certificate iii in fitness - module 4 health science and nutrition

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Certificate III in Fitness - Module 4 Health Science and Nutrition

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© Australian College of Sport & Fitness Page 1 of 95 Certificate III ‐Module 4 ‐ Course Notes ‐ 1405B

CONTENTS

CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES ................................................................................................................................................. 2

OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................................................................ 3

PART A ‐ APPLY ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN FITNESS............................................................................ 3

ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY....................................................................................................................................................5

STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF THE HUMAN BODY...........................................................................................................................9

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM ..............................................................................................................................................................11

BONE DEVELOPMENT................................................................................................................................................................17

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM...........................................................................................................................................................22

THE CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEM.........................................................................................................................................34

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM..............................................................................................................................................................43

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM ..........................................................................................................................................................48

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM..........................................................................................................................................................50

ENERGY SYSTEMS.......................................................................................................................................................................55

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.............................................................................................................................................................60

PART B ‐ PROVIDE HEALTHY EATING INFORMATION TO CLIENTS.................................................................................. 62

OVERVIEW OF HEALTHY EATING .............................................................................................................................................62

DIETARY TRENDS........................................................................................................................................................................70

SIGNS OF GOOD AND BAD NUTRITION...................................................................................................................................72

NUTRIENTS..................................................................................................................................................................................65

CHRONIC DISEASE & NUTRITION.............................................................................................................................................73

DIET AND BODY COMPOSITION...............................................................................................................................................80

NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND INTENSE EXERCISING.................................................................................................81

BODY IMAGE ISSUES..................................................................................................................................................................81

PROVIDE DIETARY RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................................................... 84

CERTIFICATE III MODULE 4 ASSIGNMENT ......................................................................................................................87

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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

ADDITIONAL READING

Further Readings:

Eating Drinking Before Sport

Eating and drinking during and after sport

Carbohydrates and the glycemic index

Fats and Oils

Proteins

Vitamin and Mineral Supplements

Dietary Guidelines Australia abridged

WEBSITES

Better Health Channel Victoria betterhealth.vic.gov.au

Inner Body innerbody.com/htm/body.html

Anatomy & Physiology anatomyandphysiologyi.com/

WEB PAGES & SEARCHES

Search ‘Anatomy quiz’

Search ‘Anatomy pictures’

Search ‘Muscular system of the body’

Search ‘How does the cardiovascular system work’

Search ‘How does the body produce energy’

Search ‘What happens the [insert body system] during exercise’

Search ‘Dietary guidelines Australia’

ACTIVITIES

Throughout this module and the following modules we have created activities for you to complete

which will help your learning and understanding of the topics within each module. These activities

are not compulsory or marked, however we recommend they are completed to help understand

topics within this module.

ACTIVITY

Complete the following……

PLEASE NOTE: Handouts can be found at the back of the module following page 81.

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OVERVIEW

This module covers the basic anatomy and physiology related to fitness, as well as looking at

providing clients with healthy eating information. The anatomy and physiology section initially

looks at basic terminology and components of fitness before breaking down each individual system

within the body and applying it to the fitness setting.

The health eating section identifies the difference between good and bad nutrition, which may be

linked to fad diets, as well as examining chronic diseases that may exist within the body that may

result from poor nutrition.

PART A ‐ APPLY ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

PRINCIPLES IN FITNESS

WHAT IS ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY?

ANATOMY is the study of internal and external structure of the body.

PHYSIOLOGY is the study of how living organisms perform the various functions of life.

As a fitness instructor you need to understand how the relevant anatomical and physiological

concepts apply to the development of a fitness program. Or in other words, you need to first know

how the body works before planning an effective fitness program.

WHAT IS EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY?

Exercise physiology is the study of the function of the human body during exercise conditions.

As a fitness instructor understanding how the body reacts, changes and modifies as a result of the

body undergoing exercise is key to planning and marinating successful fitness programs for your

client.

COMPONENTS OF FITNESS RECAP

The components of fitness allow us to be in a state of health, which is a state of complete mental,

physical and social well‐being.

There are five main components to fitness:

Body Composition

Cardiovascular Endurance

Muscular Strength

Muscular Endurance

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Flexibility

BODY COMPOSITION

Body composition is used to describe the percentages of fat, bone and muscle in the human body.

