scientific information exists to determine whether exposure to low levels of sarin nerve gas had physical long­term health effects in people (7).

The Legality of Nerve Agents In recent times, countries have questioned the legalization of nerve agents such as sarin.

There is question about whether or not they have useful purposes and also whether or not their legalization would make research easier. If we take a look at the history and the uses of sarin and nerve agents like it, we can see why nerve agents should not be made legal.

Although sarin was originally developed as a pesticide, it is not being used as a pesticide today, but as a deadly nerve agent that has the potential to cause mass damage. Sarin was first used as a weapon in World War II and from then on was made stronger and used many more times, including the attacks in Tokyo in 1995 (5). The most recent sarin attack occurred May 17, 2005 when a roadside bomb containing sarin exploded near a U.S. military convoy in Baghdad, Iraq (5).

Sarin is extremely potent and only a drop the size of a pinhead can kill an adult human being (3). Legally, sarin can only be produced for research and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons must be notified if more than 100 grams is produce by anyone

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(4). In 1993, nerve agents were classified as Schedule 1 chemicals. This means that they have few, if any, legitimate uses. Because of this Schedule 1 classification, the Chemical Weapons Convention made the production and stockpiling of nerve agents illegal (5,6)

Our group believes that the production and stockpiling of sarin gas and nerve agents like it should continue to be illegal in every country. They have little to no beneficiary aspects, and making them legal would not benefit research in any way. Making them legal would only make it easier for countries to produce weapons of mass destruction, and it would give terrorists free reign to create deadly substances.

References

(1) Robinson, B.A. SHINRI KYO (SUPREME TRUTH); Updated August 19, 2006, Religious Tolerance. http://www.religioustolerance.org/dc_aumsh.htm, (accessed November 2, 2006)

(Figure 1) Encarta. 1995:Japan. Updated 2006. http://images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/sharemed/targets/images/pho/t028/T028954A.jpg (accessed November 15, 2006)

(2) Encarta. 1995:Japan. Updated 2006. http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_1741574406/1995_Japan.html

(3) Huebner, Kermer D. CBRNE ­ Nerve Agents, G­series: Tabun, Sarin, Soman. Updated May 16, 2006, WebMD. http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic898.htm (accessed October 10, 2006).

(4) Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Medical Management Guideliness f or Ne rve Agents: Tabun (GA); Sarin (GB); Soman (GD); and VX. Updated November 2, 2006. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/MHMI/mmg166.html (accessed October 10, 2006).

(Figure 2) Wikipedia. Sarin Gas. Updated November 17, 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin_gas (accessed November 19, 2006)

(5) United States Senate.Material Safety Data Sheet ­­ Lethal Nerve Agent Sarin (GB). Session held on May 25, 1994. Updated November 6, 2004. http://www.gulfweb.org/bigdoc/report/appgb.html (accessed October 10, 2006)

(6) Smithson, Amy. Ataxia: The Chemical and Biological Terrorism Threat and the US Response.. Henry L. Stimson Center. Washington, DC. 2000. http://www.stimson.org/cbw/pubs.cfm?id=12

(7) Grafstein E, and G. Innes. Bioterrorism: an emerging threat. Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine. 1999. 1, 205­209.

http://caep.ca/page.asp?id=1094F1B5­64D2­44C7­8A2F­ADAFDD6B5A34

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(8) Ohtani, T. Iwanami, A., Kasai, K., Yamasue, H., Kato, T., Sasaki, T., and N. Kato. Post­ traumatic stress disorder symptoms in victims of Tokyo subway attack: a 5­year follow­up study. Psychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences. 2004, 58, 624­629. http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=6&hid=107&sid=88810687­0c47­41a5­872e­ 03efe6dbd721%40SRCSM1

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Green Chemistry: Are Ionic Liquids the Solution?

Group: Cesium Justin Ellis, Megan McCarty, Ted Monchamp and Erin Thames

Green chemistry is the concept of reducing or eliminating the use and generation of hazardous substances in chemical synthesis. The majority of reactions presently used in industry occur in water or volatile organic solvents, using stoichiometric reagents, which generate more waste at the expense of product yield. Binary ionic liquids are beginning to be used as a novel solvent from which the product can be removed, and the liquid itself recycled for later use. This allows for high yield reactions and minimized leftover hazardous material that requires special means of disposal to prevent damage to the environment.

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As a standard, green chemistry has 12 basic principles that are as follows:

1. Prevent waste: leaving no waste to treat or clean up. 2. Safer chemicals and products: effective, yet have little or no toxicity.

3. Less hazardous chemical syntheses: generate substances with little or no toxicity to humans and the environment.

4. Use renewable feedstock: Use raw materials and feedstock that are renewable rather than depleting. Renewable feedstock are often made from agricultural products or are the wastes of other processes; depleting feedstock are made from fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, or coal) or are mined.

5. Use catalysts, not stoichiometric reagents: Minimize waste by using catalytic reactions. Catalysts are used in small amounts and can carry out a single reaction many times. They are preferable to stoichiometric reagents, which are used in excess and work only once.

6. Avoid chemical derivatives: Avoid using blocking or protecting groups or any temporary modifications if possible. Derivatives use additional reagents and generate waste. 7. Maximize atom economy: Design syntheses so that the final product contains the maximum proportion of the starting materials. There should be few, if any, wasted atoms. 8. Use safer solvents and reaction conditions: Avoid using solvents, separation agents, or other auxiliary chemicals. If these chemicals are necessary, use innocuous chemicals. If a solvent is necessary, water is usually the best medium.

9. Increase energy efficiency: Run chemical reactions at ambient temperature and pressure whenever possible.

10. Design chemicals and products to degrade after use: Design chemical products to break down to innocuous substances after use so that they do not accumulate in the environment. 11. Analyze in real time to prevent pollution: Include in­process real­time monitoring and control during syntheses to minimize or eliminate the formation of byproducts. 12. Minimize the potential for accidents: Design chemicals and their forms (solid, liquid, or gas) to minimize the potential for chemical accidents including explosions, fires, and releases to the environment. 1

In 1991, the term “green chemistry” was coined by P. T. Anastas 12 ; however, its values and ideas behind it have been incorporated into science throughout history. Through applications, scientists have challenged and weighed the pros and cons of every advancement made in green

1 Anastas, P. T.; Warner, J. C. Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice. 1988, 30

2 Curyło, J.; Namiesśnik, J.; Wardencki, W. Green Chemistry – Current and Future Issues. Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty, Gdañsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12 , 80­952 Gdañsk­ Wrzeszcz; Poland. 10 December 2004.

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chemistry while taking into account the aspects and implications of the application of each discovery. Scientists and critics continually have used ideas behind green chemistry to determine whether discovery can be applied to everyday life.

This has been seen with men and women like Henry Ford, 3 who, for economical reasons, was encouraged to power his vehicles with fossil fuel in exchange for ethanol. Even before Ford, substance farmers would consider the fundamentals of green chemistry as they determined the proper seasons and regions in which to grow and harvest each type of produce (Bible, Exodus 23:11).

Beginning of Green Chemistry Recently, green chemistry has taken shape as it has come into its modern day context

and terminology. In the late 1990s, the US congress, President Clinton and the prompting of many environmentalists influenced the passing of the Pollution Prevention Act (PPA) to promote scientific applications to be clean, safe, and more effective. 4 It states:

…that pollution should be prevented or reduced at the source whenever feasible; pollution that cannot be prevented should be recycled in an environmentally safe manner, whenever feasible; and that disposal or other release into the environment should be employed only as a last resort and should be conducted in an environmentally safe manner. 5

The formation of the PPA was a turning point in the application of the 12 principles previously mentioned. With the publication of the 12 principles, green chemistry has since become a big concern in the eyes of the US government and grass root individuals as activists and politicians have produced many programs, campaigns, interest groups, and bureaus to encouraged and enforce the values of green chemistry. Such programs and interest groups have produced many regulations for industry, funded research of cleaner chemistry, and the like. Some of these organizations are: the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of 1991, the US Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge of 1995, the Working Party on Green Chemistry of 1996, the International Union of Applied and Pure Chemistry, the Green Chemistry Institute (GCI) of 1997, and the first conference highlighting green chemistry, which was held in Washington D.C. in 1997 2 .

Though these organizations hold at heart the concept of safer science, they are many times viewed with hatred by staunch capitalists and others who do not care to follow the suggestions of green chemistry. Green chemistry, though, is a good thing and its values should be enforced because it promotes a better tomorrow and encourages more effective science that may be more productive and hence pull in bigger revenue in the future.

3 “Ethanol.” Ford Motor Company. <http://www.ford.com/en/vehicles/specialtyVehicles/environmental/ethanol.htm> Accessed: 1 November 2006.

4 ChemAlliance.org. “Background: Pollution Prevention Act” <http://www.chemalliance.%20org/Handbook/background/back­ppa.asp> Accessed: 29 October 2006.

5 The Pollution Prevention Act; 42 USC 13101. US Congress. <http://www.chemalliance.org/Handbook/background/back­ppa.asp>. 1990

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Three Key Developments So as to discover more healthy, resource­wise, and economically beneficial application

of technology, green chemists have been working on the revision and discovery of hundreds of scientific advancements and their applications. As identified by Ryoji Noyri 6 (2001 Nobel Prize winner), in 2005, three key developments in green chemistry are the use of: 1) supercritical carbon dioxide as green solvent, 2) aqueous hydrogen peroxide for clean oxidations, and 3) the use of hydrogen in asymmetric synthesis. In many labs across the country, green chemists have been working on these three key developments as well as more developments such as nanotechnology, which, as seen below, in Fig. 1, would prove to be a productive alternative to current technology for many of the reasons listed in Fig. 1. 7 Archer Daniels Midland has been doing research on enzyme interesterification processes, 8 along with a lot of other research others have been done on binary organic compounds.

Primary Function of Ionic Liquids as Organic Solvents Chemical synthesis primarily takes place within

solution, through the use of stoichiometric reagents. However, this process of synthesis tends to have a low yield thus leaving a waste reagent upon the reaction’s completion. The reactions may also necessitate particular temperatures for catalysis or viscosity of the solvent. Some reactions also require the use of a molecular organic solvent for the reaction

6 Chem. Commun., “Pursuing practical elegance in chemical synthesis.” Ryoji Noyori Chemical Communications <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_Communications> , 2005, (14), 1807 –1811.

7 Albrecht, M., Evans, C., and Raston, C. “Green Chemistry and the Health Implications of Nanoparticles.” Green Chemistry, 2006, vol. 8 Issue 5.

8 Novozymes. <http://www.novozymes.com/enKrogshoejvej36• DK­2880 Bagsvaerd • +45 88 24 99 99>. Accessed

Fig. 1

[bmim + ][PF6 ­ ]

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to take place. However, such solvents (e.g. alcohols, halocarbons, arenes, nitrile, etc.) may be effective in dissolving other organic compounds for synthesis reactions. They all release volatile organic compounds (VOCs), causing atmospheric pollution. 9

Binary organic ionic compounds have no measurable vapor pressure, which makes them non­volatile. Due to their non­volatile state, bionic compounds can exist as a liquid at room temperature, and can be made to fit physical properties necessary for a reaction to take place. Ionic liquids act as both catalyst and solvent, reacting with the solute to perpetuate a reaction. 10 The most commonly used organic cations are

1­alkyl­3­methylimidazolium, and n­alkylpyridine. Common anions include hexafluorophosphate, tetrafluoroborate, trifluoromethylsulfonate, tetrachloroaluminate, and chloride. 11 The mechanism and usage of 1­butyl­3­methylimidazolium chloride (and hexafluorophosphate) will be discussed later.

Usage of BMIM in the Dissolution of cellulose Cellulose is a naturally occurring polymer built of

glucose chains held in supramolecular structures by hydrogen bonding. This bonding renders the polymer insoluble in water and most organic solvents. In 1934, the dissolution of cellulose using n­ethylpyridinium chloride was suggested, but insufficient research done using molten salts render this solution unaccepted. The concept of using a chloride ion in the ionic liquid for hydrogen bonding to the cellulose chains was retained. 12

At room temperature, 1­butyl­3­methylimidazolium ([Bmim] + ) chloride only wets the cellulose rather than dissolve the polymers. However, heating a mixture of [Bmim]Cl and cellulose to 100°C yielded a viscous solution of 10% cellulose by weight. Higher concentrations can be achieved by utilizing pulse of microwave radiation (~3­5 s). The microwave radiation accelerates the solvation process by breaking apart the hydrogen bonds between chains of cellulose which allows for a cellulose concentration of up to 25% by weight. The chloride ions in the liquid hydrogen­bond to the microfibrils of the cellulose, which prevents the chains of cellulose from bonding to each other. In this manner, the cellulose is dissolved into the [Bmim]Cl. The cellulose, following processing

9 Seddon, Ken, et al. Ionic Liquids: Sources of Innovation. QUILL. Report Q002. January 2005.

10 Kuhne, Eliane, et al. “Solubility of Carbon dioxide in systems with [bmim][BF4] and some selected organic compounds of interest for the pharmaceutical industry.” Green Chemistry Journal. Royal Society of Chemistry. 8 (3) Pg. 287. March 2006.

11 Seddon, Ken; Earle, Martyn. “Ionic Liquids: Green Solvents for the Future.” Pure Appl. Chem. IUPAC 72 (7) 1391­1398. 2000

12 Shendong Zhu, et al. “Dissolution of cellulose with ionic liquids and its application: a mini­review.” Green Chemistry Journal. Royal Society of Chemistry. 8 (4) 325­328

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by dissolution, can be removed from solution by using acetone, an alcohol, or water, and the ionic liquid can be recycled.

How the cellulose can be formed as a solid depends on the process by which it is mixed with the precipitating solution. Direct aqueous mixing results in a cellulose floc and extrusion through holes in a plate produces either fibers or rods. Following processing, the cellulose polymers can be used as a biodegradable composite for packaging and as a replacement for petroleum based carbon composites because it is a renewable polymer supply. 13

Diels­Alder Reactions There have been a number of advancements in green chemistry in the use of Diels­Alder

reactions in recent years. One of the main problems in society today is the fact that a lot of the processes of synthesis or transformation, especially of organic compounds, are not very efficient. One good catalyst for the transformation of organic compounds is Palladium (Pd). This metal makes a good catalyst as it perpetuates the transformations of molecules with varying functional groups attached to it, without itself being consumed in the process. However, one of the problems is that often when functional groups are attached you can get a mixture of enantiomers, which are compounds that have the same molecular formula but have different configurations of substituents around a central atom. Often the solution will be a 50/50 ratio of useful to unusable products and more reactants will be necessary to create enough of the desired enantiomer. This leaves a large quantity of waste since one half of the product is not useable. In most cases, the enantioselective yield (EE) is never above 90% even with the best solvents and catalysts. It is rare to get an EE yield of over 95%. However, by using the Diels­Alder reaction many Pd­ Catalyzed transformations are now giving a high EE yield, often getting more than 90% and occasionally getting 98 or 99% EE yield, which is exceptional.

Diels­Alder reactions have also lead to the discovery of other environmentally safe catalysts. By using a Diels­alder reaction, aluminum­rich mesoporous aluminosilicate (Al­HMS) can be used as a solid catalyst in many reactions. This is beneficial because Al­HMS can be used in these reactions under more mild conditions (e.g. closer to room temperature and neutral pH), and the catalyst is also recyclable. Also, it has been discovered that mediums that contain zinc or tin have a high percent yield. In addition, these catalysts can be recycled and used again without any noticeable drop in reactivity.

The synthesis of compounds is also being improved by Diels­Alder reactions; a main area of focus on improvement is the use of solvents. One solvent that has been used in synthesis in recent years is super­critical carbon­dioxide (scCO2) because it is inexpensive, non­flammable, easy to separate for the products, and it is environmentally benign. Supercritical fluids are liquids that are above the critical pressure and critical temperature but are not at the pressure that will condense the liquid into its solid state. These fluids are often substituted in as solvents in

13 Richard P. Swatloski, Scott K. Spear, John D. Holbrey, and Robin D. Rogers. “Dissolution of Cellulose with Ionic Liquids.” J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 2002; 124(18) pp 4974 – 4975

Braun, Birgit; Completing our education: Green chemistry in the curriculum:Journal of Chemical Education. 2006, 112

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reactions, especially in large scale industrial production. Fluoropolymers, which could only be dissolved in chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), will dissolve in supercritical fluids. Diels­Alder reactions have been found to be useful in this solvent, giving a higher percent yield when compared to other reactions in this solvent. This makes the solvent more commercially useable in lab, and because of its environmentally safe the solvent is more acceptable than others for widespread use by companies. The only drawback is that it is expensive to create supercritical fluids, with the exception of carbon­dioxide.

While some reaction solvents are improved with Diels­Alder reactions, other Diels­Alder reactions have been discovered to work better without solvents. Green Chemists have used this fact and looked at reactions that do not involve solvents to reduce the amount of waste in the products. In fact, some products have been made with natural reactants, such as citronella oil. Another recent advancement is in the use of ionic solvents. Ionic solvents have been found to be more environmentally safe than other solvents. It was found that Diels­Alder reactions are accelerated in ionic solutions, and therefore are very useful given that ionic solvents are more environmentally safe than traditional solvents. This is an advantage to large companies who are looking to be more environmentally safe without losing profits. Therefore industries are looking for ways to produce large amounts of materials that produce a good yield inexpensively without losing reaction time.

The development of room temperature ionic liquids (RTIL) has also increases the practicality of using Diels­Alder reactions in green chemistry. RTILs are liquids that are made completely out of ions and are in liquid form at room temperature. Diels­Alder reactions along with some other reactions are discovered to be able to use RTILs as solvents. This expanded to the realm of green chemistry because, due to the nature of RTILs, certain properties such as melting point, viscosity, and hydrophobicity can be varied by changing the nature of the cation or anion in the liquid. This makes RTILs a very versatile solvent and because they are an ionic solvent they are more environmentally safe than most industrial solvents.

With this field still developing, there are already many great strides being taken in the field of green chemistry. Most of these strides have been taken by looking at Diels­Alder reactions and investigating the ways that these reactions make more processes environmentally safe. By improving catalysts, solvents, and byproducts, chemists are developing more and more ways to reduce the amount of pollutants released when chemicals are made. In the near future, there may be ways to completely eliminate all wasteful byproducts from reactions or make the major

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To DDT or not to DDT

Group: Rhodium Ken Barse, Kacey Jetter, Esther Peirce and Zachary Reynolds

DDT has proven to be a controversial topic due to its benefits and inclination towards polluting the environment. DDT has been a useful insecticide in the fight against malaria and typhus. It is not broken up easily and is therefore carried through the food chain.

