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Certification of agroforestry tree germplasm in SouthernAfrica: opportunities and challenges

B. I. Nyoka • O. C. Ajayi • F. K. Akinnifesi •

T. Chanyenga • S. A. Mng’omba • G. Sileshi •

R. Jamnadass • T. Madhibha

Received: 22 June 2010 / Accepted: 27 March 2011 / Published online: 10 April 2011

� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract The lack of high quality agroforestry tree

germplasm has long been recognized as one of the

major challenges to widespread adoption of agrofor-

estry in Southern Africa. Productivity levels realized in

operational scale plantings are far less than those

demonstrated in research and this has been partly

blamed on the use of germplasm of unknown quality

and low productivity potential. The lack of high quality

germplasm is attributable to the absence of regulations

to govern its production in the countries promoting

agroforestry. Most of the agroforestry tree germplasm

is sold or distributed without regard to its genetic,

physiological and physical quality. Given these chal-

lenges, in this paper, we reviewed crop seed certifica-

tion in general and tree germplasm certification in

the USA, Europe, India, Southern Africa and the

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Devel-

opment (OECD) with a view to find potential similar-

ities with agroforestry tree germplasm. Only three

countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Burkina Faso, Mad-

agascar and Rwanda) were found to have tree germ-

plasm certification: the OECD Forest Seed and Plant

certification scheme. From the review, it is possible to

establish agroforestry tree germplasm quality control

systems, more so in countries that already have tree

seed centres and tree seed regulations. A simple

agroforestry tree germplasm certification scheme,

based on the FAOs Quality Declared Seed (QDS) with

truth-in-labelling is recommended. Three germplasm

categories (audit, select and genetically improved) are

recommended as a start. Furthermore, countries will

need to develop new or amend existing agricultural

seed policies and regulations to include agroforestry

tree germplasm certification under QDS. Finally,

germplasm quality standards for the selected agrofor-

estry trees species in the respective countries will need

to be developed.

Keywords Germplasm quality � Certification �Quality Declared Seed � Truth-in-labelling

Introduction

The rapid developments in agroforestry research and

the wide-scale promotion of its adoption, particularly

B. I. Nyoka (&) � O. C. Ajayi � F. K. Akinnifesi �S. A. Mng’omba � G. Sileshi

World Agroforestry Centre, ICRAF-Southern Africa

Regional Programme, Chitedze Research Station, 30798,

Lilongwe, Malawi

e-mail: [email protected]

T. Chanyenga

Forest Research Institute of Malawi, 270, Zomba, Malawi

R. Jamnadass

World Agroforestry Centre, United Nations Avenue,

Gigiri, 30677, Nairobi, Kenya

T. Madhibha

Forest Research Centre, Forestry Commission, Highlands,

HG595, Harare, Zimbabwe

123

Agroforest Syst (2011) 83:75–87

DOI 10.1007/s10457-011-9393-4

in the resource-constrained smallholder farming sec-

tor has triggered increased collection, distribution and

use of agroforestry tree germplasm in developing

countries. Large quantities of agroforestry tree germ-

plasm are produced, distributed and used by small-

holder farmers annually for diverse agroforestry

systems: fertilizer trees for soil fertility improvement,

fodder trees, live fence, woodlots and fruit trees.

Most agroforestry trees are established for varying

periods: from 1 to 2 years in annual relay fallows and

rotational systems that use Sesbania sesban, Tephr-

osia spp. and giant type Cajanus cajan, over a decade

for Gliricidia sepium intercrop and alleys, and for

decades with Faidherbia albida, fruit trees and

coppicing timber species (Ramadhani et al. 2002;

Kwesiga et al. 2003; Akinnifesi et al. 2010).

Agroforestry provenance trials of both exotic and

indigenous agroforestry tree species were conducted

in the early 1990s in much of tropical and subtropical

regions of Africa and Asia to identify superior seed

sources. These trials revealed substantial provenance

differences in adaptation, growth and productivity of

both the exotic and indigenous agroforestry tree

species. In some of the studies for example, differ-

ences in productivity between the best and poorest

provenance was in the order of fourfold. Table 1

shows the range in productivity for leaf biomass, an

important attribute for agroforestry tree species

selected for fodder and green manure (Cobbina and

Atta-Krah 1992; Bray et al. 1993; Kwesiga 1994;

Duguma and Mollet 1997; Mafongoya et al. 2003).

In other studies in the semiarid subtropics, germ-

plasm of several African Acacias (including F. alb-

ida) collected from the species’ entire range of

distribution were evaluated in multi-location tests

(Barnes et al. 1999; Wanyancha et al. 1994).