Body composition is affected by factors such as diet and exercise. Muscular tissue takes up less

space in our body than fat tissue. Our body composition, as well as our weight, determines lean

mass.

CARDIOVASCULAR ENDURANCE

Cardiovascular endurance is the ability of the heart to deliver blood to working muscles and then

their ability to use it (e.g. running long distances).

Frequent and regular aerobic exercise has been shown to help prevent or treat serious and life‐

threatening chronic conditions such as high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, Type 2 diabetes,

insomnia, and depression. Endurance exercise before meals lowers blood glucose more than the

same exercise after meals. According to the World Health Organisation, lack of physical activity

contributes to approximately 17% of heart disease and diabetes, 12% of falls in the elderly, and

10% in breast cancer and colon cancer. Aerobic exercise also works to increase the mechanical

efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness

(strength training).

MUSCULAR STRENGTH

Muscular strength is the limit to which muscles can exert force by contracting against resistance

(e.g. holding or restraining an object or person).

Strength refers to the ability of muscles to generate force against physical objects and/or

resistance. In the fitness world, this typically refers to things like how much weight you can lift or

how many push ups you can do. This type of resistance can include dumbbells, barbells, resistance

bands, machines, cables or your own body. When lifting heavy weight, you increase strength,

muscle size and connective tissues such as ligaments and tendons. The muscular system is made up

of muscles, tendons, ligaments and connective tissue (fascia) that help to support internal organs.

All of these systems work together to provide the body with stability and posture, motion, heat,

circulation and help in digestion.

MUSCULAR ENDURANCE

Muscular Endurance is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain repeated contractions

against a resistance for an extended period of time (e.g. rowing or cycling). It helps to increase bone

mineral density, improve tolerance to lactic acid concentrations, and strengthen the integrity of

muscular connective tissue.

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FLEXIBILITY

Flexibility is the ability to achieve an extended range of motion without being impeded by excess

tissue, like fat or muscle (e.g. executing a leg split).

Flexibility refers to the range of motion or movement of a joint or group of joints. The common

factor affecting flexibility is the inability of the muscles and tendons surrounding a joint to stretch

to an optimal length. Lack of mobility causes stiff joints and pain resulting in poor posture.

Flexibility lengthens the muscle and tendon tissue surrounding joints and increases the range of

motion. It also assists in preventing injuries, enhances biomechanical efficiency, coordination

between muscles groups and relieves joint pain and postural issues.

ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY

To best describe the manner in which the body moves and also the positions the body can be in

naturally, we use standard terms to create uniformity in the ranges of movement.

ANATOMICAL POSITION

This is used to describe the reference point from which the body moves from. The body stands in

the erect position, arms by the sides with palms facing anterior, feet parallel so that the toes and

head face forwards.

PRONE AND SUPINE POSITIONS

Lying face down is called prone position.

Lying face up is called supine position.

PLANES OF BODY MOTION

The body is divided into many planes of motion to describe movement.

The SAGITTAL plane passes through the body from anterior (front) to posterior (back) and

divides the body into left and right parts. The movement that exists in this plane is flexion and

extension. I.e. hip flexion

The FRONTAL (coronal) plane passes through the body from lateral to medial (ear to ear) and

divides the body into anterior and posterior parts. The movement that exists within this plane is

adduction and abduction. I.e. hip abduction.

The TRANSVERSE plane passes through the body level with the horizon and divides the body

into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts. The movement that exists within this plane is

rotation, i.e. humeral internal rotation.

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ACTIVITY

List 3 types of exercise or movement that a relevant to each plane of motion:

Sagittal

Frontal

Transverse

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DIRECTIONAL TERMINOLOGY

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Superior towards the head

Inferior towards the feet

Anterior towards the front of the body

Posterior towards the back of the body

Medial towards the mid‐line of the body

Lateral away from the mid‐line of the body

Proximal towards the attachment point of a limb

Distal away from the attachment of a limb

External/superficial more towards the surface of the body

Internal/deep more towards the inside of the body

Peripheral away from the centre of an anatomical system

Central towards the centre of an anatomical system

Unilateral on one side of the body only

Bilateral on both sides of the body

Contralateral on the opposite side of the body

Palmar on the same side as the palm of the hand

Plantar on the same surface as the sole of the foot

Dorsum on either the back of the hand or back (top) of the foot

MOVEMENT TERMINOLOGY

Flexion bending a joint (reducing the angle at a joint)