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Basic History of DDT The substance known as dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane, commonly known as DDT,

has brought about much controversy over the last century. There are some who are strong advocates for the usage of DDT as an insect repellent, especially in the fight against malaria. However, there are others who are strongly opposed to DDT because of its insolubility in water and bioaccumulation, which leads to environmental pollution.

DDT was first created in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler, a chemist from Germany, who had not realized that this chemical could be used as an insecticide. Later in 1939, DDT was produced, apart from Othmar Zeidler, by Dr. Paul Müller, who found that DDT works as an effective and quickly acting insecticide. Dr. Müller and the Geigy Corporation together patented DDT in Switzerland in 1940, England in 1942, and in the United States in 1943. Dr. Müller eventually won the Nobel Prize in 1948 for his works with DDT. 1

The first major usage of DDT was through Merck & Company in 1943, against an epidemic of typhus in Italy that was carried by lice. Later that year the U.S. Army distributed a dust including 10 percent DDT to its soldiers for usage against lice. The peak of DDT occurred in the year 1962 when the production rose to eighty two million kilograms and eighty million kilograms of DDT were used in the United States. 2

In 1962, Rachel Carson wrote Silent Spring in which she noted that the reproduction of birds is greatly affected by exposure to DDT. Birds given DDT in their food reportedly had lower counts of hatched eggs and the shells of these eggs were supposedly thinner. Also in the 1960s, the World Health Organization and other population control advocates blamed DDT for increasing the populations of third world countries. Since up to forty percent of children in these nations would die of malaria, they said that it was better for the children to die than to continue to overpopulate these countries. 1

In 1970, Norway and Sweden became the first countries to see a ban of DDT. In 1972, after seven months of EPA hearings on DDT, the administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, William Ruckelshaus, made the official decision to ban DDT. The banning of DDT in the United Kingdom did not come until several years later in 1984.

In 2001 the Stockholm Convention was held and called for the elimination of DDT, except in health crises situations, and was effective as of May 17, 2004. In total there were 98 countries which signed the Convention. Since malaria is still a problem in several countries and there are few alternatives that are as effective and cost­efficient as DDT, its use has not yet been completely banned. 3

Chemical Properties/Nature of DDT DDT’s chemical properties are of great interest when trying to understand the chemical’s

full nature. DDT is a white crystalline powder that resembles salt but has a slight fruity odor and waxy texture. The chemical formula for DDT is C14H9Cl5 and dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane is its chemical name. This means little, however, unless this is put into its biochemical context. DDT is a non­polar molecule that is nearly insoluble in water, but dissolves easily in organic solvents of fat. This means that once DDT enters the body, it will be absorbed by body fat and is unlikely to be removed for a long time. 4

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DDT’s chemical properties have led to its use as a pesticide. In insects, DDT opens sodium channels in the target’s nervous system, causing all motor and brain function to cease. Microorganisms, small invertebrates, and insects are most susceptible to the lethal effects of DDT, while humans and other large mammals can handle much more of the substance. DDT can enter the body through both contact (especially in oily solutions) and ingestion, making it an especially efficient insecticide. A less common route of entry to the body is inhalation, but this rarely occurs due to the low volatility of DDT. 4

The chemical nature of DDT helps one to understand bioaccumulation, which is one of the biggest environmental problems with DDT. Bioaccumulation is the build­up of an organic substance in an organism. In the case of DDT, bioaccumulation occurs in the fat tissues of animals where DDT is stored due to its solubility in organic solvents. The way in which DDT that has been stored in an organism moves up the food chain is referred to as biomagnifications, which occurs when a small organism is eaten by a larger predator and transfers its stored DDT to the predator. 5

An example of this would be an aquatic microorganism being eaten by an insect, which is eaten by a fish, which is then in turn eaten by a bird. As each successive animal eats another it acquires the DDT that was stored in the prey, thereby increasing the concentration of DDT in its own body. Eventually the concentration becomes large enough to have negative biological effects on the organism. The biggest occurrence of DDT biomagnifications occurred prior to the mid­1970s where DDT bioaccumulated in birds of prey like eagles and osprey through a similar food chain as the one mentioned earlier. ( So much DDT was bioaccumulating in the birds that it weakened the ability of the birds’ eggshells to absorb calcium, causing them to break when the mother bird sat on the eggs. This resulted in bird populations plummeting and an upheaval from environmentalists causing DDT to be banned from use in the United States and many other countries. 5

DDT’s chemical nature, such as its insolubility in water, plays a huge role in why it poses such a threat in terms of bioaccumulation. If DDT were able to dissolve in water it would be carried out of the organism like any other substance. Unfortunately, the fact that DDT is so soluble in organic solvents means that it is almost permanently trapped in the fatty tissues of large organisms. It has almost no way of escaping the food chain; every time an animal is eaten, the DDT is stored in the new host’s fatty tissue. 6

Negative Attributes of DDT DDT is a controversial pesticide that has been used throughout history since it was first

created in 1874, and after only a hundred years the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) officially prohibit all uses of DDT. 7 This pesticide is known to disrupt the delicate balance of sodium and potassium within neurons. It has also been named as a cause of cancer and a disrupter of the reproductive systems of many species. Although the pesticide is effective against a wide spectrum of insects, including mosquitoes that transmit malaria, yellow fever, body lice, and typhus it has still been presented as a poison that is endangering human health and the wildlife.

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Studies indicated that DDT posed a carcinogenic risk in humans. Also, fruit growers in the Northwest panicked over bee­less and therefore fruitless seasons; dealing with the lack of pollinating insects and pesticide usage.

Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring speaks of the effects of DDT pesticide and between March 1971 and June 1972 the controversy was in full swing. Her book uncovered the way DDT was thinning the eggshells of birds, and causing them to break before they were ready to hatch. This is just one example of the many environmental hazards caused by DDT.

Carson’s book spoke out about two ways in which DDT could be linked to nontarget (creatures that were not expected to be harmed by the pesticide) creatures direct toxicity and indirect toxicity. Direct toxicity related to that fact that DDT was toxic to fish and other fresh water living creatures. Indirect toxicity relates to the fact that bacteria now lacked enzymes, which kept them from evolving. 8 Indirect toxicity was mentioned before as bioaccumulation, which Rachel Carson refers to as bioconcentration.

Bioaccumulation, as discussed above, was a major concern for the United States until DDT was banned in the 1970s, but DDT use is still widespread in other places around the world to fight malaria. While the fight against malaria is greatly aided by DDT use, it does mean that the threat of bioaccumulation could cause animals that are essential to the ecosystem to perish. Despite this threat, DDT use around the world has decreased tremendously since the 70s, and many malaria­fighting alternatives are being used in place of DDT. 3

DDT has the largest historical significance due to its effect on the environment, agriculture, and human health. The use of DDT pesticide has had great affect on the bald eagle being placed on the endangered species list and raptor populations having a higher concentration than other animals sharing the same or similar environments. There is not a single living organism that does not contain some level of DDT. 9 This pesticide is toxic to freshwater and marine microorganisms, fishes, amphibians, and birds.

Another alarming piece of information is that prenatal exposure to DDT and other organochlorine insecticides have been shown to affect the immune status of children and increase their risk to infections. Also it has been shown that people with mammary cancer have higher concentrations of DDT and DDE in their fatty tissues. 8 There are numerous studies done worldwide that deal with trends in DDT levels in human breast milk. Although on average there is a decline in most areas of the world, there are still areas that have high levels of DDT in breast milk, higher than that recommended by the World Health Organization. 9

Positive Attributes of DDT While there are those who think DDT should be banned because of its harmful affects,

others believe that the production of DDT should continue, due to the fact that its benefits far outweigh its risks. One main reasons for this opinion are that there is no conclusive evidence that DDT’s negative effects are substantial. Also that DDT has already saved millions of lives, and its ban would cause genocide in many third world countries.

Some scientists argue that the evidence for negative affects of DDT is not conclusive enough to reveal a need for its ban. 11 One scientist even claimed that “the perils of employing DDT are either vastly exaggerated or illusory” 10 while another called DDT “one of the safest insecticides we’ve ever had” 10 . Many studies have been done to test the affects of DDT on both

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the environment and on living creatures. While studies show that DDT does have an affect on the environment and perhaps on animals, many studies have shown conflicting results on the nature of DDT as a carcinogen, an endocrine disrupter, and a cause for reproduction problems in humans. 11 There is a need for more research to be done in order to prove the harmful affects of DDT; the current evidence does show a need to completely ban the chemical. 11

While proof of its negative effects is not clear, proof of its positive attributes can be seen in the millions of lives it has saved through malaria control. Its use as a pesticide to combat malaria­carrying insects is both widespread and effective, especially in third­world countries. According to Dr. Robert White Stevens, “DDT has saved as many lives over the past 15 years as all the so­called “wonder” drugs combined; Insecticides have extended the prospective life span in India from 32 to 47.” 10 If success is measured by the number of lives saved, then clearly DDT is a success.

Because efficient American production allows for the cheapest prices on DDT, the United States is currently a vital source of this chemical for malaria eradication in third world countries. 10 Other chemicals have been developed as possible pesticides to fight malaria, but all have been more expensive than DDT and therefore less affordable for the poor who need them most. If American production of DDT were to stop, genocide would result in many countries dependent on this chemical for protection from malaria. However, if production and exportation were to continue in America, it would be up to each individual country to decide whether or not they needed to use DDT.

The final judgment on DDT use comes down to a decision between human interests and environmental protection. 10 One angry DDT supporter asked his opponent, “How do you square this killing of people with the mere loss of some birds?” 10 Advocates of this chemical argue that human suffering must be relieved and therefore human lives must be the first priority. A decision by Edward Sweeney at the Consolidated DDT Hearings in 1972, though later overturned, ruled that the benefits of DDT outweighed any and all risks associated with the drug. 10 This decision held to the opinion of DDT supporters, that the ethic of saving lives must take precedence over environmental ethics.

Conclusion As a group we have come to the decision that there is still a need for DDT in the world

today, despite its negative effects. This is due to concern for third world countries that require protection from deadly disease carrying insects. DDT kills malaria carrying mosquitoes and typhus carrying lice effectively and with low costs. We have decided that DDT should be allowed until further research confirms whether or not there are actually negative effects from DDT.

Works Cited

1. "DDT." Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. 2006. Grolier Online. 20 Nov. 2006 <http://gme.grolier.com/cgi­bin/article?assetid=0080960­0>.

2. Edwards, J. Gordon, and Steven Milloy. "100 things you should know about DDT." Junk Science. 1999. 29 Oct. 2006 <http://www.junkscience.com/ddtfaq.htm>.

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3. "DDT." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 19 Nov. 2006. 20 Nov. 2006 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDT>.

4. "Bioaccumulation." EXTOXNET. Sept. 1993. Oregon State University. 29 Oct. 2006 <http://extoxnet.orst.edu/tibs/bioaccum.htm>.

5. Williams, L.; Schoof, R.A.; Yager, J.W.; Goodrich­Mahoney, J.W. "Arsenic Bioaccumulation in Freshwater Fishes." Human & Ecological Risk Assessment 12.5 (Oct. 2006): 904­923. EBSCO Host. 29 Oct.2006 <http://search.ebscohost.com>.

6. "DDT Ban Take Effect." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 17 July 2006.Environmental Protection Agency. 29 Oct. 2006 <http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/ddt/01.htm>.

7. Davidson, Michael W. DDT. 2006. 20 Nov. 2006 <http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/pesticides/pages/ddt1.html>.

8. Smith, Daniel. Worldwide trends in DDT levels in human breast milk, July 31 1998. 9. Turusov, Vladimir. DDT: Ubiquity, Persistence, and Risks. Environment Health

Perspectives, 2002. 10. Kinkela, David. "The Question of Success and Environmental Ethics: Revisting the DDT

controversy from a Transnational Perspective, 1967­72." Ethics Place and Environment. 8.2 (2005): 159­179.

11. Turusov, Vladmir, Valery Rakitsky, and Lorenzo Tomatis. “Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT): Ubiquity, Persistence, and Risks.” Environmental Health Perspective. 10.2 (Feb. 2002): 125­127.

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The Impact of DNA Fingerprinting and PCR in Today’s World

Group: Hafnium Ryan Cappa, Joel Herrle, Jenna Levchuck and Meredith Phipps

This paper examines the essential characteristics of DNA fingerprinting and PCR, their accuracy and validity, and how they are impacting families, medicine, and most importantly courtrooms. The topic was researched through books, recent journal and newspaper articles, and reliable web sources. DNA fingerprinting and PCR proves to be a continually up­and­coming reliable method of crime­solving in the judicial system. While it is accurate, DNA evidence is admissible on a case­to­case basis depending on the relevance to the case at hand, and the procedure used by scientists. As technology and scientific research improves regarding DNA and PCR technique, the results produced will lead to a more accurate and reliable method in convicting criminals, and will rarely be denied as acceptable evidence. DNA fingerprinting in the medical field is also already showing benefits in areas such as identifying cells post transplant, analyzing tumors, and analyzing pedigrees.

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Introduction to DNA fingerprinting and PCR DNA fingerprinting and PCR is being used as evidence in court cases all over the world,

but what exactly is it? “DNA identification analysis, identity testing, profiling, fingerprinting, typing, or genotyping refers to the characterization of one or more relatively rare features of an individual’s genome or hereditary makeup.” 1 Except for identical twins, everyone has a unique genetic makeup, which, like their fingerprints, can be contrasted to that of everyone else’s. For the last 50 years, bodily fluids such as blood and semen have been used as a typing characterization in forensic sciences, but only in the past decade have methods for “showing distinguishing differences in the genetic material itself” been available. 2 So can a lab verify the similarities or differences of DNA found at crime scene and the DNA of a suspect when only part of the DNA chain is available? Polymerase Chain Reaction, or PCR, is taking part of a DNA chain and extrapolating the rest of the chain to a complete genetic makeup. 3

PCR is a technique used to change the number of reproductions of a section of DNA. The purpose of this procedure is to produce enough DNA to be effectively tested. 8 In order to use PCR, one must know the exact order of the flank, which lies on either side of both ends of a given region of interest in DNA. It is not necessary, however, to know the DNA sequence in between. To perform PCR, unknown DNA is heated which causes the pairs to separate and makes the single strands available. 8 It is then necessary to add an excess of primers relative to the amount of DNA altered and cool the reaction mixture to allow double­strands to form again. Because of the large excess of primers, the strands will always bind together instead of with each other. A mixture is then added to all four individual letters. An enzyme is then added which can read the opposite sentence as well as extend a primer’s sentence by hooking the letters together in the order, which they pair across from one another. 8 The enzyme used in PCR is called TAQ polymerase which was originally a bacterium residing in hot springs. This factor indicates that it can withstand a high temperature, which is necessary for DNA strand separation. Enzymes are then able to synthesize the DNA in the opposite directions only for that region. After this, more primers are added. 4­letter mixtures are also inserted and the cycle is repeated. This will bond the old sections with the newly synthesized ones. 8 There is now plenty of DNA as well as copies for that particular region. By using different primers in different experiments, which are representative of different genes in separate experiments, one can determine if the DNA has been amplified. If it has not been changed, the primers did not bind to the DNA of the sample and it is unlikely that the DNA of the organism is present. 8 However, the appearance of DNA by PCR will allow for accurate identification of the source of the altered material. 8

Some questions raised by PCR are how accurate is the extrapolated part of the DNA chain, and is it valid enough to use in a court of law as evidence? Other questions include how is it relevant to the medical field, and how is DNA fingerprinting related to us personally? How DNA fingerprinting and PCR Affect the Medical World

DNA fingerprinting is very applicable in the medical setting for a list of reasons that continues to grow. Three major areas that DNA fingerprinting is relevant in the medical field is identifying cells post transplant, analyzing tumors, and analyzing pedigrees to determine the probability of a reoccurring genetic defect. 1 These are but a few of the many uses of DNA profiling.

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After receiving a bone marrow transplant, it is important to monitor the engraftment of the new cells. 1 If the host and donor’s cells are typed before the transplant, a specific group of cells need be only one percent donor cells of all the cells in the body in order to be detected. 1 After a 12 month period from the transplant the host to donor cells should be about 50:50 ratio. 1 DNA profiling provides a useful approach to finding this number to continually check a patient and make sure the engraftment is running smoothly. An example of DNA fingerprinting being used to monitor the engraftment after the transplant can be used to explain how cell populations are identified. By taking pre­transplant samples from both the donor and the host, DNA profiling can indicate fragments between the two samples which can then be used post transplant as markers between the two cells. 1 By having DNA profiles of the host and donor before the bone marrow transplant it is easy to follow the markers after the transplant in order to monitor the engraftment.

It is important to detect DNA changes in tumor cells when dealing with the mutated cells of cancer that reproduce continually. “DNA profiling provides a new strategy for detecting somatic changes in human cancer DNA in terms of genomic rearrangement, clonality, and tumor development.” 1 Tumors have complex DNA that has somehow mutated from a patients original constitutional DNA. This high level of complexity, due to the large number of alleles and high heterozygosity, requires hypervariable region (HVR) probes. 1 By using HVR probes doctors can detect changes in cells such as gastrointestinal cancer cells due to the loss and gain of fragment bonds. 1 This basically means, like finding the fragment differences of the host and donor of a bone marrow transplant, cancer cells have different fragments in their DNA profile than the rest of the cells of the body which distinguishes them. This can be seen through a patient who simultaneously ‘grew’ female genital tract malignancies. 1 Through DNA profiling, the tumors were found to have common changes to the patient’s original DNA. 1 Increased speed of detection of DNA changes in tumors and their assay will hopefully become quicker with the betterment of technology.

