cenl1 expression in the rib meristem affects stem ... · cenl1 expression in the rib meristem...
TRANSCRIPT
CENL1 Expression in the Rib Meristem Affects StemElongation and the Transition to Dormancy in Populus W OA
Raili Ruonala,a Paivi L.H. Rinne,b Jaakko Kangasjarvi,a and Christiaan van der Schootb,1
a Plant Biology, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finlandb Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, N-1432 As, Norway
We investigated the short day (SD)–induced transition to dormancy in wild-type hybrid poplar (Populus tremula 3 P. tremuloides)
and its absence in transgenic poplar overexpressing heterologous PHYTOCHROME A (PHYA). CENTRORADIALIS-LIKE1
(CENL1), a poplar ortholog of Arabidopsis thaliana TERMINAL FLOWER1 (TFL1), was markedly downregulated in the wild-type
apex coincident with SD-induced growth cessation. By contrast, poplar overexpressing a heterologous Avena sativa PHYA
construct (P35S:AsPHYA), with PHYA accumulating in the rib meristem (RM) and adjacent tissues but not in the shoot apical
meristem (SAM), upregulated CENL1 in the RM area coincident with an acceleration of stem elongation. In SD-exposed
heterografts, both P35S:AsPHYA and wild-type scions ceased growth and formed buds, whereas only the wild type assumed
dormancy and P35S:AsPHYA showed repetitive flushing. This shows that the transition is not dictated by leaf-produced
signals but dependent on RM and SAM properties. In view of this, callose-enforced cell isolation in the SAM, associated with
suspension of indeterminate growth during dormancy, may require downregulation of CENL1 in the RM. Accordingly,
upregulation of CENL1/TFL1 might promote stem elongation in poplar as well as in Arabidopsis during bolting. Together, the
results suggest that the RM is particularly sensitive to photoperiodic signals and that CENL1 in the RM influences transition to
dormancy in hybrid poplar.
INTRODUCTION
Morphogenesis at the shoot apical meristem (SAM) is a robust
process that results in the formation of leaf-stem units in orga-
nized patterns. The SAM has a high degree of autonomy, and iso-
lated SAMs can continue shoot formation (Smith and Murashige,
1970; Ball, 1980). This may require the regeneration of a rib mer-
istem (RM), a meristematic region immediately subjacent to the
SAM, as the continuous production of leaf-stem units during in-
determinate growth (Smith and Murashige, 1970; Esau, 1977) is a
coordinated effort of both SAM and RM. Although the SAM and
the RM were originally recognized as separate areas with distinct
morphogenetic tasks, this distinction gradually became unclear
due to the tendency to include the RM in the SAM (Esau, 1977).
Since then, the RM has received little attention (Sablowski, 2007).
The RM is composed of small densely cytoplasmic cells that
produce the ribs of vacuolated and elongated cells that make up
the rib zone (RZ). Together, the RM and the RZ push up the SAM
(Bernier et al., 1981; Harkess and Lyons, 1993).
Despite the robustness of the apical morphogenetic centers,
the apex is highly sensitive to stimuli contributed by the shoot
system (Steeves and Sussex, 1989). For example, in response to
a combination of endogenous and environmental cues, a SAM
can give up indeterminate growth, either permanently or tempo-
rarily. A SAM may transform itself into an inflorescence meristem
(IM) that continues indeterminate growth while producing branches
with determinate floral primordia. Alternatively, a SAM may dif-
ferentiate directly into a determinate flower (Bernier et al., 1993)
or suspend indeterminacy and transit to dormancy for survival
through winter (van der Schoot, 1996). How SAM and RM re-
spond to specific environmental cues to reorganize their activ-
ities is not fully understood.
Key environmental signals influencing SAM and RM behavior
are temperature and light. Photoperiod, in particular, changes
in a strictly predictable manner during the progression of the
season, making it a reliable source of information for the timing
of developmental events. Capitalizing on this situation, plants
evolved systems to monitor photoperiod by means of light-
sensitive pigments, including phytochromes (PHY), which play
central roles in leaf-to-apex signaling. In conjunction with physi-
ological clocks, they regulate the expression of key genes that
control the production of systemic signals (Zeevaart, 1976;
Bernier et al., 1993; Vince-Prue, 1994; Mouradov et al., 2002).
For example, poplar (Populus species) responds to short days
(SDs) with a PHYA-mediated cessation of elongation growth,
terminal bud set, and dormancy (Howe et al., 1995; Olsen et al.,
1997; Welling et al., 2002; Rohde and Bhalerao, 2007). It is un-
clear if PHYA within the apex plays any role in SD responses,
but considering that apices can directly respond to light, this
cannot be ruled out (Wareing, 1956; Gressel et al., 1980; Knapp
et al., 1986). In other species, photoperiod sensitivity can lead to
growth promotion. For example, in Arabidopsis thaliana long
days (LDs) induce floral transition at the apex (Yanovsky and Kay,
2002), accompanied by the emergence of a rapidly elongating
1 Address correspondence to [email protected] author responsible for distribution of materials integral to the findingspresented in this article in accordance with the policy described in theInstructions for Authors (www.plantcell.org) is: Raili Ruonala ([email protected]).W Online version contains Web-only data.OA Open Access articles can be viewed online without a subscription.www.plantcell.org/cgi/doi/10.1105/tpc.107.056721
The Plant Cell, Vol. 20: 59–74, January 2008, www.plantcell.org ª 2008 American Society of Plant Biologists
inflorescence stem. Although end-of-season growth cessation
and flowering seem disparate processes, in terms of photoperiod-
controlled stem elongation at the RM/RZ, they might have
important commonalities.
In Arabidopsis, elongation of the inflorescence stem (bolting)
requires the clock-regulated gene CONSTANS (CO), which
produces a graft-transmissible signal in the companion cells of
source leaves (Takada and Goto, 2003; An et al., 2004; Ayre and
Turgeon, 2004). To produce sufficient signal, CO protein requires
the coincident perception of light by the photoreceptors PHYA
and cryptochrome2 (Putterill et al., 1995; Samach et al., 2000;
Suarez-Lopez et al., 2001). A direct target of CO is FLOWERING
LOCUS T (FT) (Kardailsky et al., 1999; Kobayashi et al., 1999),
whose mRNA accumulates at the end of the day (Yanovsky and
Kay, 2002). Overexpression of FT in companion cells or the apex
is sufficient to induce flowering (An et al., 2004), implicating FT
mRNA and FT protein as candidates for long-distance signaling.
Although both mRNAs and proteins may traffic in the phloem
(Ruiz-Medrano et al., 1999; Haywood et al., 2005), it is the FT/
Hd3a protein that can move from source leaves to the apex to
induce flowering, as was recently demonstrated in Arabidopsis
(Corbesier et al., 2007), cucurbit (Cucurbita maxima; Lin et al.,
2007), and rice (Oryza sativa; Tamaki et al., 2007). Interestingly,
the poplar FT orthologs Pt FT1 and Pt FT2 not only have a role in
the transition to flowering (Bohlenius et al., 2006; Hsu et al.,
2006), but their downregulation is required in early growth
cessation and the transition to dormancy (Bohlenius et al.,
2006). This suggests that parts of the regulatory networks that
underlie photoperiodically induced transitions, including those
that connect RM-mediated stem elongation to SAM transition-
ing, are conserved among different species.
In addition to the early downregulation of FT1/FT2 in poplar
leaves (Bohlenius et al., 2006; Hsu et al., 2006), the apex of
perennials responds to SDs by reducing symplasmic connectiv-
ity of SAM cells. In birch (Betula pubescens), this may start as
early as 4 d after the start of SDs. Eventually cells become
symplasmically isolated during dormancy by the formation of
callose-containing sphincters at the plasmodesmata (PD) (Rinne
and van der Schoot, 1998; Rinne et al., 2001). This may disrupt
metabolic coupling and signaling via PD and arrest patterning. By
contrast, LD-induced flowering is accompanied by a tripling of
PD frequencies in the apex of Sinapis (Ormenese et al., 2000), and
in both Sinapis (Ormenese et al., 2002) and Arabidopsis (Gisel
et al., 1999), symplasmic communication patterns may change.
FT belongs to a group of proteins that share specific motifs that
are involved in ligand binding (Banfield and Brady, 2000) and sig-
naling (Yeung et al., 1999). In Arabidopsis, TERMINAL FLOWER1
(TFL1) belongs to the same group of proteins. The expression of
both FT and TFL1 is increased coincident with floral induction
(Bradley et al., 1997), but, remarkably, their effects on flowering
are opposite (Kobayashi et al., 1999) as tfl1 mutants flower early
(Shannon and Meeks-Wagner, 1991; Alvarez et al., 1992; Bradley
et al., 1997) and ft mutants flower late (Koornneef et al., 1991).
Interestingly, tfl1 mutants have a short stem and determinate
IM, whereas TFL1 overexpressors have expanded shoot and
inflorescence systems (Ratcliffe et al., 1998). Although the TFL1
expression domain in the Arabidopsis apex is just below the
dome (Bradley et al., 1997), corresponding closely to the RM, the
potential dual role of TFL1 in stem elongation and SAM transi-
tioning has received little attention.
We aimed to establish if the transition to dormancy is a mere
consequence of a decision taken in the leaves or whether the
apex is an active player and, second, if the roles of RM and SAM
are distinct. We used hybrid poplar (Populus tremula 3 P. trem-
uloides) and a transgenic line overexpressing heterologous PHYA
and lacking the typical wild-type responses to SDs (Olsen et al.,
1997; Welling et al., 2002). Our results show that PHYA over-
expression in the RM/RZ area, but not in the SAM, correlates with
a failure to downregulate CENL1 in its RM domain and an ab-
sence of transition to dormancy. Collectively, the results sug-
gest that the apex is a semi-independent player in photoperiodic
growth responses and that the roles of RM and SAM in photo-
period perception are distinct.