Extension the act of straightening (increasing the angle of a joint)

Abduction movement away from the midline of the body

Adduction movement towards the midline of body

Circumduction the circular movement of a limb

Inversion turning inward of a limb

Eversion turning outward of a limb

Horizontal flexion moving forward in the horizontal plane

Horizontal extension returning to original position

Hyperextension refers to the over extension, or moving beyond the normal extension range

Pronation internal rotation of the forearm/hand so the palm is facing downwards or

backwards; and a similar movement with the foot where the foot/ankle

rolls inwards.

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Supination external rotation of the forearm/hand so the palm is facing upwards or

forwards; and a similar movement of the foot where the foot/ankle rolls

outwards

Plantar flexion the action of extending the foot downwards so the plantar (sole) of the foot

faces posterior.

Dorsi flexion the action of flexing the foot downwards so the dorsal (top of the foot) of

the foot faces posterior.

ACTIVITY

List the movement occurring in the following movements: (tip – use the name of the joint along with the movement i.e. shoulder flexion)

Bicep Curl (up phase)

Press‐up (down phase)

Kicking a ball

Sitting down

in a chair

STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF THE HUMAN BODY

The body is a complex structure which is made up of many different levels, these are described

here:

1. CHEMICAL LEVEL

At this level atoms and molecules combine to make organelles, which determine cell function. These

functions can include cell membranes, mitochondria and ribosomes.

2. CELLULAR LEVEL

Life begins with one cell. This cell is replicated through a process called mitosis, until the body get a

full set of 46 chromosomes. By adulthood, the body has 10 trillion cells.

The other major function on the cellular level is cellular differentiation, which facilitates the specific

functions of cells and genes in the human body. Cellular differentiation determines differences in,

for example, skin, eye and hair colour.

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3. TISSUE LEVEL

There are four distinct types of tissue which are produced when like cells come together:

o Connective tissue which includes bone, blood, and cartilage

o Muscular tissue which gives the body definition, produces force and causes motion

o Epithelial tissue which is the skin that covers the body

o Neural tissue which transmits electrical pulses throughout the body.

4. ORGAN LEVEL

Organs are formed when like tissue comes together and most organs contain all four tissue types.

There are 76 organs in the human body, each performing a specific function such as:

o blood movement (the heart)

o waste management (the liver and kidneys)

o respiration (the lungs)

o regulation of body temperature (the skin)

o glucose maintenance (kidneys and pancreas)

5. SYSTEM LEVEL

All previously mentioned

levels come together to form

systems that perform specific

human functions. These

organ systems include the

cardiovascular system (blood

flow), the gastrointestinal

system (body waste) and the

skeletal system (human

bones). In all, the human

body has 11 organ systems.

6. ORGANISM LEVEL

This is the final level, where

all the previous levels

function together and form

an organism.

(Sourced from: http://anatomyandphysiologyi.com/)

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THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

ANTERIOR SKELETAL SYSTEM

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ANTERIOR SKELETAL SYSTEM

SPINAL POSTURE

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Curvatures of the Spine

The following diagram indicates the different

curvatures of the spine in relation to the 4 sections

which consist of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and

sacral spine.

Spinal Movement

The next diagram shows the

degrees of movement possible by

the cervical spine, the include;

lateral flexion (tilting the head

from side to side), flexion and

extension (bring the chin closer to

the chin and then further away

from the chin, and lateral rotation

(looking left or right whilst keeping

the body facing forward).

The diagram to the right indicates

the movement permitted at the

thoracic and lumbar spine, this

include; lateral flexion (side

bending), Flexion and extension

(bending forward and back from

the hips) and rotation (look left

and right moving from the lower

part of trunk)

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POSTURAL DEIVATION OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Kyphosis

This postural deviation involves the increased kyphotic curve of the thoracic spine creating a

hunchback or slouching posture. The thoracic spine has a naturally rounded curve; however, in this

condition the rounding is exaggerated. The following table indicates the areas that are likely to

need addressing and exercises that can improve the condition:

Muscles that are likely to be

shortened and tight include:


weak and stretched include:

