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A Verdant Paradise in the Concrete Jungle:

The Significance of Olmsteds Central Park in the Development of American Civic Culture

Raney Christine Russell

American Culture 592: Research/Creative Project

First Reader: Robert L. Houbeck, Jr.

Second Reader: Dr. Frederic Svoboda

December 7, 2012


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Contents

1. An Overview 3-42. A Brief History 4-9

2.1.Frederick Law Olmsted: A Genius of Space 9-112.2.Calvert Vaux: Architect & Urban Planner 11-122.3.Olmsted and Vaux Unite: The Greensward Design 12-14

3.

Controversy 14

3.1.Pro-Olmsted 14-153.2.Pro-Vaux 153.3.The Winner 16-17

4. The Parks Importance 174.1.Impact on American Culture 17-194.2.Impact on Urban Planning 19-21

5. Involvement 21-226. In Closing 22-237. Works Cited 24-268. Figures 27-29


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1. An Overview[Central Park] is of great importance as the first real park made in the countrya democratic

development of the highest significance and on the success of which, in my opinion, much of the

progress of art and esthetic culture in this country is dependent.

Frederick Law Olmsted, August 1, 1858Central Park is by far the most famous park in America; possibly the most well-known

park in the world. It was named a historical landmark by United States Secretary of the Interior

Stewart Udall in May, 1963 (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 505). Each year Central Park is flooded

with over thirty-five million visitors (Fisher 27). Established in the center of busy Manhattan, its

grounds serve as a sanctuary to wildlife and most notably throngs of birds. Within the park

athletes, artists, dreamers, musicians, and families seek refuge from the busy city streets. Central

Park is a staggering eight hundred and forty-three acres; it runs north to south from 110th Street

to 59th Street and east to west from 5th Avenue to Central Park West [8th Avenue] (Reiss 5). Set

off through the park at 59th Street and Columbus Circle; within minutes the cacophonous sounds

of the city fade and one is transported into a lush haven of blissful peace.

At two and one-half miles long and a half mile wide, Central Park contains fifty-

eight miles of pathways, twenty-six ball-fields, twenty-one playgrounds, nine-thousand park

benches, fifty-five monuments and sculptures, thirty-six bridges and seven bodies of water

(Miller 12-13). Central Park seems so natural people may not realize it is entirely man-made,

handcrafted by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. How did this historical landmark

come to be, and why was it so important for the early inhabitants of this fast-paced city? Not

only has Central Park has played a very important role in American Culture, its conception has

impacted urban development and brought into the American consciousness that parks can have a


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vital impact on our cities. Among these, topics examined within this dissertation include: a

chronicle ofCentral Parksorigins, the parks landscape and architectural design plan

Greensward, the controversy surrounding its design team, an analysis and discussion of the

parks importance, and keys to involvement with Central Park.

2. A Brief HistoryIn September 1609, Henry Hudson and his diminutive crew were not looking to establish

a port citythey were trying to find a new route to China. Hudson, native to England, and his

group, comprised of both Dutch and English men, were sailing on behalf of the Dutch East India

Company; which had given them the task of finding a new route to China via the Arctic Circle

(Sanderson 10). Mannahatta (see figure 1), or Island of Many Hills, was home to the Lenape

Algonquin Indians, countless animals, birds, and fish; and it would be considered [if left intact]

today to have more environmental communities than any national park, including Yellowstone or

Yosemite (Sanderson 10). The awe-inspiring landscape that Hudson stumbled upon would

remain intact nearly two hundred years. Lincoln Diamants Chaining the Hudson: The Fight for

the River in the American Revolutionrelates Ambrose Serles vivid description of the British

assault on Manhattan during the American Revolution on September 15, 1776:Awful & grand; I might say, beautiful, but for the melancholy seriousness which

must attend every circumstance, where the lives of men, even the basest

malefactors, are at stake. The hills, the woods, the river, the town, the ships,

pillars of smokeso terrible and incessant a roar of guns, few even in the Army

& Navy had ever heard beforeall heightened by a most clear & delightful

morning, furnished the finest landscape that either art and nature combined could

draw, or the imagination conceive (55).


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In 1776, with more than thirty thousand inhabitants, New York City was the second largest city

in the American colonies; larger than Boston, and a few thousand inhabitants short of the size of

Philadelphia (Sanderson 43). Apparently, in 1776, the city still had an attractive, lush landscape.

