ISSUE 22 | JANUARY 2012 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ŒIcircpermilOcircUcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDagger tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Publication of the Cyprus Computer Society

ISSN 1450-152X

GOVERNANCE OF INFORMATIONSECURITY amp OTHER INITIATIVES p14

THE FUTURE OF INFORMATIONSECURITY NEW PRIORITIESNEW SKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES p24

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILE WORLDSECURITY 20 p19

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int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ISSN 1450-152X

ΠΕΡΙΕΧΟΜΕΝΑCONTENTS

ISSUE 22 - JANUARY 2012ΔpartAgraveAtilderadictrade 22 - IANOAgraveinfinƒπradictrade 2012

02 ordfHiexclAgraveordfinfin tradeAgraveiexclΔinfinintΔπintHtrade partparaπΔƒradicparaHtrade

06 Δinfin iexclEinfin ordfinfintrade

09 Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ (1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

11 ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER intAgraveparaƒπinfinintO πiexcltradeΔπΔradicYΔradic partsectEdegAtilderadicAgrave tradeAgravetradeΔprodordfAΔoslashiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHtradeparamiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacutersaquopermilEuml˜

14 GOVERNANCE OF INFORMATION SECURITY amp OTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

19 SAFE COMPUTING IN AN INCREASINGLY HOSTILE WORLDSECURITY 20Dr Andrew Jones

24 THE FUTURE OF INFORMATION SECURITY NEW PRIORITIES NEW SKILLS AND NEW TECHNOLOGIESDavid Lacey

44 DO YOU KNOW THIS MANDr Philippos Peleties

wwwpliroforikiorg | 1

28 TO WHAT EXTEND IS THE TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

33 THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVE PROJECT MANAGEMENT INPROJECT SUCCESS IDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA amp THE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORSAndreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ordfHiexclAgraveordfinfin tradeAgraveiexclΔinfinintΔπintHtrade partparaπΔƒradicparaHtrade

Στὸν κόσmicroο τῆς Κύπρου Μνήmicroη καὶ Ἀγάπη Κύπρον οὗ micro᾿ ἐθέσπισεν

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2 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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HARRY S TRUMAN (1884 ndash 1972)THE BUCK STOPS HERE

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CYPRUS INFOSEC WEEK 2011

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Cyprus Infosec IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger UgraveOcirc˘ trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ Dr EugeneShultz oslash˜ AcircIcirc UgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ Euml AcircsbquopermilOcircIgraveiquestpermilmiddot lsaquoUgravemiddotOacute middotEcircEgraveAcircUacuteˆIgravecurrenOacuteEuml UcircUgraveEuml IgraveOacutelsaquoIgraveEumlUgraveOcirc˘ radic degEgraveiquestOacuteOacuteOcirc˜ infinIumlAcircUgraveUacuteiquestUacuteEuml˜ AcircIcirc IgravecurrenUacuteOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcirc˘ centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDaggertrade˘IgravesbquoOcirc˘IumlrsaquoOcirc˘ middotOcircmacrmiddotEgraveUacuteAcircUgraveiquest UgraveOcirc Gene IgraveAcirc currenOacutemiddot UcircDaggerOacuteUgraveOcircIgraveOcirc middotEcircEgravecurrenUacuteˆIgravemiddot UcircUgraveEumlOacute

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intmiddotUgraversquo middotUacutemacrlsaquoOacute Ocirc degEgraveiquestOacuteOacuteOcirc˜ infinIumlAcircUgraveUacuteiquestUacuteEuml˜ middotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave UgraveEuml OacuteAcircIcircUacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddot AacuteEgravemiddotUgraveOcirc IgravemiddotIcircUacuteOcircmacrUacutefiOacuteEgraveOcirc EcircrsaquoIumlOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcircfi Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacuteiquestUgraveEuml UgraveOcirc˘Cyprus Infosec UgraveOcircOacute Dr Eugene Shultz

radic paramiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacutersaquopermilEuml˜ paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDagger πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘partIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ (ISACA Cyprus Chapter)AacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute rsaquopermilUacute˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlUcircEumlIgravemiddotOacuteUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo middotOcircUcircUgraveOcircIumllsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEumlOacute middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute middot˘IacutemiddotOacutefiIgraveAcircOacuteˆOacuteIcircEgraveOacutepermilDaggerOacuteˆOacute UgraveˆOacute AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrˆOacute EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEuml˜OcircUacuteılsaquo˜ permilEgravemiddotIcirc˘sbquocurrenUacuteOacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveˆOacute trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircfiUgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜ IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜

radic Vernon Poole currenOacutemiddot˜ UgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcircfi˜ Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacuteiquestUgraveEuml˜ UcircUgravemiddot IumlmiddotrsaquoUcircEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘Infosec IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger permilrsaquoOacuteAcircEgrave Ucirc˘IgravesbquoOcirc˘Iumlcurren˜ UcircUgraveEgrave˜ permilEgraveAcirc˘ıDaggerOacuteUcircAcircEgrave˜IcircmiddotEgrave permilEgraveOcircEgraveIcirclsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ UgraveˆOacute OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOgraveOacute Ograve˜ Oacutemiddot macrAcircEgraveUacuteEgraveUcircUgraveOcircDaggerOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UacutefiIumlOcirc˘˜UgraveOcirc˘˜ UcircAcirc UcircmacrcurrenUcircEuml IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute permilEgravemiddotmacrAcircrsaquoUacuteEgraveUcircEuml UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IgraveAcirc UgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ ldquoGovernance of InformationSecurity amp Other Initiativesrdquo

O Dr Andrew Jones AacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc IgraveAcirc UgraversaquoUgraveIumlOcirc ldquoSafe Computingin an Increasingly Hostile World Security 20rdquo AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacutemiddot˘IacuteEumlIgravecurrenOacuteEuml middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircEuml middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi UgraveOcirc UcircmacrAcircpermilEgravemiddotUcircIgravefi permilEgraveIcircUgraveDaggerˆOacute IcircmiddotEgrave AcircEcircmiddotUacuteIgraveOcircAacuteOgraveOacutefiOcirc˘ Euml middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger UgraveˆOacute UcircmacrAcircpermilEgravemiddotUcircUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IcircUacuteEgraveUgraveEumlUacutersaquoˆOacute

radic David Lacey UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ ldquoThe Future of InformationSecurity New Priorities New Skills and New TechnologiesrdquoAacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcircOacute middotOacutemiddotpermil˘fiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc IcircfiUcircIgraveOcirc fiOcirc˘ Ugravemiddot fiUacuteEgravemiddot IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger UgraveOcirc˘AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDagger IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ UacuteOcircUcircˆEgraveIcircOcircDagger AcircUacuteEgravesbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgraveOcirc˜IcircmiddotUgravemiddotUacuteAacuteOcircDaggerOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave fiOcirc˘ fiIumlOcircEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave fiIumlmiddot sbquoUacutersaquoUcircIcircOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircUgraveOcirc permilEgravemiddotpermilrsaquoIcircUgrave˘Ocirc

4 | wwwpliroforikiorg

IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEgrave˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ UacuteOcircIcircIumllsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ Ocirc˘ middot˘Ugravelsaquo Euml AcircIacutecurrenIumlEgraveIacuteEumlpermilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacuteAcircrsaquo

radic OcircbdquolsaquoEcircEgraveOcirc˜ permilEgravepermiliquestIcircUgraveˆUacute AtildeUacutersaquoUcircUgraveOcirc˜ paramiddotmiddotpermilEumlIgraveEumlUgraveUacutersaquoOcirc˘ middotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave currenOacutemiddotAcircOacutepermilEgravemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacute iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute UgraveAcircmacrOacuteEumlUgravelsaquo OacuteOcircEumlIgraveOcircUcircDaggerOacuteEuml IgraveAcirc UgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ldquoTo What Extend is the Turing Test Still Importantrdquo UcircUgraveOcirc OcircOcircrsaquoOcircmiddotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave middotOacutemiddotIumlDaggerAcircEgrave currenOacutemiddot OacuteOcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi AcircrsaquoUacutemiddotIgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘ Alan TuringAcircOacutefi˜ UacuteˆUgraveOcircfiUacuteOcirc˘ UcircUgraveOcirc macrOgraveUacuteOcirc

radic infinOacutepermilUacutecurrenmiddot˜ tradeOcircIumlOcircIgraveOcircDagger IcircmiddotEgrave Ocirc int˘UacuteEgraveiquestIcircOcirc˜ degAcircˆUacuteAacutersaquoOcirc˘ AcircIcirc UgraveˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacuteUgraveEuml˜ Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘˜ ldquoThe Role ofEffective Project Management in Project Success IdentifyingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factorsrdquo paraAcircUacuteEgraveAacuteUacuteiquestEcircOcirc˘OacuteUgraveEgrave˜ UacuteOcircIcircIumllsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgravemiddotmacrAcircrsaquoUacuteEgraveUcircEuml currenUacuteAacuteˆOacute IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘˜IcircUacutersaquoUcircEgraveIgraveOcirc˘˜ middotUacuteiquestAacuteOcircOacuteUgraveAcirc˜ Ocirc˘ IcircmiddotıOcircUacutersaquo˙Ocirc˘Oacute UgraveEumlOacute AcircEgraveUgrave˘macrrsaquomiddot AcircOacutefi˜ currenUacuteAacuteOcirc˘

prod currenIcircpermilOcircUcircEuml Ucirc˘IgraveIumlEumlUacuteOgraveOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgrave IgraveAcirc UgraveEuml IgravefiOacuteEgraveIgraveEuml UcircUgravelsaquoIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ centUacutemiddot ordmrsaquoIumlEgraveOcirc˘paraAcircIumlAcircUgraveEgravecurren ldquoDo you know this Manrdquo IgraveAcirc Igraversaquomiddot AcircIacutemiddotEgraveUacuteAcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo OacuteAcircIcircUacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddotmiddotEcircEgraveAcircUacuteˆIgravecurrenOacuteEuml UcircUgraveOcircOacute UgraveOcirc˘ Steven Jobs πpermilUacute˘Ugravelsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave centEgraveAcirc˘ıDaggerOacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddottradeDaggerIgravesbquoOcirc˘IumlOcirc UgraveEuml˜ Apple

