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Cement Production in Vertical Shaft

Kilns in China -

Status and Opportunities for Improvement

Report to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization

UNIDO Contract RB-308-D40-8213110-2005

31 January 2006

Kåre Helge Karstensen [email protected]

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Table of content

Table of content ........................................................................................................................... 2

Acronyms and abbreviations........................................................................................................ 5

Glossary ......................................................................................................................... 10

Executive summary ..................................................................................................................... 12

1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 17 1.1 Objective of this study ................................................................................................... 22

2. Cement production .............................................................................................................. 23 2.1 Main processes ............................................................................................................... 23

2.1.1 Quarrying ........................................................................................................ 24 2.1.2 Raw materials preparation .............................................................................. 25 2.1.3 Fuels preparation............................................................................................. 25 2.1.4 Clinker Burning............................................................................................... 27 2.1.5 Cement grinding.............................................................................................. 28 2.1.6 Mineral additions preparation ......................................................................... 29 2.1.7 Cement dispatch.............................................................................................. 29

2.2 Material characteristics .................................................................................................. 30 2.2.1 Main clinker phases ........................................................................................ 30 2.2.2 Raw mix components...................................................................................... 32 2.2.3 Fuels ................................................................................................................ 32 2.2.4 Cement constituents ........................................................................................ 33

2.3 The four main process routes in rotary kiln cement production .................................... 33 2.3.1 The dry process ............................................................................................... 34 2.3.2 The semi-dry process ...................................................................................... 36 2.3.3 The semi-wet process...................................................................................... 38 2.3.4 The wet process............................................................................................... 39 2.3.5 Circulating elements ....................................................................................... 39 2.3.6 Clinker coolers ................................................................................................ 41 2.3.7 Operating characteristics rotary kilns - a summary ........................................ 42

2.4 Cement production using Vertical Shaft Kilns .............................................................. 43 2.4.1 Black meal process.......................................................................................... 44 2.4.2 Process conditions and quality aspects ........................................................... 49

3. Environmental significance of cement production ........................................................... 54 3.1 Dust ......................................................................................................................... 54 3.2 Gaseous atmospheric emissions..................................................................................... 55

3.2.1 Carbon dioxide................................................................................................ 56 3.2.2 Nitrogen oxides ............................................................................................... 56 3.2.3 Sulfur oxides ................................................................................................... 57 3.2.4 Organic compounds ........................................................................................ 59

3.3 PCDD/F emissions ......................................................................................................... 60 3.3.1 Trace elements ................................................................................................ 62

3.4 Other emissions.............................................................................................................. 64 3.5 Normal emission levels from rotary kilns...................................................................... 64 3.6 Air pollution control in cement production.................................................................... 65

3.6.1 Inherent "scrubbing" of exit gases in preheater kiln ....................................... 72


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3.6.2 Emission control in VSKs............................................................................... 73

4. Resource consumption in cement production ................................................................... 76 4.1 Consumption of raw materials ....................................................................................... 77 4.2 Consumption of energy .................................................................................................. 77 4.3 Options for resource reduction....................................................................................... 79

4.3.1 Use of energy .................................................................................................. 80 4.4 Utilisation of alternative fuels and raw materials in modern cement production .......... 81

5. Cement production in China - general challenges............................................................ 86 5.1 Production ...................................................................................................................... 86 5.2 Geographic location ....................................................................................................... 88 5.3 Raw material consumption............................................................................................. 88 5.4 Energy consumption....................................................................................................... 89 5.5 Emissions ....................................................................................................................... 90 5.6 Comparison of performance........................................................................................... 91 5.7 Health and Safety ........................................................................................................... 93 5.8 Efficiency - a summary .................................................................................................. 94

6. Cement production in China - general opportunities for improvement ....................... 95 6.1 Policy and regulation...................................................................................................... 95

6.1.1 Environmental regulation of the Chinese cement industry............................. 96 6.1.2 Enforcement .................................................................................................... 98 6.1.3 Emissions of persistent organic pollutants POPs............................................ 99

6.2 Technology development ............................................................................................. 102 6.2.1 Best available techniques (BAT) .................................................................. 103 6.2.2 Best available techniques and best environmental practise for controlling and minimising PCDD/F emission............................................................................... 105

6.3 Cleaner production opportunities................................................................................. 106 6.3.1 Emission reduction........................................................................................ 106 6.3.2 Water pollution and dust recovery ................................................................ 108 6.3.3 Energy consumption ..................................................................................... 109 6.3.4 Health and safety........................................................................................... 110 6.3.5 Impacts on land use....................................................................................... 111 6.3.6 Communication............................................................................................. 112

7. Vertical Shaft Kilns ........................................................................................................... 113 7.1 Centralised close-down policy ..................................................................................... 113 7.2 Replacement of VSKs by a combination of market forces and regulation .................. 114

7.2.1 Key economic indicators for VSKs .............................................................. 115 7.3 Demonstration projects for VSK improvement ........................................................... 116

7.3.1 Suggested activities in a VSK demonstration project................................... 120 7.3.2 Exit gas sampling and chemical analysis...................................................... 123

8. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 125

9. References and bibliography ............................................................................................ 127

Annex 1 Demonstration project - Improvement of environmental performance and energy efficiency in Vertical Shaft Kilns................................................................................. 137

Annex 2 Emission Standard of Air Pollutants for the ........................................................... 144

Cement Industry in China........................................................................................................ 144

Annex 3 Chinese companies providing equipment to the cement industry ......................... 162


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Annex 4 Chinese research institutes providing service to the cement industry .................. 178


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Acronyms and abbreviations

AFR Alternative fuel and raw material

APCD Air pollution control device

ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

AWFCO Automatic waste feed cut-off

BAT Best available techniques

BEP Best environmental practise

BHF Bag house filter

BIF Boiler and industrial furnace

Btu British thermal unit oC Degree Celsius

CAA Clean Air Act

CEMBUREAU European Cement Association

CEMS Continuous emissions monitoring system

CEN European Standardisation Organisation

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CKD Cement kiln dust

Cl2 Molecular chlorine

CSI Cement Sustainability Initiative

DL Detection limit

CO Carbon monoxide

CO2 Carbon dioxide

DE Destruction efficiency

Dioxins A term/abbreviation for polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and

polychlorinated dibenzofurans (see also PCDD/Fs)

DRE Destruction and removal efficiency

Dscm Dry standard cubic meter

EC European Commission

EF Emission factor

e.g. For example

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EPER European Pollutant Emission Register


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ESP Electro static precipitator

EU European Union

FF Fabric filter

g Gram

GC-ECD Gas chromatography with electron capture detector

GC-MS Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry

HAPs Hazardous air pollutants

HCB Hexachlorobenzene

HCI Hydrogen chloride

HF Hydrofluoric acid

i.e. That is

IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control

I-TEF International Toxicity Equivalency Factor

I-TEQ International Toxic Equivalent

IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

J Joules

K (Degree) Kelvin

kcal Kilocalorie (1 kcal = 4.19 kJ)

kg Kilogramme (1 kg = 1000 g)

kJ Kilojoules (1 kJ = 0.24 kcal)

kPa Kilo Pascal (= one thousand Pascal)

L Litre

lb Pound

LCA Life cycle analysis

LOD Limit of detection

LOl Loss of ignition

LOQ Limits of quantification

m3 Cubic meter (typically under operating conditions without

normalization to, e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity)

MACT Maximum Achievable Control Technology

MJ Mega joule (l MJ= 1000 kJ)

mg/kg Milligrams per kilogram

MS Mass spectrometry

mol Mole (Unit of Substance)


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Na Sodium

NA Not applicable

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

ND Not determined/no data (in other words: so far, no measurements available)

NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants

ng Nanogram (1 ng = 10-9 gram)

Nm3 Normal cubic metre (101.3 kPa, 273 K)

NH3 Ammonia

NOx Nitrogen oxides (NO+NO2)

NR Not reported

N-TEQ Toxic equivalent using the Nordic scheme (commonly used in the

Scandinavian countries)

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

O2 Oxygen

PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PCA Portland Cement Association (USA)

PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls

PCDDs Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins

PCDFs Polychlorinated dibenzofurans

PCDD/Fs Informal term used in this document for PCDDs and PCDFs

PIC Product of incomplete combustion

pg Picogram (1 pg = 10-12 gram)

PM Particulate matter

POHC Principal organic hazardous constituent

POM Polycyclic organic matter

POP Persistent organic pollutants

ppb Parts per billion

ppm Parts per million

ppmv Parts per million (volume basis)

ppq Parts per quadrillion

ppt Parts per trillion

ppt/v Parts per trillion (volume basis)

ppm Parts per million


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QA/QC Quality assurance/quality control

QL Quantification limit

RACT Reasonably Available Control Technology

RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

RDF Refuse derived fuel

RT Residence time

sec Second

SINTEF Foundation for Industrial and Scientific Research of Norway

SNCR Selective non catalytic reduction

SiO2 Silicon dioxide

SCR Selective catalytic reduction

SO2 Sulfur dioxide

SO3 Sulfur trioxide

SOx Sulfur oxides

SQL Sample quantification limit

SRE System removal efficiency

t Tonne (metric)

TCDD Abbreviation for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorobidenzo-p-dioxin

TCDF Abbreviation for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorobidenzofuran

TEF Toxicity Equivalency Factor

TEQ Toxic Equivalent (I-TEQ, N-TEQ or WHO-TEQ)

TEQ/yr Toxic Equivalents per year

THC Total hydrocarbons

TOC Total organic carbon

tpa Tonnes per annum (year)

TRI Toxics Release Inventory

TSCA Toxics Substances Control Act

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

UK United Kingdom

UNEP United Nation Environment Programme

UNIDO United Nation Industry Development Organisation

US United States of America

US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

VDZ Verein Deutsche Zementwerke


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VOC Volatile organic compounds

VSK Vertical shaft kilns

WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development

WHO World Health Organization

y Year

% v/v Percentage by volume

µg/m3 Micrograms per cubic meter

µg Microgram


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Glossary

AFR Alternative fuel and raw materials, often wastes or secondary products

from other industries, used to substitute conventional fossil fuel and

conventional raw materials.

Cementitious Materials behaving like cement, i.e. reactive in the presence of

water; also compatible with cement.

Co-processing Utilisation of alternative fuel and raw materials in the purpose

of energy and resource recovery.

Dioxins Together with PCDD/Fs used as term/abbreviation for

Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and Polychlorinated

dibenzofurans in this document

DRE/DE Destruction and Removal Efficiency/Destruction Efficiency.

The efficiency of organic compounds destruction under

Combustion in the kiln.

Kiln inlet/outlet Were the raw meal enters the kiln system and the clinker leaves

the kiln system.

Pozzolana Pozzolanas are materials that, though not cementitious in themselves,

contain silica (and alumina) in a reactive form able to combine with

lime in the presence of water to form compounds with cementitious

properties. Natural pozzolana is composed mainly of a fine, reddish

volcanic earth. An artificial pozzolana has been developed that

combines a fly ash and water-quenched boiler slag.

Pozzolanic cement Pozzolanic cements are mixtures of Portland cement and a pozzolanic

material that may be either natural or artificial. The natural pozzolanas


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are mainly materials of volcanic origin but include some diatomaceous

earths. Artificial materials include fly ash, burned clays, and shale’s.

Siliceous limestone Limestone that contains silicon dioxide (SiO2)


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Executive summary

Cement production in China has grown steadily the last 20 years and increased by

more than 10 % yearly. The Chinese cement industry produced 1,060 billion ton cement in

2005, accounting for 808 kg per capita and approximately 50 % of the world production. The

cement production will probably reach its saturation point around year 2010 with an annual

cement output at the upper limit of 1200 million tonnes.

Approximately 60 % of the cement was produced in approximately 4000 Vertical

Shaft Kilns (VSKs) in 2005. This part of the cement industry is characterized by its irrational

structure, low production efficiency, high energy consumption and heavy environmental

pollution. Many VSKs plants have virtually no environmental controls in place; and indeed,

the nature of the old technology preclude effective use of modern dust (and other emission)

controls. Compared with preheater/precalciner kilns, VSKs seems to consume from 14 % to

105 % more coal pr ton of clinker. Vertical shaft kilns generally produce lower quality (#325

grade or less) cement which is neither suitable for large structures nor for major infrastructure

projects such as bridges, airports, etc. It is also not suitable for export to international

markets.

Improved mechanical shaft kilns have a production capacity of 250-350 tons/day and

constituted 1150 and 1240 kilns in 2003 and 2004 respectively. Mechanical shaft kilns have a

production capacity of 100-250 tons/day and constituted 9280 and 9060 kilns in 2003 and

2004 respectively. Ordinary shaft kilns have a production capacity of 50-150 tons/day and

constituted 3150 and 2400 kilns in 2003 and 2004 respectively.

China announced already in 1999 that it would close thousands of small or antiquated

cement operations. There have however been many barriers to closure due to worker

displacement and retraining costs; potential political instability, and opposition from local

leaders who have economic interests in the plants. The key issue is retaining political stability

in the face of greater unemployment. The problem is exacerbated compared to similar issues

in other developing countries because Chinese cement plants employ up to ten times the

labour of plants in developed countries, and because China has a less robust system of


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protective social security. Many of the closed plants will be in rural areas and it is hoped that

released workers can fall back on their agricultural jobs or be absorbed in the rapidly growing

private sector. Many provincial and local governments are not enthusiastically implementing

these centrally planned plant closures.

Some VSK will own its position to the disparity in the regional economic development

of China still for some years to come, but within the year 2020 it is expected that all ordinary

and all mechanised shaft kilns will have been closed down and that less than 10 % of

improved mechanical shaft kilns will be in operation. The Chinese government has

acknowledged that the replacement of VSKs with modern technology seems to be better off

with a combination of economic incentives, regulation, and enforcement and market

mechanisms. The new emission standard of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry in China, GB

4915-2004, has been effective for one year only. The standard gives identical emission limits

for rotary kiln and shaft kiln for particulate emissions. Low quality cement is currently

oversupplied and cheap in China, while high quality cement is rarer and more expensive.

Profit margins for most cement producers have decreased and are near zero. Despite the

growth in construction, cement prices have fallen the last two years, in some provinces with

more than 50 %. New dry preheater/precalciner kilns is more cost-efficient than VSKs, both

with regards to the number of labours and fuel costs, and they produce stable high quality

cement. Energy prices and cost for labour has been increasing steadily the last years and is

forecasted to continue to increase; this will favour dry preheater/precalciner kilns.

New and modern dry process production lines with preheater and precalciner

constituted 508 units by the end of 2004 and more than 704 will be in operation in the near

future. This technology is considered to constitute the best available techniques with regards

general cost-efficiency, to energy consumption, emissions and product quality.

1326 limestone quarries are currently known in China containing approximately

56,120 million tonnes of limestone. Taking into account future growth of cement production

this deposits can only maintain the need for manufacturing of cement for 59 years (other

industry exploitation not taken into account). In addition, cement production usually needs

limestone sources of high quality and current quarrying methods are wasting large amounts of

non-spec material. The raw material sources is neither uniformly distributed around the

country and provinces with high production may not be self-sufficient for a long time. In


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addition, cement is a low profit product and the transportation distance is usually limited to a

radius of 200 kilometres.

The cement industry consumed about 129 million tons of standard coal, equal to 148

million tons of common coal in 2003. This amounts to approximately 11 % of whole

consumption of coal in that year. For 2005 the consumption would be equivalent to

approximately 200 million tonnes of common coal. The Chinese energy supply is mainly

based on the utilization of coal. In 2002, the geological investigation showed that the storage

of coal is about 130,000 million tons and will meet the domestic requirement for another 54 to

81 years. The quality and the distribution of coal are uneven along the country and require

long transportation distances in some situations.

The electricity consumption in the Chinese cement industry was 94,930 million kWh,

amounting to approximately 5 % of the electric consumption in the whole country in 2003.

It is estimated that the Chinese cement industry emitted more than 13 million tons of

dust, about 27 % of all emissions from the national industry, about 22 % of all CO2 emissions,

and about 4.85% of all SO2 emissions in 2003.

Data developed the Chinese Enterprise Confederation point to significantly lower

efficiencies for Chinese plants with respect to power use (approximately 25 % less efficient),

fuel use (approximately 75 % less efficient), and labour (approximately six – thirty times

more employees per ton of product) and product losses (nearly 2 % product loss through dust

emissions in China). As a general rule, larger facilities have and continue to invest more in

energy and process efficiency programs than smaller ones.

There were more than 5000 cement producers employing approximately 1.5 million

workers by the end of 2004. These companies were owned by the state, by townships,

communities, collectives and by private companies. It is not clear if detailed employee

accident and incident records are kept, or used to make safety improvements. Health and

safety performance information is lacking. There is relatively little use of traditional personal

protective equipment, like safety shoes, facemasks (for dust), and safety glasses in Chinese

facilities.


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The use of alternative fuels in Chinese plants is almost totally absent, reflecting both

the lack of infrastructure to collect and recycle these materials and the inability of vertical

shaft kilns to use these materials safely or easily. This is an issue of growing concern, as

China faces increasing waste management and disposal challenges. Enforcement of

environmental regulations appears uneven, with small or no penalties for violation of

environmental standards. Small facilities are frequently excused from compliance for lack of

resources.

The cement manufacturing process is generally well suited for co-processing by-

products and residues from industrial sources, both as raw materials and fuels substitutes and

as mineral additions. There is no doubt that the most effective way of reducing raw material

consumption, energy use and emissions from the cement industry is to reduce the clinker

content of cement products by using secondary raw materials; then both thermal CO2 from

fossil fuels and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw materials are reduced. With the

substitution of fossil fuels by alternative fuels, the overall output of thermal CO2 is reduced.

Fuel substitution is however not feasible for vertical shaft kilns. VSKs are applying the

black-meal process which cannot replace the coal or coke by waste or alternative energy

containing materials.

The available information in English on the general performance of VSKs doesn't

seem to be scientifically well document by real measurements or studies, i.e. there is a need to

document the normal baseline conditions. A well documented and thorough knowledge of the

normal energy consumption and the normal emission levels from VSKs is a prerequisite for

issuing stricter regulation, for reporting statistics, for implementing measures and for

measuring improvement. A pilot project is therefore suggested to demonstrate the potential

for improvement in energy efficiency and emission reduction of VSKs.

No VSKs has been monitored for dioxins and furans and no emission factors have so

far been developed for this industry category. China is obliged to provide data on PCDD/F

emissions to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and to

suggest an action plan with reduction targets for PCDD/F emissions from the different source

categories. To be able to do this task properly the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in

VSKs should be known. The understanding of the formation mechanism will enable the


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environmental authorities to provide measures and strategies for emission reduction and

control.


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1. Introduction

China is expected to remain the world’s most populous country through year 2040. Its

gross domestic product (GDP) has averaged growth of more than 9 percent each year since

liberalization and economic reforms began in the late 1970s (Soule et al, 2002). In 1985,

China became the world’s leading producer of cement, and today produces almost half of the

total global output. While China’s cement industry is relatively insulated from a global

perspective, changes are underway to improve product quality, management practices and

profitability, including further opening the sector to participation by international players. In

2001, the Chinese government decentralized its industrial ministries and the organizational

structure of the cement industry. The Ministry of Building Materials and the State

Administration of Building Materials Industry has been changed into several quasi-

governmental organisations: China Cement Association, China Building Materials Industry

Association, China Building Materials Academy and Institute of Technical Information for

Building Materials Industry of China (ITIBMIC). Changes in top officials have also occurred

and provincial authorities now exert more control over the industry (Soule et al, 2002).

A shrinking number of cement companies remain state-owned, while a growing

number are foreign invested enterprises. Collective enterprises account for over 50 percent of

companies while 10 percent are privately owned. There also is a trend toward consolidation.

The estimated number of Chinese cement producers is approximately 5000, although the

actual number is uncertain due to the fragmented nature of the industry, the small size of

many plants, the fact that some plants exist illegally, and data reliability issues. About 50

percent of these facilities are rural township enterprises with average annual output of less

than 30,000 tonnes. Only about 570 of the 8,500 cement producers had production capacities

exceeding 275,000 tonnes per year in 1995, and only ten plants produce more than one

million tonnes annually (Soule et al, 2002). For comparison, industrialized cement producing

countries average 40 to 50 major producers that manufacture up to four million tonnes

annually.

China plans to increase the average production capacity at facilities throughout the

industry through plant closures and upgrades. The country plans to raise average plant


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production to 200,000 tonnes per year by 2005, 300,000–400,000 by 2010, and 400,000–

500,000 by 2015 (Soule et al, 2002).

China announced in 1999 that it would close thousands of small or antiquated cement

operations. As many as 6,000 plants are slated to be closed, with 4,000 closures scheduled by

the end of 2001. Given current progress, this level of closure by year end 2001 seems

unlikely. Initially targeted for closure are 2,000 illegal or improperly licensed cement

producers as well as outdated cement operations. China plans to close (through non-

recertification) plants that (Soule et al, 2002):

• Produce #325 and lower grades (by 2005);

• Have vertical kiln diameters smaller than 2.2 meters and/or produce <30,000

tonnes/year, and

• Have wet process kilns (either to be closed or converted to dry processes).

Cement production in China has grown steadily the last 20 years and increased

by more than 10 % yearly. It is estimated that the Chinese cement industry produced 1,060

billion ton cement in 2005 (Cui and Wang, 2005). Approximately 60 % of this cement was

produced in approximately 4000 Vertical Shaft Kilns (VSKs). New and modern dry process

production lines constituted 508 units by the end of 2004 and as much as 704 will be in full

operation within the near future (Cui and Wang, 2005). Today, 138 million tonnes, or one

quarter of Chinese cement production comes from rotary kilns; the remaining 433 million

tonnes from vertical kilns that will be slowly phased out. Vertical shaft kilns currently

contribute 60 percent of production, a number expected to decline only to 50 percent by 2015.

Cement production generally tracks well against population density, but there are

production concentrations in Shandong and Guangdong provinces and among the coastal

provinces generally. The central government is emphasizing the future development of the

poorer western provinces to help alleviate regional income differentials that result in

migration to the more crowded east. The western provinces account for comparatively little

cement production. As urban land development rationalizes (where land uses are determined


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by economic and environmental considerations), local governments are reclaiming land from

urban cement plants and replacing them with less noxious and more profitable activities.

Companies are being displaced to the urban fringes and also moving closer to limestone

deposits, employing conveyer systems to transport limestone over medium distances.

Growth in Chinese cement production is due to the construction boom accompanying

high GDP growth rates. Only rotary kiln cement can be used legally to build high-rise

buildings in China and demand for the higher grade cements increases. Forty percent of

China’s cement is now used for basic infrastructure construction (an area regularly neglected

during the period of heavy central planning), with about one-third of that used in rural areas.

Twenty-five percent is used for maintenance activities. China’s transport sector uses cement

in road construction rather than asphalt. As China lacks an adequate national highway system

and its rail network is so overburdened, investment can be expected in highways over the

medium term.

Low quality cement is oversupplied and cheap, while high quality cement is rarer and

more expensive. Profit margins for most cement producers hover near zero. Despite the

growth in construction, cement prices have fallen, in some provinces with more than 50 %.

Because cement is a bulk commodity, transportation costs are a significant component of the

industry’s cost structure. The main issue, however, is with the transport of coal because it is

an important input into cement production and because it is the primary source of pressure on

a strained transport infrastructure network. Cement industry sources indicate that the

availability of coal has not constrained the cement industry to date. Unless long-term

investment is made to improve the rail network this situation will worsen. Foreign investment

in bulk cement storage and transportation facilities is promoted.

China is the second leading cement exporter in the world, accounting for about 17

percent of total world cement trade. Shaft kiln cements comprise a significant percentage of

total exports. Major exporting regions include Shandong, Jiangsu, Guangdong, Liaoning,

Guangxi, and Hebei provinces. The largest exporting companies include Daewoo Shandong

Metal and Minerals Import/Export and Taiheiyo Cement. The United States is the largest

market for Chinese cement, accounting for 42 percent of trade in 1998 (Soule et al, 2002).


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The cement industry is very energy intensive and China relies almost exclusively on

coal to produce cement. Energy accounts for roughly 40 percent of the total manufacturing

cost of cement in China. Unlike some industrialized countries, China has not yet moved to

alternative energy sources in its cement kilns. If China were to succeed in replacing output

from plants that produce #325 cement with more efficient plants, it would save approximately

15 million tonnes of coal each year (Soule et al, 2002). Improving energy efficiency is

important to a wide range of stakeholders because it cuts energy costs, improves local

environmental quality, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.

China has significant environmental problems. Ambient air levels of total suspended

particulates (TSP) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in Chinese cities are among the highest in the

world. In turn these heavy pollutant loads are closely associated with significant respiratory

illness and approximately 200,000 premature deaths each year in urban areas (Soule et al,

2002). China’s contribution to global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is approximately 14

percent. Cement plants are responsible for over 40 percent of total industrial particulate (dust)

emissions (Soule et al, 2002). Chinese cement plants are also responsible for about 6 to 8

percent of the country’s carbon dioxide emissions. These emissions are produced in roughly

equal parts from fuel combustion and the calcinations of limestone at high temperature.

Carbon dioxide emissions from small Chinese plants are two or more times higher than plants

in industrialized nations, because of poor efficiencies requiring more fuel use, etc. (Soule et

al, 2002). Increasing the efficiency of cement kilns is one way to reduce carbon dioxide

emissions.

Cement production is also associated with a number of other environmental problems

including possible contamination of local water sources, mercury emissions, excessive noise,

erosion surrounding limestone quarries, and nitrogen oxide emissions. Dry rotary kilns,

including precalciner kilns, are the most energy efficient technology currently available in

China. The associated reduction in coal combustion accompanying the closure of #325 plants

would reduce carbon dioxide emissions by about 30 million tonnes, sulfur dioxide by 250,000

tonnes, and solid waste and dust by over 5 million tonnes each year.

China has developed a range of environmental laws to deal with air pollution, solid

waste, water pollution, etc. In April of 2000, China announced that emission limits would be

reduced to 100 milligrams per cubic meter of exhaust. For comparison, cement plants in


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Europe conform to a limit of 50 milligrams. Enforcement of laws is not uniform and remains

an issue. Provincial level environmental protection agencies are responsible for enforcing

emission limits and can direct capital toward polluters to upgrade their equipment. However,

production and profit often supercede enforcement. Environmental regulations tend to be

strictly enforced when foreign companies are involved.

It is difficult to obtain domestic financing for investment projects within China.

Financial needs are many, and sources limited. Chinese stock markets have been an

important but insufficient source of low-cost capital for listed enterprises. In recent years, it

has become easier for foreign companies to obtain permits for cement projects. But the

paperwork, time, and dedication necessary to bring an investment to closure remain daunting,

and the sentiment is shared that this situation will only change slowly (Soule et al, 2002).

Even with sometimes vicious competition and difficulties in operating in an opaque

market, key opportunities are open for both domestic and foreign companies. Promising areas

include investment in:

• Bulk cement transport and storage infrastructure,

• Environmental control equipment,

• Precalcinator and dry rotary cement kilns, and

• Specialty cements.

China is the world’s largest market for cement machinery but with the exception of

advanced mills and control system more and more plant are fully Chinese made technology.

Foreign investment will be focused on precalcined production lines with capacities of 4,000

tonnes or more using new dry processes for cement clinker. A key ready Chinese built

cement plant can now be built in two years at a third of the price of a foreign built plant.


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To address regional income disparities, the western provinces have investment priority

during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan. These regions include: Xinjiang, Ningxia, Qinghai,

Shaanxi (including Xian), Gansu, Sichuan, Tibet (Xizang), Chongqing City, Guizhou, and

Yunnan (including Kunming). Eastern provinces should not expect new plants, but there will

be many opportunities for technology upgrades in these areas. China has ambitious plans to

prepare for the 2008 Olympic Games. There will be much new construction in Beijing to

accommodate the games. Strict environmental measures to improve air and water quality also

will be in force in the capital region.

1.1 Objective of this study

The objective of this study has been to review and compare Vertical Shaft Kiln

(VSKs) cement production technologies with other production technologies and to suggest a

pilot project demonstrating the potential for improvement in energy efficiency and emission

reduction. A few VSKs have been visited in China and discussion has been carried out with

stakeholders on the possibilities for cleaner production options in general and environmental

improvement in particular. Interviews have been made with Chinese government officials,

cement associations and cement companies. Other sources used for this study include Internet

sources, commercial database articles, and statistical compendia. All visits and meetings were

arranged by SEPA / FECO.