It became clear to New York City officials by 1800 that the expanding citys industrial

future was imminent. The location of Manhattan on the mouth of the Hudson River, coupled

with its central location on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, gave the city a strategic advantage

over other coastal cities (Heckscher 7). Additionally, between 1800 and 1850, New Yorks

population increased significantly, with more than half a million migrants arriving between 1830

and 1850 alone. Immigrants from Germany and Ireland brought the citys space issues to the

forefront. In some cases, more than one hundred thousand people were occupying no more than

one square mile (Martin 126). As immigrants continued to arrive by the boatload, the city grew

and, as a result, its green space disappeared.

The introduction of the steam-powered ship alerted city officials to the need for further

expansion. Thus began the development of the renowned simple grid plan (Heckscher 9) for

the city streets of Manhattan; twelve north-south avenues, all one-hundred feet wide, and one-

hundred east-west streets, fifteen to be the width of avenues and one-hundred forty to be sixty

feet wide (Heckscher 8), visitors to New York City will recognize the grid plan, which is still

utilized today. This inevitable expansion continued during the 1810s and 1820s, and in 1825

the Erie Canal opened, driving even more commerce into the city. By 1833, the traffic

complications were so vast that the legislature had no choice but to authorize two new avenues

(Madison and Lexington) to be inserted into the grid plan (Heckscher 9). By this time, the citys

industrialized position was clear, and it was obvious to many that nature had no part in that


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future. In 1850, the Island of Manhattan had a total of seventeen parks, none of which were

large and together totaled a mere one hundred and sixty-five acres (Martin 127).

The first call for a central park in New York City dates back to 1785; which appeared in

an anonymous letter that was sent to the mayor, signed only Veritas (Martin 126). Beyond

that, the idea of a great park has been linked initially to Robert Bowne Minturn who, after

traveling abroad, conversed with his peers about the differences between New York and the great

cities in Europe (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 17). During these conversations Minturn often

discussed the need for a large park for walking and driving (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 16)

citing this as a major divergence between America and Europe. The community and business

leaders of New York agreed, citing a park as a defining characteristic of sophistication and

culture (Miller 19). In spite of this, the flood of immigrants, new cultures, and diseases made

residents of New York feel alienated and out of place (Miller 18): This made the proposal of a

public park, which would integrate all of New Yorks inhabitants, unwelcome to most.

Rosenzweig and Blackmar extensively explore the importance and motivation behind the

emergence of Central Park:

Central Park thus emerged out of a complex mix of motivationsto make

money, to display the citys cultivation, to lift up the poor, to refine the

rich, to advance commercial interest, to retard commercial development,

to improve public health, to curry political favor, to provide jobs. No

single individual either conceived or carried through the massive public

project that, in the end, cost more than ten-million dollars (three times the

citys budget in 1850) and took more than eight hundred acres out of


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[what is now] the most expensive and intensely competitive real estate

market in the United States (18).

The true champions behind the advance of the great new park were William Cullen

Bryant [for which Bryant Park, also in New York, was named] and Andrew Jackson Downing

(Heckscher 11). William Cullen Bryant was the editor of theNew York Evening Post. In 1844

he would compose an editorial titled A New Park, in which he called for a park to use for

pleasure, recreation, and shade (Heckscher 11). Bryant would go on about the central park idea,

lamenting the existence of the small parks, claiming they were such a dreadfully small space of

open ground for an immense city (Martin 127). Bryant and his editors attempted to convince

the community that a large park would be conducive to good health, and vowed there would be

fewer inducements to open drinking houses (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 24-26).

Similarly, as Minturn and Bryant before him, Andrew Jackson Downing (see figure 2)

was embarrassed by Americas lack of outdoor culture. Downing argued that What are called

parks in New York, are not even apologies for the thing; they are only squares or paddocks

(Heckscher 12). Downing believed that a large landscaped park would give New Yorkers a

public display of their city and nations cultural achievements (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 30).

After all, Downing was considered an expert in this field, as he was the popular and persuasive

editor ofthe Horticulturist (Heckscher 11) and a huge proponent of the art of landscape

gardening, modernly known as landscape architecture. Furthermore, Downing would go on to

introduce the very men who would transform the idea of a central park into a reality; Calvert

Vaux and Frederick Law Olmsted.

The pleas for a great park did not fall on deaf ears. In 1850, both candidates for mayor of

New York called for the creation of a large park (Martin 127). Downing was thrilled; in the


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August issue ofthe Horticulturisthe addressed the mayors support ofthe idea, pleased that

finally the city had awakened and realized the park was necessary (Heckscher 14).