partparaπsectradicdegradictrade

intmiddotıEumlIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveOacuteiquest AacuteEgraveOacutefiIgravemiddotUcircUgraveAcirc IgraveiquestUacuteUgrave˘UacuteAcirc˜ UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcirc IcircmiddotEgrave UcircUgraveEumlOacute partIumlIumliquestpermilmiddotUacuteˆUgravefiAacuteOacuteˆUacuteˆOacute IcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IcircmiddotUgravemiddotUcircUgraveiquestUcircAcircˆOacute IcircmiddotEgrave EcircmiddotEgraveOacuteOcircIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgravemiddot˜IcircmiddotEgrave AcircIacutemiddotıIumlrsaquoˆUcircEuml˜ Ocirc˘ permilAcircOacute currenmacrOcirc˘IgraveAcirc ˙lsaquoUcircAcircEgrave OcircDaggerUgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute AcircUacutersaquoOcircpermilOcirc UgraveEuml˜ΔOcirc˘UacuteIcircEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUcircsbquoOcircIumllsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc IcircmiddotIumlOcircIcircmiddotrsaquoUacuteEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ 1974 infinIcircfiIgraveEuml ˙OcircDaggerIgraveAcirc IgraveEgravemiddotcurrenIacutemiddotUacuteUcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircAacuteIcircIumllsaquoIgravemiddotUgraveOcirc˜ IcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot ˘fi UgraveEuml IgraveOcircUacuteEcirclsaquo IcircIumlOcircOgraveOacute IumlEumlUcircUgraveAcircEgraveOgraveOacute

IcircmiddotEgrave permilEgravemiddotUacuteUacutelsaquoIacuteAcircˆOacute middotfi middotOacuteıUacuteOgraveOcirc˘˜ Ocirc˘ permilAcircOacute currenmacrOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot UcircUgraveOcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveOgravepermilEumlIcircmiddotEgrave UacuteOcircUcircmiddotıOcircDaggerOacute IgraveAcirc middotUacuteiquestOacuteOcircIgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveUacutefiOcirc˘˜ Oacutemiddot IcircmiddotIumlDaggerbdquoOcirc˘Oacute UgraveEgrave˜middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircAcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute OcircEgraveIcircOcircAacuteAcircOacuteAcircEgraveOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ prod permil˘OacutemiddotUgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘ IcircUacuteiquestUgraveOcirc˘˜ IcircmiddotEgraveUgraveEuml˜ IcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacutersaquomiddot˜ AcircOacute AacutecurrenOacuteAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveˆrsaquoUcircOcirc˘Oacute middot˘Ugraveiquest Ugravemiddot EcircmiddotEgraveOacutefiIgraveAcircOacutemiddotEcircmiddotrsaquoOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircUacuteEgraveOcircUacuteEgraveUcircIgravecurrenOacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave middotOacutersaquoIcircmiddotOacuteEuml Oacutemiddot middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveˆrsaquoUcircAcircEgrave IgraveAcircAcirciquestUacuteIcircAcircEgravemiddot UgraveEgrave˜ UcircUgraveOcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveOgravepermilAcircEgrave˜ middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircAcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute Ucirc˘OacutemiddotOacuteıUacuteOgraveˆOacute Igravemiddot˜paraOcircIumlIumliquest ımiddot UacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot AacutersaquoOacuteOcirc˘Oacute IcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot middotfi IumlAcirc˘Uacuteiquest˜ EumlIgraveOgraveOacute UgraveˆOacuteOcircIumlEgraveUgraveOgraveOacute Ocirc˘ currenmacrOcirc˘IgraveAcirc UgraveEuml permil˘OacutemiddotUgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave ımiddot UacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot UcircUgravemiddotıOcircDaggerIgraveAcircmiddotUacuteˆAacuteOcircrsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ Ucirc˘OacutemiddotOacuteıUacuteOgraveOcirc˘˜ Igravemiddot˜ Ocirc˘ sbquoUacutersaquoUcircIcircOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave AacuteDaggerUacuteˆ Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveEumlAacuteAcircEgraveUgraveOcircOacuteEgraveiquest Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveEumlOacute IcircOcircEgraveOacutefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveOcirc permilEgraveIumlmiddotOacutefi Igravemiddot˜ UcircrsaquoUgraveEgrave ımiddotUacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot IcirciquestOacuteOcirc˘IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute EcircEgraveIumlmiddotOacuteıUacuteˆrsaquomiddot UacuteOcircUgraveAcircUacutemiddotEgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot

intmiddotEgrave fiUgravemiddotOacute OacuteOcircEgraveOgraveıAcircUgraveAcirc currenOacuteUgraveOcircOacutemiddot currenOacutemiddot middotrsaquoUcircıEumlIgravemiddot middotfiAacuteOacuteˆUcircEuml˜ IcircmiddotEgravemiddotpermilEgraveAcircIacutefipermilOcirc˘ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotıIumlEgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgravemiddot Ocirc˘ Igravemiddot˜ AcircUacuteEgravesbquoiquestIumlIumlAcircEgraveOacutemiddot EcirccurrenUacuteOacuteAcircUgraveAcirc UcircUgraveOcirc OacuteOcirc˘Oacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UcircUgraversaquomacrOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IgraveAcircAacuteiquestIumlOcirc˘ OcircEgraveEumlUgravelsaquo intˆUcircUgravelsaquoparamiddotIumlmiddotIgraveiquest (paraiquestUgraveUacutemiddot 13 πmiddotOacuteOcirc˘middotUacutersaquoOcirc˘ 1859 - infinılsaquoOacutemiddot 27 ordmAcircsbquoUacuteOcirc˘middotUacutersaquoOcirc˘1943) UcircUgraveOcirc centˆpermilAcircIcirciquestIumlOcircAacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ degDaggerEcircUgraveOcirc˘

intEgrave middotOacute currenUcircmiddotIgraveAcirc UcircAcirc currenUcircEgraveIgraveOcirc UacuteˆUgraveiquestIcircOcirc˘UcircUgraveOcircIcircmiddotEgrave UcircAcirc AacuteIcircUacuteAcircIgravefi IcircmiddotUgraveUacutemiddotIcirc˘IumllsaquoUcircmiddotIgraveAcircOcirc˘ EgraveOcirc sbquomiddotıDagger IcircmiddotIgraveEgraveiquest Ecirc˘Iumllsaquo permilAcircOacute AcircrsaquopermilAcirc ˆ˜ UgraveOgraveUacutemiddotAcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddotUgraversaquo IgraveAcirc UgraveˆOacute IcircmiddotEgraveUacuteOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc IumllsaquoUacuteˆIgravemiddotfiIgraveOcircEgravemiddot sbquomiddotıDagger AcircOacute middotOacutecurrensbquomiddotUcircIgravemiddot Igravemiddot˜ IgravecurrenIumlIumlAcircUgravemiddotEgraveUacuteOcirc˜ DaggerbdquoEuml Ocirc˘UacutemiddotOacuteOcircEcircfiUacutemiddot

wwwpliroforikiorg | 5

centπinfinordmprodordfπtradeΔpartπΔpart tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintprodcentEgravemiddotEcircEumlIgraversaquo˙OcircOacuteUgravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveOcirc AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircfi paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo UacuteOcircˆıAcircrsaquoUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ ˘EumlUacuteAcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Ugravemiddot UacuteOcircEgravefiOacuteUgravemiddot Ucircmiddot˜

UcircAcirc AcircUacuteEgraveUcircUcircfiUgraveAcircUacuteOcirc˘˜ middotfi 1000 middotOacutemiddotAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircUgraveAcirc˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravepermilEgraveIcircOcircrsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave EcircrsaquoIumlOcircEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddotparaIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ ΔAcircmacrOacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave partEgraveIcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacuteEgraveOgraveOacute UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcirc

degEgravemiddot IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquoAcirc˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirciquest IgraveAcirc UgraveEgraveIgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave IcircUacutemiddotUgravelsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot Igravemiddot˜ UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml AcircEgraveIcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacutelsaquoUcircUgraveAcircIgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute AgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteEuml centEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoˆOacute trademacrcurrenUcircAcircˆOacute UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDagger trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AtildeUacuteEgraveUcircUgraversaquoOacutemiddot

paramiddotmiddotIgraveEgraveIumlUgraveEgraveiquestpermilOcirc˘ UgraveEumlIuml 22460680email c_papamiltiadouccsorgcy

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email c_papamiltiadouccsorgcy

6 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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partintcentprodsectoslashtradepartπtrade CCS

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8 | wwwpliroforikiorg

tradeAgraveordfordfpartΔradicAtildeparttrade ECDLCCS

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Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ(1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

Dr Eugene Schultz a valued associate and dear friend passedaway on Sunday 2nd October 2011 I came to know Gene ashe preferred to be called back in 2004 when he accepted ourinvitation to be a presenter at the Cyprus Infosec conference Wehad heard so much about him and were pleasantly surprised thatsuch a renown and respected information security guru wouldshow so much interest in travelling all the way from the UnitedStates to visit our small island and enlighten us with hisknowledge and wisdom Getting to know him in person was aneven greater surprise with his humble character his wit anddelightful humour The feedback we received from the conferenceaudience as well as the participants at his workshop completelyconfirmed his high reputation and fellow members started askingfor more follow-on workshops from him

Genersquos wife Cathy had escorted him on that 2004 trip and Iremember her commenting that she came all the way from theUnited States to a small island in the Mediterranean only to findout she would stay 40 kilometres away from the beach Thatinnocent comment led to Cyprus Infosec 2005 being organisedin Limassol but unfortunately Gene could not make it due to othercommitments He did however manage to be with us in 2007 and

in 2009 and Cyprus Infosec was always pencilled-in in his yearlyplans

2009 was to become the last time Gene participated in CyprusInfosec He contacted us in early 2010 to agree on the 2011dates and he even suggested other information securitypresenters that he admired He had come to consider himself aspart of the team and cherished the time he spent in Cyprus withus This year he planned to talk about Cloud Security and presenta newly developed 2-day workshop on the subject However inSeptember his close associate Paul Underwood sent us aworrying email telling us that Gene would not be able to participatedue to a serious illness A blog was set up to inform his friendsand colleagues on his health status and through that his wifeCathy finally informed us of his passing away