It should be noted however, that data availability limits the ability to conduct in-depth

and accurate analysis and there are some conflicting numbers in the text. The available

information in English on the general performance of VSKs doesn't seem to be scientifically

well document by real measurements or comprehensive studies. The statements made in

different documents vary and is even contradictory in some cases. The general impression is

that the newest data from 2004 and 2005 is the most reliable, and of course the most updated.

The scope of this study has consisted of two weeks of preparation, two weeks visit in

China and two weeks reporting.


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2. Cement production

The description of the cement production process using rotary kilns is an excerpt from

the European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control document “Reference document on

Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries” (IPPC, 2001),

CEMBUREAUs BAT document (1999), the UK Environment Agency “Integrated pollution

prevention and control – Guidance for the Cement and Lime sector" (Environment Agency,

2001) and, from Duda (1985) and Roy (1985).

2.1 Main processes

There are four main process routes in the manufacturing of cement using rotary kilns –

the dry, semi-dry, semi-wet and wet process. The main features of these processes are

described in more detail in the following chapters; the production of cement using Vertical

Shaft Kilns is different and dealt with separately in chapter 3. However, common to all

processes are the following sub-processes:

• Quarrying;

• Raw materials preparation;

• Fuels preparation;

• Clinker burning;

• Mineral additions preparation;

• Cement grinding;

• Cement dispatch.


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Figure 1 Processes identification and system boundaries of cement production using

rotary kilns (Environment Agency, 2001)

2.1.1 Quarrying

Natural (“primary”) raw materials such as limestone/chalk, marl, and clay/shale are

extracted from quarries which, in most cases, are located close to the cement plant. After

extraction, these raw materials are crushed at the quarry site and transported to the cement

plant for intermediate storage, homogenization and further preparation.

“Corrective” materials such as bauxite, iron ore or sand may be required to adapt the

chemical composition of the raw mix to the requirements of the process and product

specifications. The quantities of these corrective materials are usually low compared to the

huge mass flow of the main raw materials.


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To a limited extent, “secondary” (or “alternative”) raw materials originating from

industrial sources are used to substitute for natural raw materials and correctives. In the same

way as traditional raw materials, they may be fed to the quarry crusher or – more commonly –

directly to the cement plant’s raw material preparation system. Today, modern computerised

methods are available to evaluate the raw material deposits and to optimise the long-term and

short-term production schedule.

2.1.2 Raw materials preparation

After intermediate storage and pre-homogenisation, the raw materials are dried and

ground together in defined and well-controlled proportions in a raw mill to produce a raw

meal for the dry (and semi-dry) process. In the wet (and semi-wet) process, the raw materials

are slurried and ground with addition of sufficient water to produce raw slurry. Depending on

the technological process applied, additional steps may be required such as preparing raw

meal “pellets” from dry meal (semi-dry process) or “filter cake” by dewatering of the slurry in

filter presses (semi-wet process).

The resulting intermediate product – i.e. raw meal or raw slurry (or their derivatives) –

is stored and further homogenised in raw meal silos, storage bins or slurry basins to achieve

and maintain the required uniform chemical composition before entering the kiln system. As

a rule of thumb, approximately 1.5 – 1.6 tons of (dry) raw materials are required to produce

one ton of the burnt product clinker.

2.1.3 Fuels preparation

Conventional (fossil) fuels used in the cement industry are mainly coal (lignite and

hard coal), petcoke (a product from crude oil refining), and heavy oil (“bunker C”). Natural

gas is rarely used due to its higher cost. “Alternative” fuels – i.e. non-fossil fuels derived

from industrial (“waste”) sources – are widely used today to substitute in part for the

traditional fossil fuels.


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Fuels preparation – i.e. crushing, drying, grinding, and homogenising – usually takes

place on site. Specific installations are required such as coal mills, silos and storage halls for

solid fuels, tanks for liquid fuels, and the corresponding transport and feeding systems to the

kilns. The thermal fuel consumption is largely dependent on the basic process design applied

in the burning of clinker.

The physical nature of the fuels used in a cement plant – solid, liquid or gaseous –

determines the design of the storage, preparation and firing systems – both for conventional

fossil fuels and for alternative fuels from industrial sources. The main fuel input has to be

delivered in a form that allows uniform and reliable metering as well as easy and complete

combustion. This is usually the case with all pulverised, liquid and gaseous fuels. A limited

input (up to 35 %) may also be delivered by the addition of coarse materials at specific feed

points.

Coal and petcoke are ground to fineness similar to raw meal in coal mills (tube mills,

vertical roller mills or impact mills). For safety reasons, the whole coal preparation system is

designed for protection from fire or explosion. The pulverised fuel may be fed directly to the

burner (without intermediate storage and metering system) or – which is common practice

today – may be stored in fine coal silos with adequate metering and feeding systems.

Fuel oil is stored in large tanks on site. Handling is facilitated by heating up the oil to

a temperature of about 80 °C. Metering and combustion are facilitated by additional heating

of the oil up to a temperature of 120-140 °C, resulting in a reduction of the viscosity.

Natural gas is delivered by national or international distribution systems without on-

site storage. Prior to combustion in the kiln, the pressure of the gas has to be reduced to the

plant’s network pressure in gas transfer stations where also the fuel metering takes place.

Alternative fuels originating from industrial sources may require specific treatment.

Gaseous, liquid and pulverised or fine crushed solid fuels can be fed to the kiln system

similarly to the fossil fuels mentioned above. Coarsely shredded or even bulky materials can

be fed to the preheater/precalciner section or, rarely, to the mid kiln section only. For process


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reasons, the contribution of bulky fuels to the total heat consumption should be limited to

about 15 to 30% depending on the kiln system.

Alternative fuels are frequently prepared and blended outside the cement plant by

specialised companies in facilities specifically designed for this purpose. The cement plant

has to provide the storage and feeding systems only on site. Alternative fuel plants are often

designed as “multi-purpose plants” in order to handle a variety of different wastes.

2.1.4 Clinker Burning

The prepared raw material (“kiln feed”) is fed to the kiln system where it is subjected

to a thermal treatment process consisting of the consecutive steps of drying/preheating,

calcination (e.g. release of CO2 from limestone), and sintering (or “clinkerisation”, e.g.

formation of clinker minerals at temperatures up to 1450 °C). The burnt product “clinker” is

cooled down with air to 100-200 °C and is transported to intermediate storage.

The kiln systems commonly applied are rotary kilns with or without so-called

“suspension preheaters” (and, in more advanced systems, “precalciners”) depending on the

main process design selected. The rotary kiln itself is an inclined steel tube with a length to

diameter ratio between 10 and 40. The slight inclination (2.5 to 4.5%) together with the slow

rotation (0.5–4.5 revolutions per minute) allow for a material transport sufficiently long to

achieve the thermal conversion processes required.

Exhaust heat from the kiln system is utilised to dry raw materials, solid fuels or

mineral additions in the mills. Exhaust gases are dedusted using either electrostatic

precipitators or bag filter systems before being released to the atmosphere.


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Raw meal

Raw gas

Cyclonepreheater

Rotary kilnCooling air

Evaporation cooler

Mill dryer

Dust recycling

Electrostatic precipitator

Clean gas

Clean gas

Dust collection

ClinkerGrate cooler

Burner

Figure 2 Rotary kiln with cyclone preheater and gas dust collection

2.1.5 Cement grinding

Portland cement is produced by intergrinding cement clinker with a few percent of

natural or industrial gypsum (or anhydrite) in a cement mill. Blended cements (or

“composite” cements) contain other constituents in addition such as granulated blast-furnace

slag, natural or industrial pozzolana (for example, volcanic tuffs or fly ash from thermal

power plants), or inert fillers such as limestone.

Mineral additions in blended cements may either be interground with clinker or

ground separately and mixed with Portland cement. Grinding plants may be located remotely


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from the clinker production facility. The different cement types have to be stored separately

in cement silos prior to bagging and dispatch.

2.1.6 Mineral additions preparation

Mineral additions from natural or industrial sources intended to be used in blended

cements may need to be dried, crushed or ground in separate installations on site. Separate

“grinding plants” where mineral additions and blended cements only are produced may also

be located remote from the clinker production facility.

Mineral additions used in the manufacture of blended cements require separate

installations for storage, preblending, crushing, drying and feeding. Commonly used mineral

additions include natural materials such as volcanic rocks, limestone or calcined clay, and

materials originating from industrial sources such as granulated blast-furnace slag, pulverised

fly ash from power stations, or micro silica.

Pre-drying may be required for materials with a high moisture content, for example,

granulated blast-furnace slag. Rotary tube driers or flash driers make use of the kiln exhaust

gases or cooler exhaust air or are operated with a separate hot gas source. Mineral additions

may be interground with cement clinker and gypsum in a cement mill or may be ground

separately and blended with Portland cement subsequently. Separate grinding and blending is

mainly applied in the production of slag cements. For separate grinding of mineral additions,

the same installations are used as in cement grinding.

2.1.7 Cement dispatch

Cement may be shipped as bulk cement or – usually to a lesser extent – packed into

bags and palletised for dispatch. Transport methods used (i.e. road, railway, waterways)

depend on local conditions and requirements.


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2.2 Material characteristics

Portland cement clinker is produced from a mixture of raw materials containing

calcium, silicon, aluminium, and iron as the main elements. When mixed in the correct

proportions, new minerals with hydraulic properties – the so-called clinker phases – are

formed upon heating up to the sintering (or clinkerisation) temperature as high as 1450 °C.

2.2.1 Main clinker phases

The main mineral components in clinker are silicates, aluminates and ferrites of the

element calcium. The four main oxides make up four major clinker phases, called alite,

belite, aluminate and ferrite.

Tri-calcium silicate 3 CaO x SiO2 C3S Alite

Di-calcium silicate 2 CaO x SiO2 C2S Belite

Calcium aluminate 3 CaO x Al2O3 C3A Aluminate

Calcium ferrite 4 CaO x Al2O3 x Fe2O3 C4AF Ferrite

In general, C3S contributes to early and late strength (from first day) and increases the

heat of hydration; C2S contributes to late strength (from 28 days); C3A also contributes to

early strength, heat of hydration and to the resistance to sulphate attack; C4AF mainly affects

the clinker colour.

The clinker formation process can be divided into 4 steps:


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• Drying and preheating (20 – 900 °C): release of free and chemically bound water;

• Calcination (600 – 900 °C): release of CO2: initial reactions with formation of clinker

minerals and intermediate phases;

• Sintering or clinkerisation (1250 – 1450 °C): formation of calcium silicates and liquid

phase;

• Kiln internal cooling (1350 – 1200 °C): crystallisation of calcium aluminates and calcium

ferrite.

Minor mineral constituents in cement clinker include uncombined calcium oxide

(“free lime”) and magnesium oxide, as well as alkali sulphates. Additional chemical elements

present in the raw materials such as manganese, phosphorus, titanium or heavy metals are

mainly incorporated in the mineral structure of the major clinker phases.

The properties of clinker (and thus, of the cement produced from it) are mainly

determined by its mineral composition and its structure. Some elements in the raw materials

such as the alkalis, sulfur and chlorides are volatilised at the high temperatures in the kiln

system resulting in a permanent internal cycle of vaporisation and condensation (“circulating

elements”). A large part of these elements will remain in the kiln system and will finally

leave the kiln with the clinker. A small part will be carried with the kiln exhaust gases and

will be mainly precipitated with the particulates in the dedusting system.

At a high surplus of volatile elements, the installation of a preheater “bypass” may

become necessary where part of the dust laden exhaust gases of the rotary kiln is extracted

from the system. Both filter and bypass dust can totally or partially be recycled to the cement

manufacturing process.


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2.2.2 Raw mix components

A well designed raw mix in clinker manufacturing typically consists of calcareous

components rich in calcium, e.g. > 75% of carbonates (limestone, chalk, marble, calcareous

marl), argillaceous components rich in aluminium, silicon and iron (marl, marly clay, shale,

clay) and corrective components specifically enriched in one of the four main elements

(bauxite, iron ore, sand, high-grade limestone, etc.). Correctives are used in small quantities

only to adjust the chemical composition of the raw mix to the required quality targets.

Depending on availability and chemical composition, both main and corrective raw

mix components may also originate from industrial (“non-fossil”) sources (“alternative” raw

materials). Examples are coal fly ash from power stations, steel slag, foundry sand, sewage

sludge, lime sludge, FCC catalysts from oil refineries, and many more.

A proper raw mix design is based on the given raw materials situation, on the process

design and process requirements, on the product specifications, and on environmental

considerations. A well designed raw mix, adequate fineness of the raw meal and constant

chemical composition are essential both for a good product quality and for a smooth kiln

operation. Homogeneity and uniformity of the raw mix composition has to be carefully

controlled on a permanent basis by adequate sampling and chemical analysis.

2.2.3 Fuels

Main fossil fuels (“primary” fuels) in the cement industry are coal, petcoke, heavy oil,

and – to a lesser extent – natural gas. Non-fossil “alternative” fuels derived from industrial

sources such as tyres, waste oil, plastics, solvents and many more are commonly used as

substitute fuels today. The chemical components of the ash of solid fuels combine with the

raw materials and will be fully incorporated in the clinker produced. Thus, the chemical

composition of the ash has to be considered in the raw mix design.

In the same way as the major elements, metals which may be introduced with liquid or

solid fuels will also be incorporated into the clinker structure to a large extent. Exceptions are


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metals which are partly or completely volatilised in the kiln system such as mercury, thallium

or cadmium. These elements will be captured in the kiln (filter) dust or may to some extent

escape with the stack emissions (mercury and thallium) if not managed appropriately.

2.2.4 Cement constituents

Portland cement is produced by intergrinding clinker with a few percent of natural or

industrial gypsum or anhydrite (calcium sulphate) acting as a set regulator. In many

countries, the addition of up to 5% of “minor constituents” such as raw meal, limestone or

filter dust is allowed.

In blended (or “composite”) cements, part of the cement consists of mineral additions

originating from natural or industrial sources. These mineral additions may have hydraulic

(granulated blast furnace slag), pozzolanic (volcanic rocks, coal fly ash, micro silica, calcined

clay) or filler properties (limestone). The composition of blended cements is specified in the

national cement standards. The standards usually also includes quality specifications for the

individual mineral additions used.

2.3 The four main process routes in rotary kiln cement production

Historically, the development of the clinker manufacturing process was characterised

by the change from “wet” to “dry” systems with the intermediate steps of the “semi-wet” and

“semi-dry” process routes. The first rotary kilns – introduced around 1895 – were long wet

kilns.

“Wet” kilns allowed for an easier handling and homogenisation of the raw materials,

especially in cases when the raw materials are wet and sticky or exhibit large fluctuations in

the chemical composition of the individual raw mix components. With more advanced

modern technology however, it is possible to prepare a homogeneous raw meal using the

“dry” process, i.e. without addition of water to prepare raw slurry. The main advantage of a


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modern dry process over a traditional wet system is the far lower fuel consumption and thus,

lower fuel cost. Today, the selection of the wet process is only feasible under very specific

raw material and process conditions.

The four different basic processes can be briefly characterised as follows:

• Dry process: Dry raw meal is fed to a cyclone preheater or precalciner kiln or, in some

cases, to a long dry kiln with internal chain preheater.

• Semi-dry process: Dry raw meal is pelletised with water and fed to a travelling grate

preheater prior to the rotary kiln or in some cases, to a long kiln equipped with internal

cross preheaters.

• Semi-wet process: Raw slurry is first dewatered in filter presses. The resulting filter

cake is either extruded into pellets and fed to a travelling grate preheater or fed

directly to a filter cake drier for (dry) raw meal production prior to a

preheater/precalciner kiln.

• Wet process: The raw slurry is fed either directly to a long rotary kiln equipped with

an internal drying/preheating system (conventional wet process) or to slurry drier prior

to a preheater/precalciner kiln (modern wet process).

All processes have in common that the kiln feed is first dried, then calcined by

dissociation of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the CaCO3 in the feed material, and finally sintered

to clinker at temperatures between 1,400 ºC and 1,450 ºC. During this process the feed loses

approximately one third of its original dry mass. The hot clinker is cooled by air to 100-200

ºC in a clinker cooler. The heated air is used as secondary combustion air in the kiln.

2.3.1 The dry process


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For dry and semi-dry kiln systems, raw meal is prepared by drying and grinding of the

raw material components in tube mills or vertical roller mills, making use of the hot kiln

exhaust gases or cooler exhaust air for drying. Prior to being fed to the kiln, the raw meal is

homogenised and/or blended either in batch type or in continuously operating homogenising

silo systems.

In suspension preheater kilns, the raw meal is fed to the top of a series of cyclones

passing down in stepwise counter-current flow with hot exhaust gases from the rotary kiln

thus providing intimate contact and efficient heat exchange between solid particles and hot

gas. The cyclones thereby serve as separators between solids and gas.

Prior to entering the rotary kiln, the raw meal is heated up to a temperature of

approximately 810-830 °C where the calcination (i.e. the release of CO2 from the carbonates)

is already about 30% complete. The exhaust gases leave the preheater at a temperature of

300-360 °C and are further utilised for raw material drying in the raw mill. 4-stage preheater

kilns are susceptible to blockages and build-ups caused by excessive input of elements such as

sulfur, chlorides or alkalis which are easily volatilised in the kiln system. This input has to be

carefully controlled. Excessive input may require the installation of a system which allows

part of the rotary kiln gases to bypass the preheater. Thereby part of the volatile compounds

are extracted together with the gas.

A bypass system extracts a portion (typically 5-15 %) of the kiln gases from the riser

pipe between the kiln and preheater. This gas has a high dust burden. It is cooled with air,

volatile compounds are condensed onto the particulates and the gas then passes through a dust

filter.

Modern suspension preheater kilns usually have 4 cyclone stages with a maximum

capacity limited to approximately 4000 t/d. In some cases, 2-stage cyclone preheaters or 1-

stage preheaters supported by internal chain heat exchangers are still in operation.

A considerable capacity increase can be obtained with precalciner kilns with a second

combustion device between the rotary kiln and the preheater section. In the precalciner, up to

60 % of the total fuel of the kiln system can be burnt. At an exit temperature of about 880 °C,

the hot meal is calcined to a degree of around 90 % when entering the rotary kiln.


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Kiln systems with 5 to 6 stage cyclone preheater and precalciner are considered

standard technology for new plants today, as the extra cyclone stages improve thermal

efficiency.

In some cases, the raw meal is fed directly to a long dry kiln without external

preheater. A system of chains in the inlet part of the rotary kiln provides the heat exchange

between the hot combustion gases from the hot zone of the kiln and the kiln feed. Long dry

kilns have high heat consumption and high dust cycles requiring separate dedusting cyclones.

Figure 3 Production of cement by the dry process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)

2.3.2 The semi-dry process

In the semi-dry process, dry raw meal is pelletised with 10-12 % of water on an

inclined rotating table (“granulating disc”) and fed to a horizontal travelling grate preheater


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in front of the rotary kiln (“Lepol” system). The pelletised material is dried, pre-heated and

partly calcined on the two-chamber travelling grate making use of the hot exhaust gases from

the kiln. A higher degree of calcination can be achieved by burning part of the fuel in the hot

chamber of the grate preheater.

The hot exhaust gases from the kiln first pass through a layer of preheated pellets in

the hot chamber. After intermediate dedusting in cyclones, the gases are drawn once again

through a layer of moist pellets in the drying chamber of the grate. As much of the residual

dust is precipitated on the moist pellet bed, the total dust load of the exhaust gases at the

preheater outlet is low.

Figure 4 Production of cement by the semi-dry process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)

As a drawback of the semi-dry process, kiln exhaust gases cannot be utilised in the

raw meal drying and grinding system due to the low temperature level. The maintenance

costs of grate preheaters are high. Modern installations rarely use the semi-dry process.


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2.3.3 The semi-wet process

In the semi-wet process the raw slurry is dewatered in filter presses. Typically,

modern chamber filtration systems produce filter cakes with a residual moisture content of 16-

21 %. In the past, filter cakes were further processed in extruders to form pellets which were

then fed to grate preheater kilns with three chambers.

With modern cement plants, slurry filtration is applied only where raw materials have

a very high natural moisture content, i.e. chalk. Filter cake coming from the filter presses is

kept in intermediate storage bins before it is fed to heated crushers or dryers where a dry raw

meal is produced which is fed to a modern preheater or precalciner kiln. With the

dryers/crushers operating full time in parallel with the kiln (compound operation), these

systems have a very good energy recovery by making full use of the kiln exhaust gases and

the cooler exhaust air.

Figure 5 Production of cement by the semi-wet process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)


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2.3.4 The wet process

Conventional wet process kilns are the oldest type of rotary kilns to produce clinker.

Wet kiln feed (raw slurry) typically contains 28 to 43 % of water which is added to the raw

mill (slurry drums, wash mills and/or tube mills). Batch blending and homogenisation is

achieved in special slurry silos or slurry basins where compressed air is introduced and the

slurry is continuously stirred.

The slurry is pumped into the rotary kiln where the water has to be evaporated in the

drying zone at the kiln inlet. The drying zone is designed with chains and crosses to facilitate

the heat exchange between the kiln feed and the combustion gases. After having passed the

drying zone, the raw material moves down the kiln to be calcined and burnt to clinker in the

sintering zone.

Conventional wet kiln technology has high heat consumption and produces large

volumes of combustion gases and water vapour. Wet rotary kilns may reach a total length of

up to 240 m compared to short dry kilns of 55 to 65 m length (without the preheater section).

In modern wet kiln systems, the raw slurry is fed to slurry drier where the water is

evaporated prior to the dried raw meal entering a cyclone preheater/precalciner kiln. Modern

wet kiln systems have a far lower specific heat consumption compared to conventional wet

kilns.

2.3.5 Circulating elements

Volatile components such as alkalis, sulfur and chlorine introduced with raw materials

and fuels may give rise to problems in kiln operation when present in high concentrations.

Build-up formation in the preheater cyclones or rings in the rotary kiln inlet zone may lead to

reduced kiln availability and productivity. Thus, the input of these volatile components is


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carefully controlled for operational and economic reasons. Input control is also required to

achieve and maintain the required quality of clinker and cement.

Figure 6 Production of cement by the wet process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)

Depending on their volatility, alkalis, sulfur and chlorides evaporate in the sintering

zone of the rotary kiln and recondense at cooler parts of the system either on the raw meal

particles or on the surrounding walls. With the raw meal, they are reintroduced to the

sintering zone again thus establishing a permanent "internal cycle” of volatile “circulating”

elements. By reaching equilibrium between input and output, a major part of the volatile

components will finally leave the system incorporated in the clinker.

Part of the volatile components however, may form new compounds such as alkali

chlorides or alkali sulphates and other intermediate phases such as spurrite which will then

contribute to the build-up phenomena mentioned above by producing a “sticky” raw meal

adhesive to the walls of the cyclones, the ducts or the kiln tube. A small part only of the


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circulating elements leaves the kiln with the exhaust gas dust and is precipitated in the

dedusting device of the system.

With excessive input of volatile elements, the installation of a kiln gas bypass system

may become necessary in order to extract part of the circulating elements from the kiln

system. This bypass dust which is usually highly enriched in alkalis, sulfur or chlorides is

cooled down and then passed through a dust collector before being discharged.

2.3.6 Clinker coolers

Clinker leaving the rotary kiln at a temperature around 1200-1250 °C has to be cooled

down rapidly to allow further transport and handling. This process also recovers heat from

the clinker back to the kiln by preheating the air used for combustion in the main burner and

in any secondary firing. In addition, rapid cooling prevents undesired chemical reactions in

the clinker which may negatively affect the quality and the grindability of the clinker. Three

main types of clinker coolers are used:

• Rotary (tube) coolers

• Planetary (satellite) coolers, and

• Grate coolers

Tube coolers placed underneath the kiln outlet make use of the same principle as the

rotary kiln for clinker burning, but for reverse heat exchange with cooling air drawn through

the tube in counter-current flow to the hot clinker. This cooler type is rarely used in the

cement industry nowadays.

In a planetary (or satellite) cooler, 9 to 11 tubes are arranged peripherally at the

discharge end of the rotary kiln. Hot clinker enters the tubes through inlet ports and passes

through the tubes in cross counter-current to the cooling air. Due to their design, planetary

coolers are susceptible to comparatively high wear and to thermal shock effects, and –

similarly to tube coolers – clinker exit temperatures may still be high without additional


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cooling by water injection. Planetary coolers are not suited for precalciner kilns as exhaust air

cannot be extracted for combustion in the secondary firing.

Grate coolers are preferably used in modern installations. Cooling is achieved by

cross-flow air blown through a clinker layer travelling slowly on a reciprocating grate which

consists of perforated plates. The whole cooling zone includes a “recuperation zone” and an

“aftercooling zone”. From the recuperation zone, preheated air is recovered for combustion

of the main burner fuel (“secondary air”) and of the precalciner fuel (“tertiary air”). The hot

air from the aftercooling zone can be used for drying of raw materials or coal. Grate coolers

thus provide the most efficient and most flexible heat recovery system for modern dry process

kilns.

2.3.7 Operating characteristics rotary kilns - a summary

A summary of the operating characteristics of the four main process routes is given in

the figure below.

Figure 7 Operating characteristics of kiln processes (CEMBUREAU, 1999)


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2.4 Cement production using Vertical Shaft Kilns

The raw materials used for cement production in Vertical Shaft Kilns (VSKs) are

exactly the same as in any other production process, i.e. limestone/chalk, marl, and clay/shale.

These raw materials are extracted from quarries which, in most cases, are located close to the

cement plant. After extraction, these raw materials are crushed at the quarry site and

transported to the cement plant for intermediate storage, homogenization and further

preparation.

“Corrective” materials such as bauxite, iron ore or sand may be required to adapt the

chemical composition of the raw mix to the requirements of the process and product

specifications. The quantities of these corrective materials are usually low compared to the

huge mass flow of the main raw materials.

Figure 8 Limestone transport from a nearby quarry (Chinese cement plant)


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2.4.1 Black meal process

After intermediate storage and pre-homogenisation, the raw materials are dried and

ground together solid fuel, approximately 13 % of coal or coke, in defined and well-controlled

proportions, usually in a vertical roller mill, with a sieve residue of 16 % R 90 µm (depend on

the burnability and reactivity of raw meal) and ~ 0.5 to 0.8 % R 200 µm (representing quartz

grain). The ratio of fuel and raw meal will depend of the lower calorific value of the fuel.

It may be possible to grind separately raw meal and solid fuel and then mix them

together but this may influence the homogeneity of the final raw meal and subsequently the

clinker quality. The black meal is nodulised, (as in Lepold kiln) on an inclined rotary plate,

by addition of water, about 12%, before fed to the top of the kiln.

The kiln is fed from the top and air is blown from the bottom. The material goes

through the same process steps as other production processes, i.e. evaporation of water,

calcination of CaCO3 and production of CaO and CO2, and clinker formation as it goes down

the kiln in counter current with the combustion air coming from bottom.

The limestone must be mixed with clay which have some plasticity properties, if not

the nodules will not have enough strength and will turn back to powder in the kiln. This will

again influence the air flow through the kiln and consequently the combustion and production

of clinker. The uniformity of the nodule size is important both for air circulation and nodule

mechanical resistance, as well as burning. A big nodule will hardly be burned in its centre,

even if the combustion air can easily flow through the kiln. On the contrary, small nodule

may be overburnt even if combustion air may encounter more resistance to go up the kiln.

The size of nodule is determined by visual control done by the operator, usually the

size is around 10 to 14 mm (~fingernail size).


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Figure 9 Black meal preparation and feeding from an inclined rotary plate at the

top of the Vertical Shaft Kiln

Shaft kilns consist of a refractory-lined, vertical cylinder 2-3 meter in diameter and 8-

10 meter high. They are fed from the top with a raw material and fuel mix called black meal.

The material travels through a short sintering zone in the upper, slightly enlarged part

of the kiln, where free and chemically bound water are released through drying and preheating

at a temperature of 20 – 900 °C. Calcination releases of CO2 at a temperature of 600–900 °C

and the formation of calcium silicates and liquid phase, clinkerisation at a temperature of

1250 – 1450 °C. The clinker is then cooled by the combustion air blown in from the bottom

and leaves the lower end of the kiln on a discharge grate in the form of clinker.