Up until now, when spouses wanted to know their chances of having a child with a genetic defect common in one or both of their families, doctors have used Mendelian genetics and probability rules. Now, paternal testing can take place for the diagnosis of genetic diseases. 1 Diagnosis can be performed at 16 weeks gestation on a fluid specimen from the amnion, the innermost sac that contains the suspended embryo. 1 Even earlier than that, at 11 weeks gestation, a diagnosis can be determined based off a sample of the chorionic villi removed from the placenta. 1 Most genetic disorders are known to be inherited as recessive traits, which means that if each parent is a carrier there is a 25% chance their offspring will have the disorder, and a 50% that their offspring will be a carrier of the disorder. 4 Genetic disorders such as dwarfism are dominantly inherited which means that only one parent needs pass on the disorder’s gene, and 50% of their offspring will have it. 4 Overall, a diagnosis of a genetic disorder can be given as early as 11 weeks of gestation, and with the improvement of technology will hopefully become even sooner.

How Is DNA Evidence Handled in a Court of Law? The validity and accuracy of DNA fingerprinting and PCR techniques are questionable at

times. For this reason, allowing the use of DNA fingerprinting and PCR as evidence in a courtroom is questionable also. While forensics analysis can be a useful tool in solving crime

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cases, it has misled investigators and judges to wrongfully accuse, arrest, and prosecute suspects. How do we determine if these methods should be allowed in a court of law?

The court itself has established two systems of admitting DNA evidence into its trials. The Frye Test was developed to determine if new methods of scientific and technological evidence is indeed admissible in a courtroom. The court has to determine if the underlying science behind a technique is itself reliable and generally accepted in its specific field. When DNA testing faced the Frye Test, the validity of four issues came into question. 2

First, it examined the assumption that each individual has a different genetic makeup, with the exception of identical twins. There was no difficulty in determining that this statement was fact. This assumption proved true and it could be relied upon in a court of law.

Second, the Frye Test questioned the reliability of the actual procedure for extracting DNA from crime scenes, and the process for determining the specific genetic code. It uncovered that DNA recovered from a crime scene is easily contaminated, and it can be difficult to obtain a clean sample. It also found that for DNA analysis, certain methods were not well enough established in their field to be acceptable. Based on these findings, it was determined that evidence would need to be examined on a case­to­case basis, meticulously scrutinizing every step in this advanced procedure.

The third question raised by the Frye Test was in regards to DNA databanks. It questioned the ability of a DNA databank to match evidence DNA with an individual’s DNA. For example, the court needs to ensure that the likelihood of a DNA match occurring by chance is relatively low. The National Research Council says, “To say that two patterns match, without providing any scientifically valid estimate of the frequency with which such matches might occur by chance, is meaningless.” 2

Lastly, the court established a series of technical procedures that any evidence must pass through. If the steps were not followed exactly, the judge could easily refute any evidence, and the decision could be made to not allow the jury to even hear the evidence. While the majority of DNA evidence is accepted, there have been cases in the past in which the evidence, which might have been useful, has been disregarded because of the inability to follow standard procedure.

The second way courts monitor DNA evidence admissibility is known as the “Helpfulness Standard.” It states that a witness who is considered an expert in his field may testify on behalf of the evidence. As Rule 702 in the Federal Rules of Evidence, the “Helpfulness Standard” is seen to have more power in admitting evidence than the Frye Test. 2

As DNA fingerprinting methodology continues to advance and increase, ensuring that this evidence is valid in the court system becomes increasingly important. The Frye Test and the Helpfulness Standard ensure that nearly all DNA evidence allowed into a courtroom is reliable and accurate. Examples of The Validity and Accuracy of DNA Fingerprinting and PCR

In certain criminal prosecutions involving murder, prosecutors have attempted to use DNA fingerprinting and PCR as a means of achieving a conviction. DNA fingerprinting has helped to uncover murderers and has also been used to identify bodies in cases where conditions posed a challenge to such a task. This begs the question; how consistently reliable and accurate is this emerging technology? There are many instances where in fact, it is not reliable. Such

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unreliability could have grave consequences and could even potentially allow convicted killers to escape justice. This is why it is crucial to establish the reliability of these methods before utilizing them.

Carlos Seino was required to submit a DNA sample in August 2004 after being convicted of assault and battery with machete under a new law passed six months earlier. On May 16 th , 2006, the Massachusetts Police Crime Lab matched the DNA sample of Seino to that of a blood sample found in the pocket of Daniel DeCosta. DeCosta was robbed and beaten to the death after coming home from a bar in Quincy four years ago. State Lieutenant John Kelly said, “Absent the work of this crime lab, the case would have never been solved.” 5 This is due to the fact that there were no witnesses to this murder and as such, the detectives were stymied in their efforts to solve the case. Seino submitted the DNA sample last summer and it was uploaded into the computer in March of 2006. Norfolk district attorney William R. Keating said, “We were left with a situation where we hoped for a lucky break, but what you have is a scientific break.” 5 In this case, DNA fingerprinting proved to be reliable in being able to find an escaped killer who was in hiding. 5

In a different scenario, James Calvin Tillman was charged with rape and kidnapping a woman eighteen years ago. He had been convicted and sentenced to 45 years in prison. Distraught, he sought psychiatric help and Biblical counsel. Tillman wrote to the Connecticut Innocence project, which advocates for inmates who claim they have been wrongly convicted. The Connecticut Innocence Project located the victim’s dress and pantyhose, which had served as evidence in 1988 and had new DNA tests performed. They found no match between Mr. Tillman and the semen on the clothing. Based on that test, a judge in the State Superior Court ordered a new trial, which meant he was released. The reason he had been convicted in the first place was due to a chemical analysis of the semen found on the women’s clothing before DNA testing was available. The new DNA testing showed no link to Mr. Tillman. The new DNA evidence didn't suggest that a crime wasn't committed by someone, but that eyewitness accounts can be incredibly inaccurate . 6

However, in the medical field and more specifically, in the case of SARS, DNA fingerprinting and PCR is not reliable. Diagnosis of SARS by polymerase chain reaction, which spots viral DNA, is not reliable in children or in the early stages of the disease during adulthood. In SARS, the viral illness peaks after 10 days of the illness and then drops off. However, because the first global alert of SARS was three years ago, researchers are still discovering new methods on how to detect SARS in nature . 7

For years, DNA fingerprinting and PCR have proved reliable in countless court cases. For instance, the use of DNA in the OJ Simpson civil trial was able to establish who actually murdered Simpson’s wife. Its use has exonerated many innocent inmates as well as to apprehend those who had previously escaped. In some instances in the medical field such as the case of SARS, the credibility of DNA fingerprinting is still being researched by scientists and will form the basis of technology that will clearly lie on the cutting edge for many years to come. How do DNA Fingerprinting and PCR Relate to You?

DNA fingerprinting and PCR have many uses in today’s world. Many of these uses will affect how we live our lives everyday. For example, this new advancement has greatly changed the world of crime scene investigation. 9 This new technology has made it possible for more criminals to be rightfully convicted. And it also allows police to go back and look at evidence of

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past crimes and maybe set some previously innocent, convicted suspects free. This new technology also might help deter criminals from committing crimes because it is much harder to get away with them now. This method is very accurate and is very successful, so people will have to be much more careful in covering up their tracks when committing a crime. 9 This makes the world a safer place, because every criminal who doesn’t commit the crime is a life saved or prevents a lot of heartache.

Not everyone has committed a crime or is planning on committing one. So they may ask how DNA fingerprinting and PCR are relevant to everyday life. One example is young women becoming pregnant and not knowing who the father is. That can be a very troubling time, both emotionally and physically. The girl needs to know who the father of her child is for support. Doctors can use DNA fingerprinting to find out this information. 10 There are also many other medical uses for this process. For example, many people who get organ transplants would like to meet the family or depending on the organ the donor themselves. 10 This can be very challenging especially when the surgery happened many years ago. DNA fingerprinting gives another very accurate tool in trying to do this. DNA fingerprinting and PCR are a great advancement in medical technology.

DNA fingerprinting has uses in crime work, the medical world and also among historians. They can use this to track the migrations of ancient people. 10 This can lead to new discoveries and new ideas. Even biologists are beginning to use this new technology. They are able to use it to learn more about how a species evolved. This ability to learn about the past can greatly help us as a culture in the future. DNA fingerprinting and PCR have so many uses and not just in the scientific world, they help in people’s everyday lives as well. As scientists learn more about PCR and DNA fingerprinting, they will be able to make all these things more efficient, and more people will benefit from them. The possibilities are endless as to what this technology will be used for.

DNA fingerprinting and PCR have significantly impacted today’s world, specifically the courtrooms and medical field. Because each person has a different genetic make­up, forensic scientists are able to take DNA from a crime scene and using PCR test to find out whose genes they are. As this process becomes more advanced, more court cases will use this as evidence. Doctors can now test cells after a transplant, more accurately tell parents the chance of having a child with a genetic disorder, and to analyze tumors in patients, all using DNA fingerprinting and PCR. It will be interesting to see how this branch of science grows with the advancement of technology, and how it will affect the outcomes of future courtrooms and medical cases.

References

Primary

1. Kirby, Lorne T. DNA Fingerprinting an Introduction. New York: Stockton Press,1990.

2. National Research Council. DNA Technology in Forensic Science. Washington DC:National Academy Press, 1992.

Additional

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3. "DNA Fingerprinting." The Forensic Science Project. 3 June 2004. Bergen County Technical Schools. 26 Oct. 2006 <http://www.bergen.org/EST/Year5/ DNA_finger.htm>.

4. Campbell, Neil A., and Jane B. Reece. "Mendel and the Gene Idea." Biology. San Francisco: Pearson Education, 2005.

5. Ballou, Brian R. “DNA Leads To Arrest in ’02 Slaying.” Boston Globe 24 May 2006, 3 rd Edition: B.3. ProQuest. 5 November 2006 < http://0­ proquest.umi.com.alpha3.suffolk.lib.ny.us:80/pqdweb?did=1041636971&sid=4&Fmt=3&cli entId=3401&RQT=309&VName=PQD >

6. Yardly, William. “Innmate Freed After 18 years Based on DNA Evidence.” New York Times 7 June 2006, Late Edition East Coast: C.3. Proquest. 6 November 2006 < http://0­ proquest.umi.com.alpha3.suffolk.lib.ny.us:80/pqdweb?did=1050030091&sid=2&Fmt=3&cli entId=3401&RQT=309&VName=PQD >

7. Manning, Anita. "SARS studies answer, raise questions; More research is needed to prepare for outbreaks." USA TODAY [McLean] 17 Sept. 2003, FINAL Editioned.: D. 06. ProQuest. 26 Oct. 2006 < http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=406391661&Fmt=3&clientId=3401 &RQT=309&VName=PQD >.

8. Brown, John C. What the Heck is PCR? 1995. Kansas University. 19 Nov. 2006 <http://people.ku.edu/~jbrown/pcr.html>.

9. "DNA Fingerprinting." Wikipedia. 17 Nov. 2006. 20 Nov. 2006 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_fingerprinting>.

10. "DNA Fingerprinting." BBC. 29 Oct. 2001. BBC. 20 Nov. 2006 < http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A639425>

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Thalidomide Babies Group: Indium

Daniela Feitosa Sandra Gaston and Meredith Wilkinson

The purpose of this paper is to have a greater understanding of the drug Thalidomide, the effect it had on fetuses in the mid 20 th century, and the future implications it could have in the health industry. The research was done by consulting different sources including books, articles, and related web pages. Through careful analysis of our research we conclude that Thalidomide, introduced as a cure for morning sickness with no known side effects, actually had detrimental effects on unborn fetuses and children. Research is still being conducted to determine if Thalidomide can actually be used as effective treatment for other diseases.

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The drug Thalidomide was first synthesized in 1953 by a West German company and was introduced to medical markets across the world four years later. The drug soon became a popular sleeping aid, and was also prescribed for women who were pregnant in order to prevent nausea due to morning sickness. During this time period, users became amazed with the new drug. Seemingly, Thalidomide could be taken in large doses without causing any perceptible side effects. The drug was not approved for distribution in the United States, due greatly to the work of Dr. Frances Kelsey and her colleagues at the Food and Drug Administration. They had suspicions that the drug might not be the “miracle” pill that people suspected. She was unhappy with the inadequate amount of information acquired about the safety of Thalidomide as there was omitted information about the manufacturing process that was turned in to the FDA (1).

Thalidomide’s chemical composition is C13H10N2O and its chemical name is phthalimido­glutarimide (2). Thalidomide is a racemic, meaning it contains both left­ and right­ handed isomers in equal amounts. Enantiomers are molecules that are identical in composition, but their spatial arrangements are mirror images of each other. Each enantiomer has four different atoms or groups of atoms that are attached to a symmetric carbon. Because they are mirror images, much like left and right hands, enantiomers cannot be superimposed on each other. Enantiomers are important because each molecule reacts differently and each is assigned a different responsibility, due to their spatial difference. The enatiomer’s responsibility may affect how a pharmacy may use the drug. While a (D) Enantiomer may be effective in treating a disease, an (L) enantiomer might actually be fatal or cause serious side effects. This especially holds true for thalidomide because of the fact that, as a drug, it contains both (D)­Thalidomide and (L)­Thalidomide, making it a racemic. This characteristic of Thalidomide explains why one enantiomer is used effectively to combat morning sickness, while the other is teratogenic, “causing abnormal embryonic development” (1).

However, it is nearly impossible to determine which enantiomer, the (D) or the (L), is biologically useful or detrimental because both isomers are found in the serum (3). Therefore, it is virtually impossible to understand how the enantiomers react differently. A study was done in Sweden to see the affects that the two different isomers had if used separately in a sample of human blood. The result revealed that over time the individual isomer actually transformed itself into the other isomer and by the end of the experiment, the blood contained equal amounts of both isomers. With the new data that is being collected on Thalidomide, researchers hope that they will be able to solve the enigma of why Thalidomide causes such deformities on fetuses (6).

The first “thalidomide baby” was born in December 1956 with deformed limbs and bowel. The birth defects were not attributed to Thalidomide until four and a half years after the first “Thalidomide” baby was born. Statistics show that about forty percent of children born with Thalidomide defects died before their first birthday (4). It has been estimated that anywhere from 8,000 to 80,000 “Thalidomide babies” were born in Europe alone, and in 1961, Thalidomide was removed from the German market. (1)

If Thalidomide is taken by pregnant women, especially for morning sickness, it will cause severe birth defects in the fetus. The fetus will have severe deformities and many times a condition called “phocomelia”. Phocomelia is a condition in which the limbs of a fetus or an individual are abnormally short (2,3). The degree of deformity a fetus experiences depends on the amount of time after conception the fetus is exposed to the drug or what stage of gestation the mother was exposed to Thalidomide. If the mother is exposed to Thalidomide anywhere from 34

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to 50 days after her last menstrual period the fetus is likely to be born with phocomelia. Commonly observed deformities on Thalidomide babies have included: stunted, flipper­shaped arms and legs, missing fingers, absence of the proximal portion of the limb, hands or feet attached to the body by a single, small, irregularly shaped bone, and in some cases entire absence of limbs. Beside the noticeable physical deformities, after 50 days of Thalidomide exposure, the fetus might have developmental psychological defects, as well as internal organ system damage, especially in the cardiovascular and respiratory systems (5).

Studies are being performed in order to determine how Thalidomide reacts with the fetus or the DNA of the fetus to cause such damaging birth defects. In accordance to a conference held on September 9­10, 1997 hosted by the FDA, Dr. Barbara Hill presented three hypotheses for why Thalidomide can cause embryopathy, developmental disorders in an embryo. The First hypothesis was proposed in 1973 by McCredie and McBride called the “neural crest hypothesis.” This hypothesis states that “Thalidomide causes toxic insult to the embryonic neural crest during the organogenic period.” This proposes that Thalidomide intoxicates the cells in the neural crest, which are responsible for the production of neurons, etc. during the period that organs are beginning to form in a fetus. The study ultimately links Thalidomide embryopathy with the nerve supply. It suggests that Thalidomide actually damages the sensory peripheral nervous system, a suggestion that has been proven true.

The McCredie and McBride theory also suggests that thalidomide can actually “inhibit the production of nerve growth factor,” meaning that Thalidomide actually affects the diameter of nerve fibers. Experimental data showed that there was a significant depletion of total fiber nerves in fetuses that were deformed. As a conclusion the experiments performed suggested that “the failure of primary embryonic limb growth was due to a drug­induced reduction in the quantity of nervous tissue within the limb bud.” Ultimately Thalidomide decreases the amount of growth factor, stopping the body’s ability to send out signals which stimulate cells to grow and multiply. This ultimately explains why bones and limbs don’t fully develop in an embryo that has been affected by Thalidomide (5).

The Second hypothesis was the work of Dr. D’Amato and was presented in 1994. His research proposed that Thalidomide is a teratogenic, a drug or other substance capable of interfering with the development of a fetus; causing birth defects. His hypothesis stated that this was true because Thalidomide has the ability to act as an inhibitor of angiogenesis, which is the formation and development of blood vessels. In the end his hypothesis showed that Thalidomide inhibited new blood vessels from forming, and as a result, the fetus had deformities (5).

The third hypothesis proposed by Dr. Neubert in 1996 showed that embryos exposed to Thalidomide experienced a down regulation of adhesion receptors in peripheral white blood cells. The significance of this down regulation of adhesion receptors is that it inhibits early limb bud cells and cells of the heart to grow during early organogenesis of the embryos. As a result, embryos are born with phocomelia and have an array of symptoms as were stated above. Thalidomide may also interfere with the development of certain organ systems including the cardiovascular system and respiratory system. These results actually suggest that the teratogenicity is due to altered cell­cell or cell­extracellular matrix interactions, thus getting in the way of cell communication. The information necessary for cells to grow and develop into a mature stage is lost (5).

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In recent years, Thalidomide has been a topic of great discussion and controversy in the medical and pharmaceutical world. Should Thalidomide be used to treat other types of ailments? If so, who should receive treatment and what are the steps necessary to ensure success in treatment while protecting the lives of unborn babies? The approval of Thalidomide to be used in the United States came in 1997, as a treatment for patients with severe erythema nodosum leprousum, an aspect of Leprosy that inflames regions of the body especially attacking the lower legs. Nevertheless, the problem still remains when patients become pregnant or plan to become pregnant during treatment.

The question now becomes how to prevent future Thalidomide births? The answer was to inform the patient of the side effects connected with Thalidomide. As a result the FDA printed a patient information sheet which gave all the facts of Thalidomide. Their solution was that a “woman of child bearing age…must agree in writing to many important actions she must take to avoid pregnancy.” It rested on the agreement that women patients would abstain from sex four weeks prior to taking the drug and continue abstaining from sex, or using a form of birth control, four weeks after the last dose of the administered drug (6). Therefore, the drug has been marketed as a treatment for certain diseases, and continues to be researched.