Provenance differences in survival and growth in

the different species were shown to be large and

significant (Wanyancha et al. 1994 Barnes et al.

1999). In the domestication of indigenous fruit tree

species (Uapaca kirkiana, Strychnos cocculoides and

Sclerocarya birrea) of the Miombo eco-region of

Southern Africa, provenance evaluation tests

revealed substantial variation in survival, growth

and fruiting (Akinnifesi et al. 2002; Mkonda et al.

2002). Current research efforts are now focussing on

developing germplasm supply systems and propaga-

tion methods for the indigenous fruit tree species

(Akinnifesi et al. 2008). From these many provenance

evaluation studies of agroforestry tree species, supe-

rior provenances were identified and recommended

for planting.

After the identification of superior seed sources for

the different environments, the challenge has been to

produce and make available to farmers that same

highly productive germplasm to ensure that the

scientifically proven results are achievable by farm-

ers. This, however, has not been the case. The high

potential demonstrated in experimentation has largely

been different from that realised by smallholder

farmers. For example, Matimati et al. (2009) reported

fodder yields of between 0.4 and 3.3 Mg ha-1 for

Acacia angustissima under smallholder farming con-

ditions yet yields of the best provenances have been

over 8 Mg ha-1 (Hove et al. 1999). Although there

are several factors such spacing, site quality and

management that can also influence yields, one

important factor that influences yields of these trees

is the choice and quality of germplasm.

Tree germplasm quality is a measure of the

potential performance of trees grown from such seed

under optimal conditions (Kindt et al. 2006). The

quality of the seed is determined by genetic, phys-

iological and physical factors. In many agroforestry

projects implemented in Southern Africa, non-spec-

ialised NGOs distribute free planting material and

pay little heed to germplasm quality, thereby uncon-

sciously undermining the potential benefits of using

productive seed sources (Graudal and Lillesø 2007).

One of the major constraints to scaling up of

agroforestry has been cited as unavailability of high

quality germplasm (Andreasen and Boland 1996;

Akinnifesi et al. 2010). Unavailability of quality

agroforestry tree germplasm is a consequence of

absence of control systems (standards, certification,

policies, regulations and enforcement) to guarantee

its production and supply. Quality seed control

systems are therefore required to ensure that the high

quality agroforestry germplasm once identified is

bulked and availed to farmers without destroying its

integrity.

To address the challenges of germplasm quality

for agroforestry tree species, this paper reviews seed

certification in plantation forest trees (and also

agricultural crops) and by drawing parallels with

these crops, develops and proposes a framework for

certifying agroforestry tree germplasm for wider use

in scaling up initiatives, with the goal of improving

76 Agroforest Syst (2011) 83:75–87

123

overall productivity of agroforestry systems. The

proposed agroforestry germplasm certification system

is meant to be simple, workable and effective,

considering the situation of the resource poor small-

holder farmers and current agroforestry tree germ-

plasm production and distribution system. Without

some form of control system of agroforestry tree

germplasm quality, all past efforts and investments

made in identifying superior provenances and seed

sources will be lost unless some form of certification

and regulations are adopted to maintain authenticity

and germplasm quality of the superior seed sources

for the benefit of the resource poor smallholder

farmers.

Seed certification

Certification of agricultural seeds has been practised

since the early 1900s (Hackleman and Scott 1990).

Seed certification is the official seal declaring that the

seed has been grown from a proven, tested and

recognized genetic source, and that it has the

stipulated minimum germination percentage, purity,

health, and moisture content (Mangold and Bonner

2008). Certified seed is therefore seed that has been

approved by statutory certifying agency or third party

and complies with regulations and specifications in

relation to trueness to type, purity, viability and

health. Certified seed is usually traceable because

each seedlot sold or distributed has a unique refer-

ence number, the seedlot number.

In some countries seed certification for some crops

is compulsory while that of other crops is often

voluntary. Compulsory seed certification involves a

number of steps that often result in the seed being

very expensive. The complete seed certification

protocol involves:

• Application process and approval to produce

certified seed.

• Verification of seed source, class and other

requirements of the seed used for raising the seed

crop.

• Field visits to inspect and verify conformity to the

prescribed field standards (spacing, isolation dis-

tances, etc.).

• Field inspections during flowering and post

harvest, processing and packing.