Exercises to help this

condition include:

o latissimus dorsi

o pectorialis minor

o pectorialis major

o intercostals

o internal oblique

o anterior deltoid

o abdominals

o gluteals

o Seated rows

o Supermans

o Abdominal stretch

o Resistitive scapula

retraction

o Reverse fly

o Back extensions

Lordosis

Lordosis is a condition where lumbar spine has an over exaggerated lordotic curve (inward curve). A

healthy spine possesses a small degree of a lordotic curvature; however, similar to kyphotic the

curvature goes beyond the naturally healthy level. The following table indicates the areas that are

likely to need addressing and exercises that can improve the condition:


shortened and tight include:


weak and stretched include:

Exercises to help this

condition include:

o Iliopsoas

o Rectus femoris

o Lower back erector spinae

o Iliopsoas

o Rectus femoris

o Lower back erector spinae

o Bridge

o Hip flexor stretch

o Abdominal crunch

Scoliosis

Scoliosis is a postural deviation where they

spine is unnaturally curved laterally. The

diagram on the right indicates the lateral

curvature of the spine. This condition is

usually accompanied with vertebral rotation

causing the ribs to rotate.

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FUNCTION OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Differently shaped bones that join together in a collection form the shape of the human body.

When two bones meet they make a joint. The soft tissues of the body are supported by the

skeleton for maintenance of form and posture. Vital organs are also protected by the strong

structure of the skeleton. Bones store important minerals like calcium, for muscle contractions and

transmission of nervous system messages and phosphorus, used for normal cell functionality.

Therefore the specific functions of the skeletal system include:

o Protection – acts as a protective structure for vital organs. Some examples include the skull

protecting the brain and the lungs being protected by the rib cage.

o Support – the skeletal system provides the framework of the body’s shape, without it the body

would not be kept upright.

o Movement – individual bones within the skeletal system connect together to form joints. There

are several different types of joints which allow limited movement planes (explained later).

Movement occurs from the muscles which are attached to each bone within the joint.

o Blood production – skeletal bones consist of cancellous bone (spongy bone) that contains

redbone marrow the blood cell production component.

o Mineral storage – the bone can also store minerals within its structure. Calcium us stored

within bone matrix and iron can be stored within the bone marrow.

There are 206 bones in the body connected by a variety of joints. Muscles produce force that

causes movement to occur at the joints. The skeleton is further divided into the axial skeleton and

appendicular skeleton.

The axial skeleton consists of the: The appendicular skeleton consists of:

o skull and facial bone

o sternum

o ribs

o vertebral column

o The pectoral girdle and the

arm‐scapula, clavicle,

humerus, radius, ulna,

carpals, metacarpals and

phalanges

o The pelvic girdle and the

legs – the ilium,

o ischium, pubis, femur,

patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals,

metatarsals and phalanges

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BONES

Structure of long bone

Articular Cartilage: This is a layer of tough tissue

located at the end of the bone. It acts to provide a

smooth and lubricated surface for articulation

between two bones at a joint.

Periosteum: This is a thick membrane which covers

the outer layer of a bone, apart from the end of

long bones.

Compact bone: one of the main components of

bone, it makes up one of two types of bone tissue.

Its role is to create and provide a strong structure

within the bone.

Cancellous bone: also known as spongy bone, this

is the second type of tissue which constitutes bone

tissue. It is a weaker, less dense structure that

contains red bone marrow for blood production to

occur.

Bony epiphyseal line: In children and adolescents,

this line is called an epiphyseal plate and is made

of hyaline cartilage. Referred to as the growing

plate, it is location where growth takes place

within the bone. In adulthood, when growing

stops, this hyaline cartilage (plate) turns into an

epiphyseal plate.

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THE CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEM

OVERVIEW OF THE CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The cardiorespiratory system is a combination of

the cardiovascular system and the respiratory

system working together. The cardiorespiratory

system is made up of the heart, blood vessels

(cardio elements), two lungs and airways

(respiratory elements). The heart and lungs

work together to provide the body with

adequate levels of oxygen to enable survival.

This system and all its components work

together to transport gases to and from the

lungs and cells within the body.