Unfortunately, Downing would not live to see the parks inception, nor even the chosen design.

In July of 1852, the thirty-seven-year-old Downing drowned off the coast of New York in a

gallant attempt to save a friends life (Kowsky 51).

The first spot to receive serious consideration for the placement of the park was Jones

Wood, a hundred-fifty acre stretch along the east river (Martin 128). The grass was lush and

green and had rolling hills; it was the perfect spot for a park but unfortunately the owners refused

to sell (Martin 128). The special committee for the park began looking into other areas of

Manhattan. In 1853, after three years of deliberation over the park site and cost, the state

legislature authorized the City of New York to use the power of eminent domain to acquire

more than seven-hundred acres of land in the center of Manhattan (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 78-

79). However, this land would prove to be far more unsuitable for a park than that of Jones

Wood. An uneven terrain of swamps and outcroppings of large rocks, punctuated by large

reservoirs, made the land between 5th and 8th Avenues and 59th and 106th Streets [Central Park

would later be expanded to 110th Street, in1863] undesirable for private development; but at least

it was centralized (Martin 128). A central park would allow visitors easy access from different

parts of the city.

Finally, on July 21, 1853, the city passed The Central Park Act, which declared the

centralized land to be a public place in like manner as if the same had been laid out by the

commissioners of 1807 (Heckscher 15). However, by the fall of 1853, New York City still did

not have a majestic landscaped park only a law authorizing one. But before the rocks and

reservoirs covering the two and a half miles between 59th and 106th Streets could be transformed


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into an attractive, natural looking park, New York City would need to purchase the land, finance

that procurement, and remove the people who resided there. The inhabitants were mostly

impoverished immigrants, crowded into one-room cabins and rickety shanties (Martin 129).

The local government would not confiscate the land of its residents, but would take on the

property through a judicial procedure and only after payment of suitable compensation

(Rosenzweig & Blackmar 59). Records show that the city paid $5,169,369.90 for a total of

7,250 lots (Martin 129). The West Egg internet inflation calculator indicates that the value of

what the city paid in 1853 would be equivalent to $137,665,173.11 in 2011.

2.1.Frederick Law Olmsted: A Genius of Space

I have all my life been considering distant effects and always sacrificing immediate success and

applause to that future. Frederick Law Olmsted

Frederick Law Olmsted (see figure 3), known variously as Fred, or Fred-Law, was

born in Hartford, Connecticut, on April 26, 1822 (Martin 6). Olmsted wandered aimlessly

through early adulthood trying to find his niche in life. His father, a well-off business owner,

was up in arms about Olmsteds lack of enthusiasm in establishing himself. After working in

Brooklyn at a silk shop and taking a position as a sailor, he finally found himself. Olmsted

wanted to be a farmer making a difference (Martin, 47).

Although scientific farming was Olmsteds passion, he was very excited to be introduced

to the famous agricultural gardener, Andrew Jackson Downing. The two men enjoyed conversing

about Downings newly published encyclopedicFruits and Fruit Trees of America (Rybczynski

66). Olmsteds knowledge of farming and agriculture apparently made a good impression,

because Downing asked him to keep in touch (Rybczynski 66); Downings publication, The

Horticulturist,would be the first to publish Olmsteds writing. As Olmsted continued his


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farming and writing he would eventually stumble upon a new career. He would find

backbreaking work as a surveyor for the City of New York.

Ideally, Andrew Jackson Downing, the leading American landscape gardener of the mid-

nineteenth century (Martin 130), would have been the prime choice for the parks

commencement and design. However, his death made that impossible; enter Colonel Egbert

Ludovicus Viele, elected as chief engineer of Central Park (Martin 131). Viele was an engineer

and a veteran of the Mexican War; he was commissioned to do typographical surveys and get a

lay of the land (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 100). In contrast, Viele presented his own design for

the completion of Central Park in his first annual report to the city commissioners (Heckscher

20). Vieles plan was said to be pragmatic and naturalistic with few architectural

embellishments (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 101). While Vieles ideas were mediocre at best,

they were met with little criticism.

The governing committee which would oversee the design building of the Central Park

was ultimately established in April, 1857 (Heckscher 20). As a surveyor for this committee

Olmsteds position was under the chief engineer, Viele; but soon, Olmsted would be earning the

same amount as Colonel Viele. Olmsted would win the trust of the committee by showcasing his

superior skills in landscaping and taking control of his responsibilities (Rybczynski 160). Just

two months after the plans were presented unchallenged, Co lonel Vieles proposal was rejected

by the board, but he was allowed to maintain his position as chief engineer (Heckscher 20).