Table 1 Summary of selected provenance productivity studies of agroforestry species for leaf biomass

Species No. of

provenances

Location Altitude

(masl)

Latitude

(�)

Annual rainfall

(mm)

Age of test

(months)

Leaf

biomass

yield range

(t/ha)

From To

G. sepiuma 15 Msekera, Zambia 1030 13�390S 850–1000 27 2.26 5.12

S. sesbanb 7 Tumbi, Tanzania 1150 50�020S 550–1300 5 2.5 9.8

G. sepiumc 28 IITA, Nigeria 240 7�300N 1545 12 3.76 6.62

G. sepiumd 28 Utchee Creek, QLD,

Australia

80 17�450S 3500 12 3.68 11.68

G. sepiumd 22 Sei Putih, Indonesia na 3�300N 1900 12 4.03 9.42

C. calothyrsuse 15 Yaounde, Cameron 813 m 3�510N 1692 2 2.0 7.8

C. calothyrsusf 12 Domboshawa,

Zimbabwe

1530 17�370 895 48 2.46 5.68

A. angustissimaf 5 Domboshawa,

Zimbabwe

1530 17�370 895 48 5.56 10.4

Tephrosiaspp.g

14 Msekera, Zambia 1030 13�390S 850–1000 18 1.2 4.7

na Not available

Source: aKwesiga (1994); b Karachi et al. (1994); c Cobbina and Atta-Krah (1992); d Bray et al. (1993); e Duguma and Mollet

(1997); f Hove et al. (1999); g Mafongoya et al. (2003)

Agroforest Syst (2011) 83:75–87 77

123

• Seed sampling and analysis (viability tests, purity

tests, seed health test) to ensure conformity to the

prescribed standards for the species or variety.

• Approval and Issuance of certificate and certifi-

cation tags, tagging and sealing.

All these activities are usually undertaken on a

cost recovery process, which in the end results in the

compulsorily certified seed being expensive for

resource poor farmers. In view of this, other options

of producing and certifying quality seed have be

developed to improve access to affordable, but still

high quality seed by resource poor smallholder

farmers.

Quality declared seed

In response to the challenges of producing high

quality seed of agricultural crops in sufficient quan-

tities at affordable prices in developing countries, the

Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the

United Nations developed an alternative system of

producing high quality seed called Quality Declared

Seed (QDS) (FAO 2006). The purpose of QDS is to

offer an alternative, which could be used for those

crops, in which highly developed seed quality control

activities are difficult to implement or make relatively

little impact. It accommodates crops, which, for a

variety of reasons, do not easily fit within a conven-

tional seed quality control systems. QDS puts the

responsibility for seed quality offered for sale on the

seed dealers with the national government playing a

less demanding role as would have been the case in a

compulsory seed certification. QDS is seed that does

not go through the compulsory seed certification

system but is guaranteed by the seller to meet

officially prescribed standards such as purity and

germination.

Most seed laws require that certified seed offered

for sale is correctly or truthfully labelled. The

declaration which is contained on the label on the

seed package represents quality of the contents and

all the activities that contributed to that seed.

Depending on the specific requirements, the label

shows information such as the class of the seed,

seedlot number, germination percentage, purity, etc.

While the FAO proposed the use of QDS, in some

countries, there are a host of other names by which

seed produced outside the framework of a certified

scheme is known. In some countries like India, a seed

class that is called Truthfully Labelled (TL) seed

(Venkatesan 1994) is, for all intents and purposes,

similar to the QDS. The TL seed is defined as seed

that complies with the specifications set by the

certifying authorities, but is not however formally

certified by the certifying agency. TL seed also

carries label providing basic information, such as the

name of the producer, the weight of seed, the

germination rate, when the seed was tested, physical

purity, etc. Both the QDS and TL seed systems were

developed to encourage trade in those crops where

the compulsory certification system cost would be a

restriction to the distribution of seed through informal

channels. The other commonly used names include

standard seed, guaranteed seed and approved seed.

Seed certification in forest trees

To put the issue of agroforestry tree germplasm

certification into context, it was important to review

related tree germplasm certification systems in other

countries. We selected the USA, for the reason that

tree germplasm certification started in that country;

and European Union (EU) which was a major

destination of North American tree seed. We also

reviewed the tree germplasm certification of the

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Devel-

opment (OECD), as this group includes some few

countries in sub Saharan Africa (Burkina Faso,

Madagascar and Rwanda) that participate in the tree

germplasm certification scheme. The Indian tree seed

certification scheme, which is now at the legislative

stage in 2010, was also reviewed. Lastly we reviewed

the Zimbabwe tree germplasm certification scheme

which although modelled along the lines of the EU

and OECD is largely voluntary.