This system functions together as a whole, but

each component has individual roles to play. It

begins with the respiratory system inhaling of

gases (mostly important gas being oxygen) from

the surrounding environment into the lungs. To

reach the lungs air travels down the trachea

(windpipe) before the trachea branches off into

a left and right bronchus (stiff cartilage and

smooth muscle make up the trachea and

bronchi). To ensure the air is clean mucus is

secreted in these airways to filter dust and

particles in the air. The air continues to travel through these smaller airways in the lungs called

bronchioles and finally into the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs. The alveoli are surrounded by tiny

blood vessels known as capillaries.

Once in the lungs gaseous exchange occurs, which is where oxygen that has reached the alveoli is

transported through the alveolar walls into the blood vessels. At the same time carbon dioxide is

exchanged in the opposite direction moving from the blood vessels to the alveoli.

The carbon dioxide is simply forced out the body during exhalation of the lungs.

The next stage is the transportation of the oxygen within the blood which is called gaseous

transport and is now the responsibility of the cardiovascular system. The blood travels back to the

heart from the lungs where it is pumped out to the rest of the body.

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THE PROCESS OF TRANSPORTING AND EXCHANGING OXYGEN AND CARBON

DIOXIDE

In physiology, respiration is defined as the transport of oxygen from the outside air to the cells

within tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. The respiratory system

works with the circulatory system to carry gases to and from the tissues.

In air‐breathing vertebrates like ourselves, respiration of oxygen includes four stages:

Ventilation – moving of the ambient air into and out of the alveoli of the lungs.

Pulmonary gas exchange – exchange of gases between the alveoli and the pulmonary

capillaries.

Gas transport – movement of gases within the pulmonary capillaries through the circulation

to the peripheral capillaries in the organs, and then a movement of gases back to the lungs

along the same circulatory route.

Peripheral gas exchange – exchange of gases between the tissue capillaries and the tissues

or organs, impacting the cells composing these and mitochondria within the cells.

Respiratory and cardiovascular activities are intensified during exercise. However, respiratory

activity is highly voluntary (you can control your breathing) compared to cardiovascular activity

which is totally involuntary.

MAIN MUSCLES IN RESPIRATION

During respiration, there are several muscles which have the ability to assist with respiration. These

can be broken down into main muscles that are used during normal breathing and accessory

muscles which are additional muscles that are active during elevated breathing, mainly during

exercise. Some of the main muscles are also mainly function during inspiration or expirations and

this will be indicated in the description of the muscle.

Main muscles used during respiration:

Diaphragm: the main muscle used in respiration controlling the volume of the lungs, it is located at

the base of the lungs. It contracts to flatten and increases the volume within the thoracic region to

draw air into the lungs (inhalation). It then relaxes and bulges upwards to push air out the lungs

(exhalation).

Internal and external intercostal muscles: located inbetween the ribs, these muscles act as a

synergist to the diaphragm contracting and relaxing to increase and decrease the lung space,

assisting inhalation and exhalation.

Scalenes: the scalenes have a small role during normal breathing, which is to help stabilise the first

and second ribs.

Accessory muscles used during respiration:

Sternocleidomastoid and Scalenes: helping elevate the ribs during forced respiration, this aids

inspiration.

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Rectus abdominals and External Obliques: these muscles help respiration in two different ways;

firstly they help depress the ribs during expiration, forcing air out more rapidly; and secondly they

compress the internal organs which they lie above, helping push the diaphragm upwards.

STRUCTURE OF HEART

The heart is made up of three layers:

o Pericardium – thin protective outer

layer.

o Myocardium – thick muscular wall.

o Endocardium – thin inner lining of

the muscle.

The heart is split up into 4 chambers, the

two top chambers are called the atrium

(left and right) and the two bottom

chambers are called the ventricles (left

and right). The atrium chambers receive

blood into the heart and the ventricles

chambers pump blood away from the

heart. There are two main blood vessels which are attached to the heart, which are:

o Aorta – is the main artery which exits the heart and is pumped out by the left ventricle

o Vena Cava – is the main vein which returns the blood back to the heart and enters into the

right atrium

Within the heart there are several valves which help prevent the backflow of blood into chambers,

these include: tricuspid valve and mitral valve.

CARDIAC CYCLE

Stage 1 – The blood enters the right atrium of the heart via the vena cava veins.

Stage 2 – Once in the right atrium, the blood is pumped into the right ventricular

Stage 3 – From the right ventricle, the blood is pumped through the pulmonary arteries to the

lungs.