RESULTS
Dissection of Photoperiod-Dependent Growth in the Wild
Type and a PHYA Overexpressor
Overexpression of oat (Avena sativa) PHYA (As PHYA) under the
control of the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter
considerably alters the growth habit of hybrid poplar (P. tremula 3
P. tremuloides) (Olsen et al., 1997). In line 22 (hereafter called
P35S:AsPHYA), this defect is specific to the photoperiodic path-
way as their capacity to cease elongation growth under adverse
conditions is not impaired. Cold stress or inhibition of gibber-
ellin (GA) biosynthesis, for example, can arrest elongation growth
of both the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA independent of photo-
period (Welling et al., 2002; Mølmann et al., 2005), while in
P35S:AsPHYA, a combination of cold, SDs, and inhibition of
GA biosynthesis were required to eventually obtain a bud-like
structure (Mølmann et al., 2005). To establish the specific roles of
the SAM and the RM/RZ in photoperiodic responses, we have
dissected the quantitative and qualitative changes in growth
and development of P35S:AsPHYA. Despite the fact that LD-
exposed P35S:AsPHYA had smaller leaves, downwards twisting
petioles, and a stunted growth habit (Figures 1A and 1B; Olsen
et al., 1997; Welling et al., 2002), the plastochron of 1.2 d was sim-
ilar to that of the wild type in our experimental conditions (Figure
1C). This shows that leaf production that is orchestrated by the
SAM was unaffected, while internode length, which is regulated by
the RM/RZ, was altered by overexpression of PHYA.
When exposed to SDs, the wild type ceased elongation growth
in 3 weeks time (Figure 1B) and subsequently developed a
terminal bud. P35S:AsPHYA did not respond to SDs (Figure 2A),
a feat shown earlier (Olsen et al., 1997; Welling et al., 2002), but
instead lost its stunted growth habit and gradually accelerated
elongation growth under SDs (Figures 2B and 2C). This accel-
eration did not result from any change in the activity of the SAM,
as the plastochron did not change (Figure 1C). Instead, it was
exclusively due to a prolonged elongation of internodes (Figure
2B). The number of internodes that were elongating simulta-
neously increased from 5.2 (60.63) under LDs to 7.5 (60.74) after
2 to 3 weeks of SDs, while in the wild type, no change was
observed (LD 7.1 6 0.74 versus SD 7.4 6 0.97). Due to this
60 The Plant Cell
SD-induced acceleration of internode elongation, the P35S:
AsPHYA growth habit was restored almost to that of the wild
type under LDs (Figure 2C).
We next investigated the pattern of bud dormancy develop-
ment in the wild type. The term dormancy denotes a state in
which apical growth (or axillary growth in case of decapitated
plants) does not resume even under growth-promoting condi-
tions due to SAM-intrinsic constraints, for which reason it is also
referred to as endodormancy (Horvath et al., 2003). When de-
capitated wild-type plants were transferred back from SD to LD
at various time points, axillary bud bursting was prevented
already after 3 weeks of SDs (Figure 3A). However, if the leaves
were removed after transfer to LDs (in week 6), it appeared that
bud dormancy required minimally 6 weeks to develop (Figure 3),
indicating that leaves can effectively prevent bud burst when
the bud is not yet dormant. After 7 to 8 weeks of SDs, all buds
were completely dormant (data not shown). By contrast, decap-
itation of P35S:AsPHYA consistently resulted in the bursting of
axillary buds (Figure 3A). These buds developed into side shoots
(branches), the number and length of which was independent of
SD exposure (Figures 3B and 3C), their total length being com-
parable to that of the decapitated wild type under LD (Figures 3B
and 3C). This demonstrates that dormancy was completely pre-
vented in P35S:AsPHYA, not only in the leading shoot but also in
resting axillary buds.
To assess the earliest point at which wild-type plants visibly
responded to SDs, intact plants were brought back to LDs at
regular intervals. The first changes occurred after 2 weeks in
primordia that had developed under SDs. They were often de-
formed and unable to elongate, indicating that SD had induced
changes in leaf development.
The Wild Type but Not P35S:AsPHYA Suspends
Communication under SDs
Because the morphogenetic activity of the SAM is suppressed
by an innate mechanism during SD-induced dormancy, we next
investigated cellular and ultrastructural aspects of SAMs. In
morphogenesis, symplasmic connectivity of SAM cells via PD is
crucial, permitting the symplasmic exchange of signaling mole-
cules, the formation of morphogen gradients, and the metabolic
coupling of SAM cells (Rinne and van der Schoot, 1998; Rinne
et al., 2001). By contrast, during dormancy, reversion to a mor-
phogenetically active state is prevented by the formation of
dormancy sphincter complexes (DSCs) composed of an extra-
cellular ring of protein and callose that compresses the PD chan-
nel onto an intracellular PD plug, thereby shutting off symplasmic
connections (Rinne and van der Schoot, 2003).
To examine if SAM cells were symplasmically connected, we
iontophoretically microinjected Lucifer Yellow CH (LYCH) into
individual SAM cells (Figures 4A and 4B). In the LD-exposed wild
type, cells in the SAM were united in symplasmic fields (Figures
4B to 4D). A time series revealed that in the wild type, the
plasmodesmal size exclusion limit decreased at the central zone
after 10 d of SDs, impeding cell-to-cell diffusion of LYCH. Cells
at the peripheral region may maintain symplasmic connectivity
somewhat longer as after 10 d of SDs, these cells could still show
some dye coupling (Figure 4E). In most cases, SAM cells were
symplasmically uncoupled after 15 d of SDs (data not shown).
After 7 weeks of SDs, when buds no longer bursted under growth-
promoting conditions, dye coupling between all SAM cells was
categorically prevented (Figure 4F) and membrane potentials
had fallen below the diffusion potential (Table 1). By contrast,
in the P35S:AsPHYA SAM, symplasmic fields similar to those in
LD (Figure 4G) were found after 7 weeks of SDs (Figure 4H) and
Figure 1. Growth Habit of Wild-Type and PHYA-Overexpressing Hybrid
Poplar (P35S:AsPHYA).
(A) Young plants after 3 weeks of LDs. P35S:AsPHYA plants show
characteristic stunting due to deficient internode elongation.
(B) and (C) Cumulative stem growth (B) and leaf formation (C) were
measured in the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA under LDs (time point 0)
and during the course of SD exposure. Values represent means 6 SD
(n ¼ 10).
Pt CENL1 and RM in Developmental Switches 61
cellular activities remained high as judged from the Em values
(Table 1).
We investigated if the arrest of the SAM in a dormant state was
due to formation of DSCs, as shown previously for birch (Rinne
et al., 2001). Using tannic acid staining and transmission electron
microscopy, DSCs were visualized at virtually all PD in dormant
SAMs (7 weeks of SDs) (Figure 4I) and some adjacent tissue. By
contrast, DSCs were not formed in apices of P35S:AsPHYA
(Figure 4J), where PD resembled those found in the wild-type
SAM under LD (data not shown), agreeing with the presence of
symplasmic fields under SDs (Figure 4H).
Grafts Show Deviant Behavior
The anomalous behavior of P35S:AsPHYA under SDs can be due
to a number of conditions. P35S:AsPHYA might fail to respond
due to (1) a compromised SD perception in the source leaves, (2)
an inadequate communication to the apex, or (3) the inability of
the apex to respond to SD-generated leaf signals. To discrim-
inate between these a priori scenarios, various types of graft
systems were produced and subsequently exposed to SDs.
When grafts of a P35S:AsPHYA scion and a wild-type stock,
or the reverse grafts, were exposed to SDs, they behaved as
nongrafts. P35S:AsPHYA scions continued growth for extended
periods (Figure 5A), whereas wild-type scions responded with
growth cessation and bud formation (Figure 5B). At first sight,
this may suggest that the apex determines the response to SDs
and not the leaves. However, it seems plausible that young sink
leaves developing at the scion gradually took over the source
function for the apical parts. Signaling from leaves to apex would
then be executed by the scion’s own source leaves.
In subsequent experiments, we therefore removed developing
scion leaves before they reached 25 to 30% of the final leaf
length (i.e., before they started to export) (Turgeon, 1989). In
defoliated P35S:AsPHYA scions, the apex responded to SDs
with growth cessation and terminal bud formation (Figure 5C),
although it could be delayed with 1 to 2 weeks compared with
wild-type plants. When a defoliated wild-type scion grafted onto
Figure 2. Internode Elongation of Wild-Type and PHYA-Overexpressing Hybrid Poplar (P35S:AsPHYA) under LDs and SDs.
(A) Wild-type and P35S:AsPHYA plants were grown under constant LD conditions, subsequently transferred to SDs, and photographed after 6 weeks of
SDs (SD6). For comparison, a collage is made with a picture at scale of a P35S:AsPHYA plant grown for a similar period under LDs only (LD6). Close-ups
show the terminal bud of the wild type and the growing apex of P35S:AsPHYA that remains active under both LDs and SDs. Note the red apical leaves
and the spontaneously developing branches (stippling) that form in P35S:AsPHYA exposed to LDs. Horizontal arrows indicate the approximate height of
the plants upon transfer to the indicated conditions.
(B) The average maximal length of internodes that reached their final length at the indicated time under SDs. Values represent means 6 SD (n ¼ 10
plants).
(C) The average length of the 10 youngest internodes in the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA under 0 to 5 weeks of SDs. The internodes are numbered
from the youngest to the oldest (i.e., internode 1 corresponds to the uppermost internode). SD2 and SD5 correspond to 2 and 5 weeks under
SDs, respectively. Values represent means 6 SD (n ¼ 10 plants).