However, the committee decided to reorganize its senior management; the position of

Superintendent of the Central Park, second only to Viele, was given to Olmsted. Frederick Law

Olmsteds big break was yet to come in the form of an acquaintance, Calvert Vaux, to whom he

had been introduced years prior by Andrew Jackson Downing. Moreover, 1857 would turn out


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to be a pivotal year for both Olmsted and Vaux; it would also spark a debate that still rages

today.

2.2.Calvert Vaux: Architect & Urban Planner[But as] what is well designed to nourish the body and enliven the spirits through the stomach,

makes a dinner a dinner, so what is well designed to recreate the mind from urban oppressions

through the eye, make the Park the Park. Calvert Vaux, 1872

Calvert Vaux (see figure 4), was born in London, England on December 20, 1824 (Alex

and Tatum, 1). The day he met Andrew Jackson Downing, the man whom many in the Colonies

considered the highest authority on all matters of gardening and cultivation, Vaux made the

decision to leave England (Kowsky 11). The man who is credited with coining the term

landscape architecture (Alex and Tatum, 10), Calvert Vaux studied traditional architecture and

worked in the stables for the Queen before relocating to America (Kowsky 15). Upon arriving in

the Colonies, Downing and Vaux began working on architecture projects together and would go

on to publish Villas and Cottages which would showcase the teams designs (Alex and Tatum 4-

6) and was a huge success. Tragedy struck, and Downings premature death put an end to the

first part of Vauxs American career.

If Calvert Vaux had not felt that Colonel Vieles plan for the Central Park was

undistinguished and unworthy, of his idol Andrew Jackson Downing, there is a good

possibility that Vieles plan for the park would have been implemented (Heckscher 20). In

criticizing Colonel Viele's plan, Vaux stressed its lack of an artistic conception that would give

shape and coherence to the observer's experience (Kowsky 92-93) Vieles plans did not consist

of any type of landscape architecture. The goal of Vaux's entire professional career had been

to arrange useful and necessary formsand to suggest the pleasant ideas of harmonious


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proportion, fitness, and agreeable variety to the eye (Alex and Tatum 107) therefore, Central

Park would be no different. Vaux, who had pointed out the artistic limitations of Viele's plan to

Republican acquaintances on the board, carried the further distinction of having been the partner

of Downing (Heckscher 20) so Vieles plan, which had been fairly unimpeded, was now

beginning to be questioned.

2.3.Olmsted and Vaux Unite: The Greensward DesignCalvert Vaux was heard by the board that decided to announce a competition for the design

of Central Park, which would be open to the public (Martin 138). The entrants would be

competing against Colonel Vieles plan. The challenge held a first prize of $2,000. The West

Egg internet inflation calculator indicates that $2,000 in 1857 would be the equivalent to roughly

$50,000, in 2011. The chance meeting with Frederick Law Olmsted years earlier, through their

mutual friend Andrew Jackson Downing would spur, Vaux into seeking Olmsted out and

requesting his partnership in submitting a joint entry in the competition (Alex and Tatum 107).

Olmsted was hesitant; the thought of a contest in which he would be competing against his boss

was not a very welcome thought (Martin 138). Although apparently the worrying was

unnecessary, because when Olmsted consulted with Viele he simply shrugged at the idea

(Rybczynski 163)the dream team was meant to be.

Before the competition, both men had encouraged government support of culture and the

arts, and they viewed a central park as one community institution that could enhance the lives of

its citizens. Central Park would also be a democratic institution by virtue of the mixing of

classes within its borders; it was a park for the people. Therefore, the premise of their

Greensward (see figure 5)plan was that Central Park should express an all-encompassing

artistic motive (Martin 142). The partners envisaged the future Central Park as a collaboration of


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citizen a rightful welcome (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 199). And so from the beginning Central

Park was tremendously popular (Heckscher 71).

3. ControversyMost historians of Central Park have stressed the distinctive brilliance of one man, Frederick

Law Olmsted, allowing his co-designer, Calvert Vaux, to fade from view. This could be due to

the fact that the actual construction of the park was divided functionally. Vaux handled all the

structures, including pavilions, boathouses, and bridges; Olmsted handled all the rest. Vaux

himself gave complete artistic control over to Olmsted and deferred to him in all areas of

landscape and agricultural decisions.