In a research done by The Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation (MMRF), Thalidomide is being researched as an effective treatment for multiple myeloma. Multiple myeloma is a cancer of the plasma cells and is an incurable, but treatable, disease. As an immunomodulatory agent, Thalidomide is being used to combat the disease by inhibiting the growth and survival of myeloma cells and by inhibiting the growth of new blood vessels that can carry the cancer cells (7). Thalidomide is also being studies for the cure of other diseases such as Rheumatoid Arthritis, cure for HIV infections, Prostate Cancer, Breast Cancer, Tuberculosis and many other kinds of diseases (5).

Since 1953 when Thalidomide was first introduced into the pharmaceutical world researchers continue to be baffled by the chemical properties and biological implications that are brought forth by this drug. As researchers continue their quest to discover the reality of Thalidomide, the world waits. Victims affected by Thalidomide continue to oppose the use of Thalidomide for anything, and patients of rare or painful diseases that have found the answer in Thalidomide plead for this treatment. The verdict is not yet sealed on Thalidomide. Everyday researchers come closer to answering the unknown questions about Thalidomide, how it reacts with the development of the fetus to cause phocomelia? Can the enatiomers of the drug be separated so that only the biologically safe enationmer is used for treatment? Perhaps in a few more years we will be able to come to a fuller understanding of Thalidomide and why it has caused such catastrophic events in the lives of those who were affected.

Work Cited

(1) Seidman, Lisa A.; Warren, Noreen; American Biology Teacher, v64 n7 p495 500 Sep 2002 (EJ654503).

(2) Thalidomide victim Association of Canada­ FAQ. http://www.thalidomide.ca/en/faq/index.html#11 (accessed 14 November 2006)

(3) Thalidomide. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalidomide (accessed 14 November 2006).

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(4) Burkholz, Herbert. Giving Thalidomide a Second Chance; FDA Consumer magazine (September­October 1997) http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1997/697_thal.html (accessed November 1, 2006).

(5) Hill, Barbara A. In Characterization of Embryopahty Risks , Proceedings of the Food and Drug Administration on Thalidomide: Potential Benefits and Risks, Bethesda, Maryland, September 9­10,1997

(6) The Food and Drug Administration. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research: Thalidomide. http://www.fda.gov/cder/news/thalinfo/default.htm (accessed November 11, 2006).

(7) Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation. http://www.multiplemyeloma.org/about_myeloma/index.html (accessed November 11,2006)

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The 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry – Olefin Metathesis

Group: Vanadium Darcie Campbell, Elizabeth Clements, Christina Hope, and Rebekah Zimmerer

This paper is about Olefin Metathesis, the chemical process discovered by 3 scientists who won the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Olefin Metathesis benefits the environment, industry and production of medication; just to name a few. The men who discovered the process led interesting lives which are discussed here as well. Information concerning the Nobel Prize, the winners, the way in which Olefin Metathesis works and the environmental effects it has was all researched using on­line sources, as well as periodicals and books.

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Each year, a number of people are nominated and a few are chosen to receive one of the most prestigious awards in the world – the Nobel Prize. Multiple categories exist, though the Nobel Peace and Literature prizes are probably the most well known. In 2005, three men were awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry, which is one of the scientific categories. Their life stories are fascinating as they share what has led them to discoveries that qualified them to receive this prestigious award. Each of these Nobel Prize recipients has contributed to our current understanding of olefin metathesis, a method of organic synthesis used to create a variety of organic compounds in an assortment of fields including major industries and medicine. There are many other methods of organic synthesis that have been discovered other than metathesis, yet there are some unique characteristics of olefin metathesis that make it worthy of a Nobel Prize. The fact that these three scientists have been awarded this monetary prize leads many to question the efficacy and intention of this award. On the other hand, the significance, and impact of the contributors to the process of olefin metathesis cannot be understated.

The Nobel Prize is a prize given out yearly by the King of Sweden in Stockholm. The categories under which a prize can be won are physics, literature, medicine, peace, physiology and economics. The prize consists of 1.4 million dollars, a gold medal, Swedish citizenship and a diploma. 1

The Nobel Prizes are the manifestation of an idea by Alfred Nobel, a chemist, industrialist and inventor of dynamite. It is said that upon reading an obituary of him published accidentally by a French newspaper, he felt compelled to do something worthwhile with his money. He, in his will, set up the plans for forming the Nobel prizes which would be awarded to deserving individuals who contributed greatest to the betterment of mankind. The award money would be taken from his fortune.

At first glance one would perceive the Nobel Prizes to be a purely altruistic idea, but upon closer examination some flaws and discrepancies rise to the surface. One such contention is that concerning the Peace prize given to Theodore Roosevelt. Many people felt that a man who participated in so many wars and fights couldn’t be recognized as a promoter of peace. Even in the year he became a Nobel laureate, 1906, he was urging the United States onto become a great military power. The reason he was awarded the peace prize, as stated by Øyvind Tønnesson was that “the Nobel Committee had to interpret the will [Alfred Nobel’s] in the light of current events, and not as a dogma.” 2 Alfred Nobel’s will says that the standard by which Nobel Laureates are chosen is by "those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind." 3 Although the Nobel Prize stays the same, it would seem that the interpretation of the stipulations must change accordingly to the present day and age.

Another example of a controversy of choice occurred in the Physics award in 1905 to Philipp Lenard for his work with cathode rays. He was an advisor to Adolf Hitler, was prejudiced against Jewish people, and proposed the idea that science had race. He stated that there was such a thing as German science, Jewish science, and English Science. If Philipp Lenard is opposed to the Jewish race then he must also be opposed to the ideas and efforts of those who work towards peace and is in direct contradiction to the standard of obtaining a Peace Prize. Should the achievement of someone who completely contradicts one idea and works twoards the detrement of another be so highly esteemed within the same academy? 3 2

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In general though, the Nobel Prize can raise a number of thought­provoking questions. Should the prize money be used for something more beneficial to the world as a whole, such as providing food and necessities to poor people? Does the fact that money is involved keeping scientists from sharing their information with colleagues? These are serious questions to consider when examining recepients of Nobel Prize awards like the one given in 2005 to the three major contributors to the organic synthesis method of Olefin Metathesis.

Metathesis was first discovered in the 1950’s. It is an organic chemistry reaction, and it began in industry. In 1957 there was a document that was patented about the catalysation of the olefin polymerization. This document described the formation of the carbon chains with double bonds, for example unsaturated polymers (olefins.) Earlier attempts to polymerize the olefin ethane to polythene produced only saturated polymers, which means that were no double bonds. 4

Metathesis was discovered in the 1950’s. It is an organic chemistry reaction, and it began in industry. In 1957 there was a document that was patented about the catalysation of the olefin polymerization. This document described the formation of the carbon chains with double bonds, for example unsaturated polymers (olefins.) Earlier attempts to polymerize the olefin ethane to polythene produced only saturated polymers, which means that were no double bonds. Metathesis was the base for the Nobel Prize that was handed out in chemistry in 2005.

There were three recipients of the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 2005, they are Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs, and Richard R Schrock. Yves Chauvin was born on October 10, 1930 in Menin in Flanders, on the border between Belgium and France. Yves attended preschool and secondary school over the border in France, and continued onto higher education in various towns. Yves never did receive a PhD. After completing his education Yves took a job in the chemistry industry but then resigned, saying that the processes that the industry promoted were to copy what already existed. Yves did not want to follow others; he would rather forge his own path while exploring new fields. He then joined the Institut Francais du Petrole in 1960. After joining the Institut Francais du Petrole Yves focused mainly on coordination chemistry, and homogenous catalysts, as opposed to the already perfected methods of the heterogeneous catalysts. With his time spent with applied chemistry he developed two homogenous catalysis processes. The two processes are “Dimersol”, which uses a nickel based catalyst. The second process he developed was “Alphabutol.” This uses a titanium­based catalyst. Yves Chauvin did extensive research into safer and more effective chemical reactions. He achieved this ultimately through using homogeneous catalysts. 5

Robert H. Grubbs was another recipient of the 2005 chemistry Nobel Prize. He was born in Calvert City, Kentucky in 1942. His grandmother, who set high standards for her children and grandchildren, was his inspiration for achieving greatness in academics. The training that Grubb’s upbringing offered him provided a great environment to prime him for organic chemical research. His interest in science began in junior high school. Grubb’s began college at the University of Florida as an Agricultural Chemistry major. One of his friends at the university was an organic chemistry major, and asked him to help him in the lab one night, and he enjoyed creating new molecules better than observing steer feces, and what agricultural chemistry entails. What intrigued Grubb’s about organic chemistry was being able to do simple chemical transformations to learn about the details of how organic compounds react at the molecular level. Grubb’s began working with the Battiste group and worked with cyclopropenes. His cyclopropenes were used later to in the synthesis of the first generation of catalysts. After Grubb finished his work for Battiste, he went onto to Columbia University; there he worked for Ron

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Breslow. While working with him he decided to work on projects that involved organometallic chemistry. While working on the organometallic chemistry he focused on catalysts. One of the catalytic systems was the olefin metathesis system. In 1969 Grubb’s finished his fellowship at Michigan State University. He spent nine years working with the olefin metathesis process. After which he was offered a position at Caltech, in 1978. 6

The third recipient of the 2005 chemistry Nobel Prize is Richard R. Schrock. He was born in the farming town of Berne, Indiana. His older brother Theodore gave him a chemistry set on his eighth birthday. With the small chemistry set Shrock made a makeshift laboratory out of a storage area in his house that was designated for canned goods. When he was thirteen he was receiving textbooks from the high school Chemistry teacher. He was accepted into Berkley but chose to attend University of California, Riverside; a much smaller university. His first research was about atmospheric chemistry. He spent this time learning how to blow glass. He then moved onto to graduate school at Harvard. While at Harvard, Shrock had no concept of what type of physical chemistry he wanted to pursue. That is when he met an assistant professor, John Osborn, who told him about transition metals and metal chemistry, in which you create new colorful crystalline compounds, and about catalysis by transition metals. This peaked his interest. August 1971 he married Nancy Carlson, a school teacher, this was shortly after he had finished his PhD. He then took a position at the Cambridge Research Department. He began studying cyclooctatetraene chemistry and synthesized compounds. After experimenting with various synthesis reactions and processes, he turned to metathesis. He began to think that new alkylidene complexes, such as tantalum, that he had previously discovered were relevant to the olefin metathesis process. With the support of the national science foundation in the mid 1980’s he had developed catalysts for the olefin metathesis reactions. Richard Schrock researched and brought to light the catalysts for the metathesis reaction by first researching synthesis reactions. Also he did extensive research with alkylidene complexes and transitions metals. 7

The word metathesis means the change in position. There is more than one type of metathesis reaction. The processes of metathesis are combination of chemical reactions such as combination, decomposition, and displacement. 8 For example, AB+CD → AC+BD, which is a metathesis reaction, would be an example of a combination chemical reaction. 9 Metathesis is a reaction in which in which the cations and anions exchange partners.

With combination reactions, the reactions form solids known as precipitates. For example, in the case of the combination the reaction, NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq). Then when it dissolves it becomes to hydrated ions: NaCl(s) + 12 H2O → [Na(H2O)6] + + [Cl(H2O)6] ­ and AgNO3(s) + 12 H2O→ [Ag(H2O)6] + + [NO3(H2 aO)6] ­ . Then when the silver and chloride meet, they form a solid which is a white form of precipitate: Ag + (H2O)6 + + [Cl(H2O)6] ­ → AgCl(s) + 12 H2O. This form of metathesis can be used for gravimetric analysis. 8

Another form of metathesis is sigma­bond metathesis which is just a decomposition chemical reaction. A decomposition reaction is the breaking down of a certain molecule into smaller fragments. This type of reaction is most common in lanthanide complexes.

An example of a decomposition reaction is 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2.

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In this reaction the hyrodgen peroxide decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. This type of metathesis can be used for mass spectrometry, gravimetric analysis, and thermogravimetric analysis. 10

The third form of metathesis is Olefin metathesis or transalkylidenation or the chemical reaction of displacement. An examole of displacement is A + X = AX+B or Mg + 2HCl → MgCl + H2 (Pearson Education, Inc. 140). This form of metathesis is also an organic reaction that involves rearranging of olefinic (alkene) bonds. It was this form of metathesis that won the 2005 Nobel Prize.

Olefin metathesis was first used in the formation of petroleum for the synthesis of higher olefins from the products (α­olefins), from the Shell Higher Olefin Process (SHOP) under high pressure and high temperatures. Many usual catalysts come from a reaction of the metal halides with alkylation agents; for example WCl6­EtOH­EtAlCl2. A metathesis reaction is a chain reaction that begins when a metallocarbene and an olefin react to form a metallacylobutane. This combination then reacts more, decomposing into a new olefin (the product) and a new metallcarbene, which can then be recycled through the reaction pathway. 11

There are many different forms of this metathesis: Cross metathesis (CM), ring­closing metathesis (RCM), Enyne metathesis (EM), ring­opening metathesis (ROM), ring­opening matathesis polymerisation (ROMP), Acyclic diene metathesis (ADMET), Alkyne metathesis (AM), Alkane metathesis, and Alkene metathesis. 11

A thermodynamic requirement is normally determined by a metathesis reaction. Many of the possible products determine the final product, with a group of products that are the same as the highest energy values of their own.

Alkene metathesis is generally determined by the evolution of gaseous ethylene; and alkyne metathesis is determined by the evolution of acetylene. These are both dominated by the entropy gained by the net release of gas. Enyne metathesis cannot develop a simple gas. This is why it is usually disliked unless there are ring­opening or ring­closing advantages. Ring opening metathesis usually involves a damaged alkene (often a norbornene) and the release of damaged outer layer determines the reaction. Ring­closing metathesis, equally, usually involves the formation of closer larger macrocycles, which in this case the reaction may be in the same respect controlled by running the reaction at extreme dilutions. Alkane metathesis is unnaturally the same as ozonolysis followed by the Witting reaction or the other way around. 11

This form of metathesis is an excellent way to help improve the environment. It is used for things such as being more efficient and fewer reaction steps, fewer resources required for it, and less waste. It is simple to use because it is stable in air, at normal temperatures and pressures, and environmentally, friendly. 12 Polystrene­supported ruthenium complex 8 is a great

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pro­catalyst for metathesis that can be used for degassed solvents and can be recycled without added stabilizers. Olefin metathesis has been fuelled by the development of well­defined transition metal homogenous catalysts. This was the work Yves Chauvin who brought the catalysts. These catalysts have found wide application because they provide simplistic alkene exchange. Synthesis of antifungal lactone (­)­gloeosporone [1]

Cross metathesis of the amino acid homoallylglycine [2]

Introduction of carbon­carbon cross links into peptides [3]

Ring­closing olefin metathesis of non­natural alpha­amino acids[4]</TD< tr>

(Figure from http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/Brands/Fluka___Riedel_Home/Miscellaneous/Reagent_of_the_Ye ar/1998.html 14 )

This diagram above shows how metathesis has developed Benzylidene­ bis(tricyclohexylphosphine)dichlororuthenium 1g/5 g, which is one of the latest developments in metathesis catalysts. It is 20­100 times more active than the catalysts from before. For example, RuCl2(=CHCH=CPh3)2 and RuCl2(=CHCH=CPh2)­(PCy3)2. 14

This reagent is applied to things such as synthesis of polymer bound olefins, stereoselective preparation of cyclic 1­amino­1­carboxylic acids,

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asymmetric synthesis to help progress of HIV reverse transcriptase, synthesis of the potential anti­cancer drugs epothilone A and B in solution and on solid support, solution phase combinatorial synthesis, efficient synthesis of catenanes, template­directed synthesis and polymerization of unsaturated crowns, and synthesis of bridged oligocalix arenes. Ring opening metathesis has been applied to the synthesis of discotic columnar side­chain liquid crystalline polymers and the synthesis of penicillin that comes from polymers. 14

With the discovery of and developments in metathesis there have been advancements in pharmaceutical technology and ways to better the environment.

Organic synthesis, including processes like the metathesis reactions, in general has been developed over the years in order to provide organic compounds that are not readily found in nature. 15 There are various methods to accomplish this goal, with olefin metathesis as only one of many previously developed methods. Only three will be briefly described here, though it ought to be mentioned that volumes upon volumes of books catalogue the most efficient methods for synthesizing specific compounds. Combinatorial chemistry is one method of organic synthesis in which a large collection of related compounds are produced simultaneously. 16 This creates a sort of “library” of compounds from which the chemist can sort through with analytical methods to discover possible usages of those synthesized compounds 16 . Retrosynthetic analysis 17 is a method of finding paths to synthesize particular organic compounds. This method, also known as the disconnection approach, utilizes synthons, pieces of molecules of organic compounds that are a result of “breaking apart” the molecules. These synthons continue to be broken into simpler and simpler pieces until the chemist ends up with “starting molecules,” molecules that he or she can access and use to synthesize the desired organic compound. This is a method of discovering routes to synthesizing particular organic compounds. Using organometalic reagents is a type of organic synthesis designed to form carbon double bonds. 18 First, the chemist bonds one of the two carbon atoms to a metal. The carbon atom attached to this metal is now negatively polarized and can therefore react with a carbon atom that is positively polarized. 18 In this way, carbon double bonds, which are essential bonds in many organic substances, can be formed. Many other methods of organic synthesis exist, and metathesis is simply another step in finding a new and better method for producing these essential compounds.