62 The Plant Cell
a P35S:AsPHYA stock was transferred to SDs, the wild-type
scion also ceased growth and developed a bud (Figure 5D). This
resembled the reverse graft (P35S:AsPHYA on the wild type;
Figure 5C), although the onset of growth cessation and bud
formation could be delayed further, to up to 4 weeks. Surpris-
ingly, however, when the terminal bud of the P35S:AsPHYA scion
was monitored for another 2 to 4 weeks under SDs, it started to
elongate and burst (Figure 5C, inset) approximately at the same
time when wild-type buds entered dormancy in nongrafts. Sub-
sequently, the P35S:AsPHYA scion elongated with seven to nine
phytomers, after which the cycle of growth cessation, bud set,
flushing, and elongation repeated itself under SDs (Figure 5E) for
at least three times in plants that stayed healthy. This sequence
of events was daylength dependent, as return to LD restored
continuous growth of the P35S:AsPHYA scion. By contrast, the
defoliated wild-type scion on a P35S:AsPHYA stock usually did
not flush, and if it did, the flushing was not recurrent and accom-
panied by stem elongation. Instead, such flushing terminated
in the formation of a conglomerate of dormant buds consisting
of a terminal bud and seven to nine axillary ones (Figure 5F). To
confirm that the grafting procedure itself was not inducing
growth cessation, bud set, and flushing, autografts were pro-
duced. Autografts, with or without defoliation, responded to LDs
and SDs as nongrafted wild type or P35S:AsPHYA, supporting
the conclusion that the behavior of the heterografts was photo-
period induced.
Some of the P35S:AsPHYA scions that set buds were used to
investigate the symplasmic connectivity of SAM cells. Despite
the fact that the SAM within these buds failed to enter dormancy,
dye coupling between their cells was absent at the bud stage.
The fact that the wild-type scion on the P35S:AsPHYA stock
was able to form terminal buds and become dormant suggests
that the wild-type apex itself might respond directly to photope-
riod. If so, the apex might respond to a combination of signals,
including those generated in the leaves and others generated
within the apex itself. In conclusion, the graft responses indicate
that growth cessation and bud set may depend on the interplay
of source leaves and apex, while entry into dormancy requires
SAM-intrinsic programs that are compromised in the P35S:
AsPHYA SAM.
Source and Sink Differentially Express PHYA-Affected
Flowering Pathway Genes
Graft experiments showed that the apex may modulate the re-
sponse to SDs. To obtain a more detailed picture of the roles
of source leaves, sink leaves, and the apex in the transition to
dormancy, we analyzed by real-time RT-PCR the transcript levels
of Pt FT1/FT2, CO2, and CENL1 (Figure 6), poplar orthologs of
Arabidopsis floral pathway genes At FT, CO, and TFL1, respec-
tively (see Supplemental Figures 1 and 2 online; Bohlenius et al.,
2006). Pt CENL1 and At TFL1 appear to be functionally conserved,
as overexpression in Arabidopsis reproduced the effects of TFL1
overexpression (Bohlenius et al., 2006).
Plants were exposed to LDs and SDs for up to 6 weeks. In our
experiments, the expression levels of FT1 were very weak or
below the detection limit in all samples analyzed (data not
shown). FT2 mRNA was clearly detectable in source leaves
under LDs, both in the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA (Figures 6A
and 6B), although approximately threefold higher in P35S:
AsPHYA. Under SDs, the expression level started to diminish
rapidly in both the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA (Figure 6A). This
decrease was evident already after 1 week of SDs, while stem
elongation and leaf formation were not yet visibly affected
(Figures 1B and 1C). In contrast with the wild type, the levels of
FT2 mRNA in P35S:AsPHYA recovered subsequently, peaking at
3 weeks of SDs and then remaining at low but measurable levels
(Figure 6A).
Figure 3. Bud Dormancy Development in Wild-Type and PHYA-
Overexpressing Hybrid Poplar (P35S:AsPHYA).
Wild-type and P35S:AsPHYA plants were exposed to SDs for 0 to 6
weeks after which the apex was severed. After decapitation, the plants
were transferred to LDs for 4 weeks to promote bursting of axillary buds.
Since no buds had burst in the wild type pre-exposed to SDs for 3 weeks,
all plants that were exposed to SDs longer than 3 weeks and already
transferred to LDs were defoliated during week 6 to promote bud burst.
Bursting of axillary buds (A), number of branches developed (B), and
length of the branches (C) were recorded (n ¼ 8 to 18 in the wild type;
n ¼ 8 to 10 in P35S:AsPHYA). Vertical bars represent SD.
Pt CENL1 and RM in Developmental Switches 63
On the other hand, CO2 mRNA levels were somewhat lower in
all sampled tissues of P35S:AsPHYA compared with the wild
type under LDs and SDs, with a similar temporary reduction
during the first 2 weeks of SDs (Figures 6C and 6D). At the time
when growth cessation was initiated in the wild type, at around 3
weeks of SDs, morphological changes became apparent at the
shoot tip: sink leaves continued to expand while the emergence
of new sink leaves from the periphery of the SAM ceased when it
became enclosed by developing bud scales. The gradually
enlarging youngest sink leaves of the wild type considerably
increased their abundance of CO2 mRNA, reflecting loss of sink
status, while in the apex, the CO2 mRNA levels decreased
(Figure 6D). By contrast, in P35S:AsPHYA sink leaves, transcript
abundance of CO2 remained at the same level during SD
exposure (Figure 6D) due to the regular replacement of existing
sink leaves by new ones.
A low but constant level of CENL1 was expressed in the source
leaves of P35S:AsPHYA throughout the experiment, whereas the
equally low expression level in wild-type source leaves de-
creased even further after 3 weeks of SDs (Figure 6E). By
contrast, marked alterations in CENL1 transcript levels took
place in the apices. In the wild type, CENL1 expression increased
at 2 to 3 weeks under SDs and then rapidly decreased (Figure
6F), a trend similar to that in source leaves (Figure 6E), coinciding
with the initiation of growth cessation (Figure 1B). By contrast, in
P35S:AsPHYA, the expression of CENL1 continued to increase
under SDs from 2 weeks onward (Figure 6F), corresponding to
the acceleration of elongation growth (Figure 2B). The same
typical expression pattern of CENL1 was also found in the sink
leaves, although the magnitude of gene expression was lower
(Figure 6F).
In summary, in source leaves of SD-exposed plants, the initial
downregulation of CO2 and FT2 was similar for the wild type and
P35S:AsPHYA. Subsequently, the expression of CO2 and FT2
recovered in P35S:AsPHYA, while in the wild type, only CO2
recovered. At the gene expression level, the apex of P35S:
AsPHYA responded to SDs with a gradual upregulation of CENL1
transcript levels, which initially (LD) were only half of that of the
wild type. The wild-type apex also increased CENL1 during the
first 3 weeks of SDs, but subsequently it was strongly down-
regulated ;40 fold, coincident with the cessation of elongation
growth, bud set, and dormancy assumption.
Pinpointing the RM in the Apex of Poplar
The grafting experiments showed that P35S:AsPHYA is capable
of SD-induced growth cessation and bud set provided adequate
Figure 4. Em Measurement, Iontophoretic Microinjection, Dye Coupling,
and PD Ultratructure in the SAM of Wild-Type and PHYA-Overexpressing
Hybrid Poplar (P35S:AsPHYA).
(A) Typical stable Em recorded from a single tunica cell in the SAM of the
wild type under LD.
(B) Iontophoretic microinjection of LYCH into a single tunica cell of LD-
exposed wild type results in dye coupling of the cells that occupy the
SAM center. Blue excitation light, photographed through bathing me-
dium. Arrow indicates SAM. me, microelectrode; p, primordia. Bar ¼75 mm.
(C) and (D) Apex of (B) with medium removed. Low (C) and medium (D)
levels of white light mixed in with blue light reveal the position of the
central symplasmic field, the primordia (p), and a leaf buttress (lb). Arrow
indicates SAM. Bars ¼ 75 mm.
(E) Dye coupling is restricted to small cell groups in the SAM of the wild
type after 10 d of SDs (blue light, photographed through the medium).
me, microelectrode; p, primordia. Bar ¼ 75 mm.
(F) In the dormant SAM of the wild type, after 7 weeks of SDs, cells are
uncoupled (blue light, photographed through the medium). Bar ¼ 75 mm.
(G) and (H) In the P35S:AsPHYA SAM, cells are dye coupled into a
central symplasmic field under both LDs (G) and 7 weeks of SDs (H),
photographed as in (C) and (B), respectively. p, primordia. Bars¼ 75 mm.
(I) PD in SAM of dormant wild type (7 weeks of SDs) are equipped with
DSCs, containing tannic acid/protein deposits. The PD channel plug and
sphincter ring are indicated by the black and white arrows, respectively.
Bar ¼ 200 nm.
(J) PD in the P35S:AsPHYA SAM exposed to SDs (7 weeks) lack DSC,
typical of dormant wild-type SAM. Bar ¼ 200 nm.
64 The Plant Cell
signal is supplied. Yet, P35S:AsPHYA failed to enter dormancy,
as the arrest was not permanent, and new leaves developed
inside the bud (Figures 5C and 5E). To identify the potentially
distinct roles of the RM and the SAM at the molecular level, we
set out to surgically separate them. First it was determined, using
histological sections, where the RM was located in the apex of
poplar. The sections showed that the meristematic part of the
apex was composed of small, densely cytoplasmic cells, which
were subtended by ribs of elongated and vacuolated cells (Figure
7A). The delineation between the SAM and the RM was evident
from their distinct cell division patterns (Figure 7B). Cells in the
corpus of the SAM divide more or less randomly, following
space-filling requirements, while those recruited by the sub-
tending RM start to divide periclinally to produce the ribs of the
RZ. Following these established criteria (Sachs et al., 1960; Esau,
1977), the poplar SAM includes a two-cell layered tunica and a
corpus of five to six cell layers (Figures 7A and 7B). Immediately
adjacent to the corpus is the RM composed of about two to four
cell layers (Figure 7B). These figures were consistently found in
all samples of both the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA (n ¼ 10
apices).
This distinction between the meristematic and the differenti-
ating areas is also visible in longitudinally cut live apices, viewed
with white epi-illumination. The differentiating cells of the RZ
possessed more chlorophyll than the meristematic part of the
apex (Figure 7C), reflecting the fact that the meristematic part of
the apex and the youngest leaves in general do not possess fully
developed chloroplasts (Rinne et al., 2005). This made it possible
to identify the approximate site of the RM, at the lower edge of
the whitish zone in Figure 7C.