Tree seed certification in the USA

Although the certification of agricultural seeds had

been practiced in the USA since the early 1900s, that

for forest trees only began decades later, first, with

the establishment of tree seed control policies and

seed zones (Rudolf 1974). The need to give tree seed

buyers some form of guarantee of seed quality, or at


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the least, to know the type of material they were

purchasing coupled with the expansion of the refor-

estation programmes and the budding tree improve-

ment programmes in the 1950s gave impetus to forest

tree seed certification. Also, the large tree seed export

market in Europe further consolidated the tree seed

certification scheme as most of the European coun-

tries that imported tree seeds, were members of the

OECD, which required certification.

The first forest tree seed certification scheme in the

USA was established by the state of South Dakota in

1952 for tree seed selected for shelterbelt use (Rudolf

1974). The state of Georgia followed suite and the

certification then later spread to other states. Since

their establishment, the tree germplasm certification

standards have been updated periodically to align

them with advances in the genetic improvement of

trees (Mangold and Bonner 2008). In addition to tree

germplasm, the certification scheme in the USA was

revised and now allows certification of germplasm

from all natural plant populations of indigenous

(shrubs) or non-indigenous species even those not

covered in genetic improvement programmes. The

standards recognize 3 classes of materials namely

source-identified seeds, selected seeds and tested

seeds (Mangold and Bonner 2008). For this review,

only one major tree seed association in the USA,

the pacific Northwest Forest Tree Seed Certifiers

Association (NWFTSCA) covering Washington and

Oregon states is briefly described.

The certification of forest tree seed in Pacific

Northwest was initiated in 1966 following the forma-

tion of the NWFTSCA (Schrumpf and Pfeifer 1993).

The initial focus of certification was on seed collec-

tions made in the natural forest which later expanded to

include seed from tree improvement programs, seed

entering international markets and nursery stock

production. The certification standards have under-

gone several changes to keep abreast with the many

changes that have occurred particularly on genetic

improvement. Today, the certification is officially

called ‘Forest Reproductive Material Certification

Standards: Oregon—Washington Interagency.’

The NWFTSCA standards provide certification for

a range of forest reproductive materials (FRM) that

include seed, scions, cuttings, seedlings and pollen;

and also for the certification of FRM sources such as

seed orchards, seed production areas, and plantations

and evaluation tests. The NWFTSCA recognizes four

classes or categories of reproductive material sources.

1. Audit class: The origin of this seed is usually less

specifically identified. Certifying authorities only

review records indicating seedlot origin and

collection documentation on where and when

the seeds were collected.

2. Source-identified class: This type of germplasm

comes from a seed zone defined by a legal

description and from within a 154-m altitudinal

band. The seed zones are based on physiographic

and geological factors. This class of seed has two

subclasses:

2.1 Personally supervised production: For this

subclass, both the producer and the certi-

fying agency have personal knowledge of

the seed zone from which the seeds were

collected.

2.2 Procedurally supervised production: In this

case, only the buyer and not the certifying

agency determine if the collections are

properly identified.

3. Selected class: The reproductive material comes

from trees that were selected for a specific trait or

traits. Two classes are recognized:

3.1 Selected trees: The germplasm is obtained

from selected trees recognized to be supe-

rior for any number of traits, such as

volume, form, or disease resistance.

3.2 Untested seed orchards, seed production area:

The germplasm is obtained from individually

selected trees in seed orchards. Usually, only

the female parent is known and the details of

the parents are recorded. Although the material

may have promising traits that may be supe-

rior, such superiority has not been determined

by any form of testing.

4. Tested class: The reproductive material comes

from selected trees that have been tested for

performance of specific traits, in progeny tests or

other applicable tests under specific conditions.

The material from this class that performs best in

the tests is presumed to be the ultimate in

promised genetic superiority and is equivalent to

certified seed class in agricultural seeds.


123

Most seed laws of individual states in the USA are

similar to the Federal Seed Act as they require that

seed meet truth-in-labelling requirements. However,

individual state laws vary greatly in regard to level of

detail. Labelling details differ from state to state.

Some states require basic information such as the

species and date of collection, but others require more

comprehensive information such as germination

percent, percentage by weight of pure seed, percent-

age by count of full seed, origin, elevation, etc.

Tree seed certification in the EU

The European Union (EU) tree seed certification

scheme (called Council Directive 1999/105/EC of 22

December 1999 on the marketing of forest reproduc-

tive material) was first enacted in 1966, and has been

substantially amended several times to incorporate

advances in tree improvement (EU 2000: Directive

199/105/CE). The scheme was designed to regulate

the movement and marketing of forest reproductive

material among the EU member countries. Like the

NWFTSCA of USA, the EU tree germplasm certifi-

cation scheme recognizes four categories of germ-

plasm namely source identified, selected, qualified

and tested, although the classes do not necessarily

correspond. However the scheme further identifies 6

types of basic reproductive material namely; seed

source, stand, seed orchard, parents of family or

families, clonal mixtures based on degree of genetic

improvement in which the reproductive material has

been subjected to (EU 2000: Directive 199/105/CE).