Stage 4 – The blood then re‐enters the heart from the lungs into the left atrium.

(Illustration sourced from http://www.heartfoundation.org.au/)

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Stage 5 – The blood is then pumped into the left ventricle where it is pumped out through the aorta

to the rest of the body.

BLOOD PRESSURE

Blood pressure is the pressure the blood exerts on the artery walls and is considered during two

different stages of the cardiac cycle – systolic and diastolic.

Systolic measures the pressure exerted on the artery walls whilst the blood is being pumped out of

the heart to the rest of the body.

Diastolic measures the pressure exerted on the artery walls whilst the blood is resting (or not being

pumped out to the rest of the body).

When blood pressure is taken, it will produce two readings giving the above measurements. The

diastolic is the lower number as there will be less pressure exerted when the heart is resting.

How blood pressure is controlled

Blood pressure is usually measured using a sphygmomanometer and is measure in mmHg.

An individual’s blood pressure can change quite often throughout the day as a result of daily

stimulants. The body changes blood pressure using receptors that are within the smooth muscular

wall of the arterioles. These receptors detect how relaxed or constricted the vessels are. Any

narrowing will restrict flow causing less blood to be transported through the vessels and around the

body. This is then relayed onto the brain, which stimulates a nervous and hormonal reaction,

inducing the heart to beat faster and overcome the restriction. As a result this causes high blood

pressure, and can occur for short periods of time; however, if it is prolonged then hypertension is

developed.

Normal blood pressure is considered to be 120/80.

Effects of exercise on blood pressure

The effect of exercise on blood pressure can be related to short‐term affects or long‐term effects,

they consist of the following:

Short‐term effects – during exercise the body requires additional oxygen and nutrients, so to

achieve this, the cardiovascular and the respiratory systems work harder. The heart, a component

of the cardiovascular system, is required to pumper harder and faster to push more blood around

the body. As a result, the pressure exerted on the artery walls increases during the contraction

phase but remains constant during the relaxation of the heart. Therefore systolic blood pressure

increases and diastolic blood pressure remains relatively constant.

Long‐term effect – the long term effects of exercise include the decrease in blood pressure at rest.

This is achieved as a result of the heart and cardiovascular system being more efficient when the

body is not exercising. To achieve this long term effect, exercise is must be performed on a regular

basis, over a long period of time.

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SYSTEMIC AND PULMONARY CIRCULATION

The following illustration shows the

circulation system and the route it takes.

Systemic circulation is the circulation from

the heart to the whole body, whereas

pulmonary circulation is the name given to

the circulation of blood passed the lungs.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF

BLOOD VESSELS

Within the cardiovascular system, there

are several different types of blood vessels

which have different structures. These

include:

Arteries – these are blood vessels which

transport blood away from the heart (with

the exception of the pulmonary artery

which transports blood from the lungs to

the heart). The blood transported by

arteries are always oxygenated.

Veins – These are blood vessels that

transport blood towards the heart (with

the exception of the pulmonary vein which transports blood from the heart to the lungs). Veins

always carry deoxygenated blood.

Capilaries – these are blood vessels which attach arteries and veins and are responsible for allowing

gases to diffuse in and out to and from other cells.

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THE CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND EXERCISE

The cardiovascular system serves five important functions during exercise:

o Delivers oxygen to working muscles

o Oxygenates blood by returning it to the lungs

o Transports heat (a by‐product of activity) from the core to the skin

o Delivers nutrients and fuel to active tissues

o Transports hormones

Exercise places an increased demand on the cardiovascular system. Oxygen demand by the muscles

increases sharply. Metabolic processes speed up and more waste is created. Also AN increased

amount of heat is produced from the increased metabolism; therefore the whole body temperature

will rise.

To perform as efficiently as possible the cardiovascular system must regulate these changes and

meet the body’s increasing demands.

HEART RATE

Your heart rate is an important guide for your exercise program because it can tell you how

exercise is affecting you. Your heart rate can be used to measure intensity of exercise as well as

gains in fitness. Knowing what to expect and how to gauge your heart rate can make your exercise

program more effective.

MAXIMAL HEART RATE

Maximal heart rate is the greatest heart rate that can be measured when individuals are exercising

to the point of stopping because they cannot exercise longer. Several equations have been

developed to estimate maximal heart rate:

Maximal heart rate = 220 minus age (low estimate)

Maximal heart rate = 210 minus [0.5 x age] (high estimate)

Maximal heart rate = 226 minus age (estimate for older individuals)

Maximal heart rate can, however, vary greatly among different individuals of the same age.