Iontophoretic microinjection of LYCH into a single cell of the
putative RM (cell layer 9 or 10) led to LYCH diffusion to a disc-like
group of symplasmically coupled cells that was separated from
the overlying corpus cells (Figure 7D). Diffusion of LYCH into the
ribs of the RZ was restricted (Figure 7E, inset). When injected into
the central corpus, LYCH distributed in a rectangular area
without entering the RM (data not shown). Together, these
experiments provided support for the classic notion that the
RM is a morphogenetic unit in its own right (Sachs et al., 1960;
Esau, 1977).
P35S:AsPHYA Overexpresses PHYA in the RM/RZ but
Not in the SAM
As the SAM in poplar appeared to be a small and shallow dome
(Figure 7), it was not possible to isolate the SAM and the RM
with great precision (Figure 8A). Nevertheless, we were able to
reconstruct the approximate expression domains of the selected
genes using quantitative real-time RT-PCR. As expected, FT1
and FT2 expression in the SAM and the RM/RZ were extremely
weak or below the detection limit in all samples (data not shown).
Both in the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA, CO2 mRNA amount
was higher in the RM/RZ than the SAM, whereas CENL1 mRNA
seemed to be present predominantly in the SAM sample (Figure
8B). In a second series of experiments, apices were dissected
into even smaller pieces, thereby enriching the RZ sample with
RM. When comparing these minuscule samples to the larger
samples, only CENL1 levels were increased (Figure 8B), whereas
CO2 levels remained at similar or slightly decreased levels (data
not shown). Together, the analysis of apices (Figures 6D and 6F)
and dissected apex parts (Figure 8) indicates that CENL1 is ex-
pressed mainly in the upper part of the RZ (i.e., in the RM),
whereas CO2 is expressed more widely in the RZ and the un-
derlying tissues. Transcripts of Pt PHYA, poplar’s endogenous
PHYA gene, were present at approximately equal low amounts
in all samples (Figure 8B). Interestingly, however, the transcript
level of the transgene As PHYA was markedly lower in the SAM
than in the RM/RZ (Figure 8B).
The relatively low expression level of As PHYA in the dissected
SAM samples of P35S:AsPHYA was unexpected since the trans-
ferred As PHYA gene is under the control of the constitutive
CaMV 35S promoter. In situ hybridization revealed that in P35S:
AsPHYA, the mRNA of As PHYA could not be detected in the
apical dome or the youngest primordia. By contrast, the tran-
script accumulated at high levels in the tissues beneath the dome
(i.e., in the RM/RZ, stem, and leaves) (Figure 9A; see Supple-
mental Figure 3 online). In negative controls, As PHYA transcripts
were not detected in the wild-type apex or in hybridizations
performed using a sense probe (Figure 9B; see Supplemental
Figure 3 online). In situ hybridization of endogenous Pt PHYA
showed weak expression in the SAM, young primordia, and vas-
cular tissue in both the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA, while in the
same samples, a hybridization signal with As PHYA was only
found in P35S:AsPHYA (Figures 9C to 9G). Similar weak hybrid-
ization of Pt PHYA was also detected in axillary buds (Figure 9H).
DISCUSSION
Source-Sink Relations and the Time Frame of
SD-Induced Events
The shoot apex responds to diurnal and seasonal rhythms in the
light environment, which are detected by phytochromes residing
in the leaves, and translated into graft-transmissible signals.
Signaling follows the paths of photosynthates from source to
Table 1. Membrane Potentials (Em), Dye Coupling, and Cell Isolation
in the Peripheral Zone and the Central Zone of Wild-Type and
PHYA-Overexpressing Hybrid Poplar (P35S:AsPHYA) during LDs
and after 7 Weeks of SDs
Plant Daylength SAM Area Em (-mV)a (n)b C/Ic (n)d
Wild type LD PZ 89 6 2.6 32 13/0 13
CZ 44 6 1.3 70
SD PZ/CZe 32 6 1.0 35 0/9 9
P35S:AsPHYA LD PZ 90 6 2.5 37 13/0 13
CZ 45 6 1.6 53
SD PZ 79 6 1.9 35 8/0 8
CZ 36 6 1.1 37
a Membrane potential 6 SE.b Number of cells from which membrane potentials were measured.c Dye coupling (C)/cell isolation (I); both zones are combined.d Total number of SAMs analyzed.e Em data combined as distinction between the central zone (CZ) and the
peripheral zone (PZ) were unclear due to cell isolation.
Pt CENL1 and RM in Developmental Switches 65
sink. As younger source leaves predominantly deliver photosyn-
thates to the upper shoot parts, whereas older source leaves
supply the lower stem and roots (Turgeon, 1989; Oparka et al.,
1999), signals destined for the shoot apex are supplied predom-
inantly by younger source leaves. To identify genes potentially
involved in systemic signaling, RNA should therefore preferen-
tially be isolated from young source leaves (Figure 6).
One of the earliest events in photoperiodic signaling in hybrid
poplar is the recently reported downregulation of FT1 (Bohlenius
et al., 2006) and FT2 (Hsu et al., 2006), which is supported by our
results (Figure 6). Downregulation of FT2 was evident already
after 1 week of SDs (Figure 6A) and thus separated from the late
events of growth cessation, bud set, and dormancy by a time lag
of several weeks (Figures 1B and 1C). Downregulation of FT1 and
FT2 might therefore predominantly serve the timing of events that
eventually lead up to growth cessation and bud set, rather than
the transition itself. The observation that poplar is able to con-
tinue normal growth when transferred back to LDs after 1 week of
SDs indicates that FT2 levels can normalize and that a point of no
return is not reached. The time lag between initial and late events
is a period in which the apex receives other signals that target
downstream genes that help direct its response at the cellular
level. For example, ethylene signaling, in addition to FT1 and FT2,
affects growth cessation and bud development (Ruonala et al.,
2006), whereas abscisic acid signaling is involved in bud matu-
ration (Rohde et al., 2002) as well as acclimation (Rinne et al.,
1998). Recent microarray data confirm that genes involved in
biosynthesis and perception of GA, ethylene, and abscisic acid,
Figure 5. Behavior of the Apices of Grafts of Wild-Type and PHYA-Overexpressing Hybrid Poplar (P35S:AsPHYA) under SDs.
(A) and (B) A nondefoliated P35S:AsPHYA scion on a wild-type stock (A) and the reverse graft with a nondefoliated wild-type scion on a P35S:AsPHYA
stock (B). The photographs were taken just before SD exposure. The insets show the status of the apex as indicated after 4 to 6 weeks of SDs. Letters
refer to percentage of grafts showing the response: B, bud formation; D, dormancy; F, flushing; E, elongation.
(C) and (D) A defoliated P35S:AsPHYA scion on a wild-type stock (C) and a defoliated wild-type scion on a P35S:AsPHYA stock (D). The photographs
were taken just before SD exposure. The insets show the status of the apex as indicated after 6 to 7 weeks of SDs. Letters refer to percentage of grafts
showing the response, as described above.
(E) A defoliated P35S:AsPHYA scion on a wild-type stock after repeated bud set and flushing. The insets show the bud scales or their scars on the stem.
The specimen was photographed after bud set and subsequent flushing under SDs.
(F) A defoliated wild-type scion on a P35S:AsPHYA stock after one flush and successive bud set without elongation. The specimen was photographed
after bud set and subsequent flushing under SDs.
66 The Plant Cell
as well as genes that are downstream targets, are regulated
during the early phases of SD exposure (Ruttink et al., 2007).
Eventually, the translocation of long-distance signals in the phloem
slows down and entirely ceases when the sieve tubes become
physically blocked by callose deposits, a phenomenon known as
winter phloem (Aloni et al., 1991).
Bud Set and Responses of the SAM to SDs
During SD induction of terminal buds in poplar, leaf primordia
develop into embryonic leaves and stipules into bud scales
(Rohde et al., 2002). There is some plasticity, however, as leaves
that started development under LDs can still be modified to pro-
duce bud scales (Goffinet and Larson, 1981; Howe et al., 1995).
The terminal bud undergoes a gradual enlargement due to the
growth of embryonic leaves, which fold up within the confines of
the bud scales. This gradual process of bud formation is distinct
from that of dormancy development, as suggested by work on
transgenic birch (Ruonala et al., 2006); birch (Betula pendula)
transgenically expressing the mutated Arabidopsis ethylene re-
ceptor gene etr1-1 can enter dormancy under SDs without
forming a clear terminal bud. The distinct nature of both pro-
cesses, bud development and dormancy, is further confirmed by
our finding that SD-exposed defoliated P35S:AsPHYA scions
temporarily formed a bud without entering dormancy.
The diminished symplasmic communication at 10 to 15 d of
SD exposure (Figure 4E) might have contributed to malformation
of leaves when plants were returned to LDs at this point. At this
stage, diminished cell–cell diffusion of LYCH was due to a re-
versible decrease in PD conductivity and not to obstruction of
PD by DSCs as dormancy was not yet established, a situation
comparable to that in birch (Rinne et al., 2001). Our data show
that absence of SD-induced growth cessation and transition to
dormancy in P35S:AsPHYA is in accordance with the absence
of cellular and ultrastructural features that characterized the
dormant state, such as low membrane potentials (Table 1), DSCs
at the PD (Figure 4I), and symplasmically isolated cells (Figure
4F). However, reversible narrowing of the PD diffusion channels
could take place during the temporary formation of terminal buds
in scions. Since P35S:AsPHYA was unable to enter dormancy,
PHYA overexpression may negatively interfere with the pro-
cesses that orchestrate DSC formation.
Figure 6. Expression Patterns of Flowering-Related Genes in Source and Sink Tissues of Wild-Type and PHYA-Overexpressing Hybrid Poplar
(P35S:AsPHYA) under LDs (Time Point 0) and SDs (Time Points 1 to 6).
Expression levels of Pt FT2 (A) and (B), Pt CO2 (C) and (D), and Pt CENL1 (E) and (F) were analyzed in source ([A], [C], and [E]) and sink ([B], [D], and
[F]) tissues of the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA during the course of a 0- to 6-week SD exposure using real-time RT-PCR. Inset in (D) represents the data
of time points 0 and 1 at a stretched out scale. Inset in (E) represents the same data at a stretched out scale. Three replicate samples were analyzed of
each sample type in each time point, and the average values are shown. For (B), one to two replicate samples were analyzed for each data point.