These germplasm categories and types of basic

reproductive are fully described in the (EU 2000:

Directive 199/105/CE) and are summarised in

Table 2.

Tree seed certification in the OECD

The OECD tree germplasm certification scheme

(commonly called The OECD scheme for the certi-

fication of Forest Reproductive Material moving in

International trade) was first published in 1967 and

amended in 1974 and again updated in 1995/1996 and

recently (OECD 2009). The OECD was periodically

amended in order to take into account, progress

made in forest tree improvement (Nanson 2001). The

OECD tree germplasm certification scheme was

designed to control FRM moving in international

trade. The certification scheme aims to encourage the

production and use of forest tree seeds or propagules

that have been collected, processed, raised, labelled

and distributed in a manner that ensures their trueness

to name.

In the OECD scheme, there are four categories

namely source identified, selected, qualified, and

tested material. The unit of approval for reproductive

material is one of seven of the following basic

reproductive material: seed source, stand, seed plan-

tation, seed orchard, and parents of families, clonal

mixtures (Nanson 2001; Mangold and Bonner 2008).

These germplasm categories and types of the basic

reproductive of the OECD are fully described by

Nanson (2001) and are summarised in Table 3. The

OECD scheme is very similar to the standards

established in the USA except for materials from

untested seed orchards in the qualified category. The

major difference however between the EU and the

OECD schemes is that the latter is optional and

countries participate and use the scheme on a

voluntary basis while the former is compulsory

(Ackzell 2002).

Tree seed certification in Asia

Until recently, the production and distribution of tree

germplasm in India was not controlled by any form of

legislation. The first attempt to certify tree germplasm

in India began in 1979 under an Indo-Danish project

on seed procurement and tree improvement (Gopal

and Pattanath 1979). Recently, the Indian Council of

Forest Research and Education (ICFRE) lobbied for

the certification of tree germplasm and the Indian

government reinitiated the process of developing a

certification scheme for forest and agroforestry tree

germplasm (Lal et al. 2008). A decision was made to

develop a separate Seed Act for tree seeds (The

Forest Reproductive Material Bill of 2008), rather

than amend the existing Seed Act governing agricul-

tural seeds (Lal et al. 2008). The objective of

certification of tree germplasm as set out in the bill

is similar to other schemes such as that of the OECD,

which is to encourage the production and use of seed,

plants or other planting stock ensuring that the same

have been collected, transported, processed, sampled,


123

labelled, sealed, and distributed in a manner to

represent their trueness to the name and quality (Lal

et al. 2008). In the proposed bill there will be four

categories of FRM namely: Source-Identified,

Selected, Untested seed orchards and Tested.

Tree seed certification in Southern Africa

In Southern Africa, the Southern Africa Development

Community (SADC) member states recently devel-

oped and agreed on a common SADC seed certifi-

cation and quality control for agricultural crops

(SADC SSN 2008). The scheme however excludes

tree germplasm. Some member countries have how-

ever toyed with the idea of certification for tree

germplasm. A recent draft seed policy developed in

Namibia for example, proposes the setting up of a

voluntary seed certification with the government

enforcing a truth-in-labelling (NASSP 2005). The

draft policy however alluded to the potential chal-

lenges for tree germplasm certification. In Zambia,

the Plant Variety and Seeds regulations of 1997

require compulsory certification of seed of major

crops only but is however silent on tree germplasm.

Tanzania successfully adopted and modified the FAO

QDS system for field crops (Granqvist 2009). The

QDS was incorporated into the national Seeds Act of

2003, along with its seed rules, regulations &

procedures, and guidelines for control of 2007. In

Malawi, calls have been made to control quality of

agroforestry tree germplasm through certification and

labelling with basic information including viability,

purity and seed source (Lillesø 2007).

Table 2 Categories of forest reproductive material and the basic type of material in the European Union scheme

Increasing refinement

of the source

Type of basic material Category of forest reproductive material (germplasm)

Source identified Selected Qualified Tested

Seed source m

Stand m m m

Seed orchard m m

Parents of families m m

Clones m m

Clonal mixture m m

Increasing genetic quality ��!