In May of 1858, when the Central Park commissioners bestowed the singular title of

architect-in-chief on Olmsted, who at the time was working as superintendent, and began paying

Vaux daily as his assistant, Vaux was irked, to say the least (Martin 332-333). Olmsted was

made the face of Central Park by the board. It was nearly twenty years after he and Vaux

submitted the Greensward design, when his work on Central Park was officially done (Martin

333); he would remain forever protective of his creation.

3.1.Pro-OlmstedFrederick Law Olmsted felt like a father to Central Park, and in a way he was. Robert

Smithson, spokesman for the movement of earthwork, said that Olmsted throws a whole new

light on the nature of American art as Americas first earthwork artist (Miller 9). Olmsted

told Vaux in a letter that he felt had he not been superintendent and architect-in-chief, their

design would not have been implemented correctly (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 141). Olmsted

was a fierce protector of his landscape architecture, it was his art.


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Olmsted told Vaux that if he did not show his own instinctive devotion and enthusiasm

there would be no respect in the project for him (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 142). In his last letter

to Vaux, Olmsted would claim that while he appreciated Vauxs artistic work, the managing of

the construction as well as the design and plant life in the grounds, was a far harder burden to

bearthan lack of awareness surrounding Vauxs collaboration (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 148-

149).

3.2.Pro-VauxVaux is championed as being the genius behind the park by Andrew Green who

acknowledged that Vaux especially had the idea and the concept for the innovation (Miller

95). Apparently Vaux felt the same; in a very angry letter to Olmsted in 1865 he wrote that

Olmsted was like Napoleon in disguise a selfish fellow who would like to get power and

reputation on other mens brains (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 148).

If Olmsted worked alone, the Greensward plan would not have included some of its most

distinguishing features (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 122). The structures, boathouses, and bridges

were all thanks to Calvert Vaux. Bethesda Terrace is arguably one of the most important works

within Central Park; it contributes to the parks status as a work of art (Miller 36). This was

Vauxs architectural masterpiece (see figure 6).

In the recent years there has been some backlash against Olmsted; gardening writer and parks

advocate M. M. Graff thinks that Vaux should be credited as the principal designer of his joint

projects with Olmsted (Morrone 72). Graff claims that Olmsted could not draw and was a

dismal writer (Morrone 73). Some historians say that without Vaux at his side Olmsted would

only be remembered as a journalist and an author (Morrone 73) who wrote about farming and

landscape architecture.


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3.3.The WinnerMost people refer to Central Park as Olmsteds. However,among historians of American

landscape architecture, a war rages between those who feel Calvert Vaux is the true genius

behind the parks design, and those who believe that if not for Olmsted, the park would not have

the perfect balance of plants and trees that make it so important (Morrone 72). However, the

Olmsted industry emerged. Olmsted ran the most successful landscape architecture firmin the

world; he had a hand in creating or created parks across the nation, parks like Central Park,

which if never existed would be inconceivable (Morrone 72). These parks include: Belle Isle

Park in Detroit, Civic Center Park in Denver, and Prospect Park in Brooklyn. Olmsted also

designed over thirty academic campuses including: Auburn University in Alabama, Cornell

University in New York, Stanford University in California, and Yale University in Connecticut.

Olmsteds sons were also landscape architects and they continued his dynasty.

A major testament to the foresight of Olmsted was the environments he created in Central

Park. Frederick Law Olmsted was an expert in constructing an ecosystem of various trees,

shrubs, and bushes when building the park. He knew that Central Park would be utilized for

many different things; and he was right as there are a myriad of daily events that take place in

Central Park. One of the more odd events is hosted by Wildman Steve Brill. Brill is the self-

proclaimed Americas Best Known Forager. Foraging is to essentially wander in search of

food or provisions. Steve Brill gives edible tours of Central Park. Brill is a very interesting

character and very joyful about his foraging. Steve Brills favorite park to take his tours on is

Central Park, which he does every two weeks. When asked why Central Park, the Wildman

stated, What makes Central Park so unique is its an Olmsted Park. Olmsted was a talented


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planner; he created many different areas with many different types of plant life, inside Central

Park (Interview, 2009).

Frederick Law Olmsted responded to the fast-moving industrial development and

urbanization not by setting aside wilderness,but by preserving for city people a vestige (Fisher

28), of an agricultural tribute to the pastoral gardens of England. Olmsted believed parks would

educate and civilize citizens, that they would provide physical and spiritual blessings to people

from tenements and sweatshops as well as those from expensive mansions (Frederick Law

Olmsted). He felt that all people could meet and socialize in his parks, thus disabling the barriers

of social class and wealth. In his heart, Olmsted believed parks had the power to uplift

humankind.