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Figure 10 Black meal nodules entering the top of the Vertical Shaft Kiln

The material flows through the kiln in about 8 hours and the retention time above 1200

°C is around 30 to 40 minutes. The peak material temp is 1450 0C as in other kilns and tri-

calcium silicate, or C3S is formed at this temperature (see figure below).

The temperature inside the kiln, or 1 to 2 meter under the surface at the top of the kiln,

is checked by the operator by using a long 3 meter iron stick which is put it inside the kiln bed

surface. If the colour of the end of the stick is red after a while, the temperature is

satisfactory.

Vertical shaft kilns produce usually less than 300 tonnes of clinker per day. They are

only economic for small plants, and for this reason their number has been diminishing. The

best demonstrated practice is a production capacity of 190~200 t/d.


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Figure 12 Formation of the four major clinker phases as a function of temperature

Figure 11 Controlling the process at the top of the Vertical Shaft Kiln


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Figure 13 Three vertical shaft kilns in parallel


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Figure 14 Bottom of the three parallel kilns

2.4.2 Process conditions and quality aspects

The normal air flow pr ton clinker is approximately 750 Nm3/t, i.e. for a clinker

production of 8 t/h, approximately 6000 Nm3/h of air is fed from the bottom. Additional air

can be blown in the middle of the kiln if necessary, usually <20 % of the total volume. The

gas flow at stack will be approximately ~20 000 Nm3/h, additional volume coming from the

release CO2 and H2O vapour. Increasing the air flow would increase the production rate and

the quality of the clinker. The position where to input this additional air (for combustion and

cooling effect) may be of particular effect on the result.

The air flow is probably not constant through the whole section of the kiln, if the

centre of the kiln is compared with the wall. This would imply that the burning conditions are


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slightly different in the centre compared to wall as well as the temperature, and the bigger the

diameter the bigger the difference may be.

The incoming air at the bottom performs also the cooling effect to crystallize C3S

(alite) and C2S (belite). Calculating the chemical composition is the same for VSKs as other

kiln processes; the ash from the fuel will be absorbed by the clinker and this chemical

composition must be taken into account when proportionate the raw meal composition. The

final chemical composition will influence the lime saturation factor (LS), the alumina ratio

(AR) and the silicate ratio (SR). The resulting clinker is discharged at the bottom of the kiln

through a triple gate device to ensure air tightness.

Figure 15 The shape of the VSK clinker is more irregular than the round nodules

formed in rotary kilns


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A rotary kiln will ensure that the material is always agitated, witch improve the heat

transfers and the chemical reaction between CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3. In a VSK this is

not the case, no CaO molecule in excess inside one single nodule will move to the neighbour

nodule to combine with any "free" molecules of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 present here. It is a

static process and each nodule can be considered as one single ”independent kiln”, i.e. the

homogenisation is really of primary importance in a VSK process. Pre-blending and raw

meal homogenizing silos after grinding can improve homogenisation.

Figure 16 Raw meal and gypsum storage at a VSK in China

The free lime (unreacted CaO) of the clinker will depend on the lime saturation factor

(LSF) and kiln operation but usually the free lime will be between 1,5 % at the best to 5 % at

the worse. The LSF is a measure to which extent the CaO-richest compounds C3S, C3A and

C4AF can be formed without the necessary presence of free lime. If the LSF is 100 % this


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means that you have exact stoicheiometric amount of CaO needed combine with SiO2, Al2O3

and Fe2O3. If your LSF is 104 %, this means that you have 4 % of CaO in excess and it will

not be combined with the other molecules, i.e. at least 4 % free lime in the clinker. Free lime

in the clinker is very dependant on the combustion conditions and the temperature in the kiln

(see figure 12).

The strength of the clinker is related to the mineral composition but also to the final

grinding (blaine) and to the mineral component (pozolana).

Figure 17 Quality control at the VSK laboratory

In a modern rotary kiln the thermal energy is coming from the main burner 40 % and

the precalciner burner 60 %. The operator can adjust the thermal energy in the process to

control the final product, which is impossible in a VSK. The black meal is defined at an early


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stage, and cannot be modified during the burning process. It is not possible to adjust the

thermal input and what you get out the kiln is what you have fed in.


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3. Environmental significance of cement production

The main environmental impacts of the manufacture of cement in general are related

to the following categories:

• Dust from stack emissions and fugitive sources;

• Gaseous atmospheric emissions of CO2, NOx, SO2, VOC and others;

• Other emissions like noise and vibrations, odour, process water, production waste, etc.

3.1 Dust

Historically, the emission of dust – particularly from kiln stacks – has been the main

environmental concern in cement manufacture. “Point source” dust emissions originate

mainly from the raw mills, the kiln system, the clinker cooler, and the cement mills. A

general feature of these process steps is that hot exhaust gas or exhaust air is passing through

pulverised material resulting in an intimately dispersed mixture of gas and particulates.

Primary reduction measures are therefore hardly available. The nature of the particulates

generated is linked to the source material itself, i.e. raw materials (partly calcined), clinker or

cement.

Dust emissions in the modern cement industry have been reduced considerably in the

last 20 years, and state-of-the-art abatement techniques now available (electrostatic

precipitators, bag filters) result in stack emissions which are insignificant in a modern and

well managed cement plant.

Dust from dispersed sources in the plant area (“fugitive dust”) may originate mainly

from materials storage and handling, i.e. transport systems, stockpiles, crane driving, bagging,

etc., and from traffic movement on unpaved roads. Techniques for control and containment


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of fugitive dust include dedusting of material transfer points, closed storage installations with

proper ventilation, or vacuum cleaning equipment, etc.

As the chemical and mineralogical composition of dust in a cement plant is similar to

that of natural rocks, it is commonly considered as a “nuisance”. Reduction and control of

dust emissions in a modern cement plant requires both investments and adequate management

practices but is not a technical problem.

Kiln dust collected from the gas cleaning devices is highly alkaline and may contain

trace elements such as heavy metals corresponding to the contents in the source materials.

Usually, kiln dust is completely returned to the process – either to the kiln system or to the

cement mill. In rare cases, it is not possible to recycle kiln dust or bypass dust completely in

the process. This residual dust is disposed of on site (or in controlled landfills) or is treated

and sold to other industries, i.e. as binder for waste stabilisation or even as fertiliser.

Heavy metals delivered by either conventional raw materials and fuels or by

alternative raw materials and fuels from industrial sources will be mainly incorporated in

clinker or – to a lesser extent – in kiln dust.

Bypass dust extracted from the kiln system may be highly enriched in alkalis,

sulphates and chlorides and – similarly to filter dust – in some cases cannot be completely

recycled to the process. For both types of dust, conditioning and safe disposal avoiding

contamination of groundwater or soil is a site-specific requirement.

3.2 Gaseous atmospheric emissions

Gaseous emissions from the kiln system released to the atmosphere are the primary

environmental concern in cement manufacture today. Major gaseous emissions are CO2, NOx

and SO2. Other emissions of less significance are VOCs (volatile organic compounds), CO,

ammonia, and heavy metals. CO2 as the main greenhouse gas is released in considerable

quantities.


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Other gaseous emissions such as hydrochloric acid or hydrofluoric acid are nearly

completely captured by the inherent and efficient alkaline scrubber effect of the preheater

cement kiln system.

Natural raw materials used for clinker production may contain volatile components in

small quantities. These components will be volatilised and partly emitted under the

conditions prevailing in the preheater section of a dry process cement kiln or in the

drying/preheating zone of a VSK or before entering the burning zone of the long wet or long

dry rotary kiln.

3.2.1 Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide emissions arise from the calcination of the raw materials and from the

combustion of fossil fuels. CO2 resulting from calcination can be influenced to a very limited

extent only. Emissions of CO2 resulting from fuel combustion have generally been reduced

due to the strong economic incentive for the cement industry to minimise fuel energy

consumption.

CO2 reduction of some 30% in the last 25 years – arising mainly from the adoption of

more fuel efficient kiln processes – leaves little scope for further improvement. Potential is

mainly left to the increased utilisation of renewable alternative fuels or other waste derived

fuels and to the production of blended cements with mineral additions substituting clinker.

3.2.2 Nitrogen oxides

NOx formation is an inevitable consequence of the high temperature combustion

process, with a smaller contribution resulting from the chemical composition of the fuels and

raw materials. Nitrogen oxides are formed by oxidation of molecular nitrogen in the

combustion air (“thermal” NOx is the sum of nitrogen oxides; in cement kiln exhaust gases,

NO and NO2 are dominant, > 90% NO, < 10% NO2). Thermal NOx formation is strongly

dependent on the combustion temperature with a marked increase above 1400 °C. “Hard”


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burning required by certain raw mixes – i.e. at a higher temperature profile – increases NOx

formation.

While thermal NOx is the dominant contribution to total NOx generation, a smaller part

may also result from nitrogen compounds contained in the fuels which are oxidised in the

flame as well (“fuel NOx”). In the main burner flame, the contribution of fuel NOx is much

lower than that of thermal NOx.

In the secondary firing of a preheater/precalciner kiln with a flame temperature of not

more than 1200 °C, the formation of thermal NOx is much lower compared to the main burner

flame. Therefore, in precalciner kilns where up to 60% of the total fuel can be burnt in the

calciner flame, fuel NOx may be a higher proportion of the reduced total NOx emissions.

Natural raw materials such as clays or shale’s may also contain nitrogen compounds.

Part of these compounds may be released and oxidised upon heating in the kiln system and

may thus in certain cases considerably contribute to the total NOx emissions.

NOx formation is reduced if fuel is burnt in a more “reducing” atmosphere with low

oxygen content. Operation under reducing conditions is limited due to process requirements

in order to maintain good clinker quality and undisturbed kiln operation. NOx emissions in

cement kilns (expressed as NO2) typically vary between 500 and 2000 mg/m3.

There is no information available on the formation mechanism and emissions of NOx

in vertical shaft kilns.

3.2.3 Sulfur oxides

Sulfur compounds enter the kiln system either with the fuels or with the raw materials.

Sulfur compounds in raw materials are present mainly as sulphates (for example, calcium

sulphate CaSO4) or as sulphides (i.e. pyrite or marcasite FeS2).


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Sulphates in the raw materials are thermally stable up to temperatures of 1200 °C, and

will thus enter the sintering zone of the rotary kiln where they are decomposed to produce

SO2. Part of the SO2 combines with alkalis and is incorporated into the clinker structure. The

remaining part of SO2 is carried back to the cooler zones of the kiln system where it reacts

either with calcined calcium oxide or with calcium carbonate thus being reintroduced to the

sintering zone again (“chemical SO2 absorption”).

Inorganic and organic sulfur compounds introduced with the fuels will be subject to

the same internal cycle consisting of thermal decomposition, oxidation to SO2 and reaction

with alkalis or with calcium oxide. With this closed internal cycle, all the sulfur which is

introduced via fuels or via raw material sulphates will leave the kiln chemically incorporated

in clinker, and will not give rise to gaseous SO2 emissions.

Sulphides (and also organic sulfur compounds) in raw materials however, are

decomposed and oxidised at moderate temperatures of 400 to 600 °C to produce SO2 when

the raw materials are heated by the exhaust gases. At these temperatures, not enough calcium

oxide is available to react with the SO2. Therefore, in a dry preheater kiln about 30% of the

total sulphide input may leave the preheater section as gaseous SO2. During direct operation

– i.e. with the raw mill off – most of it is emitted to the atmosphere. During compound

operation – i.e. with the raw mill on-line – typically between 30 and 90% of that remaining

SO2 is additionally adsorbed to the freshly ground raw meal particles in the raw mill

(“physico-chemical absorption”).

In grate preheater kilns SO2 absorption is also good because the gas is passing through

the turbulent flow of material from grate to kiln and then passing at low velocities firstly

through the bed of material which is partly calcined and then through the moist calcium

carbonate in the drying chamber.

In long dry and long wet kilns, the chemical absorption capacity for SO2 is generally

less efficient due to the reduced contact between kiln exhaust gas and raw materials. In these

kiln systems, all kinds of sulfur input may partially contribute to SO2 emissions, and the

general emission level may be higher than in dry preheater kilns.


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In VSKs systems, all kinds of sulpur input may partially contribute to SO2 emissions,

and the general emission level may be higher than in dry preheater kilns.

Gaseous emissions such as SO2 or VOC are to a large extent determined by the

chemical characteristics of the raw materials used, and not by the fuel composition.

Emissions are lowest with raw materials low in volatile components.

3.2.4 Organic compounds

Natural raw materials such as limestone’s, marls and shale’s may also contain up to

0.8 % w/w of organic matter (“kerogene”) – depending on the geological conditions of the

deposit. A large part of this organic matter may be volatilised in the kiln system even at

moderate temperatures between 400 and 600 °C.

Kiln tests with raw meals of different origin have demonstrated that approximately 85

to 95% of the organic matters in the raw materials are converted to CO2 in the presence of 3%

excess oxygen in the kiln exhaust gas, and 5 to 15% are oxidised to CO. A small proportion –

usually less than 1% – of the total organic carbon (“TOC”) content may be emitted as volatile

organic compounds (“VOC”) such as hydrocarbons.

The emission level of VOC in the stack gas of cement kilns is usually between 10 and

100 mg/Nm3, with a few excessive cases up to 500 mg/Nm3. The CO concentration in the

clean gas can be as high as 1000 mg/Nm3, even exceeding 2000 mg/Nm3 in some cases.

The carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon contents measured in the stack gas of cement

kiln systems are essentially determined by the content of organic matter in the raw materials,

and are therefore not an indicator of incomplete combustion of conventional or alternative

fuels.

Organic matter introduced to the main burner and to the secondary firing will be

completely destroyed due to the high temperatures and the long retention time of the

combustion gases.


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There is currently no information available on the emissions of VOC in vertical shaft

kilns. VOC release may function as a precursor for the formation of dioxins and furans in the

air pollution control device of a VSK and needs to be investigated further.

3.3 PCDD/F emissions

The Stockholm Convention requires Parties to take measures to reduce or eliminate

releases of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) from intentional production and use, from

unintentional production and from stockpiles and wastes. The chemicals intentionally

produced and currently assigned for elimination under the Stockholm Convention are the

pesticides aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), mirex

and toxaphene, as well as the industrial chemical Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs).

The Convention also seeks the continuing minimisation and, where feasible,

elimination of the releases of unintentionally produced POPs such as the by-products from

wet chemical and thermal processes, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/-furans (PCDD/Fs) as

well as HCB and PCBs. Cement kilns co-processing hazardous waste are explicitly

mentioned in the Stockholm Convention as an “industrial source having the potential for

comparatively high formation and release of these chemicals to the environment”.

The World Business Council for Sustainable Development initiated a study where the

objective was to compile data on the status of POPs emissions from the cement industry, to

share state of the art knowledge about PCDD/F formation mechanisms in cement production

processes and to show how it’s possible to control and minimise PCDD/F emissions from

cement kilns utilising integrated process optimisation, so called primary measures. This is the

most comprehensive study available on POPs emission from the cement industry.

(Karstensen, 2006).

Around 2200 PCDD/F measurements, many PCB measurements and a few HCB

measurements made from the 1970s until recently was. The data represents emission levels

from large capacity processing technologies, including wet and dry process cement kilns,


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performed under normal and worst case operating conditions, with and without the co-

processing of a wide range of alternative fuel and raw materials and with wastes and

hazardous wastes fed to the main burner, to the rotary kiln inlet and to the

preheater/precalciner. Vertical shaft kilns was not dealt with due to lack of emission data.

The PCDD/F data evaluated shows that:

• Most cement kilns can meet an emission level of 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm3 if primary

measures are applied;

• Co-processing of alternative fuels and raw materials, fed to the main burner, kiln inlet

or the precalciner does not seem to influence or change the emissions of POPs;

• Data evaluated from dry preheater and precalciner cement kilns in developing

countries show very low emission levels, much lower than 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm3.

• The emissions from modern dry preheater/precalciner kilns seem generally to be

slightly lower than emissions from wet kilns.

Emission data from US cement kilns in the 1980s and first part of the 1990s indicated

that cement kilns co-processing hazardous waste as a co-fuel had much higher PCDD/F

emissions than kilns co-processing non-hazardous wastes or using conventional fuel only. In

recent documents however, the US EPA has explained the most probable cause for these

findings, namely that cement kilns burning hazardous waste were normally tested under

“worst” scenario trial burn conditions, i.e. typically high waste feeding rates and high

temperatures in the air pollution control device, conditions today known to stimulate PCDD/F

formation. Cement kilns burning non-hazardous waste or conventional fossil fuel only were

however tested under normal conditions, no “worst” scenario conditions, making a

comparison between hazardous waste burning and non-hazardous waste burning kilns

dubious.

Reducing the temperature at the inlet of the air pollution control device is one factor

which has shown to limit dioxin formation and emissions at all types of cement kilns,

independent of waste feeding, as lower temperatures are believed to prevent the post-


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combustion catalytic formation of PCDD/Fs. The US EPA concluded in 1999 in the new

Maximum Achievable Control Technology regulation that hazardous waste burning in cement

kilns does not have an impact on PCDD/F formation because they are formed post-

combustion, i.e. in the air pollution control device.

The study also provides a large number of measurements of PCDD/F in products and

residues from the cement industry. The levels are normally low and in the same magnitude as

found in foods like fish, butter and breast milk as well as soil, sediments and sewage sludge.

For new cement plants and major upgrades the best available techniques for the

production of cement clinker is a dry process kiln with multi-stage preheating and

precalcination. A smooth and stable kiln process, operating close to the process parameter set

points is beneficial for all kiln emissions as well as for the energy use.

The most important primary measures to achieve compliance with an emission level of

0.1 ng TEQ/Nm3 is quick cooling of the kiln exhaust gases to lower than 200oC in long wet

and long dry kilns without preheating. Modern preheater and precalciner kilns have this

feature already inherent in the process design. Feeding of alternative raw materials as part of

raw-material-mix should be avoided if it includes organic material and no alternative fuels

should be fed during start-up and shut down.

Since PCDD/F is the only group of POPs commonly being regulated up to now, there

are fewer measurements available for HCB and PCBs. However, the more than 50 PCB

measurements referred to in this report show that all values are below 0.4 µg PCB TEQ/m3,

many at a few nanogram level or below the detection limit. 10 HCB measurements show a

concentration of a few nanograms per cubic meter or concentrations below the detection limit.

3.3.1 Trace elements

During the clinker burning process, all mineral input delivered by the raw materials –

be it natural or alternative raw materials sources – is converted into the clinker phases at the

high temperatures prevailing in the sintering zone of the kiln. Combustion ashes from


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conventional and alternative fuels used in rotary kilns are also completely incorporated into

the clinker minerals. Therefore cement kiln systems do not generate combustion ashes which

require separate disposal.

Consequently, the fuel ashes substitute for part of the (natural) raw materials input. In

order to maintain a good clinker quality, the ash composition of the fuels has to be taken into

account in the raw mix design. Trace elements such as heavy metals are naturally present in

low concentrations in the raw materials and fuels used for the manufacture of cement clinker.

The behaviour of these metals in the burning process depends largely on their volatility.

• Non-volatile metals remain completely within the product and leave the kiln system

fully incorporated in the mineral structure of the clinker – similarly to the main

elements. Most of the common metals are non-volatile.

• Semi-volatile elements such as cadmium or lead may in part be volatilised with the

high temperature conditions in the sintering zone of the kiln system. They condense

on the raw materials in cooler parts of the kiln system and are reintroduced to the hot

zone again. A major part of cadmium and lead will be incorporated in clinker; the

remaining part will precipitate with the kiln dust and will be collected in the filter

systems.

• Volatile metals such as mercury and thallium are more easily volatilised and condense

on raw material particles at lower temperatures in the kiln system (thallium at

approximately 300-350 °C, mercury at 120-150 °C). Whereas thallium is nearly

completely precipitated onto the kiln dust particles, only part of the mercury will be

collected within the filter system. Volatile metals are retained in the clinker minerals

to a very small extent only.

Being the only metal which can be emitted with the clean gas in gaseous form, the

input of mercury with raw materials and fuels has to be carefully controlled.

There is currently no information available on the emissions of volatile metals in

vertical shaft kilns and should to be investigated further.


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3.4 Other emissions

Heavy machinery and large fans used in the cement manufacture may give rise to

emissions of noise and vibrations.

Odour emissions are seldom a problem with a well operated plant, but may be mainly

related to emissions from handling and storage of conventional or alternative fuels. In

exceptional cases, nitrogen compounds in the raw materials may lead to ammonia emissions

which – even at low concentrations – may give rise to odour.

Process water in cement manufacturing will usually be completely evaporated or

recycled in the process. Filtrate water from filter presses used in the semi-wet process is

fairly alkaline and contains suspended solids requiring site-specific treatment and/or disposal

options.

Emergencies such as fire, explosions or spillage/leakage are extremely rare in the

modern cement industry but minor explosions can be experienced in VSKs if the coal/coke in

the black meal contains high concentrations of volatile matters. Potential consequences for

the environment are minimised by adequate prevention and protection measures such as fire

and explosion proof design of machinery and emergency response schemes.

3.5 Normal emission levels from rotary kilns

Average emission data (long term average values) from European rotary cement kilns

in operation are summarised in the table below.

The figures given are representative of the ranges within which kilns normally operate.

Due to the age and design of the plant, the nature of the raw materials, etc., individual kilns

may operate outside these ranges.


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Table 1 Long term average emission values from European cement kilns

(CEMBUREAU, 1999)

Emission mg per standard cubic meter [mg/Nm3]

Dust 20 – 200

NOx 500 – 2000

SO2 10 – 2500

Total organic carbon (TOC) 10 – 100

CO 500 – 2000

Fluorides < 5

Chlorides < 25

PCDD/F < 0.1 [ng/Nm3]

Heavy metals:

- class 1 (Hg, Cd, Tl) < 0.1

- class 2 (As, Co, Ni, Se, Te) < 0.1

- class 3 (Sb, Pb, Cr, Cu, Mn, V, Sn) incl. Zn < 0.3

3.6 Air pollution control in cement production

Particulate matter, commonly called dust, is the primary emission in the manufacture

of cement. For the control of dust the cement industry employs mechanical collectors, i.e.

cyclone collectors and to a lesser degree small size gravity settling chambers, further fabric

type dust collectors, gravel bed filters and finally electrostatic precipitators. To meet the

emission standards, sometimes combinations of these collectors are employed, depending on

the intensity and temperature of the effluents. In all modern kiln systems, the exhaust gases

are finally passed through an air pollution control device for separation of the dust before

being released to the atmosphere via stacks. Today, two types of dust separators are most

commonly used in the modern cement industry, electrostatic precipitators and bag filters.


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Gravity settling chambers will always be of importance for pre-cleaning of high dust

laden gases; they work on the principle of removing the dust by reducing the velocity of the

gas or air stream. The gas is directed from the dust generating equipment into the large

volume of settling chambers, where velocity drops low enough to let large dust particles drop

out by gravity. Dust settling chambers are sometimes equipped with deflectors, to change the

direction of gas flow and so to shorten the settling path of the particles, improving collection

efficiency. Because of the simple construction, gravity settling chambers are the lowest in

cost, but at the same time also the least effective dust collection devices. Only relatively

coarse particles are removed. For removing of fine dust particles, e.g. in the range of 20

microns, large size gravity settling chambers would be required, with a length of about 35 m.

Therefore settling chambers are used only to reduce the dust load ahead of more efficient dust

collectors such as bag filters or electric precipitators. The efficiency of gravity settling

chambers is in the range of 30-70% when handling typical dust of a cement plant. The gas

velocity in the settling chambers should not exceed 0.5 m/sec (Duda, 1985).

Cyclones as dust collection devices were in use long before their mode of operation

was theoretically explained and calculable. A cyclone consists essentially of two sections; a

cylindrical and a conical one. At the top of the cylindrical section the gas enters tangentially

and spirals along the walls downward into the conical section (outside vortex); from here it

starts to occupy the center space of the cyclone, and spirals upward (inside vortex) to the

outlet thimble. Centrifugal forces push the dust particles toward the wall where they

accumulate and descend down by gravity as well as under the influence of the outer vortex.

Most of the particles fall down to the bottom into a hopper from where they are removed by

rotary valves or screw conveyors. The ascending gas vortex represents the clean gas, but it

always contains a certain amount of fine particulates. The inside vortex occupies only a small

part of the cyclone’s cross-section, and along its axis there is the so-called neutral sector; if

the size of this sector is taken away with the escaping gases. From this it results that the

longer distance a dust particle has to cover for reaching the boundary gas layer, the less

particles are separated in the cyclone; therefore it can be said that the efficiency of a cyclone

diameters of 225, 400, 600 and 3150 mm, the corresponding efficiencies equal 96.7, 92.6,

88.2, and 57.5% (Duda, 1985).

In the cement industry, cyclones are for application with rotary kilns, great clinker

coolers, crushers, dryers, grinding mills, conveyors, etc. They are low cost dust collectors,


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without moving parts, and can be furnished with refractory linings for high temperatures up to

975°C. Cyclones can be designed for high pressure drop as well as for medium throughput,

and high dust collection efficiency. Cyclones are built with diameters from 300 to 2300 mm

in arrangements of one, two, four or six units combinations. The size of the particular

cyclones depends (besides the required throughput and collection efficiency) also on the dust

load, the particle size as well as on the properties of the dust. Units of cyclones may be

installed in parallel for large gas volumes, and in series for higher efficiencies, or in

combinations of series and parallel for high throughput and high efficiency.

It was learn from practical experience that the diameters of cyclones with the best

efficiency are in the range of 50 to 300 mm. However, the capacity of such cyclones is low

and in the range of about 25 m3/min (Duda, 1985). Therefore for higher gas volumes a

multitude of small diameter cyclones are combined into groups of cyclones, commonly called

multicyclones. Multicyclones are enclosed units and arranged in banks of parallel flow with

feed gas from a plenum chamber and with a common dust discharge hopper; multicyclones

units can contain up to 400 individual cyclones. The efficiency of multicyclone dust

collectors is in the range of 85-94%, collecting dust particles of 15 to 20 micron diameter an

up, with a pressure drop of 130-180 mm of water column. A disadvantage of multicyclones is

occasional plugging of the small tubes.

In country with less stringent air pollution regulations, the multicyclone is in the

cement industry a major component in collection of dust from kiln gases, grate clinker

coolers, dryers, grinding mills, etc. However, in countries with stricter dust control

regulations, the multicyclone serves mostly as a primary dust collector ahead of high

efficiency dust collectors.

Fabric filters used in the cement industry are generally of the bag type, e.g. tubes with

300 mm diameter or less, and up to 10 m high; they consist of woven or felted cloth, made

from natural or synthetic fibers. Fabric filters can handle small particles in the submicron

range at high efficiencies of 99.95%. Depending on the kind of fabric, these filters can be

applied to gas temperatures up to 285°C. The dust laden gas flows through a porous medium

– the filter fabric – and deposits particles in the voids. After filling the voids, a cake starts to

build up on the fabric’s surface, which does most of the filtering. During the precoating

period which lasts only moments, the efficiency may drop. When the dust layer on the fabric


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becomes too thick, an increase in pressure drop results; this requires cleaning of the fabric.

Depending on the characteristic of the dust and the type of the fabric, there are generally four

methods of filter cleaning in use:

• Bag swinging; this is a method which imparts a gentle oscillating motion to the tops of

the filter bags; this helps to dislodge the dust cake.

• Reverse air; this method collapses the filter tube by differential air pressure, thus

releasing the filter cake.

• Pulse pressure; the plenum chamber of the isolated compartment is for about 300

milliseconds supplied with a burst of compressed air of about 7 kg/cm. This pulse of

air expands rapidly and sets up a shock wave which flexes the fabric, thus dislodging

the dust cake. For the pulse air a small separate compressor is required.

• Sonic cleaning; this method employs sound generators which produce a low frequency

sound (<200 Hz/sec., intensity 100-150 dB), causing the filter bags to vibrate. These

vibrations combined with reversed air loosen dust particles from the surface of the

fabric.

Cleaning is accomplished periodically, mostly in response to a timer. Sometimes two

different cleaning methods are applied to one filter for a better cleaning. During cleaning

action there is no airflow through the filer bag in the normal direction; this requires that the

period of cleaning, the particular dust collector compartment most be taken off-stream.