As a tribute to Gene the Cyprus Infosec 2011 conference washeld on November 2nd 2011 in his memory

Yiannos AletrarisMember of the Cyprus Infosec Organising Committee

wwwpliroforikiorg | 9

DR EUGENE SCHULTZ IN BRIEF

Gene was born September 10 1946 in Chicago to E Eugene Srand Elizabeth Schultz He graduated from UCLA and earned hisMS and PhD (in Cognitive Science 1977) at Purdue University inIndiana

While at Purdue University Gene met and married Cathy BrownThey were married for 36 years and raised three daughters SarahRachel and Leah

Gene was an active member of Cornerstone Fellowship andbelonged to a menrsquos Bible study His many interests included familygoing to his mountain home in Twain Harte model trains musictravelling the outdoors history reading and sports

Gene was one of the more notableand accomplished figures incomputing security over the last fewdecades During the course of hiscareer Gene was professor ofcomputer science at severaluniversities including the Universityof California at Davis and PurdueUniversity and retired from theUniversity of California at Berkeley

He consulted for a wide range of clients including US and foreigngovernments and the banking petroleum and pharmaceuticalindustries He also managed several information security practicesand served as chief technology officer for two companies

Gene formed and managed the Computer Incident AdvisoryCapability (CIAC) mdash an incident response team for the USDepartment of Energy mdash from 1986ndash1992 This was the firstformal incident response team predating the CERTCC by severalyears He also was instrumental in the founding of FIRST mdash theForum of Incident Response amp Security Teams

During his 30 years of work in security Gene authored or co-authored over 120 papers and five books He was manager of theI4 program at SRI from 1994ndash1998 From 2002ndash2007 he was theEditor-in-Chief of Computers and Security mdash the oldest journal incomputing security mdash and continued to serve on its editorial boardGene was also an associate editor of Network Security He was amember of the accreditation board of the Institute of InformationSecurity Professionals (IISP)

Gene testified as an expert several times before both Senate andHouse Congressional Committees He also served as an expertadvisor to a number of companies and agencies Gene was acertified SANS instructor instructor for ISACA senior SANS analystmember of the SANS NewsBites editorial board and co-author ofthe 2005 and 2006 Certified Information Security Managerpreparation materials

Dr Schultz was honored numerous times for his research serviceand teaching Among his many notable awards Gene received theNASA Technical Excellence Award Department of EnergyExcellence Award the Vanguard Conference Top Gun Award (forbest presenter) twice the Vanguard Chairmans Award the ISACAJohn Kuyers Best SpeakerBest Conference Contributor Award andthe National Information Systems Security Conference Best PaperAward One of only a few Distinguished Fellows of the InformationSystems Security Association (ISSA) he was also named to theISSA Hall of Fame and received ISSAs Professional Achievementand Honor Roll Awards

At the time of his death Dr Schultz was the CTO of EmaginedSecurity an information security consultancy based in San CarlosCalifornia He held certifications as a CISM CISSP and GSLC

E Eugene Schultz Jr 10946ndash21011 Rest in Peace

10 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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12 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 13

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

14 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

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Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

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int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ISSN 1450-152X

ΠΕΡΙΕΧΟΜΕΝΑCONTENTS

ISSUE 22 - JANUARY 2012ΔpartAgraveAtilderadictrade 22 - IANOAgraveinfinƒπradictrade 2012

02 ordfHiexclAgraveordfinfin tradeAgraveiexclΔinfinintΔπintHtrade partparaπΔƒradicparaHtrade

06 Δinfin iexclEinfin ordfinfintrade

09 Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ (1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

11 ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER intAgraveparaƒπinfinintO πiexcltradeΔπΔradicYΔradic partsectEdegAtilderadicAgrave tradeAgravetradeΔprodordfAΔoslashiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHtradeparamiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacutersaquopermilEuml˜

14 GOVERNANCE OF INFORMATION SECURITY amp OTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

19 SAFE COMPUTING IN AN INCREASINGLY HOSTILE WORLDSECURITY 20Dr Andrew Jones

24 THE FUTURE OF INFORMATION SECURITY NEW PRIORITIES NEW SKILLS AND NEW TECHNOLOGIESDavid Lacey

44 DO YOU KNOW THIS MANDr Philippos Peleties

wwwpliroforikiorg | 1

28 TO WHAT EXTEND IS THE TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

33 THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVE PROJECT MANAGEMENT INPROJECT SUCCESS IDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA amp THE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORSAndreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ordfHiexclAgraveordfinfin tradeAgraveiexclΔinfinintΔπintHtrade partparaπΔƒradicparaHtrade

Στὸν κόσmicroο τῆς Κύπρου Μνήmicroη καὶ Ἀγάπη Κύπρον οὗ micro᾿ ἐθέσπισεν

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HARRY S TRUMAN (1884 ndash 1972)THE BUCK STOPS HERE

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CYPRUS INFOSEC WEEK 2011

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Cyprus Infosec IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger UgraveOcirc˘ trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ Dr EugeneShultz oslash˜ AcircIcirc UgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ Euml AcircsbquopermilOcircIgraveiquestpermilmiddot lsaquoUgravemiddotOacute middotEcircEgraveAcircUacuteˆIgravecurrenOacuteEuml UcircUgraveEuml IgraveOacutelsaquoIgraveEumlUgraveOcirc˘ radic degEgraveiquestOacuteOacuteOcirc˜ infinIumlAcircUgraveUacuteiquestUacuteEuml˜ AcircIcirc IgravecurrenUacuteOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcirc˘ centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDaggertrade˘IgravesbquoOcirc˘IumlrsaquoOcirc˘ middotOcircmacrmiddotEgraveUacuteAcircUgraveiquest UgraveOcirc Gene IgraveAcirc currenOacutemiddot UcircDaggerOacuteUgraveOcircIgraveOcirc middotEcircEgravecurrenUacuteˆIgravemiddot UcircUgraveEumlOacute

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intmiddotUgraversquo middotUacutemacrlsaquoOacute Ocirc degEgraveiquestOacuteOacuteOcirc˜ infinIumlAcircUgraveUacuteiquestUacuteEuml˜ middotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave UgraveEuml OacuteAcircIcircUacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddot AacuteEgravemiddotUgraveOcirc IgravemiddotIcircUacuteOcircmacrUacutefiOacuteEgraveOcirc EcircrsaquoIumlOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcircfi Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacuteiquestUgraveEuml UgraveOcirc˘Cyprus Infosec UgraveOcircOacute Dr Eugene Shultz

radic paramiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacutersaquopermilEuml˜ paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDagger πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘partIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ (ISACA Cyprus Chapter)AacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute rsaquopermilUacute˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlUcircEumlIgravemiddotOacuteUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo middotOcircUcircUgraveOcircIumllsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEumlOacute middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute middot˘IacutemiddotOacutefiIgraveAcircOacuteˆOacuteIcircEgraveOacutepermilDaggerOacuteˆOacute UgraveˆOacute AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrˆOacute EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEuml˜OcircUacuteılsaquo˜ permilEgravemiddotIcirc˘sbquocurrenUacuteOacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveˆOacute trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircfiUgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜ IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜

radic Vernon Poole currenOacutemiddot˜ UgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcircfi˜ Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacuteiquestUgraveEuml˜ UcircUgravemiddot IumlmiddotrsaquoUcircEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘Infosec IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger permilrsaquoOacuteAcircEgrave Ucirc˘IgravesbquoOcirc˘Iumlcurren˜ UcircUgraveEgrave˜ permilEgraveAcirc˘ıDaggerOacuteUcircAcircEgrave˜IcircmiddotEgrave permilEgraveOcircEgraveIcirclsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ UgraveˆOacute OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOgraveOacute Ograve˜ Oacutemiddot macrAcircEgraveUacuteEgraveUcircUgraveOcircDaggerOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UacutefiIumlOcirc˘˜UgraveOcirc˘˜ UcircAcirc UcircmacrcurrenUcircEuml IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute permilEgravemiddotmacrAcircrsaquoUacuteEgraveUcircEuml UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IgraveAcirc UgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ ldquoGovernance of InformationSecurity amp Other Initiativesrdquo

O Dr Andrew Jones AacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc IgraveAcirc UgraversaquoUgraveIumlOcirc ldquoSafe Computingin an Increasingly Hostile World Security 20rdquo AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacutemiddot˘IacuteEumlIgravecurrenOacuteEuml middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircEuml middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi UgraveOcirc UcircmacrAcircpermilEgravemiddotUcircIgravefi permilEgraveIcircUgraveDaggerˆOacute IcircmiddotEgrave AcircEcircmiddotUacuteIgraveOcircAacuteOgraveOacutefiOcirc˘ Euml middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger UgraveˆOacute UcircmacrAcircpermilEgravemiddotUcircUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IcircUacuteEgraveUgraveEumlUacutersaquoˆOacute

radic David Lacey UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ ldquoThe Future of InformationSecurity New Priorities New Skills and New TechnologiesrdquoAacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcircOacute middotOacutemiddotpermil˘fiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc IcircfiUcircIgraveOcirc fiOcirc˘ Ugravemiddot fiUacuteEgravemiddot IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger UgraveOcirc˘AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDagger IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ UacuteOcircUcircˆEgraveIcircOcircDagger AcircUacuteEgravesbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgraveOcirc˜IcircmiddotUgravemiddotUacuteAacuteOcircDaggerOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave fiOcirc˘ fiIumlOcircEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave fiIumlmiddot sbquoUacutersaquoUcircIcircOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircUgraveOcirc permilEgravemiddotpermilrsaquoIcircUgrave˘Ocirc