4. The Parks ImportanceCentral Park has had very significant effects on both American culture and urban

development. It has come to be known as a democratic emblem of America, which was

Olmsteds vision. Numerous historical events have taken place inside the large park and those

memories have hold on American consciousness. Central Park is considered a work of art, a

park so large and beautiful its hard to believe it is entirely man-made. Famous people have

lived near Central Park and numerous movies and television shows have filmed there. Given

that Central Park was the first urban park in America, it has had a huge impact on how the local

government looks at parks as revenue boosters. Parks have a positive effect on property values,

which improves local economies.

4.1.Impact on American CultureCentral Park is a democratic emblem, but its existence was hardly inevitable.


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From the very beginning Olmsted and Vaux idealized landscape had to accommodate not just

city dwellers need for quiet and the contemplation of scenic vistas but also New Yorkers

demands for a wide variety of other uses (Heckscher 73). Central Park is a celebration of both

democracy and popular culture; both the park and its visitors are products of a collective

American culture (Miller 14). Through the help of the Central Park Conservancy, the park

remains a vibrant public space; with events held year round, people forget lines of race, class,

ethnicity and generation, and create new subgroups within the park (Fisher 30). Colin Fisher

asserts that [Central Park] is the most democratic space in New York, if not America (30).

Sara Cedar Miller declares that Central Park is the most important work of American Art of

the nineteenth century (8). Central Park has become a gathering place for major events and

has been a focal point for political and cultural change (Reiss 5). Victory rallies for World

War II, mass protests against the Vietnam war, marches against racism and equal rights, Earth

Day celebrations, concerts by famous musicians; you name it Central Park has housed it.

Francine Prose recalls a 1997 James Brown concert in Central Park that was astonishing and the

most moving outdoor event she ever attended (Blauner 76). When unforgettable cultural events

happen the places that these memories occur become built in to our human psyche. The impact

of Central Park on American culture is considerable because of the parks part in history.

Although they were native Englanders, there is no doubt The Beatles had an impact on

American Culture. Front-man turned solo artist, John Lennon lived in New York City when he

was shot and killed by Mark David Chapman. As a tribute to Lennon, Strawberry Fields was

created in Central Park, in 1981 (Miller 228). Plants, benches, and mosaics were sent in from

around the world in memory of the singer/songwriter. Strawberry Fieldsbecame a living

memorial created with plants from around the globe; the mosaics were formed on the ground in a


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circle with the sole word Imagine in the center (Miller 228-229). One of the most important

contributors to popular music has now been intertwined with the most important park in

American culture. Hundreds of thousands of visitors flock to Central Park solely to visit these

memorials each year.

In 1908, the very first film shot in Central Park was done by Vitagraph Studios; the film was

Romeo and Juliet, the American version (Films Shot in Central Park). As of 2011, three hundred

and five films have been shot in Central Park, more than one hundred of those being filmed

between 2006 and 2011 alone; this fact makes Central Park one of the most filmed locations in

the world (Films Shot in Central Park). Movies filmed there include: Kramer vs. Kramer,

where Dustin Hoffman taught his son to ride a bicycle; Shall We Dance, where Ginger Rogers

and Fred Astaire danced on roller skates; and The Manchurian Candidate, where Frank Sinatra

walked into the lake (Central Park Art). Television shows likeHow I Met Your Mother, Sex and

the City, and Seinfeldhave also shot scenes in Central Park. Many more films and television

shows have shown aerial shots or filmed on the bordering walls of the park.

4.2.Impact on Urban PlanningCentral Park is considered the first urban landscape park in the United States because it

altered the face of urban America (Heckscher 73). Increased property values and increased

government revenues go hand in hand. As we have seen in the last five years, the housing

market crash caused a substantial economic downturn. Property tax is one of the most important

revenue streams for cities. By creating a positive climate for increased property values, the tax

revenue growths will benefit municipalities in turn.

More than one hundred and forty years ago, Frederick Law Olmsted conducted a study of

how parks help improve property values. From 1856 to 1873 he tracked the value of property


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immediately adjacent to Central Park, in order to justify the $13 million spent on its creation

(Rosenzweig & Blackmar 272-273). Thirteen million dollars in 1850 is the equivalent of nearly

three hundred and sixty million dollars in 2012 (Consumer Price Index). It is unbelievable, when

put into perspective, the risk that the government of New York City took on this massive project.