Though these and many other methods already exist for organic synthesis, the olefin metathesis method provides fewer by­products, is a shorter process overall, and is therefore more environmentally friendly. 19 Metathesis reduces pollution by having a higher yield of product, less waste during production and improves industrial processing. The way in which metathesis allows a higher yield of product is through ring­closing metathesis and ring­opening metathesis, both of which use catalysts to speed up the process. Also, through this process many items that we use and rely on in daily life can be produced with less stress on the environment in areas such as agrochemicals, fragrance and petrochemicals. One example is in the use and production of agrochemicals, which are fungicides, herbicides, pesticides or fertilizers. By using metathesis in the synthesis of insect pheromone; which is in itself more beneficial to the environment; creates less waste, is cheaper and is more accessible than traditional agrochemicals. Another benefit of using pheromones specifically is that since it can work as well as many different agrochemicals

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but over a wider spectrum, there is less fluctuation in the ecosystem than when traditional agrochemicals are used. 19 20 21

Another aspect of daily life in which metathesis reduces pollution is in fragrances such as perfume. Metathesis is used in the intermediate reactions of compounds so as to reduce the number of steps it takes to achieve the end result, and also reduces the waste produced in the process. 21 Also, petrochemicals, which are chemicals made from petroleum and natural gas, act as the foundation for many materials and are used in making items such as detergents, plastics, resins and solvents. Metathesis, cross metathesis to be specific, is used in the synthesis of olefins which are used in the formation of petrochemicals for industry and production. An area of petrochemical production, called the ethylene recovery package, a “package uses a combination of refrigeration, hydrogen recovery, hydrogenation, isomerization and metathesis technologies” 22 and is said to “provide an unprecedented level of improvement in ethylene plant technology.” 22 The system is projected to reduce greenhouse gas emissions over 15%. 21, 23 Overall, olefin metathesis is much less destructive to the environment than previous methods of organic synthesis, and therefore, those who have discovered this method deserve recognition

Though contraversies exist regarding who should receive Nobel awards and whether these awards are a good use of money or beneficial for the scientific community, the contributions of Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs, and Richard Schrock should not be ignored. They each have come from different backgrounds that have united them to seek more cost and time efficient and environmentally sound methods of organic synthesis. The process of metathesis may be difficult for novice chemists to understand, yet the products of this method, such as particular useful medicines, is arguably invaluable to the human race. Organic synthesis methods in the past have not been nearly as efficient nor as safe for the environment as olefin metathesis. Regardless of beliefs about the efficacy of the Nobel Prize itself, these three men certainly ought to be recognized for their contributions to organic chemistry and to society as a whole.

Work Cited

1. Wikipedia Contributors. Nobel Prize. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize (3 Nov. 2006), Sponsored by Wikimedia.

2. Tønnesson, Ø. Controversies and Criticism. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/articles/controversies/index.html (3 Nov. 2006), Sponsored by The Nobel Foundation.

3. Nobel, A. Alfred Nobel's Will. http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/will/will­full.html (3 Nov. 2006), Sponsored by The Nobel Foundation.

4. Toreki, R. Olefin Metathesis. http://www.ilpi.com/organomet/olmetathesis.html (2 Nov. 2006), Sponsored by ChemglassScientific Apparatus Co.

5. Chauvin, Y. Yves Chauvin Autobiography. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2005/chauvin­autobio.html (1 Nov. 2006), Sponsored by The Nobel Foundation.

6. Grubbs, R. H. Robert H. Grubbs Autobiography. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2005/grubbs­autobio.html (1 Nov 2006), Sponsored by the Nobel Foundation.

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7. Schrock, R. R. Richard. R. Schrock Autobiography. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2005/schrock­autobio.html (1 Nov. 2006), Sponsored by The Nobel Foundation.

8. Chieh, C. Metathesis Reactions. Main Site: http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/copyrt1.html; Specific Site: https:// www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c120/metathes.html (1 Nov. 2006), Sponsored by University of Waterloo, Written for a General Chemistry Class.

9. Ahlberg, P. Development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2005/chemadv05.pdf (1 Nov 2006), Sponsored by The Nobel Foundation.

10. Chemical decomposition. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_decomposition (1 Nov 2006), Sponsored by Wikimedia.

11. Olefin Metathesis. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olefin_metathesis (1 Nov. 2006), Sponsored by Wikimedia.

12. Metathesis ­ a change­your­partners dance. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2005/press.html (October 25, 2006), Sponsored by The Nobel Foundation.

13. Dowden, J.; Savovic, J., Olefin metathesis in non­degassed solvent using a recyclable, plymer supported alkylideneruthenium. Chem. Commun. 2001, 1, 37­38.

14. Reagent of the year 1998: benzylidene­bis(tricyclohexylphosphine)dichlororuthenium. http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/Brands/Fluka___Riedel_Home/Miscellaneous/Reagent_of_the _Year/1998.html (1 Nov. 2006), Sponsored by Sigma­Aldrich Co.

15. Synthesis (chemical). In Van Nostrand's Encylopedia of Chemistry, 5 ed.; Considine, G. D., Ed. John Wiley & Sons Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, 2005; Vol. 1, pp 1591­1592.

16. Organic Chemistry. In Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, Norwood, B. K., Ed. Grolier Online: 2006.

17. Pinkus, A. G., Synthesis, Chemical. In Chemistry: Foundations and Applications, Lagowski, J. J., Ed. Macmillan Reference USA: Farmington Hills, MI, 2004; Vol. 4, pp 195­198.

18. Norman, R. O. C.; Coxen, J. M., Principles of Organic Synthesis. 3 ed.; Blackie Academic & Professional: Glasgow, 1993.

19. Casey, C. P., 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry: Development of the Olefin Metathesis Method in Organic Synthesis. Chemical Education Today 2006, 83, (2), 192­195.

20. Great Vista Chemicals. Agrochemicals. http://greatvistachemicals.com/agrochemicals/ (29 Oct. 2006), Sponsored by Great China Vista Chemicals.

21. Lessard, G. CHM333: Green Chemistry. http://blogs.princeton.edu/chm333/f2005/group3/2006/01/what_is_green_c.php (29 Oct. 2006), Sponsored by Princeton University.

22. Wood, A., Lummus claims recovery package cuts costs, raises coproduct value. Chemical Weekly 2002, 164, (8), 3/4.

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23. Ophardt, C. E. Oil to Petrochemicals. http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/325petrochem.html (29 Oct. 2006), Sponsored by Elmhurst College Chemistry Dept.

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Hydrogen: Fuel of the Future?

Group: Strontium Adam Greeley, Brittany Kearney, Benjamin Padilla and Christopher Tanga

This paper encompasses various aspects of the hydrogen fuel cell, including its history, functionality, efficiency, and application in the automotive industry. The information found in this paper was obtained by consulting a variety of sources written by several members of the scientific community. Our research has revealed that because of the rapid depletion of fossil fuels, hydrogen fuel cells are an important source of alternative energy. Although currently in the developmental stages, further research could bring them to the forefront of modern technology.

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History Humanity has long strived for a continuous source of self replenishing energy. There

have been many different ideas on how to achieve this idea of continuous energy, and the use of hydrogen to accomplish this task has become increasingly popular in recent years. Though hydrogen fuel cells have only in the past few decades received significant media attention, the idea of a fuel cell has been around for over 100 years. Here he will show the basics of how hydrogen fuel cells work, and some practical applications they may hold.

The concept of fuel cells has been around a lot longer than most know. In 1800, two British scientists, William Nicholson and Anthony Carlise, described how water could be separated into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity. In 1838, William Grove, a Welsh lawyer who later became a scientist, created what was then known as a “gas battery.” This gas battery was created using two platinum electrodes with one end submerged in sulfuric acid and the other in oxygen and hydrogen; it was effectively the first functional fuel cell. 1 In the early twentieth century, British scientist Francis Bacon experimented with alkali electrolytes 2 . His experiments from the 1930s through the 1950s eventually lead to his development of a fuel cell that was reliable enough to attract the attention of Pratt & Whitney, who later licensed his work for the Apollo spacecraft fuel cells. 3

Each of these inventions and developments were crucial in providing general understanding of how a fuel cell works and what types of materials could be used in a fuel cell to make it most efficient for various circumstances. In the early 1960s, Thomas Grubb and Leonard Neidrach invented the first Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell for General Electric. This fuel cell was powered using hydrogen produced from the mixing of water with lithium hydride. Its small size and portability made it convenient for use in the military. However, the platinum catalysts that were used in facilitating the exchange of electrons to create electricity were very expensive making it less practical than expected 4 .

Despite being expensive to make due to the platinum catalysts, PEM fuels cells drew the attention of NASA, which at the time was looking for a source of power for its emerging space program. At the time of the PEM’s development NASA was in the midst of Project Mercury, the United States’ first manned space project. While these short missions relied on batteries as a power source NASA was looking forward toward Project Apollo and needed a power source that could last upwards of fourteen days, much longer than a battery’s life. Partially used as a transition program between Project Mercury and Project Apollo, Project Gemini began the testing of many systems that would be needed to get astronauts to the moon in Project Apollo including a longer lasting power source than batteries. While Gemini 1 through Gemini 4 used conventional batteries, Gemini 5 saw the introduction of the PEM fuel cell to the spacecraft. During the Gemini 5 mission, the PEM fuel cell malfunctioned, but performed as needed for the remaining Gemini missions. Despite its success in the latter Gemini missions, Project Apollo designers and the designers of the space shuttle decided to use alkali fuel cells as a source of

1 http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/origins/origins.htm

2 Peter Hoffmann

3 http://www.princeton.edu/~chm333/2002/spring/FuelCells/fuel_cells­history.shtml

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Figure 1: <http://www.bullnet.co.uk/shops/test/hydrogen.htm>

power. 4

After its bout with NASA, PEM fuel cell use began moving toward a more public stage. In the mid 1970s, General Electric developed PEM water electrolysis technology for supporting underwater living, which lead to the development of the US Navy Oxygen Generating Plant. The British later adopted this technology for its submarine fleet in the early 1980s. 4

PEM fuel cell technology has also spread to be used in places more easily accessed by the general public. In 1989, Ballard Systems, a zero­emission PEM fuel cell manufacturer, developed a stationary power application capable of producing 5kW and in 1995 tested buses run by PEM fuel cells in Vancouver and Chicago. In 2000, AreoVironment used PEM fuel cells to provide power for its solar powered Helios long­range aircraft during night hours when the airplane could not get solar power. Both Ford and Volkswagen have also begun testing PEM powered vehicles. Many more practical applications of PEM technology are being explored every day. 4

How Fuel Cells Work A fuel cell is an electrochemical device used to produce electricity, much like a battery.

A battery generates electricity using the chemicals it contains inside of it. Once all of its chemicals have been converted into electricity, the battery dies. Because it can no longer produce electricity it either needs to be recharged or discarded. However, a fuel cell obtains chemicals from external elements such as oxygen that is found in air along with a supplied fuel. As long as the fuel and oxygen are continuously delivered to the cell it will never cease to create electricity.

Although there are many types of fuel cells the most common type is the hydrogen fuel cell. In this type of fuel cell hydrogen (H2) serves as the fuel and electricity results from a process of combining hydrogen and oxygen to form water. During this procedure the fuel cell performs oxidation which is the process of a substance combining with oxygen in order to give off electrons, therefore becoming a positively charged ion. In the case of a hydrogen fuel cell hydrogen undergoes oxidation in order for its electrons to be used as electricity. This is reaction is endothermic meaning it releases heat. The final products of the overall reaction within the fuel cell are water, heat, and electricity.

A fuel cell is comprised of electrodes, catalysts, and an electrolyte. Each cell has two conductors, or electrodes, which act as the bookends of the cell. The cathode, also called the oxidizer electrode, is a positively charged electrode located at one end of the cell. Oxygen atoms enter the cell through this electrode. Hydrogen atoms are fed to the cell through the anode which is the negatively charged electrode at the end

4 http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/pem/pemmain.htm

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opposite from the cathode. Upon entering the fuel cell each hydrogen atom splits up into an electron and a proton.

This process is done with the assistance of a catalyst, which is a cloth­like carbon material finely coated with platinum powder. When the hydrogen meets the platinum it is divided into its oppositely charged ions. The electron and proton depart and take separate routes to the cathode. As the proton travels it passed through the electrolyte, also called the proton exchange membrane and is a current­carrying material which occupies the center portion of the cell. Only ions with positive charges such as protons are able to pass through this membrane whereas negatively charged electrons are blocked. As protons pass through the electrolyte to reach the cathode the electrons travel via an external circuit. The electron flow occurring on this outside circuit creates a current of energy as it travels to the cathode. This current is employed to produce electricity that can be utilized before the electrons arrive at the cathode. At the end of this procedure the electrons, protons, and the oxygen atoms all meet up at the cathode combining to form water molecules. Because of this process, the fuel cell is effective in providing useful electricity as well as water (H2O).

Stoichiometry and Efficiency of Fuel Cells One critical piece of information necessary in determining the efficiency of a hydrogen

fuel cell engine is how much energy per mol of hydrogen is produced compared to how much energy is produced of a standard internal combustion engine. As was discussed in the previous section hydrogen molecules ionize, with the anions passing through an anode, and oxygen passing through the cathode which in turn produces energy and water 5 . Involved in the fuel cell activity are two chemical reactions the anode reaction, and the cathode reaction. In the anode reaction the H2 is broken down into its ions (2H2 => 4H + + 4e ­ ). The cathode reaction combines these ions with air, or O2 to form H2O (O2 + 4H + + 4e ­ => 2H2O). The over all reaction of the fuel cell and the one necessary for determining the stoichiometric ratios of the equation is 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O. From this balanced chemical equation it can be determined that 2 moles of hydrogen gas produce 2 moles of water and by using the heats of formation of the products and reactants the change in heat can easily be found. Because H2 and O2 are elements their heats of formation are both zero, making the H for the reaction to be twice the heat of formation of H2O gas, ­483.64 kJ. Therefore, there is ­241.82 kJ energy produced/ mole of H2.

Internal combustion engines use the combustion of hydrocarbons to produce CO2, H2O, and energy. Hydrocarbons are molecules composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms. These organic molecules release large amounts of heat and energy when combusted in the presence of oxygen gas. The hydrocarbon that is most commonly used in today’s fuel is octane which is a molecule made up of eight carbons and eighteen hydrogen. The balanced chemical equation which takes place within an internal combustion engine is 2C8H18 + 25O2 => 16CO2 + 18H2O. Using this equation we can calculate the delta H for the equation by subtracting the heats of formation of the reactants from the heats of formation of the products. The delta H for one mole of octane is ­5074.43 kJ. From this data alone it appears as though the combustion engine out performs the fuel cell energy production. However, his data is misleading. The vast majority of this energy is released as excess heat, not as usable energy. Combustion engines have many

5 http://www.fctec.com

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problems in efficiency. First off, combustion engines produce harmful gasses such as NC, CO, and nitrous oxides NOx

6 Quite often, there are excess unburned hydrocarbons released in the exhaust of combustion engines. Occurrences such as misfires and the quenching of the combustion flame are some of the things which cause this release of excess hydrocarbons. These wasted fuels do nothing but pollute the environment. The carbon monoxide and nitrous oxides which combustion engines also release are very harmful to the environment as well. However the levels of NOx released at the ideal air/fuel ratio in the piston is inversely proportional to those of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, making the reduction of all three difficult as seen in the figure below 6 .

While it appears as though the energy output of a combustion engine is many times greater than that of a fuel cell there are many outside factors which contribute to the overall inefficiency of combustion engines. Fuel cells create energy by using the hydrogen ions as electrolytes creating no excess heat only energy. Combustion loses a high percentage of its energy as excess heat. Because of the inefficiency of the combustion process fuel cells can “generate more electricity from the same amount of fuel” 5 . Fuel cells do not release pollutants into the environment as combustions. The only product of fuel cell activity is H2O, unlike the numerous types of pollutant gasses released by combustion. This data shows the practicality that fuel cells have and why the research and development of fuel cells is so important. Also, fossil fuel deposits are running dangerously low and alternate forms of energy must be found. Fuel cells are one highly effective option.

Fuel Cells in Cars For the past two decades or so we have been becoming more and more aware of the

growing problem of pollution caused by our gas burning automobiles. Standard vehicles pour out carbon monoxide into the atmosphere and are rapidly burning up our natural resources of fossil fuels. It has been investigated that with the use of these new hydrogen fuel cells there may be a way to eliminate the use of fossil fuel burning in our vehicles.

Hydrogen fuel cells can be built on to cars and run to an electric motor. Hydrogen would

6 http://www.autoshop101.com/forms/h55.pdf

Figure 2: http://www.autoshop101.com/forms/h55.pdf

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be stored in a storing compartment and would be added to oxygen, essentially producing water and releasing electricity. When you run electricity through water it breaks up the molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, a process called electrolysis. In 1839, Sir William Grove demonstrated that if electrolysis was run in reverse the process would release electricity. A catalyst would then be used to break up the electricity into positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons. The electrons would be collected using an electrolyte and sent through a wire into the motor. Because only hydrogen, oxygen, and electricity are involved, the only waste that the car produces is water vapor.

Most major automobile companies are working on developing these new hydrogen fuel cells using electric motors. FreedomCAR and Vehicle Technologies Program is a major corporation that is developing more efficient highway transportation technologies. Because we do not yet know how these vehicles will perform on the roadways, FreedomCAR is building “virtual vehicles” to test and predict their performance.

So far the biggest problem in production of these vehicles is the on board hydrogen fuel storage. Energy storage is critical for these vehicles to work and produce fewer emissions than what we are using currently. Fuel cell batteries are drained to quickly for practical use right now, so long life batteries are currently being developed. General Motors has come quite far in their development of fuel cell vehicles. They have developed the concept car “AUTOnomy, a conceptual vehicle that captures the vision and potential of hydrogen fuel cell technology, and the revolutionary Hy­wire, a vehicle unmatched in both hydrogen and electric technology.”

The Hy­wire vehicle uses electrical controls to control steering and propulsion rather than an engine and chassis. Without these the car will be able to run much more efficiently. Basically what is being produced are life sized remote control vehicles. All that is missing is a consistent source of energy. Once the hydrogen fuel cell is fully developed we will have that to use. It is a practical application of science, and a solution to an ever increasing problem. It will not be long until these cars, or a form of these cars are in full production and available to consumers. We as consumers may have to make adjustments to our standards and accept that these vehicles will not go as fast and will not have the sporting capabilities of cars currently sought after quite yet.

Fuel Cell Controversy Fuel cells are an important developing form of energy which as has been discussed in the

preceding sections, is still in its infancy. There is however an ample amount of controversy existing over the effectiveness and practicality of fuel cells. Multiple problems exist within fuel cells as they are found today which need to be worked out before they are commonplace in the automobile industry. For instance the problem of the storage of hydrogen arises. There are two common ways of doing this. or Hydrogen can be produced onboard a vehicle by reforming methanol or hydrocarbon fuels derived from crude oil (e.g., gasoline, diesel, or middle distillates) 7 . The process of reforming methanol and hydrocarbons is complex and would require large amounts of equipment within the vehicle increasing the vehicles mass by roughly fifteen percent. The alternative is to store hydrogen directly, which also poses some problems.