4 | wwwpliroforikiorg

IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEgrave˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ UacuteOcircIcircIumllsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ Ocirc˘ middot˘Ugravelsaquo Euml AcircIacutecurrenIumlEgraveIacuteEumlpermilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacuteAcircrsaquo

radic OcircbdquolsaquoEcircEgraveOcirc˜ permilEgravepermiliquestIcircUgraveˆUacute AtildeUacutersaquoUcircUgraveOcirc˜ paramiddotmiddotpermilEumlIgraveEumlUgraveUacutersaquoOcirc˘ middotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave currenOacutemiddotAcircOacutepermilEgravemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacute iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute UgraveAcircmacrOacuteEumlUgravelsaquo OacuteOcircEumlIgraveOcircUcircDaggerOacuteEuml IgraveAcirc UgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ldquoTo What Extend is the Turing Test Still Importantrdquo UcircUgraveOcirc OcircOcircrsaquoOcircmiddotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave middotOacutemiddotIumlDaggerAcircEgrave currenOacutemiddot OacuteOcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi AcircrsaquoUacutemiddotIgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘ Alan TuringAcircOacutefi˜ UacuteˆUgraveOcircfiUacuteOcirc˘ UcircUgraveOcirc macrOgraveUacuteOcirc

radic infinOacutepermilUacutecurrenmiddot˜ tradeOcircIumlOcircIgraveOcircDagger IcircmiddotEgrave Ocirc int˘UacuteEgraveiquestIcircOcirc˜ degAcircˆUacuteAacutersaquoOcirc˘ AcircIcirc UgraveˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacuteUgraveEuml˜ Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘˜ ldquoThe Role ofEffective Project Management in Project Success IdentifyingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factorsrdquo paraAcircUacuteEgraveAacuteUacuteiquestEcircOcirc˘OacuteUgraveEgrave˜ UacuteOcircIcircIumllsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgravemiddotmacrAcircrsaquoUacuteEgraveUcircEuml currenUacuteAacuteˆOacute IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘˜IcircUacutersaquoUcircEgraveIgraveOcirc˘˜ middotUacuteiquestAacuteOcircOacuteUgraveAcirc˜ Ocirc˘ IcircmiddotıOcircUacutersaquo˙Ocirc˘Oacute UgraveEumlOacute AcircEgraveUgrave˘macrrsaquomiddot AcircOacutefi˜ currenUacuteAacuteOcirc˘

prod currenIcircpermilOcircUcircEuml Ucirc˘IgraveIumlEumlUacuteOgraveOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgrave IgraveAcirc UgraveEuml IgravefiOacuteEgraveIgraveEuml UcircUgravelsaquoIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ centUacutemiddot ordmrsaquoIumlEgraveOcirc˘paraAcircIumlAcircUgraveEgravecurren ldquoDo you know this Manrdquo IgraveAcirc Igraversaquomiddot AcircIacutemiddotEgraveUacuteAcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo OacuteAcircIcircUacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddotmiddotEcircEgraveAcircUacuteˆIgravecurrenOacuteEuml UcircUgraveOcircOacute UgraveOcirc˘ Steven Jobs πpermilUacute˘Ugravelsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave centEgraveAcirc˘ıDaggerOacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddottradeDaggerIgravesbquoOcirc˘IumlOcirc UgraveEuml˜ Apple

partparaπsectradicdegradictrade

intmiddotıEumlIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveOacuteiquest AacuteEgraveOacutefiIgravemiddotUcircUgraveAcirc IgraveiquestUacuteUgrave˘UacuteAcirc˜ UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcirc IcircmiddotEgrave UcircUgraveEumlOacute partIumlIumliquestpermilmiddotUacuteˆUgravefiAacuteOacuteˆUacuteˆOacute IcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IcircmiddotUgravemiddotUcircUgraveiquestUcircAcircˆOacute IcircmiddotEgrave EcircmiddotEgraveOacuteOcircIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgravemiddot˜IcircmiddotEgrave AcircIacutemiddotıIumlrsaquoˆUcircEuml˜ Ocirc˘ permilAcircOacute currenmacrOcirc˘IgraveAcirc ˙lsaquoUcircAcircEgrave OcircDaggerUgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute AcircUacutersaquoOcircpermilOcirc UgraveEuml˜ΔOcirc˘UacuteIcircEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUcircsbquoOcircIumllsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc IcircmiddotIumlOcircIcircmiddotrsaquoUacuteEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ 1974 infinIcircfiIgraveEuml ˙OcircDaggerIgraveAcirc IgraveEgravemiddotcurrenIacutemiddotUacuteUcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircAacuteIcircIumllsaquoIgravemiddotUgraveOcirc˜ IcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot ˘fi UgraveEuml IgraveOcircUacuteEcirclsaquo IcircIumlOcircOgraveOacute IumlEumlUcircUgraveAcircEgraveOgraveOacute

IcircmiddotEgrave permilEgravemiddotUacuteUacutelsaquoIacuteAcircˆOacute middotfi middotOacuteıUacuteOgraveOcirc˘˜ Ocirc˘ permilAcircOacute currenmacrOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot UcircUgraveOcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveOgravepermilEumlIcircmiddotEgrave UacuteOcircUcircmiddotıOcircDaggerOacute IgraveAcirc middotUacuteiquestOacuteOcircIgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveUacutefiOcirc˘˜ Oacutemiddot IcircmiddotIumlDaggerbdquoOcirc˘Oacute UgraveEgrave˜middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircAcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute OcircEgraveIcircOcircAacuteAcircOacuteAcircEgraveOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ prod permil˘OacutemiddotUgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘ IcircUacuteiquestUgraveOcirc˘˜ IcircmiddotEgraveUgraveEuml˜ IcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacutersaquomiddot˜ AcircOacute AacutecurrenOacuteAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveˆrsaquoUcircOcirc˘Oacute middot˘Ugraveiquest Ugravemiddot EcircmiddotEgraveOacutefiIgraveAcircOacutemiddotEcircmiddotrsaquoOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircUacuteEgraveOcircUacuteEgraveUcircIgravecurrenOacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave middotOacutersaquoIcircmiddotOacuteEuml Oacutemiddot middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveˆrsaquoUcircAcircEgrave IgraveAcircAcirciquestUacuteIcircAcircEgravemiddot UgraveEgrave˜ UcircUgraveOcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveOgravepermilAcircEgrave˜ middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircAcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute Ucirc˘OacutemiddotOacuteıUacuteOgraveˆOacute Igravemiddot˜paraOcircIumlIumliquest ımiddot UacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot AacutersaquoOacuteOcirc˘Oacute IcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot middotfi IumlAcirc˘Uacuteiquest˜ EumlIgraveOgraveOacute UgraveˆOacuteOcircIumlEgraveUgraveOgraveOacute Ocirc˘ currenmacrOcirc˘IgraveAcirc UgraveEuml permil˘OacutemiddotUgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave ımiddot UacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot UcircUgravemiddotıOcircDaggerIgraveAcircmiddotUacuteˆAacuteOcircrsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ Ucirc˘OacutemiddotOacuteıUacuteOgraveOcirc˘˜ Igravemiddot˜ Ocirc˘ sbquoUacutersaquoUcircIcircOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave AacuteDaggerUacuteˆ Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveEumlAacuteAcircEgraveUgraveOcircOacuteEgraveiquest Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveEumlOacute IcircOcircEgraveOacutefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveOcirc permilEgraveIumlmiddotOacutefi Igravemiddot˜ UcircrsaquoUgraveEgrave ımiddotUacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot IcirciquestOacuteOcirc˘IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute EcircEgraveIumlmiddotOacuteıUacuteˆrsaquomiddot UacuteOcircUgraveAcircUacutemiddotEgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot

intmiddotEgrave fiUgravemiddotOacute OacuteOcircEgraveOgraveıAcircUgraveAcirc currenOacuteUgraveOcircOacutemiddot currenOacutemiddot middotrsaquoUcircıEumlIgravemiddot middotfiAacuteOacuteˆUcircEuml˜ IcircmiddotEgravemiddotpermilEgraveAcircIacutefipermilOcirc˘ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotıIumlEgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgravemiddot Ocirc˘ Igravemiddot˜ AcircUacuteEgravesbquoiquestIumlIumlAcircEgraveOacutemiddot EcirccurrenUacuteOacuteAcircUgraveAcirc UcircUgraveOcirc OacuteOcirc˘Oacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UcircUgraversaquomacrOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IgraveAcircAacuteiquestIumlOcirc˘ OcircEgraveEumlUgravelsaquo intˆUcircUgravelsaquoparamiddotIumlmiddotIgraveiquest (paraiquestUgraveUacutemiddot 13 πmiddotOacuteOcirc˘middotUacutersaquoOcirc˘ 1859 - infinılsaquoOacutemiddot 27 ordmAcircsbquoUacuteOcirc˘middotUacutersaquoOcirc˘1943) UcircUgraveOcirc centˆpermilAcircIcirciquestIumlOcircAacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ degDaggerEcircUgraveOcirc˘

intEgrave middotOacute currenUcircmiddotIgraveAcirc UcircAcirc currenUcircEgraveIgraveOcirc UacuteˆUgraveiquestIcircOcirc˘UcircUgraveOcircIcircmiddotEgrave UcircAcirc AacuteIcircUacuteAcircIgravefi IcircmiddotUgraveUacutemiddotIcirc˘IumllsaquoUcircmiddotIgraveAcircOcirc˘ EgraveOcirc sbquomiddotıDagger IcircmiddotIgraveEgraveiquest Ecirc˘Iumllsaquo permilAcircOacute AcircrsaquopermilAcirc ˆ˜ UgraveOgraveUacutemiddotAcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddotUgraversaquo IgraveAcirc UgraveˆOacute IcircmiddotEgraveUacuteOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc IumllsaquoUacuteˆIgravemiddotfiIgraveOcircEgravemiddot sbquomiddotıDagger AcircOacute middotOacutecurrensbquomiddotUcircIgravemiddot Igravemiddot˜ IgravecurrenIumlIumlAcircUgravemiddotEgraveUacuteOcirc˜ DaggerbdquoEuml Ocirc˘UacutemiddotOacuteOcircEcircfiUacutemiddot

wwwpliroforikiorg | 5

centπinfinordmprodordfπtradeΔpartπΔpart tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintprodcentEgravemiddotEcircEumlIgraversaquo˙OcircOacuteUgravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveOcirc AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircfi paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo UacuteOcircˆıAcircrsaquoUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ ˘EumlUacuteAcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Ugravemiddot UacuteOcircEgravefiOacuteUgravemiddot Ucircmiddot˜