Therefore for continuous automatic dust collection a fabric dust type collector must have one

compartment in excess of the capacity required by the gas volume. Bag filter performance is

not susceptible to process disturbances or “CO peaks”.


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Figure 18 Principle of bag filter (Duda, 1985)

Electrostatic precipitators use electrostatic forces to separate the dust from the exhaust

gas. By means of discharge electrodes, the dust particles are negatively charged and can be

separated on corresponding collecting electrodes. The particles are then discharged from the

collecting electrodes to dust hoppers by electrode rapping. In contrast to bag filters, the

design of electrostatic precipitators allows the separate collection of coarse and fine particles.

ESP's are susceptible to process changes such as CO peaks. The dedusting efficiency can be

increased by making use of more than one electric “field” operating in series.

Dust collectors are evaluated by their efficiencies. The efficiencies of dust collection

equipment are the ratio of the quantity of precipitated dust to the total quantity of dust

introduced into the dust collection device, expressed in percent. Thus, if from an introduced

dust quantity of 100 g, the dust collector retains 95 g, the efficiency of the dust collector is

95%. With a dedusting efficiency of up to 99.99% in modern control devices, it is possible to

achieve a dust emission level from the stack below 20 mg per cubic meter of gas.


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In the dry process, the kiln exhaust gases have relatively high temperature and low

humidity. Therefore, they can be utilised for drying of the raw materials in the raw mill

during “compound operation”, i.e. when the raw mill is in operation. During “direct

operation” (with the raw mill off), the hot exhaust gases have to be cooled down by means of

water injection in a conditioning tower to a temperature suitable to the dust collector. With

this procedure the gas volume is reduced, too, and the precipitation characteristics of the dust

in the filter system are improved.

Figure 19 Principle of electrostatic precipitators

The dust collected in the filter devices can be fed back to the process, either by

reintroducing it to the raw materials preparation system (dry process), by insufflations into the

sintering zone (wet kilns), or by feeding the dust to the cement mill (if allowed in the cement

standards).


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Figure 20 Schematic of an electric precipitator (dust-type) (Duda, 1985)

In certain cases where the level of alkali elements is limited in cement clinker (“low

alkali” clinker), not all the kiln dust can be returned to the system. Whereas an electrostatic

precipitator allows the high alkali part of the dust to be separated and rejected, such a

separation cannot be achieved with a bag filter and all the dust would have to be rejected.

The other main sources of dust in the cement manufacturing process which require

dedusting are the clinker cooler, the raw mill and the cement mills. Due to its low

temperature, exhaust air from cement mills does not require cooling.


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Depending on the process stage where it is extracted, the chemical and mineralogical

composition of the dust corresponds respectively to that of the raw meal, the clinker or the

cement, or their intermediate products.

3.6.1 Inherent "scrubbing" of exit gases in preheater kiln

In all kiln systems, the finely ground raw material moves in counter-current flow to

the hot combustion gases. Thus, it acts perfectly as an integrated multi-stage exhaust gas

cleaning system very similar to the operating principle of a circulating fluidised bed absorber

or "dry scrubber". Components resulting from the combustion of the fuels or from the

transformation of the raw materials remain in the exhaust gas only until they are absorbed by

the fresh raw meal flowing in counter-current.

The raw meal with its large specific surface and its high alkalinity provides an

excellent medium to retain gas components within the kiln system. For instance, calcined or

partly calcined raw meal with its high content of reactive calcium oxide has a high absorption

capacity for acid gases such as sulfur dioxide and hydrochloric or hydrofluoric acid, but also

for other pollutants such as heavy metals.

Wet kilns and long dry kilns provide intimate contact between gas and solid particles

mainly at the kiln inlet with its chain system for heat exchange. Semi-dry and semi- wet kilns

provide this “scrubber effect” mainly in the grate preheater section of the kiln system, and

also in heated crushers or dryers when these are used.

Suspension preheater kilns with 4 to 6 cyclone stages are especially well suited to

achieve a “multi-stage” scrubber effect especially when operating together with the raw mill

(compound operation). At least 5 scrubber stages operate in series at different temperature

levels between 100 and 800 °C consuming roughly 1 kg of absorbent (i.e. raw meal/hot meal)

per Nm3 of exhaust gas.


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Figure 21 Schematic diagrams of preheaters (IPPC, 2001)

No studies have been conducted to evaluate if there is any absorbing effect of the raw

meal layers in a vertical shaft kiln.

3.6.2 Emission control in VSKs

All emissions from a VSK are ducted from the top of the kiln and the main emissions

are dust and CO (due to incomplete combustion/reductive conditions). Emission data from

Chinese VSK is absent but dusts concentrations of 2000 to 4000 mg/Nm3 have been measured

from VSK stack other places (Viacroze, 2005). The dust emissions can be very variable

depending on kiln operations; stable kiln conditions will reduce the emissions.

Air pollution control devices used by vertical shaft kilns is usually cyclones and bag

filters. Dust collected in these devices is easy to recycle back to the process.


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Also common in China is the wet-membrane dust collection equipment. These filter

systems seems to have low efficiency and high moisture content of the exit gas, which makes

it difficult to recover the dust back to the production. Gas cleaning devices which utilize

water as an active element to precipitate dust particles, are no longer employed in the modern

cement industry, since reprocessing of the wet dust is troublesome, and handling the collected

material generates additional dust problems.

Electro static precipitators are not commonly used by vertical shaft kilns due to risks

of explosions (difficult to control CO levels) and due to the humid exit gas.

VOC is mainly related to raw meal and will change from one plant to another.

Picture 22 Bag filters used for exit gas cleaning in VSKs


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Picture 23 Cyclone and filter used for exit gas cleaning in VSK


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4. Resource consumption in cement production

Cement manufacturing is a “high volume process” and correspondingly requires large

quantities of resources, i.e. raw materials, thermal fuels and electrical power. The average

flow of raw materials, fuels and electricity needed for the production of one ton of cement and

the subsequent emissions of CO2 is depicted in the figure below.

Figure 24 Production flow for cement (US Geological Survey, 2004)


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4.1 Consumption of raw materials

A “medium-sized” modern rotary kiln with a clinker production of 3000 tons per day

or 1 million tons per year corresponds to a cement production of 1.23 million tons per year

(based on average figures for the clinker content in cement in Europe).

Table 2 Consumption of raw materials in cement production (IPPC, 2001)

Conservation of natural resources can be achieved through increased substitution of

natural raw materials and fossil fuels by industrial by-products and residues in the

manufacturing process.

4.2 Consumption of energy

Cement manufacturing is an energy intensive process. The specific thermal energy

consumption of a cement kiln varies between 3000 and 7500 MJ per ton of clinker, depending

on the basic process design of the plant.


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The dominant use of energy in cement manufacture is as fuel for the kiln. The main

users of electricity are the mills (raw grinding, finish grinding, cement mills and coal mills)

and the exhaust fans (kiln/raw mill and cement mill) which together account for more than

80% of electrical energy usage. On average, energy costs, in the form of fuel and electricity,

represent 50% of the total production cost involved in producing a tonne of cement.

Electrical energy represents approximately 20% of this overall energy requirement (IPPC,

2001).

The theoretical energy use for the burning process (chemical reactions) is about 1700

to 1800 MJ/tonne clinker (IPPC, 2001). The actual fuel energy use for different kiln systems

is in the following ranges (MJ/tonne clinker):

• about 3000 for dry process, multi-stage cyclone preheater and precalciner kilns;

• 3100-4200 for dry process rotary kilns equipped with cyclone preheaters;

• 3300-4500 for semi-dry/semi-wet processes;

• up to 5000 for dry process long kilns;

• 5000-6000 for wet process long kilns;

• 3100-4200 for vertical shaft kilns.

The actual use of energy for the production of one ton of clinker is from 70 to 250

percent higher than the theoretical energy need. This clearly shows the potential for

improvement of energy use through upgrades and process optimisation.

The specific electrical energy consumption ranges typically between 90 and 130 kWh

per ton of cement.


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4.3 Options for resource reduction

A technique to reduce energy use and emissions from the cement industry, expressed

per unit mass of cement product, is to reduce the clinker content of cement products. This can

be done by adding fillers, for example sand, slag, limestone, fly-ash and pozzolana, in the

grinding step. In Europe the average clinker content in cement is 80-85 %. Many

manufacturers of cement are working on techniques to further lower the clinker content. One

reported technique claims to exchange 50% of the clinker with maintained product

quality/performance and without increased production cost. Cement standards define some

types of cement with less than 20 % clinker, the balance being made of blast furnace slag

(IPPC, 2001).

Table 3 Clinker factor in various cement types (European Standard (EN197))

Cement Designation Notation Clinker GGBFS Silica Pozzolana Fly ashes Burnt Limestone Minor

Type fume Natural Industrial Silic. Calcar. Shale additional K S D P Q V W T L constit.

I Portland Cement I 95-100 - - - - - - - - 0-5 Portland Slag Cement II/A-S 80-94 6-20 - - - - - - - 0-5 II/B-S 65-79 21-35 - - - - - - - 0-5 Portland Silica Fume Cement II/A-D 90-94 - 6-10 - - - - - - 0-5 II Portland Pozzolana II/A-P 80-94 - - 6-20 - - - - - 0-5 Cement II/B-P 65-79 - - 21-35 - - - - - 0-5 II/A-Q 80-94 - - - 6-20 - - - - 0-5 II/B-Q 65-79 - - - 21-35 - - - - 0-5 Portland Fly Ash II/A-V 80-94 - - - - 6-20 - - - 0-5 Cement II/B-V 65-79 - - - - 21-35 - - - 0-5 II/A-W 80-94 - - - - - 6-20 - - 0-5 II/B-W 65-79 - - - - - 21-35 - - 0-5 Portland Burnt Shale II/A-T 80-94 - - - - - - 6-20 - 0-5 Cement II/B-T 65-79 - - - - - - 21-35 - 0-5 Portland Limestone II/A-L 80-94 - - - - - - - 6-20 0-5 Cement II/B-L 65-79 - - - - - - - 21-35 0-5

Portland Composite II/A-M 80-94 <- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 - 20 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -> Cement II/B-M 65-79 <- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21 - 35 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -> Blastfurnace III/A 35-64 35-65 - - - - - - 0-5

III Cement III/B 20-34 66-80 - - - - - - 0-5 III/C 5-19 81-95 - - - - - - 0-5

IV Pozzolanic Cement IV/A 65-89 - < - - - - - - - - - - 11 - 35 - - - - - - - - - - -> - - - 0-5 IV/B 45-64 - < - - - - - - - - - - 36 - 55 - - - - - - - - - - -> - - - 0-5

V Composite Cement V/A 40-64 18-30 < - - - - - - - - 18 - 30 - - - - - -> - - - 0-5 V/B 20-39 31-50 < - - - - - - - - 31 - 50 - - - - - -> - - - 0-5


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As can be seen from table 3, ordinary Portland cement is composed of 95-100 % of

Clinker. Portland pozzolana cement II B-P however contains only 65-79 % of clinker, i.e. to

produce 1 ton of II/B-P you need 650 kg of clinker compared to 950 kg of clinker for the

ordinary Portland cement. This is not only saving raw materials but also reduces the CO2

emission which will related to the same ratio, i.e. 950/650 = 1.46 times more CO2 emission

for the production of ordinary Portland cement compared to the II/B-P cement.

Recycling of collected dust to the production processes lowers the total consumption

of raw materials. This recycling may take place directly into the kiln or kiln feed (alkali metal

content being the limiting factor) or by blending with finished cement products.

The use of suitable wastes as raw materials can reduce the input of natural resources,

but should always be done with satisfactory control on the substances introduced to the kiln

process.

4.3.1 Use of energy

Kiln systems with 5 cyclone preheater stages and precalciner are considered standard

technology for ordinary new plants, such a configuration will use 2900-3200 MJ/tonne clinker

(IPPC, 2001). To optimise the input of energy in other kiln systems it is a possibility to

change the configuration of the kiln to a short dry process kiln with multi stage preheating and

precalcination. This is usually not feasible unless done as part of a major upgrade with an

increase in production. The application of the latest generation of clinker coolers and

recovering waste heat as far as possible, utilising it for drying and preheating processes, are

examples of methods which cut primary energy consumption.

Electrical energy use can be minimised through the installation of power management

systems and the utilisation of energy efficient equipment such as high-pressure grinding rolls

for clinker comminution and variable speed drives for fans.


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Energy use will be increased by most type of end-of-pipe abatement. Some reduction

techniques will also have a positive effect on energy use, for example process control

optimisation.

4.4 Utilisation of alternative fuels and raw materials in modern cement production

In the burning of cement clinker it is necessary to maintain material temperatures of up

to 1450 °C in order to ensure the sintering reactions required. This is achieved by applying

peak combustion temperatures of about 2000 °C with the main burner flame. The combustion

gases from the main burner remain at a temperature above 1200 °C for at least 5-10 seconds.

An excess of oxygen – typically 2-3 % – is also required in the combustion gases of the rotary

kiln as the clinker needs to be burned under oxidising conditions. These conditions are

essential for the formation of the clinker phases and the quality of the finished cement.

The retention time of the kiln charge in the rotary kiln is 20-30 and up to 60 minutes

depending on the length of the kiln. The figure below illustrates the temperature profiles for

the combustion gases and the material for a preheater/precalciner rotary kiln system. While

the temperature profiles may be different for the various kiln types, the peak gas and material

temperatures described above have to be maintained in any case. The burning conditions in

kilns with precalciner firing depend on the precalciner design. Gas temperatures from a

precalciner burner are typically around 1100 °C, and the gas retention time in the precalciner

is approximately 3 seconds.

Under the conditions prevailing in a cement kiln – i.e. flame temperatures of up to

2000 °C, material temperatures of up to 1450 °C and gas retention times of up to 10 seconds

at temperatures between 1200 and 2000 °C – all kinds of organic compounds fed to the main

burner with the fuels are reliably destroyed. The combustion process in the main flame of the

rotary kiln is therefore complete. No (hydrocarbon type) products of incomplete combustion

can be identified in the combustion gases of the main burner at steady-state conditions.

The cement manufacturing process is an industrial process where large material

volumes are turned into commercial products, i.e. clinker and cement. Cement kilns operate


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continuously all through the year – 24 hours a day – with only minor interruptions for

maintenance and repair. A smooth kiln operation is necessary in a cement plant in order to

meet production targets and to meet the quality requirements of the products. Consequently,

to achieve these goals, all relevant process parameters are permanently monitored and

recorded including the analytical control of all raw materials, fuels, intermediate and finished

products as well as environmental monitoring.

With these prerequisites – i.e. large material flow, continuous operation and

comprehensive process and product control, the cement manufacturing process seems to be

well suited for co-processing by-products and residues from industrial sources, both as raw

materials and fuels substitutes and as mineral additions. The selection of appropriate feed

points is essential for environmentally sound co- processing of alternative materials, i.e.:

• Raw materials: mineral waste free of organic compounds can be added to the raw meal

or raw slurry preparation system. Mineral wastes containing significantly quantities of

organic components are introduced via the solid fuels handling system, i.e. directly to

the main burner, to the secondary firing or, rarely, to the calcining zone of a long wet

kiln (“mid-kiln”).

• Fuels: alternative fuels are fed to the main burner, to the secondary firing in the

preheater/precalciner section, or to the mid-kiln zone of a long wet kiln.


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Figure 25 Gas and material profiles in cyclone preheater/precalciner system

in compound operation (CEMBUREAU, 1999)

• Mineral additions: mineral additions such as granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash

from thermal power plants or industrial gypsum are fed to the cement mill. In Europe,

the type of mineral additions permitted is regulated by the cement standards.

In addition to regulatory requirements, the cement producers have set up self-

limitations such as

• To prevent potential abuse of the cement kiln system in waste recovery operations

• To assure the required product quality

• To protect the manufacturing process from operational problems

• To avoid negative impacts to the environment, and


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• To ensure workers’ health and safety.

The cement manufacturing process is a large materials throughput process with

continuous operation and comprehensive operational control. Therefore, it has a large

potential for co-processing a variety of materials from industrial sources.

Wastes and hazardous wastes in the environment represent a challenge for many

countries, but cement kiln co-processing can constitute a sound and affordable recovery

option. Cement kilns can destroy organic hazardous wastes in a safe and sound manner when

properly operated and will be mutually beneficial to both industry, which generates such

wastes, and to the society who want to dispose properly of such wastes in a safe and

environmentally acceptable manner. The added benefit of non renewable fossil energy

conservation is important, since large quantities of valuable natural fuel can be saved in the

manufacture of cement when such techniques are employed.

Since the early 70s, and particularly since the mid 80s, alternative – i.e. non-fossil –

raw materials and fuels derived mainly from industrial sources have been beneficially utilised

in the cement industry for economic reasons. Since that time, it has been demonstrated both

in daily operations and in numerous tests that the overall environmental performance of a

cement plant is not impaired by this practice in an appropriately managed plant operation.

Cement kilns make full use of both the calorific and the mineral content of alternative

materials. Fossil fuels such as coal or crude oil are substituted by combustible materials

which otherwise would often be landfilled or incinerated in specialised facilities.

The mineral part of alternative fuels (ashes) as well as non-combustible industrial

residues or by-products can substitute for part of the natural raw materials (limestone’s, clay,

etc.). All components are effectively incorporated into the product, and – with few exceptions

– no residues are left for disposal. The use of mineral additions from industrial sources

substituting clinker saves both raw material resources and energy resources as the energy

intensive clinker production can be reduced.

With the substitution of fossil fuels by (renewable) alternative fuels, the overall output

of thermal CO2 is reduced. A thermal substitution rate of 40% in a cement plant with an


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annual production of 1 million tons of clinker reduces the net CO2 generation by about

100,000 tons. Substitution of clinker by mineral additions may be more important as both

thermal CO2 from fossil fuels and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw materials is reduced.

Since only moderate investments are needed, cement plants can recover adequate

wastes at lower costs than would be required for landfilling or treatment in specialised

incinerators. In addition, public investment required for the installation of new specialised

incinerators would also be reduced. Substitute materials derived from waste streams usually

reduce the production cost in cement manufacturing, thus strengthening the position of the

industry particularly with regard to imports from countries with less stringent environmental

legislation. It will also facilitate the industry’s development of technologies to further clean

up atmospheric emissions.


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5. Cement production in China - general challenges

The Chinese cement market is the largest in the world, and continuing to grow driven

by strong demand. The industry is highly fragmented, characterized by a large number of

small, vertical shaft-kilns, operated at the village and township level, along with a smaller

number of modern rotary-kiln facilities using modern, dry-process technology. Counterparts

in the US and Europe and Japan rely exclusively on rotary kilns, of large capacities. While

many still use an older, less efficient wet process, new plants use dry processes exclusively.

5.1 Production

Cement production in China has grown steadily the last 20 years and increased by

more than 10 % yearly (Soule et al, 2002). It is estimated that the Chinese cement industry

produced 1,060 billion ton cement in 2005, accounting for 808 kg per capita and

approximately 50 % of the world production (Cui and Wang, 2005). It is estimated that the

cement production will reach its saturation point around year 2010 with an annual cement

output at the upper limit of 1200 million tonnes (Cui and Wang, 2005).

Approximately 60 % of this cement was produced in approximately 4000 Vertical

Shaft Kilns (VSKs). New and modern dry process production lines constituted 508 units by

the end of 2004 and as much as 704 will be in full operation within the near future (Cui and

Wang, 2005).

By the end of 2004, there were 5027 cement producers in China employing 1,422,100

workers (Cui and Wang, 2005). These companies were owned by the state, by townships,

communities, collectives and by private companies. Chinese cement industry is characterized

by its irrational structure, low production efficiency, high energy consumption and heavy

environmental pollution, which will curb its further development (Cui and Wang, 2005).


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While some 3200 of these smaller facilities have been closed under government

orders, many remain in operation, or have restarted operation. Over 300 vertical kilns were

constructed in China in 2000. Zhejiang Provincial officials have recently declined to issue

permits for any cement facility smaller that 2000 tonnes/day (Chinese Enterprise

Confederation, 2003).

Government efforts have turned to building larger cement groups. Considerable

progress has been made in these larger cement groups in improving technology and

efficiency, with concomitant reductions in environmental impacts. Major air pollutants (dust,

SOX and NOX) are nevertheless generally discharged at levels above (sometimes far above)

EU and US facilities. For example, average dust emissions in Chinese plants are more than

five times current European standards (Chinese Enterprise Confederation, 2003).

Figure 26 World and Chinese cement production growth in the period 1950-2003

(US Geological Survey, 2004)

In 1995, the domestic production was 476 million tonnes, were approximately 81 %

was made in Vertical Shaft Kilns (Cui and Wang, 2005). It is anticipated that the Chinese


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cement industry will finish its restructuring target within the next 20 years, which would

involve phasing out the VSKs and replace by modern dry processes. This will reduce the

overall emissions, reduce the fossil fuel consumption and improve the cement quality.

5.2 Geographic location

Most of the cement plants are located in the dense population areas along the east cost

of China, on the middle or down-stream banks of the Yangtze River, and are near large and

medium-size cities. In 2002, cement industries located in ten provinces accounted for about

70% of the total sales. These provinces are (in descending order) Shangdong, Zhejiang,

Guangdong, Jiangsu, Hebei, Henan, Sichuan, Hubei, Anhui and Hunan (Wang, 2005).

It is expected that new dry process kilns will be spread from coast developed areas to

developing areas, such as Northeast, Southwest, Central and Northwest China, and the

outmoded production technology such as mini cement works with shaft kilns will be

expeditiously eliminated or only left a small proportion in mountain areas (Cui and Wang,

2005). The demand for high-quality cement, especially high grade cement and special cement

will be growing further.

5.3 Raw material consumption

1326 limestone quarries are currently known in China containing approximately

56,120 million tonnes of limestone (Cui and Wang, 2005). Taking into account future growth

of cement production this deposits can only maintain the need for manufacturing of cement

for 59 years (other industry exploitation not taken into account). In addition, cement

production usually needs limestone sources of high quality and current quarrying methods are

wasting large amounts of non-spec material (Cui and Wang, 2005).

The raw material sources is neither uniformly distributed around the country and

provinces with high production may not be self-sufficient for a long time. In addition, cement

is a low profit product and the transportation distance is usually limited to a radius of 200


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kilometres. Certain provinces will have limestone sources for a maximum 40 years

production at current level (Cui and Wang, 2005).

Many VSKs plants have virtually no environmental controls in place; and indeed, the

nature of the old technology precludes effective use of modern dust (and other emission)

controls.

5.4 Energy consumption

In 2003, the cement industry consumed about 129 million tons of standard coal, equal

to 148 million tons of common coal. This amounts to approximately 11 % of whole

consumption of coal in that year (Cui and Wang, 2005). This consumption would be

equivalent to approximately 200 million tonnes of common coal for 2005.

The Chinese energy supply is mainly based on the utilization of coal. In 2002, the

geological investigation showed that the storage of coal is about 130,000 million tons and will

meet the domestic requirement for another 54 to 81 years (Cui and Wang, 2005). The quality

and the distribution of coal are uneven along the country and requires long transportation

distances in some situations.

In 2003, the electricity consumption in the Chinese cement industry was 94,930

million kWh, amounting to approximately 5 % of the electric consumption in the whole

country (Cui and Wang, 2005).

There is very little use of alternative fuels in Chinese plants, reflecting both the lack of

infrastructure to collect and recycle these materials and the inability of vertical shaft kilns to

use these materials safely or easily (Chinese Enterprise Confederation, 2003). This is an issue

of growing concern, as China faces increasing waste management and disposal challenges.

Enforcement of environmental regulations appears uneven, with small or no penalties for

violation of environmental standards. Small facilities are frequently excused from

compliance for lack of resources.


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5.5 Emissions

Based on the current technical level in China, the production of 1 ton of cement will

lead to an emission of 20 kg of dust, 1 ton of CO2, 2 kg of SO2 and 4 kg of NOx. It is

estimated that the Chinese cement industry in 2003 emitted more than 13 million tons of dust

(about 27 % of all emissions from the national industry), 660 million tons of CO2 (about 22 %

of all emissions), 1.31 million tons of SO2 (about 4.85% of all emissions) and 2.62 million

tons of NOx (Cui and Wang, 2005).

Figure 27 CO2 emissions 2004 (US Geological Survey, 2004)


far been developed for this industry category (UNEP, 2005).

The facilities employing modern technology often have a smaller average size than

international counterparts, but produce products meeting international standards, and employ

varying degrees of environmental controls.


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5.6 Comparison of performance

The consumption of coal and electricity between the various productions technologies

used in China in 2002 is given in the table below (Cui and Wang, 2005). The number of

VSKs has been reduced since then, but it can be expected that the relative differences in coal

consumption and electricity consumption is unchanged.

Table 3 Performance of various process technology in China in 2002 (Cui and

Wang, 2005).

Process

technology

Number

Capacity

(million tonnes)

Coal

consumption

(kg/ton clinker)

Electricity

consumption

(kWh/ton

cement)

Rotary kilns

1428

187.5

157

105

precalciner

257 110.0 107-125 105-115

preheater

82 2.5 130-140 115-130

preheater (shaft)

295 10.0 165-170 120-130

wet process

254 30.0 190-210 95-105

other

540 35.0 -200 -115

VSKs

6000

670

160-220

95-125


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Compared with preheater/precalciner kilns, VSKs seems to consume from 14 % to 105

% more coal pr ton of clinker. The difference in electricity consumption seems to be slightly

in favour of VSKs, basically because VSKs are not using much electric equipment like ESP's

and drivers; the electricity consumption is mainly due to mills and fans.

In the table below Cui and Wang (2005) compare what they call "advanced technical

level of foreign and domestic cement industry". The year of comparison is unclear.

Table 4 Comparison of "advanced technical level of foreign and domestic

(Chinese) cement industry" (Cui and Wang, 2005).

Item

Foreign advanced level

Domestic advanced level

The capacity of large plants

with precalcining systems

up to 98.3% of whole

capacity

about 32% of whole capacity

Availability 95% 85%

Heat consumption 2888 kJ/kg-clinker 3350 kJ/kg-clinker

Coal consumption 100 kg standard coal/ton-

clinker

120 kg standard coal/ton-

clinker

Electricity consumption 92 kWh/ton-cement 110 kWh/ton-cement

Dust emission 15 mg/Nm3 100 mg/Nm3

SO2 emission 300 mg/Nm3 800 mg/Nm3

NOx emission 200 mg/Nm3 400 mg/Nm3

Labour efficiency 150,00 tons/ per person, per

year

4000 tons/ per person, per

year


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The comparison by Cui and Wang (2005) seems to be in favour of what is called

foreign advanced level. If compared with average emission data from European cement kilns,

the difference may not be that great (see table 1), especially on the emissions to air.

Vertical shaft kilns generally produce lower quality (#325 grade or less) cement which

is neither suitable for large structures nor for major infrastructure projects such as bridges,

airports, etc. It is also not suitable for export to international markets.

Figure 28 New modern Chinese cement plant with limestone quarry nearby

5.7 Health and Safety

The Chinese cement industry employs nearly one and half million people. It is not

clear if detailed employee accident and incident records are kept, or used to make safety


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improvements. Health and safety performance information is lacking. There is relatively

little use of traditional personal protective equipment, like safety shoes, facemasks (for dust),

and safety glasses in Chinese facilities.

5.8 Efficiency - a summary

It is not clear that benchmarking and operational efficiency assessments are made on a

routine basis. Data developed the Chinese Enterprise Confederation (2003) point to

significantly lower efficiencies for Chinese plants with respect to power use (approximately

25 % less efficient), fuel use (approximately 75 % less efficient), and labour (approximately

six – thirty times more employees per ton of product) and product losses (nearly 2 % product

loss through dust emissions in China). As a general rule, larger facilities have and continue

to invest more in energy and process efficiency programs than smaller ones. Vertical shaft

kilns, which still dominate cement production, are limited to about 300-tonnes/day capacities.


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6. Cement production in China - general opportunities for

improvement

Major opportunities exist to improve overall industry efficiency by closing the least

efficient small facilities and consolidating processing in larger, more efficient units (Chinese

Enterprise Confederation, 2003). Medium sized plants could be offered some time period for

making improvements up to a specified level of environmental and product quality

performance. Failing to reach this level would then ultimately lead to closure. Larger

facilities can gain the economies of scale, use advanced process control technologies, and

environmental control equipment. This could help make a substantial reduction in dust

emissions (and the accompanying long term respiratory health problems) as well as workplace

exposure. Some portions of existing smaller facilities could possibly be retained for use in

grinding, blending, bagging and distribution of cement, allowing some local employment to

be retained as well. Employee health and safety can be quickly improved providing relatively

inexpensive personnel protective equipment, such as dust masks, safety shoes, etc.