7 Journal of Power Sources 79 (1999) 143­168

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Specifically, in order to get enough hydrogen on board the vehicle it would require a 150 L tank at 5,000 psi, which is an enormous amount of pressure 7 . Other problems with fuel cells exist including giving the car enough power to get it running at the speeds common in today’s automobiles, and keeping the vehicle weight at a reasonable size. It is very important that fuel cell technology be researched and developed in the coming years because of the nonrenewable fossil fuel sources, which are quickly disappearing. Fuel cells, with proper research and development, could be the vital energy source needed to eventually replace fossil fuels.

Works Cited

Smithsonian Institution. Fuel Cell Origins: 1840­1890. Updated 2004.<http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/origins/origins.htm> (11/1/06)

Hoffmann, Peter. Tomorrow’s Energy: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells, and the Prospects for a Cleaner Planet. The MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2001; 146­147.

Atkinson, Cameron; Cahan, Dan; Schottel, Patrick; Wieghaus, Kristen. History of Fuel Cells. Posted in 2000. Princeton University. <http://www.princeton.edu/~chm333/2002/spring /FuelCells/fuel_cells­history.shtml>(10/29/06).

Smithsonian Institution. PEM Fuel Cells. Updated 2004.<http://www.americanhistory.si.edu /fuelcells/pem/pemmain.htm> (10/29/06).

Taylor, Harriet V. “Oxidation” pg. 896 The World Book Encyclopedia. World Book, Inc.1993.

Bullnet, Hydrogen Fuel Cells. <http://www.bullnet.co.uk/shops/test/hydrogen.htm> (11/15/06)

HowStuffWorks Home Page. Updated 2006.<http://www.howstuffworks.com/fuel­cell.htm> (11/15/06)

U.S. Department of Defense. Fuel Cell Test and Evaluation Center. Most recent copyright, 2006. <http://www.fctec.com> (10/26/06).

Toyota Motor Sales, U.S.A., Inc. < http://www.autoshop101.com/forms/h55.pdf> (11/9/06). Ogden, Joan; Stienbugler, Margaret; Kreutz, Thomas. Journal of Power Sources 1999, 143­168. Acessed online at

<http://www.princeton.edu/~energy/publications/pdf/1999/Comparison_hydrogen_methanol_gas .pdf > (10/26/06

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Does Your Gas Smell Like French Fries?

Group: Antimony Jonathan Cooper, Michael Kaminski, Rachel Shirron and Jason Toews

Biodiesel is an important up and coming form of energy, that requires careful thought and consideration. This study seeks to explain what biodiesel is, examine the methodology of biodiesel’s production; to reveal the ways it is already being used, and give an equal account of both the positives and negatives of using and producing biodiesel on a mass scale. From our research we have found that the opinions and research, up to this point done on this subject, are not enough to fully reveal whether or not biodiesel could become an entirely superior fuel source in the years to come. However biodiesel does appear to have many beneficial characteristics that lead us to believe it is a fruitful area of study conducive to a better world.

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About Biodiesel Biodiesel is an alternative energy fuel that is clean­burning. The chemical name for

biodiesel is methyl ester, C19H36O2. 1 It is produced from domestic, renewable resources. Biodiesel contains no petroleum and can be blended at any level with petroleum producing a biodiesel blend. It can be used in diesel engines with little or no modifications. It is biodegradable, simple to use, nontoxic, and virtually free of sulfur and aromatics.

Biodiesel is a fatty acid methyl ester with a chemical formula of C19H36O2. It is also called Ester of Glycerol since it is made from glycerol. Biodiesel has a very high boiling point which is in excess of 400 degrees F. Biodiesel can appear to be anywhere from light to dark yellow. It is a clear liquid with an odor which is slightly musty. Even though biodiesel is stable, one should avoid strong oxidizing agents as they may cause biodiesel to react. 1 Biodiesel is a good solvent. It will dissolve rubber and some plastics, remove paint, oxidize aluminum and other metals, and has been reported to destroy asphalt and concrete if spills were not cleaned quickly.

Biodiesel Production Biodiesel is made by altering organic oil chemically through transesterification. The oil

is typically either new vegetable oil or waste vegetable oil. Using dangerous chemicals the oil is thinned down enough to run through an engine as a source of fuel. By the transesterification of glycerols into mono­alcohol groups the oil is turned into biodiesel. 2 The process of making the fuel can take anywhere from a couple of days to a week from beginning to end.

Catalyst and alcohol are added to heated oil. The heating of the oil aids in the reaction process. Mixing this and then allowing it to settle creates two layers, the biodiesel on top and glycerin below it, sometimes there is a middle layer which contains soap between these two other layers. The glycerin and soap are decanted or drained off so that all that is left in the bottle is the biodiesel. Washing this biodiesel removes any impurities that are left like soap or alcohol still in the biodiesel that would make the biodiesel less effective as a fuel for a vehicle. To remove the water that is in the biodiesel from the washing, the biodiesel is allowed to dry with the lid off of the container for a couple of days. Filtering biodiesel through fuel filters ensures that it is ready to use in vehicles with diesel engines. 3

The chemical reaction of the acidic oil and the basic alcohol breaks the molecules of fat in the oil into an ester and glycerol. The ester is the actual biodiesel fuel. The reaction is called transesterification. The biodiesel rises to the top and floats on top of the glycerol because it is less dense. This allows the biodiesel to be pumped off or the glycerol to be drained off the bottom. 4 The fuel can be filtered and used in applications of heating or lighting, some people even use it in their diesel engines without any further processing. Usually, though, the fuel is washed in order to remove any impurities like soap, left over, or un­reacted alcohol, or sodium hydroxide. 4

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Steps of Biodiesel Production

Taking biodiesel from raw oil all the way to being able to be used in vehicles. <http://www.biodieselcommunity.org/howitsmade/>

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Equipment for Production Making biodiesel in the beginning does not require a big investment of money. The most

expensive part of making small batches is the investment in the catalyst; sodium or potassium hydroxide, and the methanol alcohol. 1 These parts require doing research to make sure the products are pure and of good quality as well as a reasonable price. At the start of one’s biodiesel production, the catalyst and alcohol are all that is needed that can’t be found around the house. When trying to make larger batches, though, it is nice to get equipment that doesn’t require as much supervision or time involved as the small­scale production that is possible to be made with a two­liter bottle.

Biodiesel can be produced with simple, everyday type objects or with very specialized equipment. When making biodiesel it is important to recognize the quantity that will be made because this is something which greatly affects the kind of equipment used in the process. For small batches of just a liter or two, two­liter soda bottles, a glass jar, a scale which measures in grams, and time can be used. 3 These things are needed in addition to the oil, methanol, and sodium or potassium hydroxide, of course. If one wishes to make a large batch of biodiesel, say a couple of hundred gallons, larger equipment is needed. This equipment can be very pricy but may be worth the investment in the long run since biodiesel is cheaper and cleaner burning. Some of the equipment used is closed, the process is contained, and features reclamation of methanol and some are open, with all the steps being visible. The larger the processor, the more dangerous the processor is, and the more likely it is to be totally enclosed. The main parts of the processors containers hold the biodiesel in each step of the process, hoses to move the biodiesel from one container to the next, pumps for both mixing and transferring the biodiesel from one part of the process to the next, and plumbing parts to keep junctions and fittings tight and leak­ proof. The difference in the prices of the processors depends upon how much of the process is automated and how much of it is done by the producer. Another big difference is whether the whole process is contained or whether the catalyst can be reclaimed by the processor. 3 All of these different parts of the processor aren’t actually needed. The very simple set­up with containers and manual labor works just fine, but it takes more effort on the producer’s part and therefore takes more actual time working with the process.

Uses of Biodiesel Biodiesel is currently being used by several sources. Biodiesel can be used in diesel engines

with little or no modification, and it can also be used in pure form, but it is usually blended with standard diesel fuel. 5 Once biodiesel is being used in the engine, the engine will be self­ lubricated. Examples of blends of biodiesel would be: B20, which is the most common form. The 20 represents the percentage of pure biodiesel and the rest is pure standard diesel fuel. B100 represents pure biodiesel. 6 This alternate source of standard diesel fuel is both non­toxic and renewable. 6 Sources can always be replenished through farming and recycling. Services that are already taking advantage of biodiesel include:

• U.S Postal Service

• U.S Air Force

• U.S Army

• NASA

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• U.S Department of Energy

• Public Transportation Services 6

Municipal fleets are already running at least partially on biodiesel. These services are looking to biodiesel in order to compliment the usage of petroleum. Marine Fleets in Hawaii are currently using biodiesel to power their engines. 6 Although the cost is more expensive as of now, some public fueling stations are already stocking biodiesel fuel. 7 Cars equipped with diesel engines are about 25% more efficient than cars running on standard fuel. 6 Thus, cars equipped with diesel engines are easily able to convert to biodiesel. This organic diesel would result in a healthier fuel while still being more efficient than standard gasoline.

Advantages of Biodiesel Biodiesel is a clean and renewable fuel source that is both non­toxic and biodegradable. 6

The usage of biodiesel would play a large role in reducing the reliance we have on traditional fossil fuels. In 2000, biodiesel became the only alternative fuel source to successfully complete the EPA­required Tier I and Tier II health affects tests under the Clean Air Act. 6 By using biodiesel we can:

• Reduce the amount of Carbon Monoxide emissions by 50%

• Reduce the amount of Carbon Dioxide emissions by 80%

• Reduce the amount of tailpipe emissions up to 20% 5

The reduction of these three gases alone is far healthier than the current fuel system we are currently running on. 5 Biodiesel is also easier to store because it is much less combustible than regular petroleum diesel. 6 Biodiesel has a flash point greater than 150 degrees Celsius where as petroleum diesel is at 77 degrees Celsius. 6 Therefore, biodiesel is safer to transport, store, and handle. Overall, biodiesel is more efficient than the current fuel system, renewable, and a healthier choice for the environment.

Economic Implications As we know, society is often slow to change. Although biodiesel has not yet seen a huge

breakthrough economically, it is very possible that one day it may provide the majority of the energy we use. Biodiesel will become more and more economically viable as the price of crude oil increases and as reserves are consumed. 8

There are many aspects that make biodiesel attractive economically. Most notably, because biodiesel is made from organic sources, it is renewable. This is in stark contrast to traditional fossil fuels, which have generally been increasing in cost because they are non­ renewable. Biodiesel also burns very cleanly, which makes it attractive to the environmentally conscious, a sector of society that appears to be becoming more abundant. Legislation that regulates production of pollutants and carbon dioxide will make biodiesel even more prevalent. For example, pacts such as the Kyoto Protocol which limit the production of carbon dioxide, although not applicable in the United States, have, and will continue to make biodiesel more economically attractive in the countries where they are implemented. Another great thing about biodiesel, especially in terms of transportation, is that, as opposed to other alternative energy options, biodiesel can be distributed using existing infrastructure such as gas stations. Biodiesel can also be burned by normal diesel engines, which puts it at an economic advantage over

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options such as electrical cars or even hydrogen fuel cell engines which would, even under the best of circumstances, take years to become widely used and accessible. Biodiesel is already in use in some corporate fleets, which means that it is approaching regular petroleum as the most attractive form of fuel. Another aspect to remember is that biodiesel can be produced on a relatively small scale. This adds to its economic promise because large amounts of capital do not necessarily need to be invested before we see product. The free market will undoubtedly make biodiesel a major option as soon as there is significant money to be made in the sector, and in some cases, it already has.

There some are negatives to biodiesel too, however. Although the organic sources used for its production are renewable, they take vast tracts of land to grow. Also important to remember is that the amount of fossil fuel needed to produce the plants used adds up quickly. Farming costs must be factored in when assessing biodiesel’s economic viability, and we must remember that as biodiesel become more popular, the demand for the crops used will increase, and therefore the prices of these crops will skyrocket. 8 We have to assume that the prices of crops will increase as biodiesel becomes more prevalent, which makes it less financially attractive than what people first think. An alternative to plants grown on traditional farms involves using algae, which is grown in water and uses virtually no artificially supplied energy to produce. Theoretically, the world’s oceans and lakes could be used to produce fuel! This subsection of the industry is referred to as algaculture. 9 Another current drawback of biodiesel is that it often contains residual water from the production process, which can cause problems in motors and can cause problems with rubber hoses and pumps. As the production process is streamlined and developed; however, these kinks should be worked out.

The bottom line is that biodiesel will continue to become more economically viable with time. As the price of petroleum increases and the production process for biodiesel is refined, the world will likely come to depend on this substance for much of its energy needs.

As an Alternative Energy Though many have speculated that biodiesel could become the superior power source in

our near future, others feel that the negative effects of biodiesel out weigh the good. When we consider all the good aspects of biodiesel, it may seem at first to be our best option. However when we take a closer look at the destructive possibilities of this fuel source, it is seen by many to be a far worse choice then our current fuel methods. The idea of using waste cooking oil as an alternative fuel source is a noble one. However, the problem arises when the waste oil runs out. For example, the UK only contains about a 380 th of the demands that country would require for road transport fuel. 10 After this point it would be necessary to begin to manufacture oils from crops. Soon farm land, that was previously used to produce food, would be converted into fuel crops. 10 Previous advertisements lead people to believe that biodiesel was going to be produced from rapeseed oil, chip fat, or algae grown predominantly on desert ponds. 10 However in truth the easiest and cheapest way to produce biodiesel is from palm tree oil. 10 Looking logically at the history of our world’s economy, it is clear that what is easy and cheap will be the only form mass produced. Considering how damaging the small scale production of palm oil already is, the percent increase that fuel demands would cause could be devastating. Between 1985 and 2000 the production of palm oil was responsible for about 87% of deforestation in Malaysia. 10 Millions of hectares are already being scheduled for clearance to meet palm oil needs. A cumulative 26.5 million hectares in Sumatra, Borneo, Malaysia, and Indonesia are being cleared for palm crops. 10 This is causing threats of extinction for many local animals, eviction and

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oppression or indigenous people, and a variety of other serious issues. 10 In order to create palm oil plantations an alarming amount of carbon dioxide is produced. In order to form a palm oil plantation vast amount of much larger trees need to be cut down and burned. 10 The process releases stores of carbon within the trees. Once the land eventually dries up, the plantation owners move on to other lands. This relocation process is leading the formation of these crops into moist swampy areas. This is a problem because there is significant presence of peat in these marshes. 10 When peat dies, which is inevitable when the land is burned and cleared, it oxidizes and releases even more carbon dioxide then the incineration of trees. 10 When we compare this to crude oil, we find that biodiesel is a far more damaging fuel source.

Conclusion Biodiesel, a petroleum alternative made from waste oil, can be produced on both small

and large scale production. It is being chosen as the fuel of choice in an increasing number of governmental departments. Biodiesel is definitely an energy source which should be considered in the future, though it may not be altogether the best option presently.

Bibliography

1 Nicholson, John. About Biodiesel—the Technical Stuff. 2002. Bio­power (UK) Ltd. Accessed October 15, 2006. <http://www.bio­power.co.uk/about.htm>

2 Biodiesel. 2006. National Biodiesel Board—IT Division. Accessed September 24, 2006. < www.biodiesel.org>

3 Blair, Graydon. Collaborative Biodiesel Tutorial—How it’s Made. 2005. Utah Biodiesel Supply. Accessed September 24, 2006. <http://www.biodieselcommunity.org/howitsmade/>

4 David Ryan, P.E. Biodiesel—A Primer Farm Energy Technical Note. 2004. National Center for Appropriate Technology. Accessed September 24, 2006. < http://attra.ncat.org/new_pubs/attra­pub/biodiesel.html?id=Massachusetts>

5 Salted Stone Media Group. Biodiesel Fuels. 2006. Saltedstone.org. Accessed October 8, 2006. <http://www.saltedstone.org/products/biodiesel.html?gclid=CPvQm9Tz­ 4cCFTucJAod8ED4BQ>

6 Hess, M. Scott. How Biodiesel Works. 2004. Mobil Travel Guide ­ Consumer Guide. Accessed October 8, 2006. <http://auto.howstuffworks.com/biodiesel.htm>

7 Myhr, Karen L., Ph D. Biodiesel Fuel. 2001. CPAST. Accessed October 8, 2006. < http://www.cpast.org/Articles/fetch.adp?topicnum=61>

8 Eidman, Vernon R. Renewable Liquid Fuels: Current Situation and Prospects. 1 st Quarter 2006. Choices (A publication of the American Agricultural Economics Association). Page 18.

9 Sheehan, John; Dunahay, Terri; Benemann, John; Roessler, Paul. A Look Back at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Aquatic Species Program – Biodiesel from Algae. July 1998.

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National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Accessed November 7, 2006. < http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy98/24190.pdf>

10 Monbiot, George. The most destructive crop on earth is no solution to the energy crisis. December 6, 2005. The Gaurdian Newspaper. Accessed October 15, 2006. <http://www.guardian.co.uk>.

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DNA Fingerprinting

Group : Manganese Kristina Trippett, Cecilia Gutierrez, Rachel Harris and Luke Clements

DNA fingerprinting has rapidly become a dynamic and influential tool in the hands of justice since its emergence in the late 1970. Nevertheless, apart from the obvious advantages of this relatively new technology, ethical implications have risen because of the versatility of DNA fingerprinting. DNA fingerprinting is a method of identification that compares fragments of DNA. With the exception of identical twins, no two individuals can share the same DNA fingerprint. This article discusses the process, by which a DNA print is made, the different methods that are used in the process, and the significance of DNA fingerprinting in society today.

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Introduction The role of DNA Fingerprinting in our culture and the scientific community has grown

significantly since its emergence in the late 1970’s. DNA fingerprinting has wide uses both forensically and otherwise. The uniqueness of DNA to one person is part of what makes it so influential and important in the forensic science arena. As a result of this it also has great implications in the court room. As with many great things, there are some potential drawbacks to DNA Fingerprinting. In recent years the database of DNA samples has expanded and there is talk of a nationwide database. This brings up issues of privacy, specifically, where the line should be drawn in accordance to inclusion in the database. Secondary uses of DNA samples also raise some questions, especially regarding ownership. A new method has recently enabled parents to discover DNA mutations in their child even earlier than before which raises ethical issues concerning the abortion of the child.