Vertical bars represent SD. Independent experiments were repeated two times with similar results.
Pt CENL1 and RM in Developmental Switches 67
Although all plants showed an early downregulation of FT2 in
source leaves, the expression partly recovered in P35S:AsPHYA,
peaking at 3 weeks of SDs (Figure 6A). At this point in time, the
wild type ceases elongation (Figure 1B) and initiates bud for-
mation, suggesting that FT2, transported via the phloem to the
apex, assists the continuation of stem elongation and morpho-
genesis at a critical point in the SD trajectory. It is feasible that
the RM, which regulates elongation, is the target of FT2 and
possibly also FT1. In general, the role of the RM in SAM tran-
sitions might be underestimated due to the tendency to view this
area as part of the SAM (Esau, 1977). Clearly, the symplasmic
separation of the RM from the overlying corpus of the SAM
(Figures 7D and 7E) supports the notion that the RM is a distinct
morphogenetic area, if not an independent unit (Esau, 1977).
Interestingly, recently published photographs of FT-induced
floral transition tend to show that green fluorescent protein–
tagged FT is delivered to the RM rather than to the SAM, that is
the dome, in Arabidopsis (Corbesier et al., 2007) and rice (Tamaki
et al., 2007). It is tempting to speculate that PD trafficking
between the RM and the corpus, as between symplasmic fields
in the SAM (Rinne and van der Schoot, 1998; van der Schoot and
Rinne, 1999), requires PD gating by factors that assist proteins
like FT to enter the SAM.
PHYA Abundance and Spatial Distribution Affect
Stem Growth
Earlier work has shown that PHYA plays a role in stem elonga-
tion. For example, Arabidopsis mutants lacking PHYA produce
elongated hypocotyls when grown under a canopy (Johnson
et al., 1994; Yanovsky et al., 1995), whereas strong overexpres-
sion reduces internode elongation in several species. This is
often attributed to PHYA inhibition of GA biosynthesis in vascular
tissue (Boylan and Quail, 1991; Jordan et al., 1995; Casal et al.,
Figure 7. Functional Zones in the Apex of Hybrid Poplar.
(A) Light micrograph of a median-longitudinal section through a proliferating shoot apex showing the SAM and the RM, subtended by the RZ. Cells of
the SAM and RM are densely cytoplasmic with large nuclei. The cells of the RZ, arranged in longitudinal ribs, are stretched, vacuolated, and
differentiated. Cytoplasm and nucleoplasm are stained blue and cell walls red.
(B) Detail of the area boxed in (A). Recent cell divisions, visible as thin walls crossing existing cells, are color coded on the backdrop of the image in (A).
Cell division walls are anticlinal in the tunica (cell layers 1 and 2), random in the corpus (approximate cell layers 3 to 8), and periclinal in the RM
(approximate cell layers 9 to 11) and upper RZ. PZ, peripheral zone; CZ, central zone; p0, youngest leaf primordium; T, tunica; C, corpus. Arrows point to
the approximate border between the central zone and peripheral zone.
(C) to (E) Light micrographs of a life apex cut median-longitudinally.
(C) White light epi-illumination reveals differences in chlorophyll content between the meristematic and the differentiating areas. Boxed area indicates
microinjection site in (D) (arrow).
(D) Iontophoretic microinjection of LYCH into a single cell in layer 10 or 11 at the SAM/RM boundary. LYCH diffuses intercellularly to a group of
symplasmically coupled cells (situated in cell layers 8 to 11), which in position closely corresponds to the RM.
(E) Final dye-coupling pattern. The coupling group is symplasmically separated from the overlying corpus, but small traces of LYCH (inset) diffuse into
the cells that make up the ribs of the RZ.
Bars ¼ 50 mm.
68 The Plant Cell
1996; Olsen et al., 1997; Eriksson and Moritz, 2002). Our results
show that the transgene As PHYA was strongly expressed in the
RM/RZ area of P35S:AsPHYA but not in the SAM itself (Figure 9A;
see Supplemental Figure 3 online). The fact that PHYA is over-
expressed in conjunction with CENL1 in the RM/RZ area, which
serves stem elongation, suggests that PHYA and CENL1 may be
part of the same regulatory circuit in the RM. Why As PHYA
transcripts were absent from the apical dome remains an open
question, but it could be envisaged that the 35S promoter is not
activated in the SAM. On the other hand, as the 35S can drive
gene expression in the SAM of Arabidopsis (Conti and Bradley,
2007), it seems equally possible that As PHYA is locally silenced
by SAM intrinsic mechanisms that detect and destroy foreign
gene products (Van Blokland et al., 1994). In both cases, con-
sidering that Pt PHYA was expressed similarly in the SAM of
P35S:AsPHYA and the wild type, it might be the high over-
expression in the RM/RZ area of P35S:AsPHYA (Figure 9; see
Supplemental Figure 3 online), which is particularly decisive in
generating this phenotype. It can also not be ruled out that the
strong imbalance in PHYA expression in the SAM and in the RM/
RZ might break down potential feedback mechanisms between
the SAM and the RM, thereby impairing the ability of P35S:
AsPHYA to transit to dormancy. Such blockade could function at
the level of signal production as well as signal transfer through
PD or the membranes of adjacent RM and corpus cells (Rinne
and van der Schoot, 2003).
Permanent Arrest of the RM/RZ Is Required for Dormancy
Grafting experiments confirmed that overexpression of PHYA in
the apex shaped the apical responses to SDs (Figure 5). This only
became apparent when the scions of the heterografts were
defoliated because without this procedure, stock signals were
probably not sufficiently channeled toward the apex of the scion.
Only when P35S:AsPHYA scions were defoliated could they
produce a bud. However, they failed to enter dormancy and
flushed repeatedly under SDs (Figures 5C and 5E), showing that
RM activity remained high in these scions. This is congruent with
the overexpression of PHYA in the RM/RZ area (Figures 8 and 9A;
see Supplemental Figure 3 online). Furthermore, the lack of
elongation growth in SD-exposed wild-type plants and wild-type
scions (Figure 5) suggests lack of cell division activity in the RM.
Indeed, a complete lack of cell division in the RM/RZ area in
transgenic tobacco entirely prevented stem elongation and
spectacularly forced them to grow as a rosette, while flowering
rescued elongation growth much like Arabidopsis (Rinne et al.,
2005). Collectively, this indicates that the two meristematic
regions of the apex, RM and SAM (Figures 7A and 7B), might
function as semi-independent but interacting units (Rinne and
van der Schoot, 2003), an interpretation that is supported by the
finding that the RM and the SAM are symplasmically distinct
(Figures 7D and 7E).
CENL1 Expression Correlates with RM Activity
The data show that CENL1 was differentially regulated in the
apices of the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA (Figures 6F and 8B),
corresponding to the proliferation activity of the RM under a
given photoperiod. The decrease in CENL1 expression in wild-
type apices at the time of growth cessation and bud set (Figure
6F) is also the trend reported in a recent microarray study (Ruttink
et al., 2007), but the current real-time RT-PCR study shows a
much larger, 40-fold decrease. The fact that CENL1 expression in
P35S:AsPHYA plants increases during SD exposure (Figure 6F)
indicates that it is involved in the continuation of growth. Because
internode elongation was affected in P35S:AsPHYA, but not the
plastochron, CENL1 is most likely modifying the activity of the RM.
This is supported by the observation that short internodes in
P35S:AsPHYA possess fewer cells (Olsen et al., 1997).
In Arabidopsis, TFL1 is generally linked to SAM identity. This
role is based on LEAFY (LFY)–mediated movement of TFL1
Figure 8. Gene Expression in Distinct Areas at the Shoot Apex of Wild-
Type and PHYA-Overexpressing Hybrid Poplar P35S:AsPHYA (P35)
under LDs.
(A) A scheme of the microdissected apical areas, with estimated con-
tributions of the SAM, the RM, and the RZ to each type of sample in two
different series of experiments (exp1 and exp2). The sample of the
second experiment is enriched for RM, whereas the uncolored SAM
sample was not analyzed. p1-3, primordia 1 to 3.
(B) Expression levels of Pt CO2, Pt CENL1, Pt PHYA, and As PHYA were
analyzed using quantitative real-time RT-PCR from samples collected in
experiment 1 and 2 (exp1 and exp2; described in [A]). Experiments are
separated by vertical stippling. Bar colors correspond to the color code
used in (A). SAM and RM/RZ samples of 40 and 20 apices, respectively,
were pooled for the analyses in experiment 1, and 10 apices were pooled
for experiment 2.
Pt CENL1 and RM in Developmental Switches 69
protein beyond its expression domain into the IM (Conti and
Bradley, 2007). However, as the upregulation of TFL1 expression
during the transition from SAM to IM occurs locally in the RM
domain (Bradley et al., 1997; Kardailsky et al., 1999; Ratcliffe
et al., 1999; Conti and Bradley, 2007), it is conceivable that TFL1
has two functions, protecting IM identity and promoting stem
elongation. If so, TFL1/CENL1 might play a similar role in the RM,
both in Arabidopsis and poplar. In support of this, the TFL1
homolog Os CEN2 in rice is expressed mainly in intercalary
meristem (Zhang et al., 2005), a file meristem that corresponds to
the RM of dicotyledons (Esau, 1977). Because elongation and
flowering in juvenile poplar are separated by a multiple-year
phase (Bohlenius et al., 2006; Hsu et al., 2006), poplar might be
an excellent model to investigate these processes independently
from each other. The putative role of CENL1 in RM activity might
be supported by the finding that CENL1 is also highly expressed
at the time of bud burst in poplar (Mohamed, 2006; P.L.H. Rinne,
unpublished data).
Putative Role of CENL1 Beyond Its mRNA
Expression Domain
Is it conceivable that CENL1 protein in poplar moves from the RM
to the SAM? In view of the fact that TFL1 protein is present in the
SAM of (para-)dormant axillary buds of Arabidopsis that do not
express LFY (Conti and Bradley, 2007), it doesn’t seem implau-
sible that CENL1 would move from the RM to the SAM in poplar.