6.1 Policy and regulation

The Chinese government has set up a series of policies and regulations to stimulate the

sustainable development of the cement industry, the largest of that sector in the world. It has

continued to grow well, driven by strong demand for construction and new housing in many

urban areas. The industry is highly fragmented, characterized by very large numbers of small,

vertical shaft-kiln type facilities which operate at village and township levels. The Chinese

government has imposed the macro economic control measures for some overheated

industries, and cement manufacturing is one of them. In accordance with the control

measures announced in 2004, the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC),

one of the nation’s leading industrial watchdogs, announced that full implementation of

control would be strengthened by restrictions on land use and bank loans to prevent a repeat

of overheated investment in that sector (Wang, 2004).


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NDRC considers that future investment in cement industries should be directed to the

improvement of production facilities to reduce the cost of unit production, to meeting the

challenges of energy efficiency and the shortage of raw materials including coal and

electricity as well as water, and to the implementation of Cleaner Production (CP) and the

Circular Economy (CE) in that industrial sector (Wang, 2004).

Because of the seriousness of the production and environmental problems, industrial

consolidation has become a necessity. By the end of 2000, China had closed down a total of

3,200 small plants with small size cement kilns and decreased production capacity by more

than 80 million tons (Wang, 2004). However, over 300 vertical kilns, with the blessing of

local government policy to boost the economy and employment, were built with this out-of-

date technology, with an annual production of 30 million tons (Wang, 2004).

Since 2003, the central government has issued executive regulations to cool down

several overheated and rapidly expanding industries (including the cement sector) by denying

construction permits for new plants and by restricting bank loans and financing from the stock

market, but still encouraging funding for facility upgrades (Wang, 2004).

6.1.1 Environmental regulation of the Chinese cement industry

The emission standard of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry in China was issued 29

December 2004 and was effective from 1 January 2005. The regulation GB 4915-2004 was

issued by the State Environmental Protection Administration of China, General

Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection, and Quarantine of China. The standard

was proposed by the Science & Technology Department of State Environmental Protection

Administration and drafted by Environmental Standard Institute of Chinese Research

Academy of Environmental Science, Hefei Cement Research & Design Institute of China

Building Material Group and China National Materials Industry Group.

The Standard is established to carry out the Law of the People’s Republic of China on

Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution, to control the air pollutants emission of the


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cement industry, and to promote structural readjustment of the cement industry. The Standard

is a substitute for Emission Standard of Air Pollutants for Cement plant GB 4915-1996 and is

considerably strengthen compared to the previous standard (see Annex 2).

Figure 29 Humid and dusty VSK emissions

The application of the Standard has been expanded to cover the entire process of

cement industry production, including grinding plant, mine exploitation and field crusher

system. The new Standard gives particulate emission requirements and the emission limits

for rotary kiln and shaft kiln are identical. There is no longer any different emission limits for

different functional regions of ambient air quality or different emission limits for different

existing production lines. However, a transitional period to meet the standard is set but the

mission limits of newly established production lines are stricter. The new Standard also gives


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emission requirement for cement kiln incinerating hazardous wastes, as well as regulations of

environmental conservation and regulations on synchronous running rate and height of

exhaust funnel. The new Standard also requires installing continuous monitoring of the exit

gas emissions.

6.1.2 Enforcement

Wang (2004) recommends the following with regards to regulation and enforcement:

(1) For a new plant, build the necessity for CP implementation into the EIA

(Environmental Impact Assessment) and make it compulsory. Any dust emission

control equipment must be designed, constructed, and operational simultaneously

with the main plant body.

(2) For existing plants which are emitting dust concentrations over the national or

local standards, CP audits are mandatory in accordance with the CP Law. Guide

the plants on means to reduce the emissions to within the limits.

(3) Increasing the pollution taxes for overall dust emissions. At present, the tax rate

is set at 0.28 RMB per kg, and it represents only about 40% of the operational cost

for the dust control process. The result is a lack of initiative and reluctance by

industry to install the control devices. It is suggested that governments should raise

the fee/tax rates higher than the capital and operational costs in order to stimulate

the willingness of enterprise to use such devices,

(4) Managers/administrators of national or local scientific and technical institutions

should include overall planning and on environment and technology research and

development in their yearly programs. For the cement industry, expanding CP areas

and subjects for using waste substances as tires, plastics and other alternative raw

materials for the substitutions of virgin fuel (materials.) To enhance further CP

plans, provide technical support.


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(5) National and local Development and Reform Commissions should negotiate and

consult the finance and taxation departments to formulate financial support for those

plants with noticeable achievements in benefits to the economy and the environment.

For other action plans without any clear economic benefit, the comprehensive

utilization of wastes should be encouraged with defined and favourable financial

policies and support, in order that the CP implementation can be realized in the

cement industry as well as other related enterprises.

(6) The size structure and changes to the sector organization plan (privatization) as

announced by the State Council must be conducted and carried out for the purpose

of improving the environment, economic viability, and for the capability of

competing on the world market by reduced costs.

6.1.3 Emissions of persistent organic pollutants POPs

China is a signatory to the Stockholm Convention, which requires Parties to take

measures to reduce or eliminate releases of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) from

intentional production and use, from unintentional production and from stockpiles and wastes.

The chemicals intentionally produced and currently assigned for elimination under the

Stockholm Convention are the pesticides aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor,

hexachlorobenzene (HCB), mirex and toxaphene, as well as the industrial chemical

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs).

The Convention also seeks the continuing minimisation and, where feasible,

elimination of the releases of unintentionally produced POPs such as the by-products from

wet chemical and thermal processes, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/-furans (PCDD/Fs) as

well as HCB and PCBs. Cement kilns co-processing hazardous waste are explicitly

mentioned in the Stockholm Convention as an “industrial source having the potential for

comparatively high formation and release of these chemicals to the environment” (see chapter

3.3).


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The regulation GB 4915-2004 of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry requires that the

"emission concentration of dioxin should not exceed 0.1ng TEQ/m3". See also Annex 2.

6.1.3.1 Regulatory framework to control POPs emissions in the European Union

In all EU Directives the principles of integrated pollution prevention and control

(IPPC), specifically laid down in Directive 96/61/EC, covering all aspects of environmental

performance in an integrated manner, shall be taken into account. Also Best Available

Technique Reference Documents (BREFs) established by the European IPPC Bureau have to

be taken into account by the authorities for issuing permits.

Also the Protocol on persistent organic pollutants signed by the EU within the

framework of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN-ECE) Convention

on long-range transboundary air pollutions sets a legally binding PCDD/F emission limit

value of 0.1 ng TEQ/m3 for incinerating more than 3 tonnes per hour of municipal solid waste

and 0.5 ng TEQ/m3 for installations burning more than 1 ton per hour of medical waste, and

0.2 ng TEQ/m3 for installations incinerating more than 1 ton per hour of hazardous waste.

Gaseous emissions from cement kiln using conventional fuels are regulated within the

EU under the so-called Air Framework Directive 84/360/EEC (Eduljee, 1998). A technical

note defining Best Available Techniques (BAT) for the manufacture of cement was published

in 2001 (IPPC) and includes the emission levels achievable when using conventional fuels

within the kiln, but does not identify BAT achievable emission levels using secondary or

substitute fuels. The European cement industry has argued that prescriptive regulations

designed to ensure combustion in dedicated waste incinerators are inappropriate for the

regulation of fuel substitution in industrial furnaces such as cement kilns. The nature of the

thermal processes governing cement manufacture is such that emissions arising from the

combustion of the alternative fuel should be treated separately to emissions arising from the

raw materials feeding the kiln.


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This principle has been accepted by the EU and applied in Directive 2000/76/EC on

the incineration of waste, regulating the use of hazardous waste as a alternative fuel in cement

kilns, by recognising and providing for the practice of ”co-incineration”.

Individual Member States have also accepted the need to take account of emissions

from raw materials in setting emission controls on exhaust gases from cement kilns. For

example, in France emission limits for sulfur dioxide are set according to the sulfur content in

the raw materials. In Germany the national waste incineration regulation 17.BimSchV makes

specific provision for the exemption of carbon monoxide and total organic carbon emissions

from cement plants burning waste supplementary fuels on the grounds that the emission of

these substances is not a function of the fuel used or the amount of waste burnt, and is also not

a relevant parameter for ensuring the safe combustion of secondary fuels in such plants.

In general, the European cement industry has argued that regulatory decisions

concerning the use of secondary fuels in cement plants are best taken at national level, thereby

allowing regulators to take into account specific local conditions in writing permits. This

position has been endorsed by the EU in Directive 96/61/EC on IPPC, in which national

regulatory authorities are requested to base operating permits on BAT, while taking into

account the technical characteristics of processes, their geographic location and local

environmental conditions. As a safeguard, permits must not allow any EU environmental

quality standards to be breached.

Notwithstanding the derogations on emissions of substances such as sulfur dioxide and

carbon monoxide, the cement industry has accepted the emission standard for dioxins of 0.1

ng TEQ/m3 generally applied throughout EU to regulate dioxin emissions from municipal and

hazardous waste incineration. Emission levels shall be corrected to 273 K, 101.3 kPa, 10%

O2 and dry gas.

6.1.3.2 Regulatory framework to control POPs emissions in the US Under the authority of the Clean Air Act, the US Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) promulgated national emission standards for new and existing cement kilns burning

non-hazardous waste in May 1999 (Federal Register, 1999a; 2004). The regulations are


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specific to the I-TEQ concentration in the combustion gases leaving the stack. Existing and

new cement kilns either combusting or not combusting hazardous waste as auxiliary fuel

cannot emit more than 0.2 ng I-TEQ/m3 (corrected to 250C, 7% O2 and dry gas). In addition,

the temperature of the combustion gases measured at the inlet to the air pollution control

device cannot exceed 232 °C. The rule requires owners or operators of facilities to test for

PCDD/Fs every 2½ years and the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS)

expects this rule to reduce I-TEQ PCDD/Fs emissions from existing and new facilities by 36

% over the next few years (Federal Register, 1999a, 2004).

6.2 Technology development

Technological advancement of the Chinese cement industry will concentrate on the

further development of new technology, on the utilization of secondary materials and other

supplementary cementitious materials. In recent years, improvement of cement production

lines with precalcining systems includes the new homogenization technology, new preheating

and precalcining systems with the capacity of up to ten thousand tons of cement per day,

various new types of crushing and grinding systems, new operation and management systems,

new environmental protection measures such as the use of new bag dust collector and low

NOx burner (Cui and Wang, 2005).

The utilization of secondary materials and supplementary cementitious materials may

save huge amounts of natural resources. The use of secondary fuels for cement

manufacturing is just starting slowly in China but alternative cementitious materials such as

fly ash has been used for cement manufacturing for a long time. It is estimated that the

production of fly ash and coal gangue is near 300 million tons/year each. If all of these

materials can be used for cement and concrete manufacturing, then the output of clinker can

be reduced by 50% with the need of burning process (Cui and Wang, 2005).

Dry preheater/precalciner kilns are regarded to be the best available techniques (BAT)

and to constitute the Best Environmental Practise (BEP). These technologies are also the

most economically feasible option, which constitutes a competitive advantage and thereby

contributes to gradually phase out older, polluting and less competitive technologies.


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6.2.1 Best available techniques (BAT)

For new plants and major upgrades the best available techniques for the production of

cement clinker is a dry process kiln with multi-stage preheating and precalcination. A smooth

and stable kiln process, operating close to the process parameter set points, is beneficial for all

kiln emissions as well as the energy use. This can be obtained by applying:

- Process control optimisation, including computer-based automatic control

systems.

- The use of modern fuel feed systems.

• Minimising fuel energy use by means of:

- Preheating and precalcination to the extent possible, considering the existing

kiln system configuration.

• Careful selection and control of substances entering the kiln can reduce emissions and

when practicable, homogenous raw materials and fuels with low contents of sulfur,

nitrogen, chlorine, metals and volatile organic compounds should be selected.


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Figure 30 New modern Chinese cement plant with preheater and precalciner


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In the Best Available Technique Reference (BREF) document, techniques and

possible emission levels associated with the use of BAT are presented that are considered to

be appropriate to the sector as a whole (IPPC, 2001). In some cases it may be technically

possible to achieve better emission levels but due to the costs involved or cross media

considerations, they are not considered to be appropriate as BAT for the sector as a whole.

The concept of “levels associated with BAT” is to be distinguished from the term

“achievable level”. Where a level is described as “achievable” using a particular technique or

combination of techniques, this should be understood to mean that the level may be expected

to be achieved over a substantial period of time in a well maintained and operated installation

or process using those techniques.

Actual cost of applying a technique will depend strongly on the specific situation

regarding, for example, taxes, fees, and the technical characteristics of the installation

concerned. It is not possible to evaluate such site-specific factors fully.

It is intended that the general BAT could be used to judge the current performance of

an existing installation or to judge a proposal for a new installation and thereby assist in the

determination of appropriate “BAT-based” conditions for that installation. It is foreseen that

new installations could be designed to perform at or even better than the general “BAT”

levels. It is also considered that many existing installations could reasonably be expected,

over time, to move towards the general “BAT” levels or do better. While the BAT and BEP

levels do not set legally binding standards, they are meant to give information for the

guidance of industry, States and the public on achievable emission levels when using

specified techniques.

6.2.2 Best available techniques and best environmental practise for controlling and minimising PCDD/F emission

The following primary measures are considered to be most critical in avoiding the

formation and emission of PCDD/F from modern cement kilns and seems in most cases to be

sufficient to comply with an emission level of 0.1 ng PCDD/F I-TEQ/Nm3:


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Quick cooling of kiln exhaust gases to lower than 200 oC in long wet and long dry

kilns without preheating. In modern preheater and precalciner kilns this feature is

already inherent in the process design.

Limit or avoid alternative raw material feed as part of raw-material-mix if it includes

organics.

No alternative fuel feed during start-up and shut down.

Monitoring and stabilisation of critical process parameters, i.e. homogenous raw mix

and fuel feed, regular dosage and excess oxygen.

6.3 Cleaner production opportunities

It has been long realized that in controlling industrial pollution and lowering

production costs, it is important to have cooperation between enterprises and government, and

to make full use of market influences to stimulate industries to take positive measures for

improving the environment and thus the economy. In cement industrial sector, though it has

made progress recently in these areas, performance is still far from desirable to reach

sustainable development goals (Wang, 2004).

6.3.1 Emission reduction

Major emissions from cement manufacturing plants traditionally are airborne

pollutants and powered dust from the kiln and its emissions. Pollutants are mainly

particulates from a number of solid processing and handling operations, CO2, SO2 and NO2.

Relatively speaking, SO2 and NO2.emissions from cement industries are small, and

they represent less than 2% of the total emitted of these compounds in USA and Europe. In

recent years, as a result of advanced control technology and equipment design, such as electro


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static precipitator and bag filter facilities, significant progress has been reached in reducing air

emissions from the cement industrial sector. For a new plant today, air pollution emissions

are at least 90% less than those from typical facilities built 30-40 years ago (Wang, 2004).

"In developed countries, the cement industry has reduced substantially emissions of SO2,

NO2 and particulates through a combination of improved technology and specific regulatory

standards. This is often not so in China, especially for those old and small size plants.

Particulate emissions from the cement industry accounted for 40% of the total estimated 25

million tons emitted in 1998. In the public’s mind, the industry was and continuous to be the

worst dust emitter" (Wang, 2004).

World wide, the cement industry produces about 5 % of global manmade CO2

(Worrell et al, 2001). Cement is a low value-added product, and the average price has been of

50-60 $ US/ton since 2000 however, in China it skyrocketed to about 200 $ early in 2004

(Wang, 2004). "As the industry produces an equal weight of CO2 and clinker, any cost

imposed on the reduction of CO2 emission to the atmosphere and any management plan can

have a significant impact on the industry’s financial performance. At the present rate of

many CO2 management expenses on the market - in the range of $ 10 to $ 25/ton and

expected to rise as the public demand its treatment - most Chinese cement enterprises will not

be able to foot the bill, unless their production capacities are increased and are big enough to

bear the cost" (Wang, 2004).

Increasing the use of alternative fuels and raw materials can reduce the use of virgin

materials including limestone and petroleum products, and can reduce CO2 emission and

production costs. Alternative and substituted materials as fly ash from power plants, steel

mill slugs, and pozzolanic substances can be used in cement to replace some of the limestone,

and the quality of the product is not affected in applications. In China the governmental

standard-setting organizations have slowly changed the strict composition criteria into that of

cement performance, and as a result a much wider use of blended products can be witnessed

(Wang, 2004).

The following measures are recommended for China with regards to achieve emission

reduction (Wang, 2004):


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(1) A well defined emission inventory and reporting process with emission reduction

cost estimates;

(2) A program for effective communication with the local stakeholders including

regulatory personnel. Reporting to the public on emissions and reduction progress

is important to engagement in the program;

(3) A program to define the emission reduction targets and timetables. This is of

vital importance and of deep concern to the public, and accounts for the economic

forecast of the plant, and current and pending regulatory requirements;

(4) In order to win confidence, the industry needs an effective way of monitoring and

reporting emissions which can address the safety concerns of the public and product

quality concerns of the users.

6.3.2 Water pollution and dust recovery

Water pollution is not generally an important issue for cement production. On the

other hand, close attention must be paid to deal the problems of solid waste, especially cement

kiln dust.

Chinese cement operations produced more than 8 billion tons of dusts in 2000, of

which about 7 billion tons were collected and recycled with an estimated cost saving from

materials of 35 hundred million RMBs (Wang, 2004). Dust collected by control devices can

be recycled internally as raw material to lower the production cost. In China, specific

regulations issued by government for cement industries do exist, but often compromises take

place, especially by the local authorities, between economic benefit and environmental

deterioration (Wang, 2004). Through technical innovation and improvement, and industrial

restructuring, powdered dust has been collected and returned to the process, replacing fresh

raw materials. Such inner recycling within the plant with different types of dust collection

equipment through CP implementation has greatly reduced air pollution and increased

energy/resource savings (Wang, 2004).


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One example from Nan Xin Cement plant in Suzhou, Jiangsu province illustrates this

potential (Wang, 2004). "By using CP order to control dust emission and to implement

recycling as well as production expansion, the Company invested more than 2 million RMBs

to convert wet- membrane collection equipment, the low efficiency type, into a bag house with

high efficiency. From the process, the local emission standard for dust has been reached, and

in addition, it obtained remarkable economic benefits. The dust collected with the membrane

had a high moisture content and was difficult for raw material substitution. With the bag

house technique, dust can be recycled and reused. The estimated annual amount of dust

collected is more than 8,000 tons. If the original material costs about 100 RMB per ton, an

annual saving is of 800,000 RMB, with an addition of 300,000 RMB from the deduction in

discharge/emission fees, a total benefit of one million RMB is realized. Extra operation cost

and labor amounts to about 700,000 RMB, so the net economic benefit is 300,000 BMB and

the amortized capital investment for the equipment can be repaid within eight years. The

provincial authorities have used this example to publicize benefits, and to encourage other

plants in the sector to adopt CP/CE principles to fit their individual needs for dust collectors,

and to include the recycling unit into the production process management with regular

inspection and maintenance to assure its proper operation".

By CP implementation, the waste minimization/recycling/reuse process is not limited

to powdered dust recovery generated by the cement sector. It also extends to wastes from

other industries including slugs from steel mills, powdered coal dust from power plants,

sulfate gypsum from chemical industries and coal residue from industrial boilers (Wang,

2004).

6.3.3 Energy consumption

The average coal used per ton of cement production has been decreased from 190 kg

in 1990 to 166 in 2000 (Wang, 2004). For a production of 5.79 billion tons during this period,

this has saved 139 million tons of coal. Chinese industries however will on average consume

47% more energy and emit 13 times more dust than those in developed countries which have

kilns with much larger production capacities (Wang, 2004). Vertical kilns produce the lowest


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rate of dust compared with other types, the technology is out-of-date since the quality of the

product is poor and unstable, and energy consumption is high (Wang, 2004).

Figure 31 Dusty environment at the top of the VSK

6.3.4 Health and safety

The Chinese cement industry can and must reduce the number of injuries and fatalities

for production, and it should be as good as that of the petroleum and chemical sectors.

Techniques for safety and health performance are well known and established, and have been

applied successfully. The key factors are (Wang, 2004):

(1) Incorporating safety into the working culture of the enterprise through

continuous reinforcement and education about safe working practices and


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conditions; establishing safety awards; and awareness-raising of senior

management;

(2) A systematic program for tracking, reporting, and analyzing all safety related

incidents, including those “near-miss” cases;

(3) Communication and dissemination systems within enterprises or groups to

expedite the distribution and sharing all safety-related information to avoid repeated

instances; and

(4) Ongoing analysis of incidents, responses, and progress to provide information on

continuous improvement.

6.3.5 Impacts on land use

Efforts to exercise and use environmental and social impact assessments of the plant

must be strengthened, including the publication of quarry management plans, its influence on

biodiversity protection, and the handling of plant and quarry closures in a responsible way,

environmentally and socially. In China, the government would like to establish following

factors for best practice (Wang, 2004):

(1) Apply EIA (environmental impact assessment) and social impact assessment for

all new cement projects;

(2) In consultation with local communities, develop land use management plans for

all such plants;

(3) Share the quarry rehabilitation plans provided by the plants in writing with those

communities. Update plans as needed to reflect the current technology and the

changing community’s requirement;


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(4) Develop the necessary advanced planning for plant closures. Dialogues with

community leaders should be held at the regular intervals.

6.3.6 Communication

The Chinese cement industry has had a low profile and a history of limited

engagement with stakeholders outside the area of that industry. "In many cases, this reflects

the tradition of long-established private enterprises that were often owned and dominated by

families" (Wang, 2004).

Learning from developed countries, the Chinese government has encouraged cement

plants in the need for communications to the public, and announced that this represents a key

element for a “license to operate”. In fact, effective ways to communicate must be tailored to

the particular audience at the local level. They include (Wang, 2004):

(1) Identify what needs to be communicated, the background extent of understanding,

biases, and public opinion on these issues;

(2) Identify and work together with the decision makers that affect the local facilities;

(3) Understand the local circumstances, environment, and other critical issues;

(4) Engagement with the community on a regular and on-going basis both from a

business perspective and by personal contacts through interactions of individual

employees.


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7. Vertical Shaft Kilns

VSKs constitute the majority of process technologies and make up about 60% of

current total output of cement in China. Unfortunately, most of the VSKs suffer severe

shortcomings through cement quality fluctuations and heavy pollution (Cui and Wang, 2005).

In recent years, restructure of cement industry has been carried out and numerous VSK plants

with poor operating conditions has been closed, creating sufficient market space for the

development of key cement plants in favourable business environments and accelerating the

advance of modern cement manufacturing technology.

Improved mechanical shaft kilns have a production capacity of 250-350 tons/day and

constituted 1150 and 1240 kilns in 2003 and 2004 respectively. Mechanical shaft kilns have a

production capacity of 100-250 tons/day and constituted 9280 and 9060 kilns in 2003 and

2004 respectively. Ordinary shaft kilns have a production capacity of 50-150 tons/day and

constituted 3150 and 2400 kilns in 2003 and 2004 respectively (Cement Sub Sector Survey,

2004).

Some VSK will own its position to the disparity in the regional economic development

of China still for some years to come, but within the year 2020 it is expected that all ordinary

and all mechanised shaft kilns will have been closed down and that less than 10 % of

improved mechanical shaft kilns will be in operation (Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004).

7.1 Centralised close-down policy

China announced already in 1999 that it would close thousands of small or antiquated

cement operations. There have however been many barriers to closure due to:

• Worker displacement and retraining costs;

• Potential political instability, and


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• Opposition from local leaders who have economic interests in the plants.

The key issue is retaining political stability in the face of greater unemployment. The

problem is exacerbated compared to similar issues in other developing countries because

Chinese cement plants employ up to ten times the labour of plants in developed countries, and

because China has a less robust system of protective social security. Many of the closed

plants will be in rural areas and it is hoped that released workers can fall back on their

agricultural jobs or be absorbed in the rapidly growing private sector. Many provincial and

local governments are not enthusiastically implementing these centrally planned plant

closures.

7.2 Replacement of VSKs by a combination of market forces and regulation The Chinese government has recently acknowledged that the replacement of VSKs

with modern technology seems to be better off with a combination of economic incentives,

regulation, and enforcement and market mechanisms. The four most important aspects in

replacing the VSKs seem to be the following:

1. Different Ministries, Councils, Bureaus, Commissions, Banks etc. has issued

executive regulations to cool down several overheated and rapidly expanding

industries, including the cement sector, by denying construction permits for new plants

but still encouraging funding for facility upgrades. Since 1984 there has been issued

34 Circulars and Notices from the Chinese government in an effort to regulate and

administer the growth of the cement industry (Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004). The

National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) has announced that full

implementation of control would be strengthened by restrictions on land use and bank

loans to prevent a repeat of overheated investment in the cement sector (Wang, 2004).

Future investment in cement industries should be directed to the improvement of

production facilities to reduce the cost of unit production, to meeting the challenges of

energy efficiency and the shortage of raw materials including coal and electricity as

well as water. No new plant is allowed to be built with a production capacity less than

4000 tons a day, and it must employ the best available technology and required


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equipment for pollution control and prevention. This policy will favour new dry

preheater/precalciner kilns.

2. The new emission standard of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry in China, GB 4915-

2004, has been effective for one year only. The standard gives identical emission

limits for rotary kiln and shaft kiln for particulate emissions and even if a transitional

period has been given to meet the standard for plants in operation, the mission limits

of new production lines are stricter than previous standards (see Annex 2). When this

standard is effectively enforced it will favour new dry preheater/precalciner kilns; they

will "automatically" comply with the standard without any need for further investment

in air pollution control device.

3. Low quality cement is currently oversupplied and cheap in China, while high quality

cement is rarer and more expensive. Profit margins for most cement producers have

decreased and are near zero. Despite the growth in construction, cement prices have

fallen the last two years, in some provinces with more than 50 %. New dry

preheater/precalciner kilns is more cost-efficient than VSKs, both with regards to

labour and fuel costs, and they produce stable high quality cement.

4. Energy prices and cost for labour has been increasing steadily the last years and is

forecasted to continue to increase; this will favour dry preheater/precalciner kilns.

7.2.1 Key economic indicators for VSKs

In addition to the four important aspects mentioned in the previous chapter, the China

Cement Association has set up a list of key economic indicators which should be fulfilled

when building new or refurbishing older VSKs (Digital Cement, 2005).

These requirements and recommendations aim to improve the economic performance

as well as quality, energy efficiency and emission reductions by requiring that new or

refurbished VSKs need to comply with the following:


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1. The diameter should be 3.8 meter and the height 8.5 meter; each line should produce

25 ton clinker per hour (two lines, 1200 ton clinker per day); i.e. improved mechanical

shaft kilns.

2. The concrete strength should be minimum 30 MPa after 3 days and 55 MPa after 28

days.

3. The energy use should be limited to 800 kcal per kg of clinker.

4. The electricity use should be limited to 60 kWh per ton of clinker.

5. The plant must comply with the SEPA Air Pollution standard for Cement Production

(see Annex 2).

6. The employee efficiency should be equivalent to 2000 ton cement per employee per

year.

If these recommendations are implemented and followed, it would definitely mean a

significant improvement in general cost and energy efficiency, as well as on the emissions and

the cement quality. There is no reason to believe that these recommendations are not

followed if new VSKs are built. It is however doubtful that it will be economic feasible to

refurbished older plants with the current frame- and market conditions; if a market for cement

is present, a new preheater/precalciner kiln may be more economic attractive.

7.3 Demonstration projects for VSK improvement

Even if the number of VSKs seems to diminish dramatically the coming years, a

considerable number will still be in operation for the next fifteen years or so and the potential

in decreasing the emissions and reducing the need for energy is great. A pilot project is

therefore suggested to demonstrate the potential for improvement in energy efficiency and


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emission reduction of VSKs. Such a project is also needed to establish reliable data on

PCDD/F emissions from VSKs.