UcircAcirc AcircUacuteEgraveUcircUcircfiUgraveAcircUacuteOcirc˘˜ middotfi 1000 middotOacutemiddotAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircUgraveAcirc˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravepermilEgraveIcircOcircrsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave EcircrsaquoIumlOcircEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddotparaIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ ΔAcircmacrOacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave partEgraveIcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacuteEgraveOgraveOacute UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcirc

degEgravemiddot IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquoAcirc˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirciquest IgraveAcirc UgraveEgraveIgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave IcircUacutemiddotUgravelsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot Igravemiddot˜ UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml AcircEgraveIcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacutelsaquoUcircUgraveAcircIgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute AgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteEuml centEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoˆOacute trademacrcurrenUcircAcircˆOacute UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDagger trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AtildeUacuteEgraveUcircUgraversaquoOacutemiddot

paramiddotmiddotIgraveEgraveIumlUgraveEgraveiquestpermilOcirc˘ UgraveEumlIuml 22460680email c_papamiltiadouccsorgcy

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email c_papamiltiadouccsorgcy

6 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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partintcentprodsectoslashtradepartπtrade CCS

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8 | wwwpliroforikiorg

tradeAgraveordfordfpartΔradicAtildeparttrade ECDLCCS

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Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ(1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

Dr Eugene Schultz a valued associate and dear friend passedaway on Sunday 2nd October 2011 I came to know Gene ashe preferred to be called back in 2004 when he accepted ourinvitation to be a presenter at the Cyprus Infosec conference Wehad heard so much about him and were pleasantly surprised thatsuch a renown and respected information security guru wouldshow so much interest in travelling all the way from the UnitedStates to visit our small island and enlighten us with hisknowledge and wisdom Getting to know him in person was aneven greater surprise with his humble character his wit anddelightful humour The feedback we received from the conferenceaudience as well as the participants at his workshop completelyconfirmed his high reputation and fellow members started askingfor more follow-on workshops from him

Genersquos wife Cathy had escorted him on that 2004 trip and Iremember her commenting that she came all the way from theUnited States to a small island in the Mediterranean only to findout she would stay 40 kilometres away from the beach Thatinnocent comment led to Cyprus Infosec 2005 being organisedin Limassol but unfortunately Gene could not make it due to othercommitments He did however manage to be with us in 2007 and

in 2009 and Cyprus Infosec was always pencilled-in in his yearlyplans

2009 was to become the last time Gene participated in CyprusInfosec He contacted us in early 2010 to agree on the 2011dates and he even suggested other information securitypresenters that he admired He had come to consider himself aspart of the team and cherished the time he spent in Cyprus withus This year he planned to talk about Cloud Security and presenta newly developed 2-day workshop on the subject However inSeptember his close associate Paul Underwood sent us aworrying email telling us that Gene would not be able to participatedue to a serious illness A blog was set up to inform his friendsand colleagues on his health status and through that his wifeCathy finally informed us of his passing away

As a tribute to Gene the Cyprus Infosec 2011 conference washeld on November 2nd 2011 in his memory

Yiannos AletrarisMember of the Cyprus Infosec Organising Committee

wwwpliroforikiorg | 9

DR EUGENE SCHULTZ IN BRIEF

Gene was born September 10 1946 in Chicago to E Eugene Srand Elizabeth Schultz He graduated from UCLA and earned hisMS and PhD (in Cognitive Science 1977) at Purdue University inIndiana

While at Purdue University Gene met and married Cathy BrownThey were married for 36 years and raised three daughters SarahRachel and Leah

Gene was an active member of Cornerstone Fellowship andbelonged to a menrsquos Bible study His many interests included familygoing to his mountain home in Twain Harte model trains musictravelling the outdoors history reading and sports

Gene was one of the more notableand accomplished figures incomputing security over the last fewdecades During the course of hiscareer Gene was professor ofcomputer science at severaluniversities including the Universityof California at Davis and PurdueUniversity and retired from theUniversity of California at Berkeley

He consulted for a wide range of clients including US and foreigngovernments and the banking petroleum and pharmaceuticalindustries He also managed several information security practicesand served as chief technology officer for two companies

Gene formed and managed the Computer Incident AdvisoryCapability (CIAC) mdash an incident response team for the USDepartment of Energy mdash from 1986ndash1992 This was the firstformal incident response team predating the CERTCC by severalyears He also was instrumental in the founding of FIRST mdash theForum of Incident Response amp Security Teams

During his 30 years of work in security Gene authored or co-authored over 120 papers and five books He was manager of theI4 program at SRI from 1994ndash1998 From 2002ndash2007 he was theEditor-in-Chief of Computers and Security mdash the oldest journal incomputing security mdash and continued to serve on its editorial boardGene was also an associate editor of Network Security He was amember of the accreditation board of the Institute of InformationSecurity Professionals (IISP)

Gene testified as an expert several times before both Senate andHouse Congressional Committees He also served as an expertadvisor to a number of companies and agencies Gene was acertified SANS instructor instructor for ISACA senior SANS analystmember of the SANS NewsBites editorial board and co-author ofthe 2005 and 2006 Certified Information Security Managerpreparation materials

Dr Schultz was honored numerous times for his research serviceand teaching Among his many notable awards Gene received theNASA Technical Excellence Award Department of EnergyExcellence Award the Vanguard Conference Top Gun Award (forbest presenter) twice the Vanguard Chairmans Award the ISACAJohn Kuyers Best SpeakerBest Conference Contributor Award andthe National Information Systems Security Conference Best PaperAward One of only a few Distinguished Fellows of the InformationSystems Security Association (ISSA) he was also named to theISSA Hall of Fame and received ISSAs Professional Achievementand Honor Roll Awards

At the time of his death Dr Schultz was the CTO of EmaginedSecurity an information security consultancy based in San CarlosCalifornia He held certifications as a CISM CISSP and GSLC

E Eugene Schultz Jr 10946ndash21011 Rest in Peace

10 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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12 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 13

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

14 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

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Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

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Στὸν κόσmicroο τῆς Κύπρου Μνήmicroη καὶ Ἀγάπη Κύπρον οὗ micro᾿ ἐθέσπισεν

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CYPRUS INFOSEC WEEK 2011

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Cyprus Infosec IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger UgraveOcirc˘ trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ Dr EugeneShultz oslash˜ AcircIcirc UgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ Euml AcircsbquopermilOcircIgraveiquestpermilmiddot lsaquoUgravemiddotOacute middotEcircEgraveAcircUacuteˆIgravecurrenOacuteEuml UcircUgraveEuml IgraveOacutelsaquoIgraveEumlUgraveOcirc˘ radic degEgraveiquestOacuteOacuteOcirc˜ infinIumlAcircUgraveUacuteiquestUacuteEuml˜ AcircIcirc IgravecurrenUacuteOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcirc˘ centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDaggertrade˘IgravesbquoOcirc˘IumlrsaquoOcirc˘ middotOcircmacrmiddotEgraveUacuteAcircUgraveiquest UgraveOcirc Gene IgraveAcirc currenOacutemiddot UcircDaggerOacuteUgraveOcircIgraveOcirc middotEcircEgravecurrenUacuteˆIgravemiddot UcircUgraveEumlOacute

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intmiddotUgraversquo middotUacutemacrlsaquoOacute Ocirc degEgraveiquestOacuteOacuteOcirc˜ infinIumlAcircUgraveUacuteiquestUacuteEuml˜ middotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave UgraveEuml OacuteAcircIcircUacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddot AacuteEgravemiddotUgraveOcirc IgravemiddotIcircUacuteOcircmacrUacutefiOacuteEgraveOcirc EcircrsaquoIumlOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcircfi Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacuteiquestUgraveEuml UgraveOcirc˘Cyprus Infosec UgraveOcircOacute Dr Eugene Shultz

radic paramiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacutersaquopermilEuml˜ paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDagger πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘partIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ (ISACA Cyprus Chapter)AacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute rsaquopermilUacute˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlUcircEumlIgravemiddotOacuteUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo middotOcircUcircUgraveOcircIumllsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEumlOacute middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute middot˘IacutemiddotOacutefiIgraveAcircOacuteˆOacuteIcircEgraveOacutepermilDaggerOacuteˆOacute UgraveˆOacute AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrˆOacute EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEuml˜OcircUacuteılsaquo˜ permilEgravemiddotIcirc˘sbquocurrenUacuteOacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveˆOacute trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircfiUgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜ IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜

radic Vernon Poole currenOacutemiddot˜ UgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcircfi˜ Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacuteiquestUgraveEuml˜ UcircUgravemiddot IumlmiddotrsaquoUcircEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘Infosec IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger permilrsaquoOacuteAcircEgrave Ucirc˘IgravesbquoOcirc˘Iumlcurren˜ UcircUgraveEgrave˜ permilEgraveAcirc˘ıDaggerOacuteUcircAcircEgrave˜IcircmiddotEgrave permilEgraveOcircEgraveIcirclsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ UgraveˆOacute OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOgraveOacute Ograve˜ Oacutemiddot macrAcircEgraveUacuteEgraveUcircUgraveOcircDaggerOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UacutefiIumlOcirc˘˜UgraveOcirc˘˜ UcircAcirc UcircmacrcurrenUcircEuml IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute permilEgravemiddotmacrAcircrsaquoUacuteEgraveUcircEuml UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IgraveAcirc UgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ ldquoGovernance of InformationSecurity amp Other Initiativesrdquo

O Dr Andrew Jones AacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc IgraveAcirc UgraversaquoUgraveIumlOcirc ldquoSafe Computingin an Increasingly Hostile World Security 20rdquo AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacutemiddot˘IacuteEumlIgravecurrenOacuteEuml middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircEuml middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi UgraveOcirc UcircmacrAcircpermilEgravemiddotUcircIgravefi permilEgraveIcircUgraveDaggerˆOacute IcircmiddotEgrave AcircEcircmiddotUacuteIgraveOcircAacuteOgraveOacutefiOcirc˘ Euml middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger UgraveˆOacute UcircmacrAcircpermilEgravemiddotUcircUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IcircUacuteEgraveUgraveEumlUacutersaquoˆOacute

radic David Lacey UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ ldquoThe Future of InformationSecurity New Priorities New Skills and New TechnologiesrdquoAacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcircOacute middotOacutemiddotpermil˘fiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc IcircfiUcircIgraveOcirc fiOcirc˘ Ugravemiddot fiUacuteEgravemiddot IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger UgraveOcirc˘AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDagger IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ UacuteOcircUcircˆEgraveIcircOcircDagger AcircUacuteEgravesbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgraveOcirc˜IcircmiddotUgravemiddotUacuteAacuteOcircDaggerOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave fiOcirc˘ fiIumlOcircEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave fiIumlmiddot sbquoUacutersaquoUcircIcircOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircUgraveOcirc permilEgravemiddotpermilrsaquoIcircUgrave˘Ocirc