In Arabidopsis, TFL1 protein is proposed to safeguard the
indeterminacy of the IM by restricting LFY and APETALA1
(AP1) expression to floral primordia (Conti and Bradley, 2007).
In poplar, CENL1 protein might have a similar nonautonomous
role, moving via PD much alike LFY in the Arabidopsis SAM
(Sessions et al., 2000), as AP1 is upregulated during bud forma-
tion (Ruttink et al., 2007). Such import into the SAM would require
gating of PD at the boundary between symplasmic fields, as
suggested earlier (Rinne and van der Schoot, 1998, 2003; van der
Schoot and Rinne, 1999), thereby protecting SAM indeterminacy
during the early phases of the transition to dormancy. Within the
SAM, CENL1 could potentially associate with multiple interac-
tors, including bZIP transcription factors, as suggested for TFL1
in Arabidopsis (Conti and Bradley, 2007). The time frame for
putative movement of CENL1 in poplar would be the first 3
weeks, when its expression levels are considerably elevated,
while PD are not yet locked by DSCs and can still be gated. In this
scenario, the downregulation of CENL1 in the RM and the
reduced export of its protein to the SAM would be compensated
by the formation of DSCs, protecting the indeterminate state of
the SAM during dormancy.
Figure 9. Localization of As PHYA and Pt PHYA Transcripts in the Apex of Wild-Type and PHYA-Overexpressing Hybrid Poplar (P35S:AsPHYA).
(A) and (B) mRNA of As PHYA, which was transformed into hybrid poplar under the control of the CaMV 35S promoter, was localized in median
longitudinal sections of P35S:AsPHYA (A) and wild-type (B) apices using in situ hybridization. Purple color indicates the presence of the transcript in (A).
The inset displays a detail of P35S:AsPHYA apex showing high expression in RM and areas subjacent to it.
(C) and (D) In situ hybridization of the native Pt PHYA in wild-type apex using antisense (C) and sense (D) hybridization probes. Purple color indicates the
presence of the transcript in (C).
(E) to (G) In situ hybridization using an antisense probe of Pt PHYA (E), As PHYA (F), and a control RNA (G) in successive sections of the P35S:AsPHYA
apex. Purple color indicates the presence of the transcript in (E) and (F).
(H) In situ hybridization using an antisense probe of Pt PHYA in an axillary bud of the wild type. Purple color indicates the presence of the transcript. RM
is indicated by a double arrow in (A), (B), and (E).
Bars ¼ 100 mm.
70 The Plant Cell
METHODS
Plant Material and Growth Conditions
Transgenic hybrid poplar lines expressing As PHYA under the control of
the CaMV 35S promoter were described previously (Olsen et al., 1997).
For our experiments, wild-type hybrid poplar (Populus tremula 3 P.
tremuloides, clone T89) and transgenic line 22 (called P35S:AsPHYA)
were investigated. Wild-type and P35S:AsPHYA ramets were micro-
propagated in vitro, planted in a mixture of sterilized peat and perlite
(4:1, v/v), and fertilized with 4 g L�1 Osmocote (Substral; Scotts). Prior to
SDs, plants were grown in a phytotron for 4 weeks under LDs (18 h light)
at 188C and 80% relative humidity. Natural light was supplemented to
200 mmol m�2 s�1 at 400 to 750 nm (Osram). For the SD treatments, the
daylength was shortened to 10 h.
Generating Grafts
Grafts were made from the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA grown for 6
weeks under LDs. Stems of stock donors were cut back at a node, leaving
;10 mature source leaves on each stock plant. Scions were excised
2 cm below the apex, and the stem was trimmed into a wedge. A lon-
gitudinal split was made in the cut stem of the stock, the stem halves
slightly forced apart, and the trimmed scion inserted. The stock-scion
interface was secured with parafilm, and the scion was enclosed in a
transparent plastic bag to prevent drying. The bags were ventilated daily
and removed when graft leaves enlarged. Part of the scions was defo-
liated to promote transport from stock to scion. Properly growing grafts
(40 out of 100) were selected for SD experiments.
Light Microscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy
Apices were fixed for 4 h in 2% (v/v) glutaraldehyde and 3% (v/v) para-
formaldehyde in 100 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.2, with 1% (w/v) tannic
acid, postfixed for 2 h in 1% (w/v) OsO4, and embedded in LR White
(Sigma-Aldrich) as described (Rinne and van der Schoot, 1998). For light
microscopy, longitudinal 1-mm-thick sections were cut with an ultrami-
crotome (Leica), stained with Methylene Blue, Azure, and Basic Fuchsin
(Rinne et al., 2005), investigated microscopically (Nikon Optiphot II),
and recorded with a digital camera (Nikon Coolpix 995). Pictures were
processed with Adobe Photoshop. For transmission electron micros-
copy, ultrathin sections (70 nm) were cut with an ultramicrotome, stained
with 2% aqueous uranyl acetate and Reynolds’ lead citrate, and exam-
ined in a JEOL 1200 EXII electron microscope at 80 kV.
Membrane Potentials and Dye-Coupling Experiments
Symplasmic coupling and membrane potentials of SAM cells were
investigated by a combination of electrophysiology and iontophoresis
(Rinne and van der Schoot, 1998; Ormenese et al., 2002). Apices were
isolated from the wild type and P35S:AsPHYA growing under LDs and
SDs and from heterografts (P35S:AsPHYA on the wild type) under SDs.
Microelectrodes were made from borosilicate glass tubes with inner
filament (World Precision Instruments) on a horizontal puller (PN-3;
Narishige Scientific Instruments Laboratory). The tip was backfilled with
1% (w/v) LYCH (MW 457 D; Molecular Probes) and the remainder with
100 mM KCl as an electrolyte. The microelectrode was inserted into a
holder with an Ag/AgCl bridge, mounted on a pre-amp, and attached to a
hydraulic micromanipulator (MO-203; Narishige). Membrane potentials
were recorded with a WPI Duo 773 Dual Microprobe System and a chart
recorder (BD111; Kip and Zonen). LYCH was microinjected into single
tunica cells after the recording of a stable membrane potential by
applying a low intermittent current (�1 to �5 nA) to the microelectrode
tip. In a set of additional experiments, apices were first incubated for 30
min and subsequently cut longitudinally in a medium of 10 mM 2-deoxy-
D-glucose (Sigma-Aldrich) to prevent formation of wound-induced cal-
lose, attached to microscope slides, and fixed in a bathing chamber as
described previously (Rinne et al., 2005). In both types of experiments,
LYCH diffusion to other cells was examined with a fluorescence micro-
scope (Nikon Optiphot II) equipped with standard filter set combinations
(Rinne and van der Schoot, 1998) and recorded with a digital camera
(Nikon Coolpix 995) or a conventional camera (Nikon FX 35 WA/uFX-II)
with Ektachrome 400 super slide film.
RNA Preparation and Real-Time RT-PCR Analysis
RNA was analyzed separately from source leaves, sink leaves, and
apices. Source tissue was obtained from the tip part of the youngest fully
expanded leaf, and sink leaves were very young unexpanded leaves just
below the apex, whereas apex tissues contained SAM, primordia, em-
bryonic leaves, and the nonelongated internodes containing the RM/RZ.
Sampling occurred during the last hour of the light period, and plant
material from five to six individuals was pooled before further processing.
RNA was extracted using the Spectrum Plant Total RNA kit according to
manufacturer’s instructions (Sigma-Aldrich). RNA was DNase treated,
reverse-transcribed using RevertAid H Minus M-MuLV reverse transcrip-
tase (Fermentas), and analyzed using real-time RT-PCR as described
(Ruonala et al., 2006). Transcript levels were normalized against poplar
ACTIN. SAM and RM/RZ samples were microsurgically isolated using
sapphire blades (World Precision Instruments) and processed as above,
except that RNA was treated using on-column DNase (Sigma-Aldrich),
and maximally 500 ng of DNase-treated RNA was reverse transcribed
using SuperScriptIII reverse transcriptase as recommended by the man-
ufacturer (Invitrogen). Gene-specific primer sequences (see Supplemen-
tal Table 1 online) for the real-time RT-PCR analysis were designed using
Primer3 (http://frodo.wi.mit.edu/cgi-bin/primer3/primer3_www.cgi).
In Situ Hybridization
Digoxigenin-labeled antisense and sense RNA probes from a partial oat
(Avena sativa) PHYA (As PHYA) cDNA-clone pAPSX2.7 (Seeley et al.,
1992) and a full-length poplar PHYA (Pt PHYA) cDNA clone were prepared
and hydrolyzed using the Dig RNA labeling kit (Roche). As an additional
control, digoxigenin-labeled RNA supplied in the Dig RNA labeling kit
was used for some hybridizations. Apices were dissected and fixed us-
ing 4% (w/v) paraformaldehyde and 0.25% (v/v) glutaraldehyde in 10 mM
phosphate buffer, pH 7.2, for 4 h at room temperature, dehydrated in
ethanol, exchanged with xylene, and embedded in paraffin. From the
paraffin blocks, 7-mm sections were cut and attached to silane-coated
microscopy slides (Electron Microscopy Sciences). Prehybridization and
hybridization protocols were based on those described by De Block and
Debrouwer (1993), with some modifications. Briefly, the tissue sections
were treated with proteinase K (20 mg mL�1), and the hybridizations were
performed at 438C overnight with a probe concentration of 0.28 ng mL�1
kb�1. After hybridizations, slides were washed with 33 SSC and treated
with RNase A. Final high-stringency washes consisted of a 30-min wash
in 23 SSC at room temperature followed by a 30-min wash in 0.33 SSC
at 438C or in 0.23 SSC at 568C, with similar results. Hybridizations of
As PHYA were also performed at a hybridization temperature of 508C,
with consistent results. Detection was performed using the Dig Nucleic
Acid Detection kit (Roche) supplemented with polyvinyl alcohol to in-
crease sensitivity as described (De Block and Debrouwer, 1993). The
color reaction to visualize hybridized probe was done for 2.5 to 4.5 h at
room temperature. Sections were examined and photographed with a
Zeiss Axioplan2 or an Olympus AX70 equipped with an Olympus digital
camera (DP70).