SUBMAXIMAL HEART RATE

Submaximal heart rate is where the heart is beating below the maximal heart rate.

A submaximal heart rate is a rate at which an individual can sustain for a period of time, whereas a

maximal heart rate would be too high to sustain.

Aerobic Exercise

Aerobic exercise is any sustainable activity that causes a rise in the heart rate. This activity must be

done for at least three minutes at a higher than resting intensity. As the intensity of aerobic

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exercise increases, so does your heart rate. When maximum capacity of work is achieved your heart

rate will plateau. Aerobic exercise can be performed in various modes. Exercises which involve

upright positions like jogging will result in an increased heart rate compared to those done in a

seated or reclined position like bike riding or swimming.

Resistance Training

Resistance training done with or without movement causes an increase in heart rate. However, this

increase is different from aerobic exercise. An increase in heart rate from resistance training is due

to an increased after‐load in the heart, whereas during aerobic exercise it is due to an increased

volume of blood being moved throughout the body.

RATING OF PERCEIVED EXERTION (RPE)

Also explained in module 2, the RPE is most commonly used in cardiovascular training but can just

as easily be applied to strength training. It is a subjective rating that the person exercising assigns to

the intensity of their exercise based on their perception of how hard the physical exertion was.

When you ask a client how hard they are training on a scale of one to ten, you are asking for their

RPE.

If the client answers that they are at a 10 (they are probably lying because at 10 you can’t talk!) it

would equate to lifting to failure, or collapsing at the end of a run from exhaustion. It means they

have exhausted all the energy or strength that they have. An RPE of between 1 ‐ 5 would be

consistent with a warm up or cool down.

OXYGEN DEMANDS FOR FITNESS ACTIVITIES

Aerobic exercise includes lower intensity activities performed for longer periods of time.

Activities such as walking, running, circuits, cycling and swimming require a great deal of oxygen to

generate the energy needed for prolonged exercise (i.e. aerobic energy expenditure). However, in

sports which require repeated short bursts of exercise, it is the anaerobic system that enables

muscles to recover for the next burst. This includes sports such as weightlifting and sprinting.

Training for many sports demands that both energy producing systems be developed.

SHORT TERM PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES OF THE CARDIORESPIRATORY

SYSTEM WITH EXERCISE

When an individual participates in an exercise program or any physical activity, there are short term

changes which occur to the cardiorespiratory system. These include:

o Increased capillary dilation

o Blood shunting to working muscles

o Increased temperature within the working muscles

o Development of micro‐tears to the muscles

SAMPLE


PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS OF THE CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Following a cardiovascular endurance focused exercise program, there are some adaptations which

occur to cardiovascular system. These include:

o Heart size – the muscular walls of the heart hypertrophy (especially the left ventricle). This

makes the heart a more powerful pump, enabling it to push more blood around the body.

o Increase volume of blood vessels around the muscles and alveoli in the lungs.

o Blood pressure – as explained earlier, the blood pressure decreases following a long period

of exercise.

o Volume of blood pumped out the heart changes:

o Stroke volume (SV) – this is the amount of blood that leaves the heart in one pump.

As a result of the being a more powerful muscle the SV increases

o Decrease resting heart rate – as a result of the heart becoming more efficient, it does not

have to pump as often to deliver the same amount of blood. This is a result of more blood

being pumped in one pump.

o Venous return becomes more efficient, so blood returns to the heart through the veins

easier.

o The red blood cells increase their capacity to pick up and transport oxygen and carbon

dioxide. Therefore circulating blood has oxygen extracted more effectively.

o Lung capacity increases – the ability or the lungs to expand and inhale oxygen increases.

This can be a result of increased muscles involved in breathing.

o Improve respiratory muscles – the diaphragm and intercostal muscles hypertrophy and

increase their capacity to perform (reducing their fatigue level)

o Increase number of alveoli in the lungs for gases exchange.

ACTIVITY

Explain what blood pooling is and how it can be avoided:

Blood pooling

definition

How to avoid

blood pooling

certificate iii in fitness - module 4 health science and nutrition

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