4 | wwwpliroforikiorg

IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEgrave˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ UacuteOcircIcircIumllsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ Ocirc˘ middot˘Ugravelsaquo Euml AcircIacutecurrenIumlEgraveIacuteEumlpermilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacuteAcircrsaquo

radic OcircbdquolsaquoEcircEgraveOcirc˜ permilEgravepermiliquestIcircUgraveˆUacute AtildeUacutersaquoUcircUgraveOcirc˜ paramiddotmiddotpermilEumlIgraveEumlUgraveUacutersaquoOcirc˘ middotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave currenOacutemiddotAcircOacutepermilEgravemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacute iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute UgraveAcircmacrOacuteEumlUgravelsaquo OacuteOcircEumlIgraveOcircUcircDaggerOacuteEuml IgraveAcirc UgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ldquoTo What Extend is the Turing Test Still Importantrdquo UcircUgraveOcirc OcircOcircrsaquoOcircmiddotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave middotOacutemiddotIumlDaggerAcircEgrave currenOacutemiddot OacuteOcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi AcircrsaquoUacutemiddotIgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘ Alan TuringAcircOacutefi˜ UacuteˆUgraveOcircfiUacuteOcirc˘ UcircUgraveOcirc macrOgraveUacuteOcirc

radic infinOacutepermilUacutecurrenmiddot˜ tradeOcircIumlOcircIgraveOcircDagger IcircmiddotEgrave Ocirc int˘UacuteEgraveiquestIcircOcirc˜ degAcircˆUacuteAacutersaquoOcirc˘ AcircIcirc UgraveˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacuteUgraveEuml˜ Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘˜ ldquoThe Role ofEffective Project Management in Project Success IdentifyingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factorsrdquo paraAcircUacuteEgraveAacuteUacuteiquestEcircOcirc˘OacuteUgraveEgrave˜ UacuteOcircIcircIumllsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgravemiddotmacrAcircrsaquoUacuteEgraveUcircEuml currenUacuteAacuteˆOacute IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘˜IcircUacutersaquoUcircEgraveIgraveOcirc˘˜ middotUacuteiquestAacuteOcircOacuteUgraveAcirc˜ Ocirc˘ IcircmiddotıOcircUacutersaquo˙Ocirc˘Oacute UgraveEumlOacute AcircEgraveUgrave˘macrrsaquomiddot AcircOacutefi˜ currenUacuteAacuteOcirc˘

prod currenIcircpermilOcircUcircEuml Ucirc˘IgraveIumlEumlUacuteOgraveOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgrave IgraveAcirc UgraveEuml IgravefiOacuteEgraveIgraveEuml UcircUgravelsaquoIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ centUacutemiddot ordmrsaquoIumlEgraveOcirc˘paraAcircIumlAcircUgraveEgravecurren ldquoDo you know this Manrdquo IgraveAcirc Igraversaquomiddot AcircIacutemiddotEgraveUacuteAcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo OacuteAcircIcircUacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddotmiddotEcircEgraveAcircUacuteˆIgravecurrenOacuteEuml UcircUgraveOcircOacute UgraveOcirc˘ Steven Jobs πpermilUacute˘Ugravelsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave centEgraveAcirc˘ıDaggerOacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddottradeDaggerIgravesbquoOcirc˘IumlOcirc UgraveEuml˜ Apple

partparaπsectradicdegradictrade

intmiddotıEumlIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveOacuteiquest AacuteEgraveOacutefiIgravemiddotUcircUgraveAcirc IgraveiquestUacuteUgrave˘UacuteAcirc˜ UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcirc IcircmiddotEgrave UcircUgraveEumlOacute partIumlIumliquestpermilmiddotUacuteˆUgravefiAacuteOacuteˆUacuteˆOacute IcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IcircmiddotUgravemiddotUcircUgraveiquestUcircAcircˆOacute IcircmiddotEgrave EcircmiddotEgraveOacuteOcircIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgravemiddot˜IcircmiddotEgrave AcircIacutemiddotıIumlrsaquoˆUcircEuml˜ Ocirc˘ permilAcircOacute currenmacrOcirc˘IgraveAcirc ˙lsaquoUcircAcircEgrave OcircDaggerUgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute AcircUacutersaquoOcircpermilOcirc UgraveEuml˜ΔOcirc˘UacuteIcircEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUcircsbquoOcircIumllsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc IcircmiddotIumlOcircIcircmiddotrsaquoUacuteEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ 1974 infinIcircfiIgraveEuml ˙OcircDaggerIgraveAcirc IgraveEgravemiddotcurrenIacutemiddotUacuteUcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircAacuteIcircIumllsaquoIgravemiddotUgraveOcirc˜ IcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot ˘fi UgraveEuml IgraveOcircUacuteEcirclsaquo IcircIumlOcircOgraveOacute IumlEumlUcircUgraveAcircEgraveOgraveOacute

IcircmiddotEgrave permilEgravemiddotUacuteUacutelsaquoIacuteAcircˆOacute middotfi middotOacuteıUacuteOgraveOcirc˘˜ Ocirc˘ permilAcircOacute currenmacrOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot UcircUgraveOcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveOgravepermilEumlIcircmiddotEgrave UacuteOcircUcircmiddotıOcircDaggerOacute IgraveAcirc middotUacuteiquestOacuteOcircIgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveUacutefiOcirc˘˜ Oacutemiddot IcircmiddotIumlDaggerbdquoOcirc˘Oacute UgraveEgrave˜middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircAcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute OcircEgraveIcircOcircAacuteAcircOacuteAcircEgraveOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ prod permil˘OacutemiddotUgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘ IcircUacuteiquestUgraveOcirc˘˜ IcircmiddotEgraveUgraveEuml˜ IcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacutersaquomiddot˜ AcircOacute AacutecurrenOacuteAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveˆrsaquoUcircOcirc˘Oacute middot˘Ugraveiquest Ugravemiddot EcircmiddotEgraveOacutefiIgraveAcircOacutemiddotEcircmiddotrsaquoOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircUacuteEgraveOcircUacuteEgraveUcircIgravecurrenOacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave middotOacutersaquoIcircmiddotOacuteEuml Oacutemiddot middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveˆrsaquoUcircAcircEgrave IgraveAcircAcirciquestUacuteIcircAcircEgravemiddot UgraveEgrave˜ UcircUgraveOcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveOgravepermilAcircEgrave˜ middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircAcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute Ucirc˘OacutemiddotOacuteıUacuteOgraveˆOacute Igravemiddot˜paraOcircIumlIumliquest ımiddot UacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot AacutersaquoOacuteOcirc˘Oacute IcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot middotfi IumlAcirc˘Uacuteiquest˜ EumlIgraveOgraveOacute UgraveˆOacuteOcircIumlEgraveUgraveOgraveOacute Ocirc˘ currenmacrOcirc˘IgraveAcirc UgraveEuml permil˘OacutemiddotUgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave ımiddot UacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot UcircUgravemiddotıOcircDaggerIgraveAcircmiddotUacuteˆAacuteOcircrsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ Ucirc˘OacutemiddotOacuteıUacuteOgraveOcirc˘˜ Igravemiddot˜ Ocirc˘ sbquoUacutersaquoUcircIcircOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave AacuteDaggerUacuteˆ Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveEumlAacuteAcircEgraveUgraveOcircOacuteEgraveiquest Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveEumlOacute IcircOcircEgraveOacutefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveOcirc permilEgraveIumlmiddotOacutefi Igravemiddot˜ UcircrsaquoUgraveEgrave ımiddotUacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot IcirciquestOacuteOcirc˘IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute EcircEgraveIumlmiddotOacuteıUacuteˆrsaquomiddot UacuteOcircUgraveAcircUacutemiddotEgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot

intmiddotEgrave fiUgravemiddotOacute OacuteOcircEgraveOgraveıAcircUgraveAcirc currenOacuteUgraveOcircOacutemiddot currenOacutemiddot middotrsaquoUcircıEumlIgravemiddot middotfiAacuteOacuteˆUcircEuml˜ IcircmiddotEgravemiddotpermilEgraveAcircIacutefipermilOcirc˘ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotıIumlEgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgravemiddot Ocirc˘ Igravemiddot˜ AcircUacuteEgravesbquoiquestIumlIumlAcircEgraveOacutemiddot EcirccurrenUacuteOacuteAcircUgraveAcirc UcircUgraveOcirc OacuteOcirc˘Oacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UcircUgraversaquomacrOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IgraveAcircAacuteiquestIumlOcirc˘ OcircEgraveEumlUgravelsaquo intˆUcircUgravelsaquoparamiddotIumlmiddotIgraveiquest (paraiquestUgraveUacutemiddot 13 πmiddotOacuteOcirc˘middotUacutersaquoOcirc˘ 1859 - infinılsaquoOacutemiddot 27 ordmAcircsbquoUacuteOcirc˘middotUacutersaquoOcirc˘1943) UcircUgraveOcirc centˆpermilAcircIcirciquestIumlOcircAacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ degDaggerEcircUgraveOcirc˘

intEgrave middotOacute currenUcircmiddotIgraveAcirc UcircAcirc currenUcircEgraveIgraveOcirc UacuteˆUgraveiquestIcircOcirc˘UcircUgraveOcircIcircmiddotEgrave UcircAcirc AacuteIcircUacuteAcircIgravefi IcircmiddotUgraveUacutemiddotIcirc˘IumllsaquoUcircmiddotIgraveAcircOcirc˘ EgraveOcirc sbquomiddotıDagger IcircmiddotIgraveEgraveiquest Ecirc˘Iumllsaquo permilAcircOacute AcircrsaquopermilAcirc ˆ˜ UgraveOgraveUacutemiddotAcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddotUgraversaquo IgraveAcirc UgraveˆOacute IcircmiddotEgraveUacuteOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc IumllsaquoUacuteˆIgravemiddotfiIgraveOcircEgravemiddot sbquomiddotıDagger AcircOacute middotOacutecurrensbquomiddotUcircIgravemiddot Igravemiddot˜ IgravecurrenIumlIumlAcircUgravemiddotEgraveUacuteOcirc˜ DaggerbdquoEuml Ocirc˘UacutemiddotOacuteOcircEcircfiUacutemiddot

wwwpliroforikiorg | 5

centπinfinordmprodordfπtradeΔpartπΔpart tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintprodcentEgravemiddotEcircEumlIgraversaquo˙OcircOacuteUgravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveOcirc AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircfi paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo UacuteOcircˆıAcircrsaquoUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ ˘EumlUacuteAcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Ugravemiddot UacuteOcircEgravefiOacuteUgravemiddot Ucircmiddot˜