Pt CENL1 and RM in Developmental Switches 71
Accession Numbers
The poplar gene model identifiers (Tuskan et al., 2006) and/or sequence
accessions used for real-time RT-PCR analysis are as follows: Pt FT1
(fgenesh1_pm.C_LG_VIII000284), Pt FT2 (eugene3.14090001), Pt CO2
(estExt_fgenesh4_pm.C_LG_IV0339), and Pt CENL1 (AY383600; estExt_
fgenesh4_pg.C_660171) from Populus trichocarpa; As PHYA (M18822)
from Avena sativa; Pt PHYA (AJ001318) from Populus tremula 3 P.
tremuloides; and Pt ACTIN (DQ099740) from Populus tremula.
Supplemental Data
The following materials are available in the online version of this article.
Supplemental Figure 1. Phylogenetic Analysis of TFL1/FT-Like
Proteins.
Supplemental Figure 2. Protein Sequence Alignment Used for
Phylogenetic Analysis.
Supplemental Figure 3. Localization of As PHYA Transcripts in the
Apex of PHYA-Overexpressing Hybrid Poplar (P35S:AsPHYA).
Supplemental Table 1. Primer Sequences Used for Real-Time RT-
PCR Analyses.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Olavi Junttila for providing plant material, Jim Colbert for a gift
of pAPSX2.7, Maria Eriksson for a gift of poplar PHYA cDNA clone,
Sissel Haugslien for advice on grafting, and Linda Ripel for work with
tissue cultures. The Academy of Finland (Finnish Centre of Excellence
program 2000 to 2005, and 2006 to 2011), SNS-Nordic Forest Re-
search, and the Norwegian Research Council (155041 ClimaTree and
171970 ClimaDorm) are acknowledged for financial support.
Received November 7, 2007; revised November 7, 2007; accepted
December 19, 2007; published January 11, 2008.
REFERENCES
Aloni, R., Raviv, A., and Peterson, C.A. (1991). The role of auxin in the
removal of dormancy callose and resumption of phloem activity in
Vitis vinifera. Can. J. Bot. 69: 1825–1832.
Alvarez, J., Guli, C.L., Yu, X.-H., and Smyth, D.R. (1992). terminal
flower: A gene affecting inflorescence development in Arabidopsis
thaliana. Plant J. 2: 103–116.
An, H., Roussot, C., Suarez-Lopez, P., Corbesier, L., Vincent, C.,
Pineiro, M., Hepworth, S., Mouradov, A., Justin, S., Turnbull, C.,
and Coupland, G. (2004). CONSTANS acts in the phloem to regulate
a systemic signal that induces photoperiodic flowering of Arabidopsis.
Development 131: 3615–3626.
Ayre, B.G., and Turgeon, R. (2004). Graft transmission of a floral
stimulant derived from CONSTANS. Plant Physiol. 135: 2271–2278.
Ball, E.A. (1980). Regeneration from isolated portions of the shoot apex
of Trachymene coerulea Grah. Rc. Ann. Bot. (Lond.) 45: 103–112.
Banfield, M.J., and Brady, R.L. (2000). The structure of Antirrhinum
centroradialis protein (CEN) suggests a role as a kinase regulator.
J. Mol. Biol. 297: 1159–1170.
Bernier, G., Havelange, A., Houssa, C., Petitjean, A., and Lejeune,
P. (1993). Physiological signals that induce flowering. Plant Cell 5:
1147–1155.
Bernier, G., Kinet, J.M., and Sachs, R.M. (1981). The Physiology of
Flowering. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press).
Bohlenius, H., Huang, T., Charbonnel-Campaa, L., Brunner, A.M.,
Jansson, S., Strauss, S.H., and Nilsson, O. (2006). CO/FT regulatory
module controls timing of flowering and seasonal growth cessation in
trees. Science 312: 1040–1043.
Boylan, M.T., and Quail, P.H. (1991). Phytochrome A overexpression
inhibits hypocotyl elongation in transgenic Arabidopsis. Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. USA 88: 10806–10810.
Bradley, D., Ratcliffe, O., Vincent, C., Carpenter, R., and Coen, E.
(1997). Inflorescence commitment and architecture in Arabidopsis.
Science 275: 80–83.
Casal, J.J., Clough, R.C., and Vierstra, R.D. (1996). High-irradiance
responses induced by far-red light in grass seedlings of the wild type
or overexpressing phytochrome A. Planta 200: 132–137.
Conti, L., and Bradley, D. (2007). TERMINAL FLOWER1 is a mobile
signal controlling Arabidopsis architecture. Plant Cell 19: 767–778.
Corbesier, L., Vincent, C., Jang, S., Fornara, F., Fan, Q., Searle, I.,
Giakountis, A., Farrona, S., Gissot, L., Turnbull, C., and Coupland,
G. (2007). FT protein movement contributes to long-distance signaling
in floral induction of Arabidopsis. Science 316: 1030–1033.
De Block, M., and Debrouwer, D. (1993). RNA-RNA in situ hybridiza-
tion using digoxigenin-labeled probes: The use of high-molecular-
weight polyvinyl alcohol in the alkaline phosphatase indoxyl-nitroblue
tetrazolium reaction. Anal. Biochem. 215: 86–89.
Eriksson, M.E., and Moritz, T. (2002). Daylength and spatial expression
of a gibberellin 20-oxidase isolated from hybrid aspen (Populus tremula
L. x P. tremuloides Michx.). Planta 214: 920–930.
Esau, K. (1977). Anatomy of Seed Plants. (New York: John Wiley & Sons).
Gisel, A., Barella, S., Hempel, F.D., and Zambryski, P.C. (1999).
Temporal and spatial regulation of symplastic trafficking during devel-
opment in Arabidopsis thaliana apices. Development 126: 1879–1889.
Goffinet, M.C., and Larson, P.R. (1981). Structural changes in Populus
deltoides terminal buds and in the vascular transition zone of the
stems during dormancy induction. Am. J. Bot. 68: 118–129.
Gressel, J., Zilberstein, J.A., Porath, D., and Arzee, T. (1980). Dem-
onstration with fiber illumination that Pharbitis plumules also perceive
flowering photoinduction. In Photoreceptors and Plant Development,
J. de Greef, ed (Antwerpen, Belgium: University Press), pp. 525–530.
Harkess, R.L., and Lyons, R.E. (1993). Anatomical changes in Rud-
beckia hirta L. during transition to flowering. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci.
118: 835–839.
Haywood, V., Yu, T.-S., Huang, N.-C., and Lucas, W.J. (2005). Phloem
long-distance trafficking of GIBBERELLIC ACID-INSENSITIVE RNA
regulates leaf development. Plant J. 42: 49–68.
Horvath, D.P., Anderson, J.V., Chao, W.S., and Foley, M.E. (2003).
Knowing when to grow: Signals regulating bud dormancy. Trends
Plant Sci. 8: 534–540.
Howe, G.T., Hackett, W.P., Furnier, G.R., and Klevorn, R.E. (1995).
Photoperiodic responses of a northern and southern ecotype of black
cottonwood. Physiol. Plant. 93: 695–708.
Hsu, C.Y., Liu, Y., Luthe, D.S., and Yuceer, C. (2006). Poplar FT2
shortens the juvenile phase and promotes seasonal flowering. Plant
Cell 18: 1846–1861.
Johnson, E., Bradley, M., Harberd, N.P., and Whitelam, G.C. (1994).
Photoresponses of light-grown phyA mutants of Arabidopsis. Plant
Physiol. 105: 141–149.
Jordan, E.T., Hatfield, P.M., Hondred, D., Talon, M., Zeevaart, J.A.D.,
and Vierstra, R.D. (1995). Phytochrome A overexpression in trans-
genic tobacco. Plant Physiol. 107: 797–805.
Kardailsky, I., Shukla, V.K., Ahn, J.H., Dagenais, N., Christensen,
S.K., Nguyen, J.T., Chory, J., Harrison, M.J., and Weigel, D. (1999).
Activation tagging of the floral inducer FT. Science 286: 1962–1965.
72 The Plant Cell
Knapp, P.H., Sawhney, S., Grimmett, M.M., and Vince-Prue, D.
(1986). Site of perception of the far-red inhibition of flowering in
Pharbitis nil Choisy. Plant Cell Physiol. 27: 1147–1152.
Kobayashi, Y., Kaya, H., Goto, K., Iwabuchi, M., and Araki, T. (1999).
A pair of related genes with antagonistic roles in mediating flowering
signals. Science 286: 1960–1962.
Koornneef, M., Hanhart, C.J., and van der Veen, J.H. (1991). A genetic
and physiological analysis of late flowering mutants in Arabidopsis
thaliana. Mol. Gen. Genet. 229: 57–66.
Lin, M.-K., Belanger, H., Lee, Y.-J., Varkonyi-Gasic, E., Taoka, K.-I.,
Miura, E., Xoconostle-Cazares, B., Gendler, K., Jorgensen, R.A.,
Phinney, B., Lough, T.J., and Lucas, W.J. (2007). FLOWERING
LOCUS T protein may act as the long-distance florigenic signal in the
cucurbits. Plant Cell 19: 1488–1506.
Mohamed, R. (2006). Expression and Function of Populus Homologs to
TERMINAL FLOWER1 Genes: Roles in Onset of Flowering and Shoot
Phenology. PhD dissertation (Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University).
Mølmann, J.A., Asante, D.K.A., Jensen, J.B., Krane, M.N., Ernstsen,
A., Junttila, O., and Olsen, J.E. (2005). Low night temperature and
inhibition of gibberellin biosynthesis override phytochrome action and
induce bud set and cold acclimation, but not dormancy in PHYA
overexpressors and wild-type of hybrid aspen. Plant Cell Environ. 28:
1579–1588.
Mouradov, A., Cremer, F., and Coupland, G. (2002). Control of
flowering time: Interacting pathways as a basis for diversity. Plant
Cell 14 (suppl.): S111–S130.
Olsen, J.E., Junttila, O., Nilsen, J., Eriksson, M.E., Martinussen, I.,
Olsson, O., Sandberg, G., and Moritz, T. (1997). Ectopic expression
of oat phytochrome A in hybrid aspen changes critical daylength for
growth and prevents cold acclimatization. Plant J. 12: 1339–1350.