Source: EU (2000)

Table 3 Categories of forest reproductive materials and types of basic materials in the new Organisation for Economic Cooperation

and Development certification scheme


of the source

Type of basic material Category of forest reproductive material (germplasm)

Source identified Selected Qualified Tested

Seed source m

Stand m m m

Seed plantation m m

Seed orchard m m

Parents of families m m

Clones m m

Clonal mixture m m


Source: Nanson (2001)

jjjjjjj#

jjjjjjjjjj#


123

Madagascar, which recently joined the OECD, is

the only country in Southern Africa that participates

in the OECD tree germplasm certification scheme

(OECD 2009). Burkina Faso and Rwanda are the

other countries in SSA that also recently joined the

same OECD certification scheme. Although South

Africa and Zimbabwe participate in the other OECD

schemes, there are not members of certification

scheme for tree germplasm. Zimbabwe has however,

a voluntary tree germplasm certification scheme, with

germplasm categories comparable to some of the

categories in the OECD scheme.

Zimbabwe tree seed certification

The Zimbabwe seed legislation (Seed Act of 1965

and amended in 1971) only covers agricultural

seeds. The Zimbabwe Forestry Commission, a

quasi-government organisation however, produces

and markets tree seed on the regional and interna-

tional markets. The tree germplasm is voluntarily

certified as no national legislation or policies exist

for certification of tree germplasm. The Zimbabwe

tree germplasm classification system was developed

initially based on the breeding programme of

industrial species (pines and eucalypts) for planta-

tion development and the huge export market of

improved tree seed to the USA, Australia and South

Africa. There are four recognised germplasm cate-

gories namely: Unselect, Select, Genetically

improved (GG1 seed, GG2 seed, GG3 seed) and

Family-identified seed. The tree germplasm catego-

ries are fully described by Barnes et al. (1997) and

are summarised in Table 4.

Proposed agroforestry tree seed certification

Based on the existing agricultural seed policies, laws

and regulations among the SADC member countries,

it is feasible to include agroforestry tree seed under

both voluntary (QDS) with truth-in-labelling as such

provisions already exist in some of the agricultural

seed laws of SADC member countries and also in the

SADC seed certification scheme for crops. The

challenges of compulsory seed certification are

usually centred on the cost of certification of the

seed and the QDS approach has been shown to

substantially reduce these costs (FAO 2006).

The proposed certification of agroforestry tree

germplasm, aims to encourage the production and use

of agroforestry tree germplasm that has been raised,

collected, processed, labelled and distributed in a

manner that ensures its trueness to name and

productivity potential. It cannot be expected that the

high standards governing the collection, distribution

and use of forest tree seed in Europe and North

America be applied wholesomely to the situation in

developing countries. However, it should also be

accepted that certain minimum requirements are met

such as identification of material, viability, purity and

labelling information.

Based on the review of the tree seed certification

systems elsewhere and our local experience in the use

of agroforestry tree seed in Southern Africa, we

propose a certification system that is simple but

robust and takes into consideration the present state

of agroforestry tree seed industry and building plans

for its future development. We propose a certification

scheme which for a start recognizes three categories

of agroforestry tree seed namely; audit seed, select

Table 4 Categories of forest tree germplasm and the type of basic material used by of the Zimbabwe Forestry Commission


of the source

Type of basic material Category of forest tree germplasm

Unselected Select Genetically improved Family identified

Seed source m

Stands, plantations m

Clone mixture (mass selection) m

Clone mixture (half-sib family selection) m

Clone mixture (full-sib family selection) m

Family identified m


Source: Barnes et al. (1997)

jjjjjjj#


123

seed and genetically improved seed, each with two

types of basic agroforestry germplasm type. Table 4

summaries the categories of the proposed agrofor-

estry tree germplasm for Southern Africa. The

following are the brief descriptions of the proposed

agroforestry tree germplasm categories for Southern

Africa.

1. Audit seed: The tree germplasm comes from

untested trees that may have little or no selection.

The source trees have no proof of genetic

superiority. The number of trees from which

the germplasm is collected is also set. Two types

of germplasm recognized are:

1.1 Scattered farmland seed source: The seed

is collected from scattered trees left (or

planted if exotic) on the agricultural fields.

No selection is practised.

1.2 Natural forest or woodland: The germ-

plasm is collected from trees in natural

forests and woodlands found. This subclass

of seed has known origin and may have

some form of phenotypic selection imposed

on the trees.

2. Select seed: This category of germplasm is

source-identified and collected from selected

trees (phenotypically) that come from stands

(provenance trials) of known geographic origin

or from plantations and woodlots of known or

unknown original seed source. The minimum

number of trees from which the germplasm is

collected is known.