UcircAcirc AcircUacuteEgraveUcircUcircfiUgraveAcircUacuteOcirc˘˜ middotfi 1000 middotOacutemiddotAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircUgraveAcirc˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravepermilEgraveIcircOcircrsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave EcircrsaquoIumlOcircEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddotparaIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ ΔAcircmacrOacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave partEgraveIcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacuteEgraveOgraveOacute UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcirc

degEgravemiddot IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquoAcirc˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirciquest IgraveAcirc UgraveEgraveIgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave IcircUacutemiddotUgravelsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot Igravemiddot˜ UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml AcircEgraveIcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacutelsaquoUcircUgraveAcircIgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute AgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteEuml centEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoˆOacute trademacrcurrenUcircAcircˆOacute UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDagger trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AtildeUacuteEgraveUcircUgraversaquoOacutemiddot

paramiddotmiddotIgraveEgraveIumlUgraveEgraveiquestpermilOcirc˘ UgraveEumlIuml 22460680email c_papamiltiadouccsorgcy

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email c_papamiltiadouccsorgcy

6 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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partintcentprodsectoslashtradepartπtrade CCS

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8 | wwwpliroforikiorg

tradeAgraveordfordfpartΔradicAtildeparttrade ECDLCCS

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Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ(1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

Dr Eugene Schultz a valued associate and dear friend passedaway on Sunday 2nd October 2011 I came to know Gene ashe preferred to be called back in 2004 when he accepted ourinvitation to be a presenter at the Cyprus Infosec conference Wehad heard so much about him and were pleasantly surprised thatsuch a renown and respected information security guru wouldshow so much interest in travelling all the way from the UnitedStates to visit our small island and enlighten us with hisknowledge and wisdom Getting to know him in person was aneven greater surprise with his humble character his wit anddelightful humour The feedback we received from the conferenceaudience as well as the participants at his workshop completelyconfirmed his high reputation and fellow members started askingfor more follow-on workshops from him

Genersquos wife Cathy had escorted him on that 2004 trip and Iremember her commenting that she came all the way from theUnited States to a small island in the Mediterranean only to findout she would stay 40 kilometres away from the beach Thatinnocent comment led to Cyprus Infosec 2005 being organisedin Limassol but unfortunately Gene could not make it due to othercommitments He did however manage to be with us in 2007 and

in 2009 and Cyprus Infosec was always pencilled-in in his yearlyplans

2009 was to become the last time Gene participated in CyprusInfosec He contacted us in early 2010 to agree on the 2011dates and he even suggested other information securitypresenters that he admired He had come to consider himself aspart of the team and cherished the time he spent in Cyprus withus This year he planned to talk about Cloud Security and presenta newly developed 2-day workshop on the subject However inSeptember his close associate Paul Underwood sent us aworrying email telling us that Gene would not be able to participatedue to a serious illness A blog was set up to inform his friendsand colleagues on his health status and through that his wifeCathy finally informed us of his passing away

As a tribute to Gene the Cyprus Infosec 2011 conference washeld on November 2nd 2011 in his memory

Yiannos AletrarisMember of the Cyprus Infosec Organising Committee

wwwpliroforikiorg | 9

DR EUGENE SCHULTZ IN BRIEF

Gene was born September 10 1946 in Chicago to E Eugene Srand Elizabeth Schultz He graduated from UCLA and earned hisMS and PhD (in Cognitive Science 1977) at Purdue University inIndiana

While at Purdue University Gene met and married Cathy BrownThey were married for 36 years and raised three daughters SarahRachel and Leah

Gene was an active member of Cornerstone Fellowship andbelonged to a menrsquos Bible study His many interests included familygoing to his mountain home in Twain Harte model trains musictravelling the outdoors history reading and sports

Gene was one of the more notableand accomplished figures incomputing security over the last fewdecades During the course of hiscareer Gene was professor ofcomputer science at severaluniversities including the Universityof California at Davis and PurdueUniversity and retired from theUniversity of California at Berkeley

He consulted for a wide range of clients including US and foreigngovernments and the banking petroleum and pharmaceuticalindustries He also managed several information security practicesand served as chief technology officer for two companies

Gene formed and managed the Computer Incident AdvisoryCapability (CIAC) mdash an incident response team for the USDepartment of Energy mdash from 1986ndash1992 This was the firstformal incident response team predating the CERTCC by severalyears He also was instrumental in the founding of FIRST mdash theForum of Incident Response amp Security Teams

During his 30 years of work in security Gene authored or co-authored over 120 papers and five books He was manager of theI4 program at SRI from 1994ndash1998 From 2002ndash2007 he was theEditor-in-Chief of Computers and Security mdash the oldest journal incomputing security mdash and continued to serve on its editorial boardGene was also an associate editor of Network Security He was amember of the accreditation board of the Institute of InformationSecurity Professionals (IISP)

Gene testified as an expert several times before both Senate andHouse Congressional Committees He also served as an expertadvisor to a number of companies and agencies Gene was acertified SANS instructor instructor for ISACA senior SANS analystmember of the SANS NewsBites editorial board and co-author ofthe 2005 and 2006 Certified Information Security Managerpreparation materials

Dr Schultz was honored numerous times for his research serviceand teaching Among his many notable awards Gene received theNASA Technical Excellence Award Department of EnergyExcellence Award the Vanguard Conference Top Gun Award (forbest presenter) twice the Vanguard Chairmans Award the ISACAJohn Kuyers Best SpeakerBest Conference Contributor Award andthe National Information Systems Security Conference Best PaperAward One of only a few Distinguished Fellows of the InformationSystems Security Association (ISSA) he was also named to theISSA Hall of Fame and received ISSAs Professional Achievementand Honor Roll Awards

At the time of his death Dr Schultz was the CTO of EmaginedSecurity an information security consultancy based in San CarlosCalifornia He held certifications as a CISM CISSP and GSLC

E Eugene Schultz Jr 10946ndash21011 Rest in Peace

10 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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12 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 13

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

14 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

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Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

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HARRY S TRUMAN (1884 ndash 1972)THE BUCK STOPS HERE

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CYPRUS INFOSEC WEEK 2011

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Cyprus Infosec IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger UgraveOcirc˘ trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ Dr EugeneShultz oslash˜ AcircIcirc UgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ Euml AcircsbquopermilOcircIgraveiquestpermilmiddot lsaquoUgravemiddotOacute middotEcircEgraveAcircUacuteˆIgravecurrenOacuteEuml UcircUgraveEuml IgraveOacutelsaquoIgraveEumlUgraveOcirc˘ radic degEgraveiquestOacuteOacuteOcirc˜ infinIumlAcircUgraveUacuteiquestUacuteEuml˜ AcircIcirc IgravecurrenUacuteOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcirc˘ centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDaggertrade˘IgravesbquoOcirc˘IumlrsaquoOcirc˘ middotOcircmacrmiddotEgraveUacuteAcircUgraveiquest UgraveOcirc Gene IgraveAcirc currenOacutemiddot UcircDaggerOacuteUgraveOcircIgraveOcirc middotEcircEgravecurrenUacuteˆIgravemiddot UcircUgraveEumlOacute

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intmiddotUgraversquo middotUacutemacrlsaquoOacute Ocirc degEgraveiquestOacuteOacuteOcirc˜ infinIumlAcircUgraveUacuteiquestUacuteEuml˜ middotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave UgraveEuml OacuteAcircIcircUacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddot AacuteEgravemiddotUgraveOcirc IgravemiddotIcircUacuteOcircmacrUacutefiOacuteEgraveOcirc EcircrsaquoIumlOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcircfi Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacuteiquestUgraveEuml UgraveOcirc˘Cyprus Infosec UgraveOcircOacute Dr Eugene Shultz

radic paramiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacutersaquopermilEuml˜ paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDagger πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘partIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ (ISACA Cyprus Chapter)AacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute rsaquopermilUacute˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlUcircEumlIgravemiddotOacuteUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo middotOcircUcircUgraveOcircIumllsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEumlOacute middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute middot˘IacutemiddotOacutefiIgraveAcircOacuteˆOacuteIcircEgraveOacutepermilDaggerOacuteˆOacute UgraveˆOacute AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrˆOacute EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEuml˜OcircUacuteılsaquo˜ permilEgravemiddotIcirc˘sbquocurrenUacuteOacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveˆOacute trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircfiUgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜ IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜

radic Vernon Poole currenOacutemiddot˜ UgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcircfi˜ Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacuteiquestUgraveEuml˜ UcircUgravemiddot IumlmiddotrsaquoUcircEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘Infosec IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger permilrsaquoOacuteAcircEgrave Ucirc˘IgravesbquoOcirc˘Iumlcurren˜ UcircUgraveEgrave˜ permilEgraveAcirc˘ıDaggerOacuteUcircAcircEgrave˜IcircmiddotEgrave permilEgraveOcircEgraveIcirclsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ UgraveˆOacute OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOgraveOacute Ograve˜ Oacutemiddot macrAcircEgraveUacuteEgraveUcircUgraveOcircDaggerOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UacutefiIumlOcirc˘˜UgraveOcirc˘˜ UcircAcirc UcircmacrcurrenUcircEuml IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute permilEgravemiddotmacrAcircrsaquoUacuteEgraveUcircEuml UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IgraveAcirc UgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ ldquoGovernance of InformationSecurity amp Other Initiativesrdquo