Oparka, K.J., Roberts, A.G., Boevink, P., Santa Cruz, S., Roberts,
L., Pradel, K.S., Imlau, A., Kotlizky, G., Sauer, N., and Epel, B.
(1999). Simple, but not branched, plasmodesmata allow the nonspe-
cific trafficking of proteins in developing tobacco leaves. Cell 97:
743–754.
Ormenese, S., Havelange, A., Bernier, G., and van der Schoot, C.
(2002). The shoot apical meristem of Sinapis alba L. expands its cen-
tral symplasmic field during the floral transition. Planta 215: 67–78.
Ormenese, S., Havelange, A., Deltour, R., and Bernier, G. (2000).
The frequency of plasmodesmata increases early in the whole shoot
apical meristem of Sinapis alba L. during floral transition. Planta 211:
370–375.
Putterill, J., Robson, F., Lee, K., Simon, R., and Coupland, G. (1995).
The CONSTANS gene of Arabidopsis promotes flowering and en-
codes a protein showing similarities to zinc finger transcription fac-
tors. Cell 80: 847–857.
Ratcliffe, O.J., Amaya, I., Vincent, C.A., Rothstein, S., Carpenter, R.,
Coen, E.S., and Bradley, D.J. (1998). A common mechanism controls
the life cycle and architecture of plants. Development 125: 1609–
1615.
Ratcliffe, O.J., Bradley, D.J., and Coen, E.S. (1999). Separation of
shoot and floral identity in Arabidopsis. Development 126: 1109–1120.
Rinne, P., Welling, A., and Kaikuranta, P. (1998). Onset of freezing
tolerance in birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) involves LEA proteins and
osmoregulation and is impaired in an ABA-deficient genotype. Plant
Cell Environ. 21: 601–611.
Rinne, P.L.H., Kaikuranta, P.M., and van der Schoot, C. (2001). The
shoot apical meristem restores its symplasmic organization during
chilling-induced release from dormancy. Plant J. 26: 249–264.
Rinne, P.L.H., van den Boogaard, R., Mensink, M.G.J., Kopperud, C.,
Kormelink, R., Goldbach, R., and van der Schoot, C. (2005).
Tobacco plants respond to the constitutive expression of the tospo-
virus movement protein NSM with a heat-reversible sealing of plas-
modesmata that impairs development. Plant J. 43: 688–707.
Rinne, P.L.H., and van der Schoot, C. (1998). Symplasmic fields in the
tunica of the shoot apical meristem coordinate morphogenetic events.
Development 125: 1477–1485.
Rinne, P.L.H., and van der Schoot, C. (2003). Plasmodesmata at the
crossroads between development, dormancy, and defense. Can. J.
Bot. 81: 1182–1197.
Rohde, A., and Bhalerao, R.P. (2007). Plant dormancy in the perennial
context. Trends Plant Sci. 12: 217–223.
Rohde, A., Prinsen, E., De Rycke, R., Engler, G., van Montagu, M.,
and Boerjan, W. (2002). PtABI3 impinges on the growth and differ-
entiation of embryonic leaves during bud set in poplar. Plant Cell 14:
1885–1901.
Ruiz-Medrano, R., Xoconostle-Cazares, B., and Lucas, W.J. (1999).
Phloem long-distance transport of CmNACP mRNA: Implications for
supracellular regulation in plants. Development 126: 4405–4419.
Ruonala, R., Rinne, P.L.H., Baghour, M., Moritz, T., Tuominen, H.,
and Kangasjarvi, J. (2006). Transitions in the functioning of the shoot
apical meristem in birch (Betula pendula) involve ethylene. Plant J. 46:
628–640.
Ruttink, T., Arend, M., Morreel, K., Storme, V., Rombauts, S.,
Fromm, J., Bhalerao, R.P., Boerjan, W., and Rohde, A. (2007). A
molecular timetable for apical bud formation and dormancy induction
in poplar. Plant Cell 19: 2370–2390.
Sablowski, R. (2007). Flowering and determinacy in Arabidopsis. J. Exp.
Bot. 58: 899–907.
Sachs, R.M., Lang, A., Bretz, C.F., and Roach, J. (1960). Shoot
histogenesis: Subapical meristematic activity in a caulescent plant
and the action of gibberellic acid and AMO-1618. Am. J. Bot. 47:
260–266.
Samach, A., Onouchi, H., Gold, S.E., Ditta, G.S., Schwarz-Sommer,
Z., Yanofsky, M.F., and Coupland, G. (2000). Distinct roles of
CONSTANS target genes in reproductive development of Arabidop-
sis. Science 288: 1613–1616.
Seeley, K.A., Byrne, D.H., and Colbert, J.T. (1992). Red light-
independent instability of oat phytochrome mRNA in vivo. Plant Cell
4: 29–38.
Sessions, A., Yanofsky, M.F., and Weigel, D. (2000). Cell-cell signaling
and movement by the floral transcription factors LEAFY and APETALA1.
Science 289: 779–781.
Shannon, S., and Meeks-Wagner, D.R. (1991). A mutation in the
Arabidopsis TFL1 gene affects inflorescence meristem development.
Plant Cell 3: 877–892.
Smith, R.H., and Murashige, T. (1970). In vitro development of the iso-
lated shoot apical meristem of angiosperms. Am. J. Bot. 57: 562–568.
Steeves, T.A., and Sussex, I.M. (1989). Patterns in Plant Development.
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press).
Suarez-Lopez, P., Wheatley, K., Robson, F., Onouchi, H., Valverde,
F., and Coupland, G. (2001). CONSTANS mediates between the
circadian clock and the control of flowering in Arabidopsis. Nature
410: 1116–1120.
Takada, S., and Goto, K. (2003). TERMINAL FLOWER2, an Arabidopsis
homolog of HETEROCHROMATIN PROTEIN1, counteracts the acti-
vation of FLOWERING LOCUS T by CONSTANS in the vascular tis-
sues of leaves to regulate flowering time. Plant Cell 15: 2856–2865.
Tamaki, S., Matsuo, S., Wong, H.L., Yokoi, S., and Shimamoto, K.
(2007). Hd3a protein is a mobile flowering signal in rice. Science 316:
1033–1036.
Turgeon, R. (1989). The sink-source transition in leaves. Annu. Rev.
Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 40: 119–138.
Tuskan, G.A., et al. (2006). The genome of black cottonwood, Populus
trichocarpa (Torr. & Gray). Science 313: 1596–1604.
Pt CENL1 and RM in Developmental Switches 73
Van Blokland, R., van der Geest, N., Mol, J.N.M., and Kooter, J.M. (1994).
Transgene-mediated suppression of chalcone synthase expression in
Petunia hybrida results from an increase in RNA turnover. Plant J. 6:
861–877.
van der Schoot, C. (1996). Dormancy and symplasmic networking at
the shoot apical meristem. In Plant Dormancy: Physiology, Biochem-
istry and Molecular Biology, G.A. Lang, ed (Wallingford, UK: CAB
International), pp. 59–81.
van der Schoot, C., and Rinne, P. (1999). Networks for shoot design.
Trends Plant Sci. 4: 31–37.
Vince-Prue, D. (1994). The duration of light and photoperiodic re-
sponses. In Photomorphogenesis in Plants, R.E. Kendrick, and
G.H.M. Kronenberg, eds (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Aca-
demic Publishers), pp. 447–490.
Wareing, P.F. (1956). Photoperiodism in woody plants. Annu. Rev. Plant
Physiol. 7: 191–214.
Welling, A., Moritz, T., Palva, E.T., and Junttila, O. (2002). Indepen-
dent activation of cold acclimation by low temperature and short
photoperiod in hybrid aspen. Plant Physiol. 129: 1633–1641.
Yanovsky, M.J., Casal, J.J., and Whitelam, G.C. (1995). Phytochrome A,
phytochrome B and HY4 are involved in hypocotyl growth-responses to
natural radiation in Arabidopsis: Weak de-etiolation of the phyA mutant
under dense canopies. Plant Cell Environ. 18: 788–794.
Yanovsky, M.J., and Kay, S.A. (2002). Molecular basis of seasonal time
measurement in Arabidopsis. Nature 419: 308–312.
Yeung, K., Seitz, T., Li, S., Janosch, P., McFerran, B., Kaiser, C., Fee,
F., Katsanakis, K.D., Rose, D.W., Mischak, H., Sedivy, J.M., and
Kolch, W. (1999). Suppression of Raf-1 kinase activity and MAP
kinase signalling by RKIP. Nature 401: 173–177.
Zeevaart, J.A.D. (1976). Physiology of flower formation. Annu. Rev.
Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 27: 321–348.
Zhang, S.H., Hu, W.J., Wang, L.P., Lin, C.F., Cong, B., Sun, C.R., and
Luo, D. (2005). TFL1/CEN-like genes control intercalary meristem
activity and phase transition in rice. Plant Sci. 168: 1393–1408.
74 The Plant Cell
DOI 10.1105/tpc.107.056721; originally published online January 11, 2008; 2008;20;59-74Plant Cell
Raili Ruonala, Päivi L.H. Rinne, Jaakko Kangasjärvi and Christiaan van der SchootPopulusin
Expression in the Rib Meristem Affects Stem Elongation and the Transition to DormancyCENL1
This information is current as of September 27, 2020
Supplemental Data /content/suppl/2008/01/11/tpc.107.056721.DC1.html
References /content/20/1/59.full.html#ref-list-1
This article cites 69 articles, 30 of which can be accessed free at:
Permissions https://www.copyright.com/ccc/openurl.do?sid=pd_hw1532298X&issn=1532298X&WT.mc_id=pd_hw1532298X
eTOCs http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/alerts/ctmain
Sign up for eTOCs at:
CiteTrack Alerts http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/alerts/ctmain
Sign up for CiteTrack Alerts at:
Subscription Information http://www.aspb.org/publications/subscriptions.cfm
is available at:Plant Physiology and The Plant CellSubscription Information for
ADVANCING THE SCIENCE OF PLANT BIOLOGY © American Society of Plant Biologists