DNA Fingerprinting; A Brief History DNA Fingerprinting has become a world­renown tool in the field of forensic science and

without a doubt its emergence has revolutionized justice, indirectly dawning new ethical issues. In light of the powerful new technology that DNA Fingerprinting has now become, its origins would seem surprising. Indeed, when Sir Alec Jeffreys discovered the new technology he didn’t fully realized what he had stumbled upon because it was an indirect discovery.

In 1975, Professor Jeffreys had been working in Amsterdam with Dick Flavell (a fellow scientist) and had already discovered how to detect single copies of human genes (i.e. the first time that introns were observed). Professor Jeffreys then proceeded to Leicester in 1977, where he decided he would like to integrate the techniques of molecular biology with human genetics. Later that year, Professor Jeffreys used the primitive gene detection methods of the time to look at the structures of genes and understand inherited variation. Initially, Professor Jeffreys successfully obtained one of the first descriptions of a restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and also single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). RFLPs were proof of inherited variation at the DNA level yet in some ways they proved to be impractical. In the first place, RFLPs are very difficult to find and second, they weren’t a quality source for finding variation between people because there were only two observable states: RFLP or SNP, a person either has one or the other.

Professor Jeffreys realized that what was needed were pieces of DNA that were more variable than SNPs. “Intuitively it seemed that regions of tandemly repeated DNA would be open to mutation processes such as duplication and recombination. They could be highly variable informative genetic markers”, stated Professor Jeffreys (Newton). Interestingly, Professor Jeffreys began a completely different project which actually led him to the discovery of what we now call DNA Fingerprinting. Professor Jeffreys initiated a project which dealt with searching for the human copy of the myoglobin gene which produces the oxygen­carrying proteins in muscle. The myoglobin cell was first looked for in seals because of their high level of myoglobin production, later the seal gene would be used to isolate its human counterpart.

The seal myoglobin gene was observed and compared to the human myoglobin gene and right inside introns of the gene was tandem repeat DNA ­­­ which researchers called

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“minisatellites”. The minisatellites of the myoglobin genes served as a sort of reference point for identifying other minisatellites which led to the discovery of a core sequence, which is a piece of DNA that is similar in many different minisatellites. Professor Jeffreys made a hybridized probe ­­­to test out the system ­­­ that should latch onto many of the minisatellites at the same time. After a couple of months, professor Jeffreys and his team proved to be successful. “Two to three months later, the grubby mess of the first fingerprint had been refined into clean patterns where DNA fingerprints, unique to an individual, could be deciphered clearly,” stated professor Jeffreys when recalling the moment of accomplishment. 1

What is the likelihood of more than one person sharing a DNA fingerprint? The possibility of more than one person sharing a DNA fingerprint is virtually non­

existent. Other than identical twins, everyone has independent and unique combinations of DNA. These combinations are what make it possible to identify people by their DNA. “The nucleus of virtually every human cell contains 46 chromosomes made of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.” 4 DNA can be obtained from semen, hair, skin, or any other biological evidence left at the scene of a crime, and also obtained from suspects. The laboratory technicians then analyze the DNA bands for matches, and the patterns, which are called DNA fingerprints, are put into a numerical code and stored in computer data banks. These fingerprints can then be used to help identify or eliminate suspects. 4

What is DNA fingerprinting used for? The fact that people will not share a DNA fingerprint also enables not only crime scene

investigation, but also paternity testing, and disease tracking. In 2001 American labs performed more than 300,000 paternity tests. 5 In 1998­1999 a cluster of 21 tuberculosis cases were analyzed using DNA fingerprinting and cases were discovered that matched the outbreak pattern as far back as 1996 all the way through 2001. 6

The most well known cases of DNA fingerprinting involve criminal cases however. Innocence can be proven, as well as guilt, given just the smallest scrap of biological material. The problem inherent in using DNA fingerprinting to investigate crimes is the civil rights element. Thus, DNA fingerprinting is a controversial topic, and has received much negative publicity. 4

Why is more than just DNA fingerprinting evidence needed for a conviction in court? DNA can help the innocent; however, it may also cast suspicion on an innocent person.

The speed with which DNA testing has been developed has led to “hundreds of thousands of untested samples in evidence rooms and labs around the country.” 3 The problem with these numerous genetic profiles is that given a set of circumstances the wrong person could be suspected for the crime. “A person could, for example, smoke a cigarette in a room where two days later someone is murdered. The extinguished butt would yield enough saliva for a DNA test, which could lead police to that person.” 4 For these reasons, more than just cellular evidence is necessary to lead to a conviction in court. It has only been recently that DNA fingerprinting

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has been allowed in court. In the 1980’s DNA testing was not even admissible in American courts, but it is now an accepted technique for investigatory and analytical evidence. 2

Making a DNA print There are seven basic steps for a making a DNA print. Collecting the sample is the first

step. One can do this by extracted traces of saliva, semen, blood, hair roots, urine or wherever nucleated cells could be found. After the DNA is extracted and treated with chemicals to break open the cell, it is purified. The next step is to segment the DNA into fragments using enzymes. The restriction enzyme analysis takes place during this step. This is where enzymes are added to the DNA that recognizes certain sequences in the chemical base patterns. These enzymes act like “molecular scissors” and cut the DNA molecule at specific points; leaving remains of different lengths. 8 These restriction enzymes recognize specific sequences, normally of four to six bases in size. This sequence will have the same number and location within identical DNA molecules but will occur at various frequencies within each DNA molecule. This enables DNA to be “cut” into repeatable and familiar patterns of precise size fragments. 8

Since there are all different sizes, one must now sort the fragments by length. In order to do this, the process known as gel electrophoresis must be used. This entails the DNA fragments being placed in a bed of gel with an electric current being applied. The DNA is negatively charged so it moves toward the positive end of the bed. After many hours, the fragments will have become arranged by length.

The fifth step is called the “split and transfer of DNA.” The product of this step is acquiring information concerning a molecule’s quantity, genetic relatedness and size, which can be determined by a process of Southern blotting, the transfer of molecules which have been separated by electrophoresis from the gel onto a membrane. The next step is hybridization, which is the process of joining two complementary strands of DNA together to form a double­ stranded helix. 8

When hybridization is used in the laboratory, DNA must first me denatured (unzipped). The use of heat or chemicals primarily does this. Denaturing is a process by which the hydrogen bonds on the original double­stranded DNA are broken, leaving a single strand of DNA whose bases are available for hydrogen bonding. Once this has occurred, a single­stranded radioactive probe, which is used to detect the presence of a particular DNA sequence through hybridization to its complementary, can be used to see if the denaturing DNA contains a similar sequence to that on the probe. Then, the denatured DNA is put into a plastic bag with the probe and saline liquid, it then shaken, which allows the probe to find a fit. If it does it will bind to the DNA.

If an X­ray is taken after a radioactive probe has been allowed to bond with the DNA on paper, only the areas where the radioactive probe binds will show up on the film. This is called an autoradiogram. It allows researchers to identify, in a particular person’s DNA, the frequency of the particular genetic pattern contained in the probe.

DNA Fingerprinting Methods DNA Fingerprinting can be, and has been analyzed in many different ways over the

years. Thos different ways are Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP), Polymerase

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Chain Reaction (PCR), Amplified Fragment length Polymorphism (AmpFL), Short Tandem repeats (STR), Y­Chromosome, and the Mitochondrial analysis. The one that we will be focusing on mainly is PCR.

When the RFLP analysis first began it was used, but now it has been almost completely replaced by the newer techniques. When PCR began, it expanded the ability to recover information from very small starting samples. “PCR involves the amplification of specific regions of DNA using a cycling of temperature and a thermo­stable polymerase enzyme alone with sequence specific primers of DNA.” 8 After PCR came AmpFL. This was faster than RFLP and used PCR to amplify DNA samples.

The most established method of DNA fingerprinting used today is STR. Y­chromosome and mitochondrial analyses are used as well but for more specific purposes. PCR is the analysis that we are mostly looking at though.

Expansion of DNA Database and Other Ethical Issues The uses of DNA Fingerprinting in today’s culture, particularly its use in forensic science

raise quite a few ethical issues. There has been talk recently of an expansion of current databases both to minimal offenders and also talk of a nationwide database. When the DNA fingerprinting and database formation began it was exclusively for adult sex offenders, in the event they were to become repetitive offenders there would be a seemingly irrefutable method of comparison were a match to be made at a later date. The database has since expanded to include those convicted of felonies that indicate the inclusion of their DNA, for example homicide and rape. The United States government has a database that has since expanded to include juvenile offenders, and those of some misdemeanor offences. The expansion of to these offenses raises the issue of privacy and possible violation of 4 th amendment rights. The issue lies in whether there is probable cause to collect DNA sample from those convicted of theses lesser offences. 9

In recent years there has been talk of a nationwide DNA database, and has actually been implemented in Iceland and Estonia. These databases have been set up for strictly research purposes only however the implication of a database that includes DNA of every one of the country’s inhabitants has some frightening possibilities. This nationwide database definitely calls into question the limits of privacy; in this case it would seem as if there is none. The talk of a nationwide database in the United States, however, would not be limited to strictly research purposes. This would enable any DNA collected at a crime scene to be matched to anyone in the country. This is a rather unsettling thought, though one must keep in mind that a positive DNA match does not imply guilt. 10

As a result of an adaptation of DNA technology, there is now a new technique for testing and determining genetic diseases in an embryo. Preciously amniocentesis and CVS techniques were some of the only ways to obtain a sample to test for genetic diseases in unborn children. The new method, known as Pre­Implantation Genetic Haplotyping (PGH), allows testing when there are just two or more cells. An amplification of the cells genome then allows for earlier testing as well as more testing. This testing enables a comparison to the genome of other family members and to recognize the sequences that are possible genetic diseases. This method and the subsequent tests that can be run also help with testing X linked disorders such as Duschenne’s muscular dystrophy, something that has not been effectively done in male embryos in the past. It

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is able to distinguish high risk chromosomes from normal ones. The ethical issues that arise from this are in regards to abortion. If parents are able to know that their child has a genetic disorder, especially this early in the pregnancy, is it ethical to abort the baby? The larger question of abortion has been a controversial topic for many years and this new earlier knowledge just allows an earlier time for that decision to be made. 11

Conclusion DNA fingerprinting is a method of identification that compares fragments of DNA. A

fingerprint is not the same for anyone, therefore making it very useful for criminal justice. It enables us to know that that one person was the cause of the crime. With this though, there is room for error. If person was at the site of a crime smoking a cigarette, the salvia on it can get them in trouble. Making a print is a very simple process that can be done very easily. Once is it made there are five ways to analyze it; RFLP, PCR, AmpFL, STR, Y­Chromosome and mitochondria. There are many ethnical issues with using DNA fingerprinting but it is indeed helpful in many cases.

References

1. ‘Discovering DNA fingerprinting’ 04/02/04, Giles Newton, http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_wtd020877.html

2. Edmondston, Joanne. What would Sherlock Holmes have thought of forensic DNA profiling? Australian Science Teachers Journal 1999, 45, 4.

3. Quindlen, Anna. FROM COFFEE CUP TO COURT. Newsweek 2002, 139, 80. 4. Hawaleshka, Danylo. A high­tech tool for police. Maclean's 1997, 110, 56. 5. Gill, Peter.; Jefferys, Alec.; Mullis, Kary.; DNA's detective story. Economist 2004, 370, 33­

36. 6. Cronin, Wendy A.; Driver, Cynthia R.; Hardge, Darryl X.; Kreiswirth, Barry; McElroy, Peter

D.; Ridzon, Renee.; Shilkret, Kenneth L.; Sterling, Timothy R.; Woodley, Charles. Use of DNA Fingerprinting To Investigate a Multiyear, Multistate Tuberculosis Outbreak. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2002, 8, 5

7. “Genetic Fingerprinting.” 10/18/26 , Wikipedia Foundation, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_fingerprinting

8. Dobbin, Shirley A. Ph.D; Gatowski, Sophia I. Ph.D. Chapter 11. http://www.unr.edu/bench/chap11.htm (accessed 10/29/06) part of: A Judge's Deskbook on the Basic Philosopies and Methods of Science

9. Noble, Alice A. “Introduction: DNA fingerprinting and civil liberties.” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 2006, 34.2, 149­153.

10. (Rothstein, Mark A., and Meghan K. Talbott. "The expanding use of DNA in law enforcement: what role for privacy?(DNA Fingerprinting and Civil Liberties)." Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 34.2 2006, 153(12

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11. Geddes, Linda. “New Embryo Test Cuts Disease Risk.” New Scientist June 2006, 190.2557

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The Green Chemistry Presidential Awards

Group: Zirconium Amy Rossman, Ashley Ballou, Joel Derechinsky and Tori Blandin

Recognizing innovative contributions to science and to public and environmental health, in the past years, the Green Chemistry Presidential Awards have lent themselves to very practical and pertinent advances that relevant to cultural concerns. Some of the more useful awards from 2005 and 2006 have dealt with the production of plastic, food, medicine, and fuel. All of the advancements made will help future processes.

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Introduction to the Field of Green Chemistry In essence green chemistry is the “design of chemical products and processes that reduce

or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances” 1 . Green chemistry helps scientists to develop methods of making products that reduce the amount of water produced while enabling scientists to maximize the amount of product produced.

Scientists who are interested in developing products that are less hazardous to the environment would also be interested in the field of green chemistry. For the main objective of green chemistry is to make the most out of their resources while limiting the amount of pollution produced.

In 1990 The Pollution Prevention Act was passed and soon after EPA’s Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics began exploring new ways of advancing technological production that were less harmful to the environment. By 1991, the program “Alternative Synthetic Pathways for Pollution Prevention” received grants and began research products around the synthetics of chemicals and manufacturing process. Having partnered with many other private and federal agencies who acknowledge responsibility for environmental health, this research project has come to be known as the Green Chemistry Program.

The Green Chemistry Program’s twelve foundational objectives:

1. Design chemical syntheses that ultimately reduce the production of toxic or non­ degradable waste.

2. Utilized chemicals and resources in the most efficient method possible. 3. Change existing products so that they are no longer harmful to the environment and

humanity 4. Choose renewable resources (like agricultural products) as materials for production over

non­degradable ones like fossil fuels. 5. Minimize waste by utilizing catalytic reactions verses a reagent. 6. Avoid any temporary modification by using derivatives (extra regents) 7. Insure efficiency by comparing the ratio of materials to product 8. Avoid the usage of solvents (a non­degradable pollutant) when possible 9. When increasing the efficiency of chemical production consider what the ideal

temperature and pressure with respect to the characteristics of the chemical reactive process.

10. Create products that are biodegradable and do not deplete the health of the environment. 11. Minimize the formation of byproducts and toxic waste. 12. Develop products and chemicals that minimize the potential of future contamination of

the environment. 12

Introduction to the Green Chemistry Presidential Awards Since 1995 the Green Chemistry Presidential Awards attempts to “recognize individuals

and businesses for innovation in the field of Green Chemistry” 1.Each year give awards are given in categories named after their specific area of contribution: “Academic”, “Small

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Business”, “Greener Synthetic Pathways”, “Greener Reactions Conditions”, and “Designing Greener Chemicals”.

A year after receiving nominations, a panel from the American Chemical Society votes, and awards based on their criteria. The typical judging process takes into account the nominees’ ability to best achieve four objectives of Green Chemistry. First, “the nominate technology must prevent pollution at its source and have a significant Chemistry component” 2 . Second, “the nominated chemistry technology should offer human health and/or environmental benefits” 2 .Third, it must be “generally applicable to a large and broad­based segment of chemical manufactures, users, or society at large” 2 . The final criterion is that “the nominated chemical technology must have innovative scientific merit…the technology should be original and scientifically valid” 2 .

Releasing the potential of Bioplastics­ The 2005 Green Chemistry Business Award Today plastics are everywhere, and are used in every aspect of life. They are primarily

used for packaging, but are also found in buildings, consumer products, and modes of transportation (green plastics).Unfortunately, plastics are not biodegradable. Yet, there has not been “another material on earth [that] has been so highly valued for its usefulness” 3 . America’s dependency on plastics displayed in the chart below which models the amount of plastics produced each year.

Billions of pounds of plastic

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

years

Billions of pounds of plastic

Graph formulated from Graph on page 6 of “Green Plastics”

The objective of the scientists at Metabolix Inc. is to find a method of processing plastics that promotes a healthy environment. “The starting point of these new bioplastics is the simple fact that plastics are now so commonplace that they have become an integral part of every day life”. 3 . Metabolix, Inc. works to produce a plastic that is compatible both with the natural environment and that of the economic market 4 . Metabolix manufactures a variety of clean plastics that are produced from the fermentation of plant oils and sugars. The founders of Metabolix, Professor Anthony Sinskey and Dr. Oliver Peoples began tinkering with the idea of clean plastics at The

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Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the late 1980s. Initially, they worked with the RNA, DNA and protein reproduction. Using a series of genes to code for certain enzymes, they built a small protein molecule (a biopolymer). While biopolymers are versatile and are used in production of a variety of products, only certain biopolymers are beneficial in the process of creating bio­friendly plastics. These biopolymers are referred to as polyhydroxyalkanoates or PHAs. Genetically PHA looks like this:

Interestingly, PHAs are produced throughout the photosynthesis of plants with the help of carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. Having the capability to store the energy used in producing monomer building blocks, scientists have the ability to create various forms of bio­plastics.

These “clean” plastics are very practical for can be easily utilized in a variety of market sectors that once depended on non­biodegradable plastics. These would include adhesives, packaging, house wears, appliances, electronics, automotives, paints, and disposable products 4 . In the future, Metabolix will revolutionize the production of plastics. They are looking to produce the PHAs directly within the plants rather than in the soil. Instead of using fossil carbons, alternative process will use renewable energy sources from plant sugars and vegetable oils will prove be a much more responsible use of our environmental resources. Landfills, among many other signs of environmental pollution will slow in growth.

In our opinion Metabolix is a great company. They are working in both scientific and commercial components. They are looking to introduce a new, clean, and safe technology to the world market. Hopefully, other companies will adapt this new process for making biodegradable plastics even more cost efficient.

Bringing Integrity to Processed Foods­ The 2005 Alternative Synthetic Pathways Award Archer Daniels Midland Company and Novapids TM received the “Alternative Synthetic

Pathways” award in 2005. These companies worked together to discover an environmentally friendly way of reducing the amounts of trans fats and oils in American diets. They achieved this through a process called enzymatic interestification. This not only leads to healthier people but also promotes a healthier environment.