The amount of money spent on Central Park could be compared to the cost of building the Erie

or Panama canals, and on par with the intercontinental railroad. However, Olmsted found that

over the seventeen year study, property values increased considerably. Property values were

reassessed and raised accordingly, therefore, as a result of building Central Park, New York City

made a profit (Rosenzweig & Blackmar 429-430). The city had recouped its costs; and the

properties that align the streets adjacent to the park still generate New York City a tremendous

amount of revenue in property taxes each year.

So why would a city begin this huge public investment? Recall that New York City was

rapidly growing. Immigration greatly increased: in 1800 the city was home to more than sixty

thousand people, in 1880 that number would reach upwards of 1.2 million. In some cases, more

than one hundred thousand people were occupying no more than one square mile (Martin 126).

As immigrants continued to arrive by the boatload, the city grew and, as a result, its green space

disappeared. Imagine for an instant what that city would look like: no proper sewer system, no

drainage, crowded one family homes with at least five families inhabiting them, poor housing

structures, rotting food and trash, and nowhere to go for fresh air, trees, or green grass. It was

essential to provide the citizens with accessible outdoor space.

As shown with Central Park, parks can both pay for themselves and generate extra

revenue. In addition, tax revenues from increased marketing activity and tourism related

spending further increase metropolitan income related to parks. The government of New York,


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like major cities after them, would realize that large urban parks were not a luxury, but a

necessity. And they needed to be accessible to ordinary people, for their physical and mental

well-being. The spirit of Central Park would continue to drive cities across the country to realize

the significance of urban development.

5. InvolvementIt took our forefathers and hundreds of laborers to build the park, but Central Park, at its

massive size, needs the help of residents to sustain it. In fact, Central Park is run by a board of

directors rather than run by the city itself. The park, therefore, relies on citizens and volunteers

to help keep it looking lush, green and litter free. Another important characteristic of the

American consciousness is the tradition of volunteerism (i.e. Central Park Conservancy) and

voluntary collective organizations for the civic good (i.e. Central Park Community Council).

Americans tend to rely on their own initiative and self-organization, rather than on direction by

local government. With Central Park being so important to citizens, they feel its their duty to

help maintain it.

The Central Park Conservancy was established in 1980 (Heckscher 5), to do just that. The

Conservancy would not exist without the aid of benefactors and volunteers; it is run by a board,

not by the city or local government. People that wish to help the majestic park may contribute

money or time, whether volunteering alone or as part of a group, there is an opportunity to give

back. For example, you can adopt a bench. The majority of benches can be adopted with a

donation of $7,500, while a limited amount of rustic benches can be adopted for $25,000

(Volunteering). Or you can endow a tree. When you endow a Central Park tree, your money

funds the planting of new trees in the Park (Volunteering). You can also become a member of the

Central Park Conservancy; details can be found at centralparknyc.org.


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With eight hundred and forty-three acres there is a lot of ground to cover, and several ways to

help out. Several programs are available through the Conservancy. Although most volunteers

need to be at least eighteen, the Youth Programprovides groups and individual youth with

hands-on opportunities to learn about the Park while helping preserve its landscapes

(Volunteering). The Conservancy also has a Greeter/Guide Program in which volunteers

provide information, give tours, and assist to enhance the overall experience for Central Park's

over thirty-five million annual visitors (Volunteer). Lastly, twice a year the Conservancy hosts

a Family Volunteer Day, which the website claims will combine your familys love ofthe

outdoors with a spirit of volunteerism.

Another excellent way to get involved in the Central Park Community is to join the Central

Park Community Council. The Council is a non-profit volunteer group of individuals whose

primary objective is to make Central Park a safer more enjoyable park (Central Park). The

Council is a cooperative effort of citizens and the police force; leadership is provided by an

Executive Board of concerned residents (Central Park), more information can be found at

nycgo.com. This council is a great ally for the Central Park Conservancy. There are times when

Central Park was a place you would not venture into alone after dark. The Central Park

Community Councilhas made it a much safer place in recent years.

6. In ClosingIt was apparent to our ancestors that the great city of New York would need a park; not

just any park, but one grand enough to withstand time and accommodate the growing population.

Within its eight hundred and forty-three acres, the park seems so natural; you will not realize it

was entirely man-made, handcrafted by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. It would


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become a democratic emblem for the country, and be considered one of the best works of art in

the 19th century.