China is obliged to provide data on PCDD/F emissions to the Stockholm Convention

on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). In the absence of such data, the UNEP Standardized

Toolkit for Identification and Quantification of Dioxin and Furan Releases (UNEP, 2005) has

assigned an emission factor of 5 µg PCDD/F TEQ per ton of cement to vertical shaft kilns.

This is the same emission factor applied for wet kilns with ESP temperature over 300 oC,

whereas an emission factor of 0.05 µg TEQ/t is applied to all dry kilns and wet kilns where

dust collector temperatures are held below 200 oC.

China is also obliged to suggest an action plan with reduction targets for PCDD/F

emissions from the different source categories to the Stockholm Convention. To be able to do

this task properly the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in VSKs should be known. The

understanding of the formation mechanism will enable the environmental authorities to

provide measures and strategies for emission reduction and control.

The available information in English on the performance of VSKs, i.e. the alleged

energy inefficiency, environmental pollution and inferior cement quality, doesn't seem to be

scientifically well document by real measurements or comprehensive studies. The statements

made in different documents vary and is even contradictory in some cases (Sino-US

Workshop on Environmental Management and Technologies in Cement Industry, 2005; Cui

and Wang, 2005; Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004; Wang, 2004; US Geological Survey,

2004; Chinese Enterprise Confederation, 2003; Nordqvist and Somesfalean, 2003; Soule et al,

2002; Nordqvist and Nilsson, 2001; Price et al, 2000).

It is impossible to measure the improvement in energy efficiency or emission

reduction without having a thorough and exact understanding of the baseline or normal

performance. The establishment of basic knowledge has to be done as the first priority

activity in a demonstration project.

Taking into consideration that most VSKs seems to be replaced "naturally" within year

2020 the scope of a demonstration project should give priority to aspects of VSKs operation

which is considered most important from a short term environmental point of view, i.e.


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emissions and energy efficiency of improved and mechanical shaft kilns. Aspects like

consolidation, privatisation, regulation, cement quality, socio-economic considerations etc.

are not considered.

As mentioned several times in the report, cement manufacturing process is generally

well suited for co-processing by-products and residues from industrial sources, both as raw

materials and fuels substitutes and as mineral additions. There is no doubt that the most

effective way of reducing the raw material consumption, energy use and emissions from the

cement industry is to reduce the clinker content of cement products by using secondary raw

materials; then both thermal CO2 from fossil fuels and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw

materials are reduced.

Substitution of fossil fuels by alternative fuels will reduce effectively the overall

output of the thermal fossil origin of CO2. Such substitution is however not feasible for

vertical shaft kilns. VSKs are applying the black-meal process which cannot replace the coal

or coke by waste or alternative fuels (with the exception of petcoke). Other options to reduce

the energy consumption in vertical shaft kilns have to be explored.

The Institute of Technical Information for Building Materials Industry (ITIBMI)

suggested in 2004 the following 17 "technologies" for energy saving in the VSK industry

(Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004):

1. Prehomogenization technology of raw materials and fuel

2. Homoginization techniques of raw mix and cement

3. Improvement and selection technique of feed proportioning scheme of raw mix

4. Feed proportioning in accordance with rate value and heat distribution

technique of block raw mix

5. Pre-grinding technique


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6. Technique of application of grinding aid

7. Energy saving technique in drying

8. New mill application technique

9. High-efficiency separator application technique

10. Pre-watering nodulization and small nodule firing technology

11. Dust disposing technique in shaft kiln enterprise

12. Quality control and management technique in the production process

13. Automatic control technique of the production process of shaft kiln

enterprises

14. Chemical instrument analysis and physical testing technique

15. Frequency converting and speed regulating technique for energy saving

16. Comprehensive utilization technique of resources

17. Energy saving type lining mating technique

It is a complex task to assess the potential of these proposed measures and to assign

priorities among them; the suitability will also clearly depend on the starting conditions. It

seems however reasonable to draw attention to number 7, 11, 16 and 17 above.


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7.3.1 Suggested activities in a VSK demonstration project

It is recommended to focus on mechanical shaft kilns and improved mechanical shaft

kilns in the demonstration project. In 2004 these two categories of shaft kilns had an output

of 38 and 16 percent of the produced cement respectively. Ordinary shaft kilns had an output

of 5 % in 2004 but all these units are expected to be closed own in a few years time (Cement

Sub Sector Survey, 2004).

1. The first activity in a demonstration project will be to establish and document the

energy consumption and the normal emission levels of pollutants from a representative

selection of VSKs. Dust, VOC, HCl and PCDD/F should be the first priority among

the air pollutants; NOx, SO2 and CO the second priority and heavy metals, PCBs and

PAHs the third priority. It is important that these studies are designed in a way that

uncovers optimal knowledge of factors of influence and possibilities for reduction and

control.

2. The second activity will be to uncover the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in

VSKs, to understand the factors of influence and subsequent measures for emission

reduction and control, and to provide reliable emissions factors. This activity will

systematically evaluate all parameters known to induce formation of PCDD/Fs, i.e.

sources and levels of hydrocarbons, organics and chloride; temperature window post

combustion (in the air pollution control device); particulate surfaces which can

catalyse the formation and residence time.

3. The third activity will be to investigate the cost-benefit of replacing wet-membrane

dust collection equipment with dry bag-house filter. Wet-membrane filter systems

seem to have low efficiency and the humid dust makes it difficult to recover the dust

back to the production. It is not known how widespread and common this system is

among the VSKs and this need to be investigated before initiating this activity. It is

anticipated that replacement of wet systems with a dry system will have a good effect

on reducing the dust emissions as well as on saving raw materials by recovery of dust.

4. The fourth activity will be to investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using

waste heat from the VSK for drying purpose. Drying of raw materials and fuel is very


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important in achieving a homogenous raw mix, which again will be important in

achieving an optimal fuel to raw material ratio, stable "burning" and sintering

conditions and subsequent even and low emissions and lastly, a predictable and high

quality product. Drying of raw materials and fuel are currently done as a separate

preparation step using auxiliary fuel for heating. There is a considerable potential for

fuel savings and emission reductions by utilising waste heat gas from the VSK but the

challenge is closely connected to being able to recover heat from the low temperature

exit gas, approximately 200 0C.

5. The fifth activity will be to investigate the potential of replacing high volatile

coal/coke with low volatile coal. Fuel with a high concentration of volatiles will be

quickly consumed high up in the kiln, cause quality problems with the clinker and

may also represent a security problem as small explosion of material can be

experienced. A VSK in Madagascar used a charcoal with 27 % volatiles and

consumed 5800-5900 J/kg clinker. The charcoal was replaced by a coal with 13 %

volatiles and the kiln reduced it's consumption to 3300 to 3400 J/Kg clinker (810

kcal/kg) (Viacroze, 2005). Such energy saving can be achieved by a combination of

switching to low volatile coal, by improving the raw meal homogeneity, by decreasing

the coal ratio in the black meal, and by optimise the air flow through the kiln. Coal

used in the cement industry usually has a lower heating value of 6500–7000 kcal/kg,

an ash content of 12–15 %, a volatile matter of 18–22 % and moisture content up to 12

%. The carbon content of mineral coal is 60-92 % and 80-90 % in coke. The

combustible components are carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur; when burning, these

constituents combine with oxygen from air and generate heat. When drying coal it

should be noted that completely dry coal is difficult to ignite. As is known, carbon

does not react directly with atmospheric oxygen; the combustion to CO and CO 2

proceeds by way of chain reactions where carbon reacts first with the more active OH-

radical. The presence of small quantities of water vapour is required for the ignition

of fuel. Thus, the drying process of coal should not go too far. A moisture content of

approximately 1–1.5 % in the pulverized coal promotes combustion. The content of

volatile matter is important for the rating of coals. The loss in weight as the result of

carbonization of coal under exclusion of air represents the total of volatile matter.

Coal from younger geological formations contains more parts of oxygen, hydrogen,

and nitrogen than coals from older geological formations. During combustion, these


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elements and their compounds generate more volatile matter than coals from older

geological formations. The standard content of volatile matter for coals used in the

combustion of pulverized coal is about 18 – 22 %. However, when applying proper

grinding, it is now possible to utilize also low gaseous coals in rotary kilns. To insure

economic kiln operation, the heating value of the coal should be about 7000 kcal/kg.

Coal with lower heating value increases the specific heat consumption for clinker

burning, decreasing simultaneously the specific kiln throughput.

6. The sixth activity will be to investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using

better thermal isolation linings of the kiln. Better lining material will reduce heat

consumption and save energy, lower the surface temperature of kiln body, increase the

clinker output, improve the quality of the clinker and extend the life of the VSK

(Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004). "The difference in the investment between energy

saving type lining and ordinary lining is small. If the reduction of heat consumption

of clinker is 150 kcal/kg, a mechanical shaft kiln of φ3×10m (output 12 t/d) can save

1851 tons of standard coals annually, corresponding to 2356 tons of substantial coals

(calorific power 5500 kcal/kg) worth 0.353 mil. Yuan (the price of coal 150 Yuan/t); a

cement factory that manufactures 0.2 million ton of clinker per year can annually save

4294 ton of standard coal valued at 0.818 million Yuan. In addition, if the kiln can

increase production with 1 ton of clinker every hour and increase the production with

7200 t clinker annually and 8470 tons of ground ordinary Portland cement more

which are valued at 1.69 million Yuan". (Cement Sub Sector Survey, 2004)

7. The seventh activity will be to demonstrate the potential for reducing the raw material

consumption, energy use and emissions by reducing the clinker content of the cement

by using secondary raw materials. This will reduce both thermal CO2 from fossil fuels

and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw materials. The utilisation of secondary

materials and supplementary cementitious materials has been practised in China for

some years already (Cui and Wang, 2005) and the purpose of this activity is to

document the potential by carrying out a practical demonstration project where

secondary raw materials from a nearby industry is used in a VSK plant. The activity

will carry out the necessary quality testing and establish the specifications,

documentation and limitations for future practise.


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Figure 32 Dusty emissions from a VSK

7.3.2 Exit gas sampling and chemical analysis

According to the conclusions of the Regional Workshop and Capacity Building Needs

to Analyse POPs in Developing Countries held in Beijing 13-16 December 2006 there should

be currently 11 laboratories in China which are equipped to carry out PCDD/F and PCB

analysis with High Resolution Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometer (HR GC-MS). The

workshop was organised by UNEP, the Basel Convention, Tsinghua University and the Office

for Stockholm Convention Implementation at the State Environmental Protection

Administration.

The activity 1 and 2 mentioned above will need to be carried out in accordance with

international standards for flue gas sampling and analysis. The sampling for PCDD/F should


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be in accordance with one of the three methods established in EN 1948 (1996) or US Method

23 (1995). Analysis of all stack and residue samples for PCDD/F and dioxin-like PCBs

should be in accordance with EN 1948, US Method 23(A) or l613.


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8. Conclusion

The Chinese cement industry produced 1,060 billion ton cement in 2005, accounting

for 808 kg per capita and approximately 50 % of the world production. Approximately 60 %

of the cement was produced in approximately 4000 Vertical Shaft Kilns (VSKs). This part of

the cement industry is characterized by its irrational structure, low production efficiency, high

energy consumption and heavy environmental pollution. Compared with preheater/

precalciner kilns, VSKs seems to consume from 14 % to 105 % more coal pr ton of clinker.

Vertical shaft kilns generally produce lower quality (#325 grade or less) cement which is

neither suitable for large structures nor for major infrastructure projects such as bridges,

airports, etc.

VSKs seem to be replaced naturally with modern and more efficient technology with a

combination of economic incentives, regulation, and enforcement and market mechanisms.

The new emission standard of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry in China, GB 4915-2004,

has been effective for one year only. The standard gives identical emission limits for rotary

kiln and shaft kiln for particulate emissions. Low quality cement is currently oversupplied

and cheap in China, while high quality cement is rarer and more expensive. Profit margins

for most cement producers have decreased and are near zero. Despite the growth in

construction, cement prices have fallen the last two years, in some provinces with more than

50 %. New dry preheater/precalciner kilns is more cost-efficient than VSKs, both with

regards to the number of labours and fuel costs, and they produce stable high quality cement.

Energy prices and cost for labour has been increasing steadily the last years and is forecasted

to continue to increase; this will favour dry preheater/precalciner kilns.

New and modern dry process production lines with preheater and precalciner is

considered to constitute the best available techniques with regards general cost-efficiency, to

energy consumption, emissions and product quality and new is built every year.

The cement industry consumed about 129 million tons of standard coal, equal to 148

million tons of common coal in 2003. The electricity consumption in the Chinese cement

industry was 94,930 million kWh, amounting to approximately 5 % of the electric


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consumption in the whole country in 2003. It is estimated that the Chinese cement industry

emitted more than 13 million tons of dust, about 27 % of all emissions from the national

industry, about 22 % of all CO2 emissions, and about 4.85% of all SO2 emissions in 2003.

The cement manufacturing process is generally well suited for co-processing by-

products and residues from industrial sources, both as raw materials and fuels substitutes and

as mineral additions. There is no doubt that the most effective way of reducing raw material

consumption, energy use and emissions from the cement industry is to reduce the clinker

content of cement products by using secondary raw materials; then both thermal CO2 from

fossil fuels and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw materials are reduced. With the

substitution of fossil fuels by alternative fuels, the overall output of thermal CO2 is reduced.

Fuel substitution is however not feasible for vertical shaft kilns. VSKs are applying the

black-meal process which cannot replace the coal or coke by waste or alternative energy

containing materials.

The available information in English on the general performance of VSKs doesn't

seem to be scientifically well document by real measurements or studies, i.e. there is a need to

document the normal baseline conditions. A well documented and thorough knowledge of the

normal energy consumption and the normal emission levels from VSKs is a prerequisite for

issuing stricter regulation, for reporting statistics, for implementing measures and for

measuring improvement. A pilot project is therefore suggested to demonstrate the potential

for improvement in energy efficiency and emission reduction of VSKs.


far been developed for this industry category. China is obliged to provide data on PCDD/F

emissions to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and to

suggest an action plan with reduction targets for PCDD/F emissions from the different source

categories. To be able to do this task properly the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in

VSKs should be known. The understanding of the formation mechanism will enable the

environmental authorities to provide measures and strategies for emission reduction and

control.


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Annex 1 Demonstration project - Improvement of environmental performance and energy efficiency in Vertical Shaft Kilns

Project Identification

1. Project Title: Improvement of environmental performance

and energy efficiency in Vertical Shaft Kilns

2. Country: China

3. Sector: Cement production in Vertical Shaft Kilns

4. Estimated total cost (USD) 1,100,000

5. Requesting/implementing agency SEPA - State Environmental Protection

Administration, Beijing.

Project Objectives and Activities

6. Goal

To document the energy use and the normal baseline emissions of selected pollutants like

dust and PCDD/Fs for selected VSKs and to demonstrate the potential for improvement in

energy efficiency and emission reduction, as well as associated costs.

7. Project context


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7.1 Background

Chinese cement industry produced 1,060 billion ton cement in 2005, accounting for

approximately 50 % of the world production. 60 % of this cement was produced in 4000

Vertical Shaft Kilns (VSKs). In 2003, the cement industry consumed about 129 million tons

of standard coal, equal to 148 million tons of common coal. This amounts to approximately

11 % of whole consumption of coal in that year. This consumption would be equivalent to

approximately 200 million tonnes of common coal for 2005. In 2003, the electricity

consumption in the Chinese cement industry was 94,930 million kWh, amounting to

approximately 5 % of the electric consumption in the whole country.

Based on the current technical level in China, the production of 1 ton of cement will

lead to an emission of 20 kg of dust, 1 ton of CO2, 2 kg of SO2 and 4 kg of NOx. It is

estimated that the Chinese cement industry in 2003 emitted more than 13 million tons of dust

(about 27 % of all emissions from the national industry), 660 million tons of CO2 (about 22 %

of all emissions), 1.31 million tons of SO2 (about 4.85% of all emissions) and 2.62 million

tons of NOx. No VSKs has been monitored for dioxins and furans and no emission factors

have so far been developed for this industry category (UNEP, 2005).

7.2 Significance

With these consumption and emission volumes, even small improvements can contribute

significantly to reduce consumption of raw materials and energy, to reduce emission of

pollutants and to improve the quality of the product.

8. Project objectives

The main objectives of the project are:


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• To document the normal energy consumption and the normal emission levels of

pollutants from a representative selection of VSKs.

• To uncover the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in VSKs and to provide

reliable emissions factors for quantification of annual release from the sector..

• To investigate the cost-benefit and feasibility of replacing wet-membrane dust

collection equipment with dry bag-house filter. .

• To investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using waste heat from the VSK

for drying of the raw material and fuel.

• To investigate the effect of replacing high volatile coal/coke with low volatile coal.

• To investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using better thermal isolation

linings of the kiln.

• To carry out a practical demonstration project where secondary raw materials from a

nearby industry is used in a VSK plant.

9. Expected outputs

The outputs will be:

• A well documented and thorough knowledge of the normal energy consumption and

the normal emission levels from VSKs. This is a prerequisite for issuing stricter

regulation, for reporting statistics, for implementing improvement strategies and for

measuring improvement.


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• Understanding of the dominating factors influencing the formation of PCDD/Fs in

VSKs. This is a prerequisite for issuing reliable emissions factors, for quantification

of annual release and for implementing measures for reduction and control.

• A feasibility study documenting the potential for emission reduction and for the

recovery of dust by replacing wet-membrane dust collection equipment with dry bag-

house filter. .

• A feasibility study documenting the potential for fuel and cost savings using waste

heat from the VSK for drying of the raw material and fuel.

• A feasibility study documenting the effect of fuel saving and improved product

quality by replacing high volatile coal/coke with low volatile coal.

• A feasibility study documenting the potential for fuel savings and improved product

quality by using better thermal isolation linings of the kiln.

• A feasibility study documenting the potential for fuel and raw material savings, for

emission reduction and for solving a waste problem by using secondary raw materials

from other industry to reduce the clinker content.

10. Activities

It is recommended to focus on mechanical shaft kilns and improved mechanical shaft kilns in

the demonstration project. See also chapter 7.3.1.

1. The first activity will be to establish and document the energy consumption and the

normal emission levels of pollutants from a representative selection of VSKs. Dust,

VOC, HCl and PCDD/F should be the first priority among the air pollutants; NOx, SO2

and CO the second priority and heavy metals, PCBs and PAHs the third priority.


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2. The second activity will be to uncover the mechanism for formation of PCDD/Fs in

VSKs, to understand the factors of influence and subsequent measures for emission

reduction and control and to provide reliable emissions factors for quantification of

annual release from the sector.

3. The third activity will be to investigate the cost-benefit of replacing wet-membrane

dust collection equipment with dry bag-house filter. .

4. The fourth activity will be to investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using

waste heat from the VSK for drying of the raw material and fuel.

5. The fifth activity will be to investigate the effect of replacing high volatile coal/coke

with low volatile coal.

6. The sixth activity will be to investigate the potential for fuel and cost savings using

better thermal isolation linings of the kiln.

7. The seventh activity will be to carry out a practical demonstration project where

secondary raw materials from a nearby industry are used in a VSK plant. The activity

will carry out the necessary quality testing and establish the specifications,

documentation and limitations for future practise.

11. Activity and time schedule

To ensure ample time for capacity building, awareness raising and information

dissemination, as well as enough time for demonstration tests, the project should be executed

over a period of minimum two and a half year. The first year will be allocated to start up and

information gathering on baseline conditions and previous experiences; the second year will

mainly focus on pilot tests and local training; the last half year will be used for preparation of

documentation, information material and the final report with all finding, recommendations

and results from the project.


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Table 1 Activity distribution and time schedule

Activity Duration Completed

(months) (months after start)

Inception, planning, contracting, mobilisation etc. 3 3

Compilation of previous experiences and data/ visits 6 8

Selection of VSKs and Provinces. Contracting Test house 2 9

Baseline study (energy use and emissions) 4 13

Supplementary investigations PCDD/F formation 3 15

Replacing wet-membrane dust collection equipment 4 17

Waste heat for drying of the raw material and fuel 4 20

Replacing high volatile coal/coke with low volatile coal 4 20

Thermal isolation linings of the kiln 6 24

Secondary raw materials from a nearby industry 6 24

Training and information dissemination 5 29

Evaluation, reporting and termination of project 1 30

Total 48 30

12. Project inputs

Table 2 Cost and budget estimates

No. Subject m/m Budgetin USD

1 1 International expert with technical cement kiln experience (CTA) 15 300,000

2 1 International expert on cement kiln emissions 10 200,000

3 1 National expert in VSKs (Project Manager) 30 60,000

4 3 National experts experienced in VSK and emissions 3 x 20 120,000

5 Administrative support, interpretation, translation 30,000

6 Sampling, analysis and equipment 200,000

7 Local travel 30,000

8 Computers and office equipment 25,000

Contingencies 135,000

Total 1,100,000


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13. Budget distribution & financing

Financial contribution should be sought among organisations like the Office for Stockholm

Convention Implementation at the State Environmental Protection Administration, by GEF

and UNIDO.

14. Involved organisations

The Office for Stockholm Convention Implementation and the Solid Waste & Toxic

Chemicals Management Division under the State Environmental Protection Administration

(SEPA) in Beijing, China Building Materials Industry Association, Institute of Technical

Information for Building Materials Industry of China, China Building Materials Academy,

China Cement Association, Tsinghua University, the Chinese Research Academy of

Environmental Sciences and other relevant research institutions.


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Annex 2 Emission Standard of Air Pollutants for the

Cement Industry in China

Emission Standard of Air Pollutants for Cement Industry

GB4915-2004 as substitute for GB4915-1996

State Environmental Protection Administration of China

General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection, and Quarantine of China

Issued on Dec.29th, 2004 Effective from Jan.1st, 2005

Previous versions substituted for by this Standard are: GB4915-85, GB4915-1996.

This standard is proposed by the Science & Technology Department of State Environmental

Protection Administration.

Units committed to draft this standard are: Environmental Standard Institute of Chinese

Research Academy of Environmental Science, Hefei Cement Research & Design Institute of

China Building Material Group and China National Materials Industry Group.

This standard was approved by State Environmental Protection Administration on Dec.29th,

2004. This standard comes into effect on Jan.1st, 2005.


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This standard is to be interpreted by State Environmental Protection Administration.

1. Range

This Standard prescribes emission limits of air pollutants for various production equipments,

unorganized emission limits of particulates in the workplace, and relevant administrative

regulations on environmental protection of the cement industry. This standard also sets

particulates emission requirement of cement products production.

This standard applies to: air pollutants emission administration of existing cement producers

and cement products manufacturers; environmental impact assessment, design, completion,

examination and acceptance of newly-constructed, expanded and rebuilt cement mines,

cement and its products production lines, as well as their pollutants emission administration

after their construction is finished.

2. Cited Normative Documents

Cited by this standard, clauses of the following documents became clauses of this standard.

For the cited documents without date indicated, their latest edition applies to this standard.

• Integrated Emission Standard of Air Pollutants, GB16297-1996;

• Pollution Control Standard for Hazardous Wastes Incineration, GB 18484;


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• Methods of Determination of Particulates and Sampling of Gaseous Pollutants

Emitted from Exhaust Gas of Stationary Source, GB/T16157;

• Ambient Air - Determination of Total Suspended Particulates - Gravimetric Method,

GB/T15432;

• Determination of Nitrogen Oxides from Exhausted Gas of Stationary Source -

Ultraviolet Spectrophotometric Method, HJ/T 42;

• Determination of Nitrogen Oxides - N (1-naphtye from Exhausted Gas of Stationary

Source) - Ethylenediamine Dihydrochloride Spectrophotometric Method, HJ/T 43;

• Technical Guidelines for Unorganized Emission Monitoring of Air Pollutants,

HJ/T55;

• Determination of Sulfur Dioxide from Exhausted Gas of Stationary Source - Iodine

Titration Method, HJ/T56;

• Determination of Sulfur Dioxide from Exhausted Gas of Stationary Source Potential

Electrolysis Method, HJ/T 57;

• Determination of Fluoride of Stationary Ambient Pollution Source Ion-Selective

Electrode Analysis, HJ/T 67;


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• Technical Requirement and Test Method of Continuous Emissions Monitoring System

of Exhausted Gas of Stationary Source, HJ/T 76;

• Determination of Poly-o-Chlorinated Dibenzo Dioxin and Poly-o-chlorinated Dibenzo

Furan -- Isotope Dilution High Resolution Capillary Gas Chromatography/ High

Resolution Mass Spetrometry, HJ/T77.

The new Standard refers to normal conditions, which for temperature is 370C and air

pressure 101 325 Pa. The emission concentration of air pollutants prescribed in this standard

means value of dry flue gas under normal conditions.

3.2 Maximum acceptable emission concentration

It means maximum limits of any 1-hour average concentration of pollutants from exhaust

funnel of treatment facilities; or in places where there are no treatment facilities, maximum

limits of any 1-hour average concentration of pollutants from exhaust funnel.

3.3 Unit product emission quantity

It indicates the quantity of noxious substance emitted by various equipment for the production

of 1 ton of product, with the unit of kg/t product. Output is calculated based on the actual

hourly output of equipment during pollutants monitoring time. For example, output of cement


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kiln and cooler is calculated based on output of clinker; output of raw mill based on raw meal;

cement mill on cement; coal mill on coal powder, and dryer as well as drying mill on dry

material. For in-line kiln/raw mill, when kiln and mill are running jointly, output should be

calculated based on material quantity produced by the mill, and when cement kiln is running

alone, it should be calculated based on clinker quantity produced by the cement kiln.

3.4 Unorganized emission

It indicates irregular emission of air pollutants without exhaust funnel, mainly including

material pile in the operational field, dust of open transport, and dusty gas leakage from the

pipe and equipment.

Emission through low exhaust funnels belongs to controlled emission, but it can bring about

the same outcome as the unorganized emission. Therefore, when the Concentration Limits of

Unorganized Emission Monitoring Spot is carried out, the increase of pollutants concentration

at the monitoring spot resulted from low exhaust funnels should not be deducted.

3.5 Concentration Limit of Unorganized Emission Monitoring Spot

It indicates maximum limits of any 1-hour average concentration of pollutants at the

monitoring spot.


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3.6 Height of Exhaust Funnel

Height from the ground level where the exhaust funnel (or its main structure) lays to outlet of

the exhaust funnel.

3.7 Cement Kiln

The equipment calcining clinkers, often including rotary kiln and shaft kiln.

3.8 In-Line Kiln/Raw Mill

The system where the kiln and mill run jointly. It leads the exhaust gas to material milling

system, to dry the material by its residual heat, and treats exhaust gas from the kiln and mill

by one dust collector.

3.9 Dryer, Drying Mill, Coal Mill and Cooler.

The dryer means various types of material drying equipments; the drying mill refers to

material drying and milling equipment; the coal mill indicates various types of coal powder


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manufacture equipments; and the cooler indicates various types (cylinder, grate and so on) of

clinker cooling equipments.

3.10 Crusher, Mill, Packing Machine and other Ventilated Production Equipments.

The crusher indicates various types of equipment crushing bulk materials; the mill indicates

various equipment systems of material milling (drying mill and coal mill exclusive); the

packing machine indicates various equipment packing cement (including cement silo); other

ventilated production equipment indicates production equipment besides the main production

equipments mentioned above, which requires ventilation, including material transport

equipment, material silo and various types of storage, etc.

3.11 Cement Product Production

It indicates production of ready-mixed concrete and precast concrete, excluding the process of

concrete mixing on construction sites.

3.12 Existing production line, Newly-established Production Line

The existing production line indicates production line of cement mine, cement manufacture

and cement products which had been founded and operated or whose environmental impact

report had been approved before the date of enforcement of this standard (Jan.1st 2005).


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The newly-established production line indicates newly built, revamped and expanded

production line of cement mine, cement manufacture and cement products whose

environmental impact report is approved on or after the date of enforcement of this standard

(Jan.1st 2005).

4. Emission Limits

4.1 Limits of Air Pollutants Emission From Exhaust Funnel of Production

Equipments

4.1.1 Before July 1st 2006, air pollutants emission from exhaust funnels of production

equipment (facilities) of existing cement plants(pulverizing mill inclusive) should still be

regulated by GB 4915-1996; and existing cement mines and cement products plants should

execute GB 16297-1996.