2.1 Small plantations or woodlots source: This

germplasm is collected from selected trees

in plantings of various agroforestry tree

species on the farm. Good quality seed is

collected from selected trees showing

desirable (phenotypic) attributes.

2.2 Provenance identified: The seed is col-

lected from trees in selected provenances in

provenance trials either thinned and/or

rogued of undesirable individual trees,

whole families and provenances.

3. Genetically improved seed: The germplasm is

obtained from trees of proven genetic superiority

for specific characteristics through progeny or

clonal tests. This category of seed is equivalent

to the certified seed category or class for

agricultural crops.

3.1 Clonal seed orchard: This type of agrofor-

estry germplasm is of known origin, genetic

quality and productivity. The seed is pro-

duced from tested clones following prog-

eny tests and field performance data is

available. This is the type of agroforestry

seed that can be marketed across country

boundaries.

3.2 Seedling seed orchard (BSO): This type of

germplasm is also of known origin, genetic

quality and productivity. The seed is pro-

duced from tested families in breeding

seedling orchards (Barnes 1984) and field

family performance data is available. This

type of agroforestry germplasm can also be

marketed across country boundaries.

The first two categories (audit and select seed

sources) could be produced based on the principles of

QDS with truth-in-labelling, while the third category

(genetically improved seed) could be produced and

marketed based on the principles of either QDS or

compulsory certification. Superimposing these pro-

posed categories on the current agroforestry tree

germplasm system in Malawi, it is apparent that 90%

of the germplasm supplied to farmers between 2007

and 2010 (Nyoka et al. 2011) would be classified as

audit and the remainder would be select seed. This is

also the situation in most countries in Southern

Africa. The objective should be to progressively

move from the audit category to the other categories

were the genetic quality of the germplasm is better.

The growth and sophistication of germplasm

quality control systems is largely a function of the

progress in the genetic improvement of the species

and the market demands. Agricultural crops have had

breeding programmes for many years compared to

commercial forestry trees, which in turn have more

advanced breeding programmes compared to those of

agroforestry tree species that are still at the domes-

tication and first generation stage. Consequently

germplasm control systems are more advanced for

agricultural crops compared to commercial forestry

tree species and agroforestry tree species. All the

major tree germplasm certification schemes (USA,

EU, OECD, India and Zimbabwe) evolved from the


123

genetic improvement of commercial plantation tree

species and the market demand for quality tree

germplasm, whose performance is known.

With the exception of the OECD which is

voluntary, the tree germplasm certification processes

for other countries are compulsory, requiring inspec-

tions that make the germplasm expensive. Some

elements of these schemes (e.g. germplasm classifi-

cation) can however be adapted for agroforestry tree

species while the certification process adapts the QDS

originally developed for agricultural crops. For those

countries that may be interested in international trade

of the tree germplasm, the voluntary OECD scheme

would be an alternative provided membership fees

are affordable. In Zimbabwe, the tree germplasm

categories are modelled along the lines of the EU and

OECD schemes but the certification process is

voluntary. The certification is however not supported

by legislation or policy.

Opportunities and challenges

There are opportunities and challenges to the pro-

posed agroforestry tree germplasm certification.

Compulsory certification of germplasm may result

in the certified germplasm being very expensive,

driving away farmers’ interest in getting high quality

germplasm. The QDS, the alternative to full certifi-

cation has been shown to reduce the costs of

certification and is therefore a more likely route

rather than full certification of trees as in the EU,

North America and the OECD schemes that were

designed for the rich developed countries or for

germplasm moving in international trade. Tanzania

successfully adopted the FAO QDS system and

modified it to suit the country’s needs for seeds of

field crops (Granqvist 2009).

In Malawi for example, agroforestry tree germ-

plasm in excess of 50 metric tonnes was distributed

annually to farmers by government departments,

NGOs and international organisations between 2007

and 2010 (Nyoka et al. 2011). Most of that

germplasm was distributed with the barest of infor-

mation on its quality despite it being produced and or

handled by organisations with potential capacity to

monitor its quality. The opportunity was there but in

the absence of regulations and standards to ensure

adherence to, this was often overlooked. For the other

countries in Southern Africa, statistics on agrofor-

estry tree seed production and supply is very limited

but is likely to be substantial in Zambia and

Tanzania, and perhaps moderate in Zimbabwe where

the World Agroforestry Centre has been active in the

last two decades.