When processed foods are made, triglycerides are present. These triglycerides consist of a glycerol bonded to three fatty acids. Generally, these fatty acids are unsaturated. Since they are not saturated they are liquid at room temperature. Producers have to solidify their triglycerides in order to make their products. Manufacturers solidify triglycerides by first hydrogenating fatty acids. This process turns the fatty acids into trans fatty acids. These trans fatty acids are harmful human consumers as they promote obesity and heart disease 5,6.

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There is a way though to remove these trans fatty acids from processed foods. Currently in today’s manufacturing business this is done with the aid of chemical reactions. By replacing the saturated fatty acids with unsaturated ones, they offer food that is free of trans fatty acids. Recently through, Archer Daniels Midland Company and Novapids TM have developed a way to carry out this process using enzymes instead of chemicals. This is significant because the widely excepted chemical process, although removes trans fats, leaves harmful byproducts. Enzymatic interesterification would eliminate these byproducts and still effectively produce the triglycerides without trans fatty acids.

This discovery, while significant, will not greatly impact the immediate future. There are many downfalls to the process. First of all, the cost of manufacturing in this manner is very high. The enzymes are also not stable enough to efficiently manufacture large quantities of processed foods. We do not feel that this discovery will significantly affect food processing in the near future. Manufactures, who are already in compliance with FDA regulations, are unlikely to voluntarily increase their productions costs. In order for this process to be affective, Archer Daniels Midland Company and Novapids TM need to modify the process until it is cheaper and more reliable. Currently the enzymes utilized within the process are not stable enough to commercially produce foods on a large scale.

Helping Cancer Patients Through Recovery­ The 2005 Greener Synthetic Pathways Award The Green Chemistry Presidential Award was presented to Merck & Co., Inc. in 2005 for

its work with aprepitant. Aprepitant is the main ingredient in the drug Emend, which is given to cancer patients before and after chemotherapy to reduce nausea and vomiting. Merck & Company, Inc. has discovered a new process to synthesize aprepitant. This new process removes all operational hazards that were present in the first synthesizing process while reduces energy requirements. Compared to the previous process, Merck and Company, Inc. uses 80% less of its materials and water while almost doubling the amount of aprepitant produced. This discovery by Merck & Co., Inc. is significant because it makes the synthesis of aprepitant cheaper and simpler. In effect this may make the drug Emend more accessible to cancer patients 5, 6 .

Accelerating the Reality of Biodiesel Production­ The 2006 Green Chemistry Academic Award

The 2006 Green Chemistry Academic Award was presented to Professor Galan J. Suppes from the University of Missouri­Columbia for discovering an inexpensive method of converting glycerin to propylene glycol. Propylene glycol is a clear, colorless liquid utilized in the production paints, antifreeze, polyester compounds, in medicines, cosmetics, and food products, as well as in other products. Professor Suppes developed a catalytic process that “couples new copper­chromite catalyst with a reactive distillation” 7 . This process uses lower temperature and pressure than other systems, converts more efficiently, and produces less byproduct. This particular propylene glycol is also cheaper to produce than propylene glycol made from petroleum.

Professor Suppes’ discovery will have a great impact on biodiesel production. When biodiesel is produced, glycerin is also produced. This glycerin needs to be used and not just become waste to make biodiesel economical. Using the glycerin could also reduce the cost of

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biodiesel by $0.40 per gallon 7 . Converting the glycerin to propylene glycol will get rid of waste glycerin produced by biodiesel, and offer a cheaper way of producing the propylene glycol needed for things such as antifreeze and medicines 2 .

Works Cited

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Chemistry

2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Awards Program. November 15 2006. < http://www.epa.gov/gcc/pubs/docs/award_entries_and_recipients2006.pdf (accessed November 15 2006)

3. E.S. Stevens;Green Plastics; Princeton University Pree:Princeton, NJ, 2002;Vol1

4. Metabox.com

5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Green Chemistry. November 15 2006. http://www.epa.gov/gcc/pubs/pgcc/winners/gspa05.html (accessed November 15 2006)

6. ADM. ADM Awarded 2 USEPA Presidential Green Chemistry Awards. 2006. http://www.admworld.com/cgi­ bin/search/naen/search.asp?Realm=Admworld_NAEN&Terms=green%20chemistry%20pres idential%20award (accessed November 15 2006)

7. goBroomeCounty.com. ToxFAQs for Ethylene Glycol and Propylene Glycol. November 6 2006. http://www.gobroomecounty.com/hd/pdfs/ToxFAQs­EthyleneGlycol.pdf (accessed November 15 2006)

8. M. Kidwai; V.K. Ahluwalia; New Trends in Green Chemistry;Kluwer Academic Publishers; Norwell, MA, 2004

9. Jeremy Rifkin; The Biotech Century; Penguin Putnam Inc.: New York city, NY, 1998

10. Adrianne Massey, Helen Kreuzer; Biology and Biotechnology; ASM Press: Washington D.C., 2005

11. Royal Society of Chemistry. Green Chemistry; 2006. http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/gc/index.asp(acessed October 10th 2006)

12. EPA.Green Chemistry. June 27th 2006 http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/ (accessed on October 10, 2006)

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13. American Chemistry Society. Green Chemistry awardees. 2006. http://www.chemistry.org/portal/a/c/s/1/acsdisplay.html?DOC=greenchemistryinstitute%5Ca wards.html (accessed on October 10th 2006)

14. Elizabeth Weise. Green Chemistry Takes Root. http://www.usatoday.com/news/science/2004­11­21­green_x.htm (accessed October 10th 2006)

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Oxycontin: A Wonder Drug?

Group: Titanium David Green, Maggie Roth, Danielle Simpson and Leonard Stevenson

Oxycontin, perceived as a new wonder drug at the time of its release has sadly become one of the most abused drugs of its kind. Now, this potentially revolutionary drug has become a night mare to many. How severe is the drug in reality? How badly has it been abused? How has the FDA responded to the abuse? How much good has it done? Should this wonder drug be used in children?

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Since Oxycontin was introduced in 1996, it use has been severely questioned. While on the one hand it has greatly aided terminal cancer patients through their pain, its popularity has also mad it one of the most widely abused drugs of its kind. This paper will look at the chemical structure of Oxycontin—describing it effects on the human body—and upon its use and abuse. It will briefly describe the way in which medical practitioners and the FDA have both used and reacted to it. Finally, it will address the highly charged question about whether or not Oxycontin should be used in children.

What is the molecular structure of Oxycontin? Before any reasonable decision can be made about how Oxycontin should be used, more

information about what exactly it is should be given. Oxycontin (right) comes in the form of a timed release pill. Each pill contains two primary ingredients: Acetaminophen and Oxycodone HCl. The acetaminophen is a 4’­hydroxyacetanilide, non­opiate, non­salicylate analgesic and anti pyretic which occurs as a white, odorless, crystalline powder with a slightly bitter taste. It has a molecular formula of C8H9NO2 (a.k.a. it is eight parts carbon, nine parts hydrogen, one part nitrogen and two parts oxygen) and a molecular weight of 151.17 amu (atomic mass units where one gram is equal to 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 grams). The Oxycodone HCl component is a 14­hydroxydihycodeinone which appears as a white, odorless, crystalline powder with a saline, bitter taste. The Oxycodone HCl component, because it is so dangerous, forms only 1% to 29% of the pill—with the higher doses being used only in the most extreme cases. A typical dosage contains 500 milligrams of acetaminophen and 5mg of Oxycodone HCl. It is interesting to note that the active ingredient (Oxycodone HCl) has been used in pain medications as far back as the 1960s, just in much smaller, less dangerous doses. The molecular formula of the Oxycodone HCl is C18H21NO4 HCl (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrochloric acid) and a it has a molecular weight of 351.83 amu.

How does Oxycontin interact with the body? In the most general sense this drug is used to treat terminal patients and those with

chronic, severe pain. It has three primary, short­term, immediate effects on the body which it produces by its interactions with the corresponding brain centers. First “Oxycodone produces respiratory depression by direct action on brain stem respiratory centers” (Physicians reference, 2818)—a reduction in responsiveness is caused due to carbon dioxide tension and electrical stimulation; this is also indicative of a more general effect on the whole of the central nervous system. Oxycodone then proceeds to the gastrointestinal tract and “causes a reduction in motility associated with an increase in smoothe muscle tone” (Physician’s Reference, 2818). Other effects include a delay in food digestion and propulsive peristaltic waves in the colon. Finally, oxycontin may cause histamine to be produced in the cardiovascular system leading to flushing, red eyes, sweating and possibly hypotension. When used properly the effects are not extreme and, due to the depression of the central nervous system allow for a lessoning of pin that the patient may be experiencing.

If and when Oxycontin is abused however, much more serious side effects will occur which could lead to fatality. The two most common ways of abusing Oxycontin are through two

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forms of overdose. If one accidentally or intentionally takes too many of the pills or takes too many at one time or takes them for too long of a time it will cause severe effects leading to extreme physical dependence and/or death. This most often occurs when the drug is used chronically. In such cases a tolerance and eventually dependence is gained. To receive the same initial effects one must continue to take larger and larger doses. If the dosage is increased too rapidly it may become fatal.

The other, perhaps more common method of abuse is simply to crush the pill and eat all the powder. This causes the full dosage of Oxycodone HCl to be immediately released into the body. Remember that the pill is designed to release the dosage slowly over a twelve hour period. Immediate introduction of the dosage may prove fatal, particularly in the larger concentrations. The rushed dosage will lead to extreme respiratory depression which could lead to hypoxia (dizziness, blurred vision and pain resulting from an inability to breathe) and death from lack of oxygen.

How widely has Oxycontin become used by medical practitioners and abused by users?

It is very likely that Oxycontin, which is actually not more dangerous than drugs such as morphine, would not have become very popular had it not been for the aggressive advertising campaign by its producer, Purdue. According to the General Accounting Office (GAO) “Purdue conducted an extensive campaign to market and promote Oxycontin…as an initial opioid treatment for noncancer pain”(GAO 10). More than this however “Purdue has been cited twice by FDA for using potentially false or misleading medical journal advertisements…”(GAO 10). In other words Purdue, due to the oncoming of financial troubles, tried to make Oxycontin sound a lot better than it was in hopes of being able to make enough of a profit from it to stay afloat and, as Oxycontin has become extremely popular they succeeded. Oxycontin is by far the most well­known of the schedule II (the highest warning that the FDA can place on a drug) narcotics used for treatment of pain and cancer.

It may be questioned whether or not it is a bad thing that Oxycontin became popular. On the one hand it seems that it is now available for many to use, but on the other many also know about and will abuse it. As stated when the issue of Oxycontin abuse was brought before the Legislature, “There is a dichotomy with prescription drugs. On the one hand, these drugs have a very legitimate medical use, and may be the only possible relief, quite frankly, for patients suffering chronic pain, such as cancer patients. But then, on the other hand these drugs are very dangerous, and even deadly when they are misused or exploited… The abuser of painkilling drugs is, I think, a true test for us, trying to find a sense of balance for all the different parties who are involved, the government, the medical community, and the pharmaceutical industry as well”(Oxycontin And Beyond, 2).This dichotomy exists with all such drugs, however, in most cases the drugs are little­known aside from the medical personnel that have easy access to such information. In brief then, because of Purdue’s aggressive marketing campaign, Oxycontin has become much more well­known among lay people than many other similar drugs. (How many of us can label any other schedule II narcotics or at least list extremely potent, legal drugs?) Furthermore, this campaign has not greatly aided those who need the drug as the medical community would have a generally know about it anyway. Though Purdue has made a good

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profit, the tradeoff is that many more people know about Oxycontin than need to know and many more will abuse it and be affected by it.

How has the FDA responded to the danger posed by Oxycontin? When Oxycontin was first presented to the FDA for approval, it was put through a

normal series of tests to determine whether or not it could or should be approved. The FDA did approve Oxycontin (on December 12, 1995) but gave it their highest warning label, that of a schedule II narcotic. Not anticipating the extreme popularity that Oxycontin would quickly attain the FDA opted against placing a black box on the label, as is done with many of the more common schedule II narcotics. As the director of the Office of Drug Evaluation II Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, for the FDA, Dr. Robert J. Meyer stated, “At the time of approval, the abuse potential for Oxycontin was considered by FDA to be no greater than other Schedule II Opiate analgesics that were already marketed in the United States …”(Oxycontin And Beyond, 22). As Oxycontin entered the market and quickly became very popular the FDA quickly began to use all of its resources to adequately provide increased protection. The FDA’s first response to the widespread abuse of Oxycontin was to educate both those who prescribed the painkiller and those who used the painkiller. They strengthened the labeling of the drug, increasing the level of warning to that of the highest for FDA approved products, the black box.

Despite the measure that the FDA has taken there are many who say that the FDA has not done enough, that it could do more. Yet, the only option left for the FDA to utilize would be to completely remove the drug from the market. Though, when one knows of the adverse effects of the drug, the option of removing Oxycontin from the market may sound logical, yet it is not as easy as it once seemed. When taking into consideration the dichotomy mentioned above of patients for whom the drug is a necessity in order for survival verses those who abuse the drug one begins to see that there are more involved in this issue, and much more at stake. As was said above Purdue greatly accentuated the problem by taking on an aggressive campaign, thereby making the drug much more available to those who abuse it and only aiding those who need it by a small amount. With many such drugs a removal from the market would never be considered as those who abuse it is such a tiny percentage of those who benefit from it (there may be one case of abuse for every 100 cases of benefit). Because Oxycontin has become more popular however, the number who abuse it is much greater in proportion to those who are aided by it (there may be 25 or more cases of those who abuse it for every 100 cases of those who benefit). The FDA is caught between allowing people to manage their pain through Oxycontin or keeping many people from abusing it. It seems that after taking into the consideration what is best for the public they believe that the many more who are living because of the drug are more important than those who are dying because of it.

Should Oxycontin be used with children? This is an extremely charged issue with people on both sides of the question. As it stands

however, the question is virtuously impossible to answer, Some qualification is required. First, many (including one of this papers authors) would argue children should not be allowed to take the drug because of its intense nature and addictive qualities. If a child is not capable of tying their own shoes, how can they be expected to be responsible enough to take a highly addictive

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pain killer? Also, children’s brains are still malleable and developing. With a drug this strong there is no telling what the effect could be on a child’s physical and mental growth development.

While this argument certainly seems valid, another of this papers authors would argue that Oxycontin can and perhaps should be used on children in certain limited ways. For example, what if you have a child who is terminally ill and dying of cancer and in pain. It is argued that in such a hopeless situation the child should be allowed to die peacefully and without having their body racked by pain. Some counter that there is always hope of finding a cure and giving the child addictive analgesics may prevent them from living despite the cure. Those in favor of this limited use would argue that the chances of such an event are so minimal that they should be ignored.

A view similar to the one above the third author believes that Oxycontin should only be used in children if absolutely necessary. If the child is either a cancer patient with severe pain or a patient with some other type of severe medical problem that induces chronic and severe pain, then that child should recieve Oxycontin. This author believes that, for ethical reasons, whenever a doctor considers prescribing the painkiller to a child, he should both ask for the opinion and suggestions of other well educated doctors and for the opinion and final decision of the child's parents. This author reminds us, however, that prescribing the drug to children should be avoided if at all possible just because of the potential dangers it presents, especially when the risks are weighed and compared to the benefits. As it seems that most doctors have attepmted and suceeded in finding alternate medications, Oxycontin is generally of unnecessary use in children.

Finally our fourth author, like the first believes that Oxycontin should not be used because it is a very powerful and a highly addictive drug. The pill itself is not like other pills because "Oxycontin Tablets cannot be crushed or divided for administration" (Physicians Reference, 20); it will still have the same affects as it would if it were whole. There has never been a real study on children with this drug according to the manufacturer. This fact alone make the choice to prescribe it for children very unwise as we have no idea about how much harm it could do. This is not a safe drug to fiddle with.

The common factor in these opinions then is a question of how much risk there is. Are the potential gains worth the potential losses? Some say no as the risk of enormous losses is too great. Even among those who say yes, there is a high degree of qualification; they agree that the risks only justify its use in the most extreme and terminal situations (a.k.a. if the child is going to die anyway, let him die in peace). The debate could go on and on, but will, it seems, ultimately hinge on how extreme the situation is and on the level of risk that the parent is willing to accept.

In summary then, Oxycontin is a very strong painkiller that when used properly is acceptable. Because of Purdue’s aggressive advertising campaign it has become much more popular than expected and thereby much more widely abused. The FDA has done all it can as far as strengthening the labeling though many believe it should be outlawed. As for its use on children the views are wide and perhaps reflect the range of views on whether or not Oxycontin should be used at all.

Works Cited

Primary Sources Cited

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1. Physicians Desk Reference 59th edition; Thompson PDR: Mont Vale, New Jersey , 2005; pgs. 2818­2820.

2. GAO. Prescription Drugs: Oxycontin Abuse and diversion Efforts; Report Made in 2003. General Accounting Office. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi­ bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=gao&docid=f:d04110.pdf (accessed October 6, 2005)

Other Source Cited

1. United States. Congress. House. Committee on Government Reform. Subcommittee on Regulatory Affairs.? Oxycontin and beyond September 13, 2005.?

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1. United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions.? OxyContin, balancing risks and benefits February 12, 2002.?

2. United States. Congress. House. Committee on Energy and Commerce. Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations.? OxyContin : its use and abuse August 28, 2001.?

3. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Oxycontin Information: FDA Strengthens warnings for Oxycontin; Site updated June 26, 2006, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/infopage/oxycontin/ (accessed October 23, 2005)

4. RxList. Side effects [to Oxycontin]; Site last updated December 8, 2004, RxList: The Internet Drug Index. http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic3/oxycontin_ad.htm (acessed October 23, 2006)

5. The Partnership. Oxycontin; Site last updated in 2006 as the copyright is in 2006, The Partnership for a drug free America . http://www.drugfree.org/Portal/drug_guide/OxyContin (acessed October 23, 2006)

6. Magnum. Drug Profiles: oxycodone HCl, controlled release OxyContin®; site last updated October 10, 2006, M.A.G.N.U.M. The National Migraine Association. http://www.migraines.org/treatment/prooxyco.htm (accessed October 23, 2005)