From Jul.1st 2006 to Dec.31st 2009, the maximum acceptable emission concentration and unit

product emission quantity of particulates and gaseous pollutants from the exhaust funnels of

production equipments (facilities) of existing production line should not exceed the limits set

in table 1.

From Jan.1st 2010, the maximum acceptable emission concentration and unit product

emission quantity of particulates and gaseous pollutants from the exhaust funnels of

production equipments (facilities) of existing production line should not exceed limits set in

table 2.


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4.1.2 From Jan. 1st 2005, the maximum acceptable emission concentration and unit product

emission quantity of particulates and gaseous pollutants from the exhaust funnels of

production equipments (facilities) of newly-established production line should not exceed

limits set in table 2.

4.1.3 When hazardous wastes are incinerated in the cement kiln, particulates, sulfur dioxide,

nitrogen oxide and fluoride in exhaust gas are respectively subject to the emission limits set in

table 1 and table 2 based on construction date of the cement kiln; other pollutants to the

emission limits set in Pollution Control Standard for Hazardous Wastes Incineration GB

18484, but the emission concentration of dioxin should not exceed 0.1ng TEQ/m3.

4.2 Unorganized Emission Limit of Particulates in Operational field

The unorganized particulate emission of existing cement plant (pulverizing mill inclusive)

should be regulated by GB4915-1996 before Jul.1st 2006, while that of existing cement

products plant should be regulated by GB 16297-1996.

Limits set in Table 3 should not be exceeded by unorganized particulate emission in

operational field of existing production line from Jul.1st 2006, and by newly-established

production line from Jan.1st 2005.

5. Other Administration Regulations


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5.1 Control Requirement of Unorganized Particulate Emission

5.1.1 Effective measures should be adopted to control unorganized particulate emission

from cement mine, cement manufacture and cement products production process.

5.1.2 Newly-established production lines should be close in the process of material disposal,

transport, loading and unloading, and storage, and effective dust suppression measures should

also be adopted for block stone, humid material, paste, and loading and unloading process of

vehicle and cargo.

5.1.3 Existing production line should be close in material disposal, transport, loading and

unloading, and storage of dry mix, and effective measures against dust and rain erosion

should be adopted in open storage; and effective dust suppression measures should be taken

during loading and unloading process of vehicle and cargo.

5.2 Control Requirements of Abnormal Emission and Accident Emission.

5.2.1 The dust collector should run synchronically with corresponding manufacturing

equipments. The annual running time of manufacturing equipments and dust collector should

be calculated respectively. The synchronic running rate should be assessed by the ratio of

annual running time of dust collector to that of manufacturing equipments.

5.2.2 Newly-established cement kiln should guarantee that dust collector run normally even

under the fluctuation of production process, and prevent abnormal emission. The synchronic


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running rate of the dust collector used in existing cement kiln, relative to the cement kiln

ventilator, should not be less than 99%.

5.2.3 When failure of the dust collector results in accident emission, urgent measures should

be taken to stop the running of the main unit, which should not be restarted until the

examination and reparation of the dust collector finishes.

5.3 Requirement for Exhaust Funnel Height

5.3.1 Except for the dust collector of elevating and conveying equipment and that of the silo

below the storage, the exhaust funnel height of production equipments (including exhaust

funnel of workshop) should not be less than 15m.

5.3.2 Exhaust funnel height of following production equipments should comply with

regulation in Table 4.

5.3.3 If the exhaust funnel height of equipments in an existing cement production line

cannot come up to the height regulated in Table 4, its air pollutants emission should be strictly

controlled. The emission limit is calculated according to the following formulation:

C = C0· h2/h02

Where: C—Actual acceptable emission concentration, mg/Nm3


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C0— Acceptable emission concentration prescribed in Table1 or 2; mg/Nm3

h —Actual exhaust funnel height; m.

h0—Exhaust funnel height prescribed in Table 4; m.

5.4 Other Regulations

5.4.1 Such outdated techniques and equipments polluting ambient environment seriously, as

defined in Article 19 of Law of the People’s Republic of China on Prevention and Control of

Atmospheric Pollution, are forbidden to be adopted and used.

5.4.2 Mine exploitation, cement and its products production are forbidden in Class�ambient

air quality region.

5.4.3 The cement kiln should not be used for incinerating hazardous wastes containing

heavy metal.

Incineration of medical wastes in cement kilns should comply with Technical Codes for

Centralized Disposal of Medical Wastes

Gas disposal of the cement kiln or in-line kiln/raw mill incinerating hazardous wastes should

adopt high-efficient cloth-bag deduster.


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6. Monitoring

6.1 Monitoring of Air Pollutants in Exhaust Funnel

6.1.1 The exhaust funnel of production equipment should be equipped with permanent

sampling aperture, and come up to the sampling conditions prescribed in GB/T16157.

6.1.2 Monitoring sampling of particulates or gaseous pollutants in the exhaust funnel should

be carried out in accordance with GB/T 16157.

6.1.3 For daily supervisory monitoring, the working condition during sampling should be

the same as normal working condition of that time. Workers of the units discharging

pollutants and workers carrying out monitoring should not alter the running condition of that

time. The average value should be obtained from continuous sampling in any 1 hour, or from

more than 3 samples got at equal interval within any 1 hour.

The working condition requirement and sampling time and frequency for the examination and

monitoring of final completion of environmental protection facilities of constructed project

should comply with Rules on the Examination, Acceptatance and Monitoring of Final

Completion of Environmental Protection Facilities of Constructed Projects.

6.1.4 Method of Air Pollutant Analysis of Cement Industry refers to Table 5.

6.1.5 The exhaust funnel (kiln outlet) of newly-constructed, expanded and rebuilt cement

mine, cement and its products production line should be equipped with continuous monitor of

gaseous particulates, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide; the exhaust funnel of cooler (kiln


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head) should be equipped with continuous monitor of gaseous particulates; and existing

cement production lines should be equipped with continuous monitors according to the

requirement of local executive administration of environmental protection.

The continuous monitor should come up to the requirement of Technical Requirement and

Test Method of Continuous Emissions Monitoring System of Exhausted Gas of Stationary

Sources HJ/T 76. Data of gas emission obtained from the continuous monitor, which has been

examined and approved by executive administration of environmental protection of People’s

Government above county level, are considered valid, as long as the monitor is used within its

period of validity. The hourly average is the basis of assessment up to standard.

6.2 Monitoring of unorganized emission of particulates out of plant boundary.

6.2.1 Samples should be collected from spots 20m away out of plant boundary (if there is

not obvious plant boundary, 20m away from the workshop), both up the wind and down the

wind. The data obtained up the wind should serve as reference value.

6.2.2 Monitoring should be carried out according to regulations in Technical Guidelines for

Unorganized Emission Monitoring of Air Pollutants, HJ/T55.

6.2.3 The analysis of particulates should adopt Ambient Air-Determination of Total

Suspended Particulates-Gravimetric Method, GB/T15432

7. Enforcement of Standard


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7.1 This standard should be implemented under supervision of executive administration of

environmental protection of People’s Government above county level.

7.2 Considering structural readjustment of cement industry and conditions of enterprises

up to standard, the local executive administration of environmental protection should,

according to environmental administration requirements, constitute and proclaim the

installation plan of continuous monitor of gas for existing cement production lines.

7.3 According to demand of local environmental administration, the environmental

protection department of People’s Government of each province, autonomous region, and

municipality under direct administration of the central government can advance the

inforcement of the limits prescribed in Table1 or Table 2 after the proposal has been approved

by province-level government, and reported to state executive administration of

environmental protection for record.


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Table 1

Particulates Sulfur Dioxide Nitrogen Oxide

(Based on Nitrogen

Dioxide)

Fluoride (Based on

Total Fluorin)

Production

Process

Production

Equipment

Emission

Concentr

-ation

mg/m3

Unit

Product

Emission

Quantity

kg/t

Emission

Concentr

-ation

mg/m3

Unit

Product

Emission

Quantity

kg/t

Emission

Concentr

-ation

mg/m3

Unit

Product

Emission

Quantity

kg/t

Emission

Concentra

-tion

mg/m3

Unit

Product

Emission

Quantity

kg/t

Crusher and

other

ventilated

production

equipments

50 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Mine

Exploitation

Cement kiln

and in-line

kiln/raw mill*

100 0.30 400 1.20 800 2.40 10 0.03

Dryer, drying

mill, coal mill

and cooler

100 0.30 -- -- -- -- -- -- Cement

Manufacture

Crusher, mill,

packing

machine and

other

ventilated

production

equipments

50 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- --

Cement

Products

Production

Cement silo

and other

ventilated

production

equipments

50 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Note: * indicates the emission concentration and unit product emission quantity when content

of O2 in gas is 10%.


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Table 2

Particulates Sulfur Dioxide Nitrogen Oxide Fluoride Production

Process

Production

Equipment Emission

Concentr

-ation

mg/m3

Unit

Product

Emission

Quantity

kg/t

Emission

Concentr

-ation

mg/m3

Unit

Product

Emission

Quantity

kg/t

Emission

Concentr-

ation

mg/m3

Unit

Product

Emission

Quantity

kg/t

Emission

Concentr-

ation

mg/m3

Unit

Product

Emission

Quantity

kg/t

Crusher and

other

ventilated

production

equipments

30 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Mine

Exploitation

Cement kiln

and in-line

kiln/raw mill*

50 0.15 200 0.60 800 2.40 5 0.015

Dryer, drying

mill, coal mill

and cooler

50 0.15 -- -- -- -- -- -- Cement

Manufacture

Crusher, mill,

packing

machine and

other

ventilated

production

equipments

30 0.024 -- -- -- -- -- --

Cement

Products

Production

Cement silo

and other

ventilated

production

equipments

30 - -- -- -- -- -- --

Note: * indicates the emission concentration and unit product emission quantity when content

of O2 in gas is 10%.


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Table 3

Operational field Monitoring spot of unorganized

particulate emission

Concentration limit*1mg/m3

Cement plant (including pulverizing

mill), Cement products plant

20m away out of plant boundary 1.0 (reference value*2deducted)

Notes: *1 indicates 1-hour concentration of total suspended particulates (TSP) at monitoring

spot. *2 See 6.2.1 for definition of reference value.

Table 4

Name of

Equipment

Cement kiln and in-line kiln/raw mill Dryer, drying mill, coal mill and

cooler

Crusher, mill, packing

machine and other ventilated

production equipments

Single Line

(Machine)

Production

Capability

≤240 >240

~700

>700~

1200

>1200 ≤500 >500~

1000

>1000

Minimum

Acceptable

Height

30 45* 60 80 20 25 30

At least 3m higher than the

building

Note: * The exhaust funnel of existing shaft kiln should still be 35m or higher.

Table 5

No. Item Manual Analysis Automatic Analysis

1 Particulates Gravimetric Method, GB/T16157

2 Sulfur Dioxide Iodine Titration Method, HJ/T56

Potential Electrolysis Method, HJ/T 57

3 Nitrogen Oxide Ultraviolet Spectrophotometric Method, HJ/T 42

Ethylenediamine Dihydrochloride

Spectrophotometric Method HJ/T 43

Technical Requirement and Test

Method of Continuous Emissions

Monitoring System of Exhausted Gas

of Stationary Source, HJ/T 76

4 Fluoride Ion-Selective Electrode Analysis, HJ/T 67 --

5 Dioxin Joint Usage of Chromatography and Mass

Spetrometry, HJ/T77

--


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Annex 3 Chinese companies providing equipment to the cement industry


provided in their Cement Sub Sector Survey (2004) a list of Chinese companies providing

equipment and technical services to the cement industry. A copy of this information is

provided below.

***************************************************************************

3-2. The leading cement equipment manufacturers in China and their techniques

3-2.1 CITIC Heavy Machinery Company Ltd (CITIC HMC,Original, Luoyang Mining

Machinery Plant)

CITIC Heavy Machinery Company Ltd (CITIC HMC) is a group company and founded on

the basis of the former Luoyang Mining Machinery Plant after it enters into China

International Trust and Investment Corporation (CITIC).The company is located in Luoyang

,Henan, a city always called"Ancient Capitals of Nine Dynasties". And it is one of 156

important engineering of the “First Five-ear Plan” in China. It has become the largest heavy

machinery manufacturing enterprise in China after expanding and reforming during these 40

years. The company possesses the property of 25 bil. yuan with the coverage of 2.16 mil. m2

.It yields about 30,000t product a year and the output values at 0.8 bil. yuan. Currently

20,000-odd staff and workers are working for CITIC HMC, among whom some 2,500 are

technologists and 400-odd senior engineers, 12 experts under authority of Henan provincial

government and 9 experts under authority of central government. Luoyang Mining Machinery

Engineering Academy, which is subordinate to CITIC HMC, is the state-class enterprise

technical center and the designing academy A level. Both subordinate companies, CITIC

Heavy Machinery Imp. & Exp. Company and CITIC Project Contracting Company are

formed by skillful technical people of great strength. The company is one of the eight large

heavy-duty machinery manufacturers in the trade. And it is also the casting, forging and heat-

treating center in central southern area and a large processing base of heavy-load gear. CITIC

HMC is the enterprise with the right for independent foreign trade appointed by the state.


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CITIC HMC has exported machines and casting and forging parts to dozens of countries and

regions in the world, e.g. America, Australia, southeast Asia, western Europe etc. and

imported technology and manufacturing equipment from USA, Japan, Germany, Sweden,

Demark, France etc. CITIC HMC operates a tourist company with hotel, restaurant,

limousines which are able to provide best services to the guests from home and abroad.

CITIC Heavy Machinery Company LTD. has a long-standing record in making the complete

equipment for the cement and activated lime plant and the aluminum refineries. The whole set

of equipment for 700-2000t/d cement plant can be provided. The company co-operates with

the foreign partners to make the complete set of equipment for the cement plant of 4000t

clinker.

Main Product: CITIC Heavy Machinery Company LTD. can supply large complete

mechanical equipment for the basic industries, e.g mine, coal mining, metallurgical, chemical,

cement, transportation, environment protection, water conservancy and power generation.

Meanwhile the project engineering and equipment integration are also undertaken.The

products and equipment are distributed worldwide to 17 countries and regions, in Asia,

Africa,Europe, America, Australia etc. It covers many of the markets at home and abroad.

Add：No. 206 Jianshe Rd., Luoyang City, 471039, Henan, China

Tel：0379-4086586 Fax：0379 4222192

http://www.citichmc.com E-mail:[email protected]

3-2.2 Tangshan Cement Machine Works

Tangshan Cement Machinery Works, TCMW, is the leading manufacturer of cement

machinery in People’s Republic of China.

Its main products are rotary kilns, mechanized shaft kilns, various tube mills, gear boxes,

roller presses, roller mills, coolers, dryer, separators, dish type nodulizers, mixers, washer

mills, crushers. Various wear-resistance materials, such as high-Cr cast steel balls, medium

alloy liners, super high- Mn hammers are also supplied by TCMW.


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These products produced by TCMW, enjoying a high reputation both at home and abroad,

have been exported to the USA, Japan, Germany, Indonesia, Philippine, Pakistan, Thailand,

Vietnam, Singapore, S. Korea, Iraq, Namibia and many other countries and regions in the

world.

E-mail: [email protected]

3-2.3 Shanghai Jianshe Luqiao Machinery Co., Limited.

The enterprise was founded in 1946. The joint state-private ownership began in 1956. In

1989, the assets was combined with the Road & Bridge Limited Company (Hong Kong) and

Shanghai mechanical equipment limited company of road & bridge construction was founded.

In 1998, the company annexed the property of Shanghai Hujiang machinery plant in the lease

form.

Shanghai mechanical equipment limited company of road & bridge construction:

Registered capital: 10 million US dollars

Classification of the enterprise: joint venture (capital from Hong Kong)

Shanghai Hujiang machinery plant:

Registered capital: 1124.6 thousand yuan

Classification of the enterprise: state enterprise

The developed , manufactured and sold products:

The main machine and the complete sets of equipment can be put to use in such aspects as

mine, metallurgy, building materials, traffic, energy, city public utilities, environmental

protection engineering and light textile industry etc.


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Quality system recognition:

Passed the recognition of examine and verification center of Shanghai quality system in Feb.

1999.

Shanbao brand crusher

Evaluated as the state quality silver medal, top quality prize, the high quality product of the

Ministry of Mechanical Industry and the high quality product of Shanghai before 1994, it has

also been appraised the famous product of Shanghai and mechanical industry of China and the

satisfactory product for the nationwide customers since 1994.

Hammer Crusher

The Single –Stage Hammer Crusher are suitable used to crushing ordinary fragile ores of the

compressive strength no more than 200Mpa, such as limestone, gypsum, coal, marl, sand-

shale etc. This series product features of high crushing ratio, even product graininess, simple

construction, reliable operation, easily maintenance, economical running cost etc., so are

widely used in cement industry.

PE-1 Series Impact Crusher

This crusher have features of greater reducing ratio, Created product with cubical shape, be

suitable for crushing material with edge length up to 100~500mm, compression strength up to

350 Mpa.

Production and management:

Actively studying and importing the domestic and foreign advanced standard and technology,

the company has made strenuous efforts to develop new products . The company is also


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determined as the “ double intensive enterprise” of technology and knowledge by the foreign

trade committee and foreign capital committee of Shanghai. The amount of sale is up to 750

million yuan in 2000. Thus, the company has been occupied in the rank of 500 biggest foreign

enterprises in China and 500 biggest sals of industry enterprises in Shanghai. Consequently,

the company has been the production and export base of kibbler in China and has been

appraised the “double excellent” trinity joint venture for its foreign exchange and profit

earnings by China and Shanghai foreign tradesman investment enterprise association in

successive 8 years.

Address: No.480 Banshongyuan Road, Shanghai

P.C.：200011

Tel：021－63139054

Fax：021－63133936

http://jslq.chinasec.com

E-mail：[email protected]

3-2.4 Shengyang Cement Machinery Co., Ltd.

Shenyang Cement Machinery Co., Ltd is a large-sized limited company in China’s building

materials industry, based on Shenyang Cement Machinery Factory as a main body and

specializing mainly in the design and manufacture of cement machinery, and is a

comprehensive economic entity integrating the design and development of cement equipment,

import and export of electro-mechanical equipment, equipment set complement, installation

and commissioning of equipment and handling and transportation as a whole. It can supply

cement enterprises at home and abroad advanced, excellent, high-efficient technological

equipment set for 200t/d, 1000t/d, 2000t/d and 4000t/d cement clinker production lines.

Shenyang Cement Machinery Factory has more than half a century development history and

has a capacity of manufacturing the main equipment for new dry process cement production

lines with a capacity of and under 4000t/d. It is a state-level A class enterprise.


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Shenyang Cement Machinery Co., Ltd is a large-sized backbone enterprise in China’s

building materials industry, the products of which represent the most advanced technique in

China’s building materials industry, enjoying a good reputation at home and abroad. The

enterprise was awarded one of the “key enterprises of Machine-building Industry for Building

Materials” approved by the State Machinery Commission of China in 1987. It is approved as

a “State-owned large-sized A Class Enterprise” by State Commission of Economy and Trade

of China in 1993 and one of “The Ten Most Powerful Enterprises of Building Materials

Machinery Industry in China” in 2000. The company is the leading enterprise of China’s

Cement machinery industry, having a most powerful cement machinery complement capacity.

The company is located in the High-and New-Tec Development Zone of Shenyang City,

occupying an area of 0.23 mil. sq.m and having 200 pieces (sets) advanced heavy-duty, CNC

processing equipment and is capable to provide equipment set complement, installation and

commissioning for the 4000t/d cement clinker production lines.

The major products of the company are the complete set of cement machinery, and it has a

capacity and qualification of designing, manufacturing, erecting and commissioning of the

first and the second category of compressed containers. The company stands at a international

leading position in new generation aerated beam-type grate cooler and the products of the

type have already installed in hundreds of new dry process cement production lines at home

and abroad replacing imported ones. The large-sized main machines, such as cement kilns,

ball mills, crushers, etc, produced by the company have also high technical content and

quality advantages. The products of the company not only equips the Chinese cement

enterprises but also exported to Australia, Japan, USA, Brazil and the countries and regions in

Southeast Asia, enjoying trust of broad circle of customers at home and abroad. The company

has passed in the first group ISO9001 Quality System Attestation in building materials

industry of China in 1997.

In the past years the company has trained a contingent of technical personnel with rich

experience and has advanced cement machinery manufacturing technique and processing

technology and has formed an independently creative design and development institution

using modern information technology.


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In the sixty years’ development process, the company has achieved dozens of “the first” in the

domestic building materials industry.

It produced the first grate cooler in the country in 1965;

It introduced firstly the grate cooler technology of 1980’s international advanced standard

from Fuller Co. of USA;

It independently and initially designed, developed and manufactured the first in the country

3000t/d grade cooler in 1993 and exported it to Philippine;

It successfully manufactured the first in the country 4000t/d grate cooler in 1995;

It successfully produced the first in the country 2200t/d aerated beam-type grate cooler in

1998.

3-2.5 Chaoyang Heavy Machinery Co., Ltd. (CHM)

Chaoyang Heavy Machinery Co., Ltd. (former Chaoyang Heavy Machinery Factory) is one of

500 largest enterprises of machinery industry in China and a large-sized backbone enterprise

of Chinese building materials machinery industry. It accupies the first place in equipment

strength, product sales volume, foreign currency earning capability and economic benefits in

the Chinese building materials industry. It is a certificated enterprise passed ISO9001 Quality

System attestation and enjoys independent import and export right. It has been successively

awarded the honored titles and prizes, such as National First-class Measurement Qualified

Unit”, “National Quality Control Prize”, “National Energy-saving silver Prize”, “The first

Place among the 100 Best Industrial Enterprises for Environmental Protection in China”,

“AAA Grade Unit of the Best Prestigious Chinese Enterprises and the Best Image Chinese

Enterprises”, etc.

The enterprise is situated in the ancient city of Chaoyang in the west Liaoning Province,

China and was founded in 1959. It develops and produces “Chaozhong” Brand machinery for

building materials production with an annual production capacity of more than 40,000 t, with


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being about 1 eighth of market demand for the building materials machinery at home in

China. The enterprise occupies an area of 80617 m2. The fixed assets are 0.113 bil. yuan. It

employs 1100 people, of which 165 engineers and technicians and 61 of them have high-

degree technical titles. It has more than 1500 pieces (sets) of equipment, of which more than

200 are large-sized, precise and rare ones. The production technology is advanced and the

testing means are sophisticated. The ISO 9001 Quality Standard is fully implemented in the

production. The CHM is fully capable in providing large- and medium-sized complete set of

equipment with a daily capacity of 300 t to 4000 t from engineering development, production,

testing, quality guarantee system, hoisting and delivering to after-sales service.

Since the mid 1980’s, CHM has successively introduced from Japan, Germany, USA and

other developed countries and developed the engineering and manufacturing technique for the

key equipment for the 2000t/d, 1000t/d and 800t/d cement clinker production lines of

precalcing kilns, double-spout stationary and six-spout rotary cement packing machines, high-

efficient bucket elevator, bag dust collector series, vertical mills, plate-chain bucket elevator

and so on, which are up to international advanced level of 1990’s.

The main products of the enterprise are 789 specifications in 181 assortments, 29 series and 9

categories of complete sets of cement plants with an annual capacities between 0.88 and 1.20

mil.t. The production capacity of those products is 40000 t. In the recent years CHM has

developed 215 specifications new products at its own selection, obtaining 12 national patents,

winning 10 technical achievement prizes at ministerial or provincial level, among which 7 are

the firstly developed in China.

Address: 22 Third section, Huanghe Road, Chaoyang City, Liaoning Province

P.C.:122000

Tel: (86-421) 2814979

Fax: ((86-421) 2813151

3-2.6 Wuxi Jianyi Instrument & Machinery Co., Ltd.

Situated at the lakeside of scenic spot of Taihu lake, Wuxi Jianyi Instrument & Machinery

Co.,Ltd., founded in 1958, is one of the key and large scale enterprises under former the State


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Administration of Building Material Industry specialized in manufacturing apparatus for

physical test of building materials, machinery for building materials and new decoration

materials. With its long history, complete set of products, high technology content and

workmanship, the company enjoys the high reputation and has been authorized the right of

operating I/E business. Its products sell well both at home and abroad.

The company, covering an area of 102,000 sq. m, is equipped with fine working facilities and

equipment, complete measuring and inspection means and powerful backing of technical

personnel. It has 1000 staff members and workers including 200 engineers and technicians.

Under the company there are foundry, metal working, cold work and welding, heat treatment

and assembly plants, a product developing and research center and a Sino-Holland joint

venture enterprise WuxiProfil Metal Ceiling Co., Ltd.

The company has established a quality system for the whole process of raw material and

auxiliary parts procurement, production, assembling, inspection, packing and servicing and

has been granted the Quality System Certificate in conformity with ISO9001:2000 standard.

The company’s products meet the requirements of national GB standards and JC standards for

building materials industry. Part of its products conforms to relevant stipulations of ASTM of

the USA.

Adhering to the principles of quality first and clients first, we are ready to design and

manufacture the products with the requirements of our clients and supply the best after –sale

service.

Address: No.8 Fangqianchunyangdong Road, Wuxi City, Jiangshu Province

Tel: 0510-8275668

Fax： 0510-8275118

E-mail：[email protected]

3-2.7 Zhuzhou Cement Machinery Factory


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Zhuzhou Cement Machinery Factory is a key enterprise under the State Administration for

Building Materials Industry of China. It has more than 40 years’ production history,

possessing a strong technical power and good product development capability and complete

testing means. It is capable to supply the complete set of equipment and all-round technical

service for the 0.3 mil. t/a rotary kiln and shaft kiln cement production lines. It is also able to

provide part of equipment for 0.6 mil. t/a rotary kiln cement production lines.

The company can provide complete set of cement manufacturing equipment and accessories

for the 1000t/d rotary kiln cement plant and shaft kiln cement plant. The major products of the

company are ball mills, rotary kilns, mechanical shaft kilns, the equipment for drying,

pelleatizing and cooling and the main equipment complementary machines for elevating,

handling, feeding and dust-collecting. It supplies constantly the accessories. The most of main

equipment produced by the company are the superior quality products of Hunan Province.

3-2.8 Pingdingshan Electrostatic Precipitator Factory (PEPF)

Established in 1972, Construction Corporation for Pingdingshan Electrostatic Precipitator

Factory (CBMCC PEPF) under China National Building Material Industry is one of the

leading enterprises subordinated to the China Noumetallic Minerals Industry Group

Corporation. Now the factory is one of the largest and earliest enterprises in China engaged in

research, development, manufacturing and installation of environmental protection

equipment. During more than 20 years, the factory has produced and supplied more than 2000

Eps, bag filters and cement industry conditioning towers of different sizes and specifications

to such industrial sectors both at home and abroad, as building material industry, metallurgical

industry, electric power industry and chemical industry, and has got unanimous praise from

all clients and successively won many honorable titles, such as National Second-class

Enterprise, one of China’s 100 Top Enterprises for Environment Protection, China’s

Advanced Enterprise for Science and Technology of Environmental Protection, Enterprise of

Henan Province of Advanced and New Technology, Civilized Unit of Henan Province and so

on. PEPF is entitled to operate import and export business by itself. In 1996, PEPF got the

ISO9002 Quality System Certification of China, France, USA, Germany, Netherlands,

Australia and New Zealand.


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EP lies in Pingdingshan, the “Famous City in the Central Plain of China”. The occupied area

of PEPF is 155 thousand square meters. PEPF has fixed assets of 35 million yuan, 6 main

workshop (Riverting & Welding shop, Metal Processing shop, Casting shop, Forging shop,

Rolling shop) and 7 specialized parts production lines. PEPF has more than 200 sets of

advanced different equipment, such as rolling machines for electrode plates, CO2 automatic

housing welder, numerical control plasma cutter and so on. It has an ability to manufacture

dedusting equipment in amount of 20 thousand tons per annum. In 1984, 1987, and 1996,

PEPF successively imported the designing, manufacturing, installation and commissioning

technology of the BS780 EP of Lurgi GmbH, Germany, the Baf Filter of Fuller Inc, of USA

and BS930 E of Lurgi GmbH, Germany. The factory has done a lot of digesting, assimilation

and improvement works of the imported technology, so as to upgrade all the technical and

economic targets of the factory’s leading products – “aflyng” EP and Bag FILTER –up to the

advanced world level, and to make the products sell well both at home and abroad such as in

USA, Germany, Australia, Philippines, Pakistan, Malaysia, Iran, Brunei, Vietnam, Rwanda

and others.