There are a number of countries in Sub-Saharan

Africa that are members of the OECD and therefore

already familiar with its certification schemes. Burk-

ina Faso, Madagascar and Rwanda in particular are

participating in the certification of tree germplasm

(OECD 2009). Madagascar has participated in this

scheme since 1998 with financial support from the

Swiss government and is already certifying seeds of

Adansonia digitata and Delonix regia under the

OECD Scheme and trading them internationally

(Koskela et al. 2010). Although designed for inter-

national trade, the OECD system can be used for

germplasm used within countries (Nanson 2001). In

Ethiopia, tree germplasm is produced and traded

under two of the OECD FRM categories of source

identified or tested while Kenya, applies all the four

categories of the OECD FRM scheme for germplasm

sold in the country (Koskela et al. 2010). For the

developing countries in Southern Africa, joining the

OECD scheme would require weighing the member-

ship costs (the fees) against the benefits.

A significant amount of agroforestry germplasm is

exchanged between farmers and this will always be

difficult to monitor its quality unless, a QDS system

is adopted. Lewis and Mulvany (1997) pointed out

that on-farm saved germplasm or that exchanged with

neighbours has ‘neighbour or community certifica-

tion’ and is therefore likely to be of ‘good’ quality.

Furthermore, experiences in Tanzania with crop

seeds indicated that the QDS can help improve seed

quality which is exchanged or sold within the

community (Granqvist 2009). The problem of quality

of tree germplasm may therefore be with externally

sourced rather than the within-community exchanged

germplasm.

The challenges of certifying agroforestry tree

germplasm at the present moment are exacerbated

by the absence of identifiable seed sources, delinea-

tion of tree seed zones for which certification would

be based on. Furthermore, most national tree seed

centres that were established with the objective of

providing tree germplasm regulatory functions appear

not to have ever assumed this role (Graudal and


123

Lillesø 2007). The regulatory functions (formulating

national policies and standards and legislation on tree

germplasm) have largely remained unfulfilled as tree

germplasm policies and standards have not been

developed and the market for tree germplasm has

remained unaware of appropriate standards of tree

germplasm. Also due to the decline in funding to the

seed centres, most of them changed their focus from

regulatory functions to the commercial business: as

tree seed enterprises at the expense of the normative

functions (Graudal and Lillesø 2007). The tree seed

centres’ role in tree germplasm regulation will

therefore require reviewing and strengthening.

Conclusions and recommendations

In order to improve the quality of agroforestry tree

germplasm, there is a need to institute some form of

quality control in the production and labelling of

agroforestry germplasm for the benefit of smallholder

farmers. The absence of standards and supporting

regulations in the past has meant that most agrofor-

estry tree seeds are offered to farmers with incom-

plete or no information, even the most basic

information such as viability. Furthermore, the seed

is often sold or distributed without any seedlot

numbers, which is important for traceability. To

improve the quality of agroforestry germplasm,

without making it excessively expensive, we propose

the adoption of voluntary (QDS) scheme. Compul-

sory certification could be reserved for the genetically

improved agroforestry germplasm, traded between

countries.

To enable the implementation of the proposed

certification of agroforestry tree germplasm, we

further recommend the development or amendment

of existing agricultural seed laws and policies to

include agroforestry tree germplasm under both

voluntary (QDS) and compulsory certification with

truth-in-labelling of all seeds sold or even when given

free to farmers. This recommendation is consistent

with recommendation by the World Bank for gov-

ernments to develop and support a legal framework

that permits the marketing of uncertified, but ‘truth-

fully labelled’ seed which conform to the prescribed

standards regarding the genetic quality, germination

and the moisture content laid down for the species,

except that it would not carry an official certification

tag (Venkatesan 1994). In India for example, a

decision was made to develop a separate law for tree

seeds (the Forest Reproductive Material Bill of

2008), rather than amend the existing Seed Act

governing agricultural seeds as it was deemed to be

inadequate (Lal et al. 2008).

For the SADC countries, individual countries

would need to develop a list of those important

agroforestry species proposed for control of their

germplasm, field standards for germplasm produc-

tion, germplasm quality standards, and germplasm

categories for each of the species relevant to their

countries. The agroforestry germplasm quality stan-

dards that will govern agroforestry germplasm should

set minimum levels of physical, genetic and physi-

ological qualities. Although we recommended three

categories of germplasm (Audit, Select and Geneti-

cally Improved Seed) each with two types of

agroforestry germplasm; individual countries can still

modify these to suit their circumstances. With the

adoption of some form of certification of agroforestry

germplasm, we envisage an improvement on the

impact of agroforestry on the livelihoods of small-

holder farmers, which for long has been hampered

by the unavailability of high quality agroforestry

germplasm.

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