Olmsted had the foresight to realize one day the citizens of the ever increasing city of

would seek refuge in this park. Perhaps he even hoped that people from around the globe would

venture to see it. With over thirty-five million visitors a year, Central Park has become not only

a staple for the city, but a tourist destination. For these reasons, its evident that Central Park

has played a very important part in American Culture and urban development in other cities

around the country.

Step off the sidewalk into Central Park and within minutes the fast-paced city dims and

you are suddenly inside a verdant oasis of idyllic peace. Central Park is a haven to the residents

in the busy city of New York. On a June afternoon you can see families having picnics, children

playing soccer or baseball, people walking their dogs or just catching some sunrays in the grass.

If you have not enjoyed a summer stroll in Central Park, make it a point to get there one day;

only then will you realize why it has had such an impact on the masses.


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7. Works Cited

Alex, W. & Tatum, G. B. Calvert Vaux: Architect & Planner. New York: Ink, Inc., 1994. Print.

"Andrew Downing."Philadelphia Architects and Buildings. Web. 1 Dec. 2012.

.

Blauner, Andrew. Central Park: An Anthology. New York: Bloomsbury, 2012. Print.

Brill, Wildman Steve. Phone interview. 19 Nov. 2009.

"Central Park." The Official New York City Guide to NYC Attractions, Dining, Hotels and Things

to Do / nycgo.com. Web. 20 Nov. 2012. .

"Central Park Art: Central Park in the Movies." the INDEPENDENT issue. Web. 15 Dec. 2012.

.

"Consumer Price Index." The Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Web. 16 Dec. 2012.

.

Diamant, Lincoln. Chaining the Hudson: The Fight for the River in the American Revolution .

New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1989. Print.

"Films Shot in Central Park | Central Park Sunset Tours." Central Park Sunset Tours | New

York's Best Central Park Walking Tour. Web. 15 Dec. 2012.

.

Fisher, Colin. "Nature in the City: Urban Environmental History and Central Park."Magazine of

History Oct. 2011: 27-31.ProQuest. Web. 20 Oct. 2012.

"Frederick Law Olmsted."National Association for Olmsted Parks. Web. 10 Sept. 2012.

.

"Greensward - Definition of."Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus - The Free Dictionary.


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Web. 6 Nov. 2012. .

"Greensward Foundation." Welcome to Echo! Web. 2 Nov. 2012. .

Martin, Justin. Genius of place: The Life of Frederick Law Olmsted. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo

Press, 2011. Print.

Heckscher, Morrison H. Creating Central Park. 2008. Reprint. New Haven and London:

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Yale University Press, 2011. Print.

Kowsky, Francis R. Country, Park & City: The Architecture and Life of Calvert Vaux. New

York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Print.

"Mannahatta." The Welikia Project. Web. 31 Oct. 2012. .

Martin, Justin. Genius of place: The Life of Frederick Law Olmsted. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo

Press, 2011. Print.

Miller, Sara Cedar. Central Park: An American Masterpiece. New York: Harry N. Abrams

Publishers in association with the Central Park Conservancy, 2003. Print.

Morrone, Francis. "More than Natural Grace."New Criterion Feb. 2004: 72-75.

www.newcriterion.com. Web. 16 Apr. 2012.

Reiss, Marcia. Central Park Then and Now. San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press, 2009. Print.

Rosenzweig, R. & Blackmar, E. The Park and the People: A History of Central Park. Ithaca,

N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992. Print.

Rybczynski, Witold.A Clearing in the Distance: Frederick Law Olmsted and America in the

Nineteenth Century. New York: Scribner, 1999. Print.

Sanderson, Eric W.Mannahatta: A Natural History of New York City. New York: Abrams, 2009.

Print.

"Volunteering." The Official Website of Central Park - Homepage. Web. 20 Nov. 2012.


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.

Wheeler, Jesse M. "Get Involved." Your Complete Guide to New York City's Central Park |

CentralPark.com. Web. 20 Nov. 2012. .


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7. FiguresFigure 1.

(A comparison of Manhattan, 2008 and Mannahatta, circa 1609: http://welikia.org/)

Figure 2.

(Andrew Jackson Downing: http://www.philadelphiabuildings.org)


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Figure 3.

(Frederick Law Olmsted: http://www.olmsted.org)

Figure 4.

(Calvert Vaux: http://www.olmsted.org)


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Documents