Add：35 West Nanhuan Rd., Pingdingshan, 467001 Henan, China

Tel：0375-4944054 Fax：0375-4945874

3-2.9 China National Building Material Equipment Corporation (CBMEC)

Established in 1981, China National Building Material Equipment Corporation (CBMEC) is

now subordinated to China National Non-metallic Minerals Industry Corporation (Group)

(www.cnmc.com). Through the development and innovation in more than 20 years, CBMEC

has become into a leading company in the field of building material equipment of China as a

supplier of complete set of equipment and machinery, contractor of turn-key project at home

and abroad, chartered tender agency for national technical renovation project and construction

project, agency of foreign partners, trader of materials and products and importer of advanced

foreign technique and equipment, etc.

With “major business with multiple operation as her development strategy, and with excellent

service for the building material industry of China and other developing countries in Asia,


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Africa and Latin America as her mission, CBMEC provides domestic and foreign customers

with fine quality, low energy consumption and high efficiency complete specialized

equipment and machinery and auxiliary facilities, repairing and spare parts, and other building

materials and products. Periodical, “China Cement", published and distributed by CBMEC, is

a state-level professional technical monthly in the Cement Industry of China. China Building

Material Machinery Association (CBMMA) and the Technical Standardization Committee of

China Building Material Machinery (SCCBMM), standing in CBMEC, execute the

managerial functions including reasonable adjustment and control on the building material

industrial structure, working-out technical and quality standard in the field of building

material equipment and machinery.

CBMEC owns her own research and design institute of cement industry, research and design

institute of automatic control and manufacturing factories. Since 1984, CBMEC has organized

local manufacturers importing from abroad and developing more than 40 advanced technique

and equipment with the world advanced level of late 1980’s and early 1990’s, And all these

help the production technologies and equipment of cement and flat glass reach the world

advanced level. Up to now, CBMEC has successfully provided more than 40 domestic cement

plants with over 50 complete sets of cement production lines, 20 of which have a capacity of

from 2000t to 4000t clinker per day, and provided about 10 glass plants with complete sets of

float glass production lines. Based on the advanced technique, fine quality equipment and rich

experiences on engineering construction, CBMEC exported many cement production lines

with a capacity of from 400t to 2000t clinker per day to about 10 countries including

Malaysia, Pakistan, Myanmar and Bangladesh, etc..

At present, CBMEC has powerful abilities of providing complete set of cement equipment

and machinery with a capacity of 350t, 700t, 1000t, 2000t, 4000t clinker per day, complete set

of float glass equipment and machinery with a melting capacity of 300t, 400t and 500t per

day. complete set of equipment and machinery for producing refractory, ceramic and mining

or processing machinery producing marble, granite, terrazzo slabs. In order to further adopt

the developing requirements of market economy, CBMEC pays a close attention to multiple

operations, and has expanded its businesses to all the fields related to equipment

manufacturing or building material products, including providing of repairing and spare parts,

development and production of special cement and wall materials, distribution of building

material, platinum-rhodium alloy, nonferrous metals, timber, pig iron and copper. In addition,


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CBMEC becomes the sole agencies of some famous world companies including Johnson

Window Films Inc. and PEWAG, etc..

With providing domestic and foreign customers with satisfactory services as her tenet,

CBMEC strengthens and expands foreign economic and technical co-operation based on the

faith of “Quality First, Service First and Reputation first" for the mutual benefit and common

development, CBMEC warmly welcomes all clients and partners to cooperate in building

material industry and other related fields. CBMEC has the following certificates of

qualification:

The First Class Certificate ff General Contractor For Supplying Complete Plant Of

Mechanical & Electrical Equipment authorized by the State Administration of Building

Materials Industry and Ministry of Machinery and Electric Industry of P.R.C.

The First Class Certificate of Tender Agency For Equipment In Construction Project

authorized by the National Planning Council and the State Administration of Technical

Supervision;

Certificate of First Class Chartered Tender Agency For National Technical Renovation

Project authorized by State Economic and Trade Commission of People’s Republic of China

(SETC);

Certificate of Approval for Export Credit for undertaking turnkey projects and export of

complete set of equipment authorized by Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic

Cooperation P.R.C. and People’s Bank of China;

Certificate of Approval for Enterprises with Foreign Trade Rights in the People’s Republic of

China issued by Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation, P.R.C.

Add：No.12 Floor, Canjiakou Plaza, No.21 Sanlihe Rd., 100037,Beijing, China

Tel：（010）88372171 Fax：（010）68311354

http://www.cbmec.com E-mail:cbmec@public3,bta.net.cn


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3-2.10 Shannxi Yanhe Cement Machinery Factory

Shannxi Yanhe Cement Machinery Factory is an appointed specialized factory for producing

cement machinery and equipment and wear-resistant castings in national building materials

industry. It is also considerably large and well equipped cement machinery and equipment

manufacturing enterprise in Northwest China, responsible for supplying cement machinery

and equipment and wear-resistant castings to large- and medium-sized cement producing

enterprises. It is listed as a state level large enterprise, having an authorized independent

import and export right.

The factory was initially founded in 1966, having a over 30 years experience in producing

cement machinery and equipment. Its products are in 200 specifications, 16 categories, main

ones of which are rotary kilns, mechanical shaft kilns, ball mills, dryers, coolers, crushers,

electric fans, dust collectors, high-quality wear-resistant castings and other industrial and

mining accessories. It is capable to provide complete sets of 0.6 mil. t/a cement production

lines and can also supply key and non-standard equipment for chemical, metallurgical and

building materials industries.

The factory has a strong technical contingent, excellent technological equipment and

advanced testing means with over 800 pieces (sets) of main production equipment including

automatic high-pressure caseless vertical separately modeling lines from DISA Co. of

Denmark, VRH-CO2 technological modeling lines from Japan and other large-sized

specialized equipment from Sweden and other countries. The casting and processing capacity

is strong.

Registered fund: 38.25 mil. yuan

Address: Fangnan Road, Textile city, Xian City, Shannxi Province

P.C.: 710038

Tel: (86-29)3523423

Fax: (86-29)3524911


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3-2.11 Ningguo City Wear-resistant Materials General Factory of Anhui Province

Ningguo City Wear-resistant Materials General Factory of Anhui Province has a more than

thirty years’ history of professional production and sale of “Fengxing” brand wear-resistant

materials. Its products include various kinds of balls, wear-resistant and heat-resistant cast

steel segments, as well as abrasive aides for cement and mining industries. It passed ISO 9002

Quality System Attestation and International Standardization Attestation in July 1998 and ISO

9001 (2000 version) conversion Attestation in March 2001. The “Fengxing” brand trade mark

was approved as “Chinese Famous Trade Mark by State Bureau of Industry and Commerce”

in 1999.

The “Fengxing” brand wear-resistant materials are widely applied in powder preparation and

superfine grinding for the cement and building materials industry, metallic or mining industry,

power generation with coal slurry, chemical engineering, ceramic coating, light industry and

paper-making, magnetic materials manufacturing and so on. There are at present more than

100 varieties and specifications of products in 7 series. The products are well sold to more

than 2000 enterprises in 31 provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions in the country

and exported to Japan, Korea, USA, Australia and different countries in Southeast Asia and

Africa.

Ningguo City Wear-resistant Materials General Factory of Anhui Province is a State-level

Large-scale Enterprise, State Second-class Enterprise, one of the 50 Most Powerful Industrial

Enterprises of Anhui Province. It has formed a production capacity of producing 0.1 mil.t/a of

cast ball and cast sticks and 20,000 t/a of cast steel segments. The scale of the factory stands

in the lead of the same trade in Asia.

3-2.12 Luoyang Refractory (Group) Co., LTD,

Luoyang Refractory (Group) Co., LTD., established in 1958 during the state "First Five-year

Plan" period, is the largest refractory commercial enterprise at present, and only one of 520

state key enterprises dealing with refractory in China. It has 8 production branches, 3

auxiliary shops, one technology center, one limited company and one joint-venture company.


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There are 5758 employees including 507 managerial personnel, 1018 technicians. The

corporation occupies an area of 1,114,900 square meters.

The corporation is equipped with 3,910 production devices, including 9 tunnel kilns, such as

98.4m, 59.4m ultra-high temperature tunnel kilns, 202.5m tunnel kilns which is the longest in

China, two 30m3 one 20m3 full-auto shuttle kilns imported from Germany, 750t compound-

friction press imported from Japan, 1,250t automatic hydraulic press imported from Germany,

2,500t full-auto hydraulic press imported from Italy,1,000t hydraulic automatic press made in

China, computer-assistance design systems for moulds, computer-control batching systems

and advanced testing systems for both physical and chemical properties, and necessary

installations for packing and special railway line.

Various refractories (acid, basic and neutral )are now produced in a large scale according to

the requirements of the strict quality guarantee system of ISO-9002. The main products are

silica, magnesia, high-alumina, magnesia-chrome, middle-and high-grade sintered product

and alumina-carbon, alumina-magnesia-carbon, alumina-zirconia-carbon products for

continuous casting, sinalon composites, electrofused magnesia-chrome, alumina-silica-

zirconia products, insulating products, unburned products, ceramic kiln furnitures and

necessary monolithic refractories. The corporation has a production capacity of 160,000t and

600,000 ceramic rollers. The products have been sold all over China, 20% of the products

have been exported to more than 20 countries and regions, such as Japan, USA, Brazil, Italy,

South Africa countries and Southeast Asia.

Add：Xiyuan Rd., Luoyiang City, 471039, Henan, China

Tel：（0379）4226148 4208809 4209546

Fax：（0379）4210864

http://www.lyrg.com E-mail: [email protected]


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Annex 4 Chinese research institutes providing service to the cement

industry


provided in their Cement Sub Sector Survey (2004) a list of Chinese research institutes and

professional organisations providing research and technical services to the cement industry.

A copy of this information is provided below.

***************************************************************************

4－1 Brief introduction of main research institutes in cement industry in China

4－1.1 Tianjin Cement Industry Design and Research Institute (TCDRI)

Tianjin Cement Industry Design and Research Institute (TCDRI) is one of the prospecting and

designing institutes under the management of Central Enterprises Operating Committee

(former under SABMI). As one of the earliest founded design institutes in China, TCDRI now

became a first-class design institute with the strongest design capability in building materials

industry in China since it was set up in 1953. Through years of development and expanding,

TCDRI now has turned into a large comprehensive designing enterprise incorporated

scientific research, engineering design, construction supervision, turnkey contract

construction, consultative engineering technical service and machinery & electrical equipment

manufacture. In 1992, TCDRI was granted "the Direct Business Right with Foreigners" by the

Ministry of Economy and Trade, and in 2000 TCDRI was granted "Self-run Import

Enterprise" by Tianjin Foreign Economic Relations and Trade Committee. In 1995, TCDRI

was entitled by the Development and Research Center of the State Council as "the first

institute for design and research on new dry process cement production line in China", and

was enlisted in the book "Honor Records of the Most in China" (1949~1995). In 1993 TCDRI

was honored as one of "the Hundred Strongest Institutes" (the sole design institute gained this

title in building materials industry) and afterwards, was successively chosen as one of "the

Hundred Strongest Prospecting and Designing Institutes in Overall Strength in China ". In


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1996, TCDRI was the first one passing the conformity of quality system certification

ISO9000.

China Cement Development Center (CCDC) under the TCDRI created by Chinese

government and UNIDO is a sole international institution in Asian and Pacific region. From

the founding of CCDC in 1983, entrusted by UNIDO, TCDRI successfully organized and

sponsored three international mini-cement meetings and trained more than 100 cement

professional staffs for Asian and pacific region. TCDRI played an important role in training

professionals, providing technical assistance and international technical exchange in Asian

and Pacific region.

At the present, TCDRI has obtained several qualifications on engineering and consultation

including non-metallic minerals, construction engineering, environmental pollution protection

and control. The certificates which TCDRI commanded involve "Export Licence of

Engineering Design", "Grade A Certificate on Cement and Waste-heat Generation

Engineering Design", "Grade A Certificate on Turnkey Contract Construction", "Grade A

Certificate on Engineering Consultation" and "Special Qualification on Intelligent System of

Construction Engineering" as well as the "Conformity of Quality System Certification ISO

9000".

The major business and services include: Cement engineering design, cement raw materials

quarry engineering design, new process / technology and new materials development and

application, raw materials testing and evaluation, pressure vessels design, environmental

impact assessment and prevention, turnkey contract construction, construction supervision

and operation management, construction costs and consultation service, equipment

manufacture and complete installation supply, cement technical information and consultation

service etc.

There are about 800 staffs and 300 other employees in TCDRI. Among 800 staffs, 700 are

professionals in different sectors including 2 design masters, 2 experts at national level and 4

experts at provincial and ministerial level, 220 professors and senior engineers, 300 engineers

and 160 assistant engineers.


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In order to respond to meet market competition, TCDRI has established several sections of

multiple economic structure comprising 24 divisions, 2 wholly-owned subsidiaries, 11

holding subsidiaries and 1 collectively-owned company.

There are varieties of advanced facilities for scientific research in TCDRI. 16 labs including

laboratory test center, cold and hot model pilot plants, machinery and electric plants, cement

technical training center and computer center etc. In TCDRI it is possible to carry out

simulating test, research experiments, semi-industrial scale tests and auto-control

development for cement manufacturing, industrial wastes utilization, raw materials

grindability and burnability testing, as well as training programs for technicians. The results

of these activities provide reliable technical guarantee for first-rate engineering design and

scientific research in China’s cement industry.

The completion of the state "Torch Plan" project - new energy conservation cement

installation manufacture base is a beneficial practice for industrial development of TCDRI

technical achievements, this plant has a stronger ability on equipment manufacturing and sales

and has become a new economic growth point of TCDRI.

As one of the demonstration units of CAD, various intelligent computer soft-wares are

widely-applied in scientific research and engineering design in TCDRI, now, the level for

applying computer-integrated circuit makes progressing, computer network and shared

engineering database, as well as office automation realized. This makes TCDRI being in a

leading position among design institutes in China.

Over 50 years, TCDRI has accomplished more than 400 cement plants and other engineering

designs, over 200 projects of turnkey contract construction, construction supervision and

engineering consultation, has developed and designed more than 6000 sets cement equipment

and fulfilled scientific research on 140 subjects. With these achievements, TCDRI has made

great contributions to the products adjustment and technical progress in China building

materials industry and created notable social and economic returns both for state and clients.

Add: Beichen District, 300400, Tianjin, China

Tel: 022-26391311 Fax: 022-26390071


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http://www.tcdri.com.cn E-mail: [email protected]

4-1.2 China Building Materials Academy (CBMA)

CBMA, founded in the early 1950s, is the largest comprehensive research and development

organization in China in the fields of building materials and advanced inorganic non-metallic

materials. Since 1999, CBMA has become one of the high-tech enterprises under the central

government.

CBMA’s R&D covers cement and concrete, ceramics, refractory, glass fiber, housing

materials, engineering design, test technology, quality supervision, environment engineering

and technology information etc. Over the past 50 years, CBMA has completed about 2300

research projects. The contributions made by CBMA to the Chinese building materials and

advanced material industries are well demonstrated by more than 430 government awards,

including 100 national prizes. CBMA has close academic and trade relations with

organizations of more than 50 countries and regions all over the world. Its technologies and

products are widely acknowledged both at home and abroad, and have been exported to more

than 30 countries and regions.

Add：No. 1 Guanzhuang Dongli, Chaoyiang District, 100024, Beijing,China

Tel：010-65761787 Fax：010-65762976

http://www.cbma.com.cn E-mail:[email protected]

4-1.3 Nanjing Cement Design and Research Institute

Nanjing Cement Design and Research Institute (NCDRI) was founded in 1953 and is one of

the earliest design and research institutes of its kind in China. In the past 50 years or so,

NCDRI has been developed into a distinguished and strong class A design and research

institute in China’s building materials industry.


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NCDRI has incorporated the process, mechanical and control technologies in the development

of a large variety of cement production lines, process control systems and special cement

manufacturing equipment of national or world advanced level. It is capable to undertake the

engineering project of technical services and technical transformation of 1000-8000tpd plus

NSP/SP kiln, pre-heater kiln, cogeneration kiln, wet process kiln, anthracite burning kiln and

cement production with wastes and low-grade raw materials for cement plants. Since its

establishment, NCDRI has accomplished design of more than 200 cement production lines of

various scales for clients both at home and abroad and has been awarded over 60 prizes of

national and provincial levels. It was awarded with certificate of ISO-9001 in 1997.

NCDRI’s major business scope is: engineering design for cement plant and quarry; Turn-key

project contract for building material engineering, power engineering and environmental

engineering; development, manufacture and sales of specialized equipment for cement plants

and transfer of related technology, technical services and supply of complete set of

equipment; construction supervision for ordinary civil and industrial construction and

installation projects of Grade �,�and � of building materials industry, engineering survey,

consultation, design and supervision for overseas funded projects at home and abroad; export

of equipment, materials and spare parts; export of labor and technical services in the building

materials industry etc.

Add：No. 209 Hanzhong Rd, Nanjing, 210029, Jiangsu, China

Tel：025-6611333 Fax：025-6611234

http://www.NCDRI.COM E-mail:[email protected]

4-1.4 Chengdu Design & Research Institute of Building Materials Industry (CDI)

Initially founded in 1953, Chengdu Design & Research Institute of Building Materials

Industry (hereafter referred to as CDI) is one of the prestigious design and research institutes

among China’s building materials industry and also the first one being granted the premier


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design certificate regarding cement plant and non-metallic quarry. Entitled to deal with direct

foreign trade, domestic and international engineering design, engineering general contracting,

and premier design qualification of civil engineering, and taking research, design, engineering

consulting, technical service, general contracting and engineering supervision of building

materials and non-metallic quarry works and promotion of new technology as the major

businesses, CDI through 50-year hard working has developed into one of the top design and

research institutes in China. In June 1998, CDI passed the ISO 9001 qualify system

qualification.

Since its foundation 50 years ago, CDI has undertaken design, consulting, supervision, and

general contracting of hundreds of cement plants at home and abroad, non-metallic quarries

and civil buildings, and fulfilled dozens of new technology development and raw materials

researches as well, among which about 50 designs and new technologies have been

respectively awarded national, ministerial, provincial excellent design or technology

improvement awards. Scores of new dry process cement production lines with capacity

ranged from 600t/d to 4000t/d designed by the CDI have finished construction and reached

their expected output, gaining substantial economic and social benefits. Moreover, in recent

years CDI has finished successively 5 large projects by general contracting both at home and

overseas: 1.5 million limestone quarry of Lafarge-Dujiangyan Cement Co., Ltd., quarry and

plant of 3000t/d clinker production line of Shandong Yantai Dongyuan Cement Co.,

technology upgrading of 2000t/d clinker production line of Gansu Wushan Cement Plant,

3000t/d clinker production line of Iran Fars Nov Group, and 2000t/d clinker production line in

Xinjiang, that makes CDI among domestic design institutes of building materials industry the

first one in undertaking independently the large-scale general contracting projects.

Concerning deploitation of international operation, besides technical communication and

contact with companies in Iraq, Laos, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Thailand and Burma, CDI has

offered engineering design and technical service to cement plants and non-metallic quarries in

various countries such as Pakistan, Vietnam, Iran and Albania, and established technical

cooperation with many renowned companies from Germany, United States of America,

Canada, Denmark, Japan and etc., which lays a solid foundation for a broader reach of CDI’s

operation all over the world.


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Add：No. 331 Xinhong Rd, Chengdu City, 610051, Sichuan, China

Tel：028-4333584 Fax：028-4333545

http://www.cdi-china.com.cn E-mail:[email protected]

4-1.5 Hefei Design & Research Institute of Building Materials Industry

Hefei Cement Research and Design Institute (HCRDI)used to be a key research institution

and a state Class-A qualification holder under the State Administration of Building Materials

Industry. Its predecessor is The Research Institute of Ministry of Building Materials Industry

and Beijing Cement Design Institute. After the system reform in 1997, it has been integrated

into China New Building Materials (Group) Company. The institute takes up 25 hectares of

land. It owns 895000 square meters of covered area. It has more than 680 employees, with

about 500 technical staff, of whom there are more than 200 senior technical professionals and

more than 200 are middle level technical professionals.

HCRDI has 12 departments (centers and companies): Design Department, Powder

Engineering Company, Jinshan Industrial Company of Science and Technology. Environment

Protection Engineering Company, Equipment and Metal Materials Engineering Company,

New Building Materials Company, Machinery and Motor Engineering Company and

Information Center and etc. It is mainly engaged in the design, technical service, construction

supervision, complete set of equipment supply, construction project contracting and

environment evaluation related to cement production lines of all types of kilns. Supply of new

process, new equipment, new materials, new technology and new products is supported by

running enterprises that produce high-tech products.

Since its establishment, the institute has undertaken 300 research projects including 16

scientific projects of the state government, 50 such projects of the state ministry. The total

investment of these projects amounts to 16,000,000 yuan. 180 research projects have been

evaluated and accepted. 78 of them have reached up to world’s or national advanced level,

and found wide application both at home and abroad. There are quite a few technological


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achievements that have been listed in the state scientific achievements promotion plan. It has

made great contributions to the technological progress of cement industry. Today, HCRDI has

formed a competitive advantage in such technical fields as thermal process, powder

engineering, production automation, environment protection, metal materials, optimized

exploitation of cement materials and comprehensive utilization of resources. It has brought up

large numbers of experts in various specialized areas.

In the field of design, during the eighth five-year plan period, the institute further developed

pre-calciner kiln with capacities ranging from 1000 – 6000 tons clinker per day. It has been

applied in the design of cement plants of various scales achieving good results. Up till now,

the institute has designed more than 100 cement production lines of various types with

capacities ranging from 1000 to 6000 tons. In addition, many projects of various production

capacities have been awarded the titles of excellent design.

In the field of scientific and technological industries, the manufacturing entities of the

institute are growing steadily. The institute’s manufactured products are based on either

imported or self-developed technology. Product quality is increasingly improving, gaining

good reputation both at home and abroad. The manufacturing facilities of the institute are able

to supply equipment for the cement production lines with capacities ranging from 1000 to

5000 tons per day. The institute has established an industrial park where Zhongya Cement

Machinery Works, Feixi Energy Saving Equipment Works, Environment Protection

Equipment Works, Wear and Heat Resistant Materials Works, Building Materials Machinery

Works, Zhongya Steel Structure Factory are located. The total output value of these entities

has amounted to 600, 000, 0000 yuan.

Add：No. 60 Wangjiang Rd, Hefei City, 230051, Anhui, China

Tel：0551-3439196 Fax：0551-3424995

4-1.6 Institute of Technical Information for Building Materials Industry (ITIBMI)


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ITIBMIC was established in 1958. Through more than 40 years construction and

development, the institute has become the scientific, technological, economic and trade

information research, consultation services and documentation center for building materials

industry on China. ITIBMIC has accomplished about 1000 reports on special subjects and

more than 100 research projects of soft science. Meanwhile, having a function of building

materials documentation resources center of China, ITIBMI has a collection of more than

180.000 special books in Chinese and foreign languages, about 500 domestic and foreign

special periodicals subscribed and the databases on building materials literatures in Chinese

language, Chinese building materials patents and scientific & technological achievements of

Chinese building materials industry established.

ITIBMIC undertakes fundamental research projects assigned by the Ministry of Science

&Technology and edits and publishs more than 10 periodicals, including “Cement” which has

the largest circulation in Chinese building materials industry, “Building Materials Industry

Information” and so on. A line within the Institute and a web site of China Building Materials

Industry Information Network on Internet have been set up. ITIBMC is capable to offer all

kinds of web services for the domestic and foreign clients on web site.

Add：No.2 Guanzhuang Dongli, Chaoyang District, 100024,Beijing, China

Tel：010-51164601 Fax：010-6575-61207

http://chinabmi.com E-mail:[email protected]

4-2 Industrial associations and other administrative institutions in China

4-2.1 China Building Material Industry Association (CBMIA)

China Building Material Industry Association (CBMIA) is a nation wide, non-profitable and

self disciplined social organization that is voluntarily formed by the building material

industrial enterprises, social organizations and individual members and serves as a bridge


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between the government and enterprises, offering them services in the meantime. Its major

tasks are as follows:

(1) Conduct studies on key and important topics related to the building material industry as a

whole and its development, submit economic and legal suggestions to the central government.

(2) Voice out the interests of its members and enterprises, coordinate relations among its

members, organize and formulate the industrial regulations, coordinate disputes on products’

prices, normalize the enterprises behaviors, establish the industrial discipline mechanism and

protect the legal rights and interests of enterprises.

(3) Provide timely and accurate information and various services on technology, management

consultant and talent development, promote contacts with foreign colleagues, develop

international economic and technical cooperation, participate in coordination of economic

disputes, and assist its member enterprises to develop international market.

(4) Authorized or entrusted by the central government or departments concerned to participate

in working out the industrial planning, making of revising national standards and industrial

standards and other industrial management.

(5) Exercise supervision over the trade associations, i.e. to guide them in activities according

to their constitutions, oversee their disciplines, observe legal regulations and the state policies;

provide the final approval of reformation, adjustment and development suggestions and their

structural alterations etc. of its subordinated associations; be responsible for the personnel

management, party construction and ideological and political work. Assist the government to

check in –discipline behaviors.

Add: No. 11 Sanlihe Rd., Haidian District, 100831, Beijing, China

Tel: 010-68311144-2215 68314360 Fax: 01068332658

http://www.bm.cei.gov.cn E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]


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4-2.2 China Cement Association

China Cement Association (CCA), established in February 5, 1987 is a mass social

organization of cement enterprises and other institutions related to cement industry under the

principle of voluntary participation.

Ever since its establishment, the CCA possesses a great attraction to the entire industry. The

organization and various businesses have been rapidly developed and strengthened. Up to

date, there are 3200 members among which 900 are direct members and 50 collective

members of provincial and municipal sub-associations and trade committees etc. that forms

the nation wide network of cement industry, which possesses highly extensiveness,

representation and authority.

Add: No. 11 Sanlihe Rd., Haidian District, 100831, Beijing, China

Tel: 010-68332654 Fax: 010-68332654

http://www.cncement.com.cn E-mail:[email protected], [email protected]

4-2-3 Chinese Ceramic Society

The Chinese Ceramic Society is voluntarily formed by the silicate non-organic non-metallic

materials Science and technology after registration according to law. It is a social organization

of learned and public characters having independent legal representative and is a component

part of the Chinese Society of Science and Technology. The aim of the society is to unite the

broad mass of workers of ceramic science and technology for the promotion of prosperity and

development of science and technology, the facilitation of popularization and spreading of

Science and technology, the promotion of growth and upgrade of scientific and technical

talents and the promotion of the integration of science and technology with economy.

The former body of Chinese Ceramic Society is the Chinese Ceramics Society. It was initially

established in 1945 and its name was changed to Chinese Kiln Engineering Society in January

1951 and ceased action for some reasons in October the same year. In December 1956, the

mailto:[email protected]


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Preparation Commission of Chinese Ceramic Society was formed. In November 1959 the

First National Congress was held in Shanghai, and it is decided on the congress that the name

of the society was Chinese Ceramic Society.

The members of the society include personal members, senior members, organization

members and foreign members. The member of personal members is 33.000 at present and

that of organization members is 40. There are 18 professional branch societies and 3 working

commissions. There are 124 local societies at present. The administrative body of the society

consists of 5 departments (sections).

The main tasks of the society are to carry out academic and science and technological

exchanges between domestic and foreign learners and implement international science and

technological co-operation among peoples, to edit and publish scientific and technical books

and magazines, to undertake continuous education and popularization work of science and

technology; to undertake consultation for decision-making, technical consultation and

technical service; to carry out citation and reward for outstanding persons and works, to

organize scientific and technical exhibitions and demonstrations at home or abroad.

4-2.4 Beijing Building Materials Association (BBMA)

Beijing Building Materials Association (BBMA) is a mass organization consisting of building

materials trade associations in Beijing area, units of production, management, scientific

research and design and information etc. BBMA is the building materials industrial

organization administered by Beijing Municipality, sponsored by Beijing Jinyu Group, a non-

profit legal organization approved and registered by Beijing Social Organization Register

Administration Office.