O Dr Andrew Jones AacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc IgraveAcirc UgraversaquoUgraveIumlOcirc ldquoSafe Computingin an Increasingly Hostile World Security 20rdquo AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacutemiddot˘IacuteEumlIgravecurrenOacuteEuml middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircEuml middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi UgraveOcirc UcircmacrAcircpermilEgravemiddotUcircIgravefi permilEgraveIcircUgraveDaggerˆOacute IcircmiddotEgrave AcircEcircmiddotUacuteIgraveOcircAacuteOgraveOacutefiOcirc˘ Euml middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger UgraveˆOacute UcircmacrAcircpermilEgravemiddotUcircUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IcircUacuteEgraveUgraveEumlUacutersaquoˆOacute

radic David Lacey UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ ldquoThe Future of InformationSecurity New Priorities New Skills and New TechnologiesrdquoAacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcircOacute middotOacutemiddotpermil˘fiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc IcircfiUcircIgraveOcirc fiOcirc˘ Ugravemiddot fiUacuteEgravemiddot IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger UgraveOcirc˘AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDagger IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ UacuteOcircUcircˆEgraveIcircOcircDagger AcircUacuteEgravesbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgraveOcirc˜IcircmiddotUgravemiddotUacuteAacuteOcircDaggerOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave fiOcirc˘ fiIumlOcircEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave fiIumlmiddot sbquoUacutersaquoUcircIcircOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircUgraveOcirc permilEgravemiddotpermilrsaquoIcircUgrave˘Ocirc

4 | wwwpliroforikiorg

IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEgrave˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ UacuteOcircIcircIumllsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ Ocirc˘ middot˘Ugravelsaquo Euml AcircIacutecurrenIumlEgraveIacuteEumlpermilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacuteAcircrsaquo

radic OcircbdquolsaquoEcircEgraveOcirc˜ permilEgravepermiliquestIcircUgraveˆUacute AtildeUacutersaquoUcircUgraveOcirc˜ paramiddotmiddotpermilEumlIgraveEumlUgraveUacutersaquoOcirc˘ middotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave currenOacutemiddotAcircOacutepermilEgravemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacute iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute UgraveAcircmacrOacuteEumlUgravelsaquo OacuteOcircEumlIgraveOcircUcircDaggerOacuteEuml IgraveAcirc UgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ldquoTo What Extend is the Turing Test Still Importantrdquo UcircUgraveOcirc OcircOcircrsaquoOcircmiddotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave middotOacutemiddotIumlDaggerAcircEgrave currenOacutemiddot OacuteOcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi AcircrsaquoUacutemiddotIgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘ Alan TuringAcircOacutefi˜ UacuteˆUgraveOcircfiUacuteOcirc˘ UcircUgraveOcirc macrOgraveUacuteOcirc

radic infinOacutepermilUacutecurrenmiddot˜ tradeOcircIumlOcircIgraveOcircDagger IcircmiddotEgrave Ocirc int˘UacuteEgraveiquestIcircOcirc˜ degAcircˆUacuteAacutersaquoOcirc˘ AcircIcirc UgraveˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacuteUgraveEuml˜ Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘˜ ldquoThe Role ofEffective Project Management in Project Success IdentifyingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factorsrdquo paraAcircUacuteEgraveAacuteUacuteiquestEcircOcirc˘OacuteUgraveEgrave˜ UacuteOcircIcircIumllsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgravemiddotmacrAcircrsaquoUacuteEgraveUcircEuml currenUacuteAacuteˆOacute IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘˜IcircUacutersaquoUcircEgraveIgraveOcirc˘˜ middotUacuteiquestAacuteOcircOacuteUgraveAcirc˜ Ocirc˘ IcircmiddotıOcircUacutersaquo˙Ocirc˘Oacute UgraveEumlOacute AcircEgraveUgrave˘macrrsaquomiddot AcircOacutefi˜ currenUacuteAacuteOcirc˘

prod currenIcircpermilOcircUcircEuml Ucirc˘IgraveIumlEumlUacuteOgraveOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgrave IgraveAcirc UgraveEuml IgravefiOacuteEgraveIgraveEuml UcircUgravelsaquoIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ centUacutemiddot ordmrsaquoIumlEgraveOcirc˘paraAcircIumlAcircUgraveEgravecurren ldquoDo you know this Manrdquo IgraveAcirc Igraversaquomiddot AcircIacutemiddotEgraveUacuteAcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo OacuteAcircIcircUacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddotmiddotEcircEgraveAcircUacuteˆIgravecurrenOacuteEuml UcircUgraveOcircOacute UgraveOcirc˘ Steven Jobs πpermilUacute˘Ugravelsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave centEgraveAcirc˘ıDaggerOacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddottradeDaggerIgravesbquoOcirc˘IumlOcirc UgraveEuml˜ Apple

partparaπsectradicdegradictrade

intmiddotıEumlIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveOacuteiquest AacuteEgraveOacutefiIgravemiddotUcircUgraveAcirc IgraveiquestUacuteUgrave˘UacuteAcirc˜ UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcirc IcircmiddotEgrave UcircUgraveEumlOacute partIumlIumliquestpermilmiddotUacuteˆUgravefiAacuteOacuteˆUacuteˆOacute IcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IcircmiddotUgravemiddotUcircUgraveiquestUcircAcircˆOacute IcircmiddotEgrave EcircmiddotEgraveOacuteOcircIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgravemiddot˜IcircmiddotEgrave AcircIacutemiddotıIumlrsaquoˆUcircEuml˜ Ocirc˘ permilAcircOacute currenmacrOcirc˘IgraveAcirc ˙lsaquoUcircAcircEgrave OcircDaggerUgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute AcircUacutersaquoOcircpermilOcirc UgraveEuml˜ΔOcirc˘UacuteIcircEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUcircsbquoOcircIumllsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc IcircmiddotIumlOcircIcircmiddotrsaquoUacuteEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ 1974 infinIcircfiIgraveEuml ˙OcircDaggerIgraveAcirc IgraveEgravemiddotcurrenIacutemiddotUacuteUcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircAacuteIcircIumllsaquoIgravemiddotUgraveOcirc˜ IcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot ˘fi UgraveEuml IgraveOcircUacuteEcirclsaquo IcircIumlOcircOgraveOacute IumlEumlUcircUgraveAcircEgraveOgraveOacute

IcircmiddotEgrave permilEgravemiddotUacuteUacutelsaquoIacuteAcircˆOacute middotfi middotOacuteıUacuteOgraveOcirc˘˜ Ocirc˘ permilAcircOacute currenmacrOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot UcircUgraveOcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveOgravepermilEumlIcircmiddotEgrave UacuteOcircUcircmiddotıOcircDaggerOacute IgraveAcirc middotUacuteiquestOacuteOcircIgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveUacutefiOcirc˘˜ Oacutemiddot IcircmiddotIumlDaggerbdquoOcirc˘Oacute UgraveEgrave˜middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircAcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute OcircEgraveIcircOcircAacuteAcircOacuteAcircEgraveOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ prod permil˘OacutemiddotUgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘ IcircUacuteiquestUgraveOcirc˘˜ IcircmiddotEgraveUgraveEuml˜ IcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacutersaquomiddot˜ AcircOacute AacutecurrenOacuteAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveˆrsaquoUcircOcirc˘Oacute middot˘Ugraveiquest Ugravemiddot EcircmiddotEgraveOacutefiIgraveAcircOacutemiddotEcircmiddotrsaquoOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircUacuteEgraveOcircUacuteEgraveUcircIgravecurrenOacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave middotOacutersaquoIcircmiddotOacuteEuml Oacutemiddot middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveˆrsaquoUcircAcircEgrave IgraveAcircAcirciquestUacuteIcircAcircEgravemiddot UgraveEgrave˜ UcircUgraveOcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveOgravepermilAcircEgrave˜ middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircAcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute Ucirc˘OacutemiddotOacuteıUacuteOgraveˆOacute Igravemiddot˜paraOcircIumlIumliquest ımiddot UacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot AacutersaquoOacuteOcirc˘Oacute IcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot middotfi IumlAcirc˘Uacuteiquest˜ EumlIgraveOgraveOacute UgraveˆOacuteOcircIumlEgraveUgraveOgraveOacute Ocirc˘ currenmacrOcirc˘IgraveAcirc UgraveEuml permil˘OacutemiddotUgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave ımiddot UacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot UcircUgravemiddotıOcircDaggerIgraveAcircmiddotUacuteˆAacuteOcircrsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ Ucirc˘OacutemiddotOacuteıUacuteOgraveOcirc˘˜ Igravemiddot˜ Ocirc˘ sbquoUacutersaquoUcircIcircOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave AacuteDaggerUacuteˆ Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveEumlAacuteAcircEgraveUgraveOcircOacuteEgraveiquest Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveEumlOacute IcircOcircEgraveOacutefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot Igravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveOcirc permilEgraveIumlmiddotOacutefi Igravemiddot˜ UcircrsaquoUgraveEgrave ımiddotUacutecurrenAcircEgrave Oacutemiddot IcirciquestOacuteOcirc˘IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute EcircEgraveIumlmiddotOacuteıUacuteˆrsaquomiddot UacuteOcircUgraveAcircUacutemiddotEgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot

intmiddotEgrave fiUgravemiddotOacute OacuteOcircEgraveOgraveıAcircUgraveAcirc currenOacuteUgraveOcircOacutemiddot currenOacutemiddot middotrsaquoUcircıEumlIgravemiddot middotfiAacuteOacuteˆUcircEuml˜ IcircmiddotEgravemiddotpermilEgraveAcircIacutefipermilOcirc˘ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotıIumlEgravefiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgravemiddot Ocirc˘ Igravemiddot˜ AcircUacuteEgravesbquoiquestIumlIumlAcircEgraveOacutemiddot EcirccurrenUacuteOacuteAcircUgraveAcirc UcircUgraveOcirc OacuteOcirc˘Oacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UcircUgraversaquomacrOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IgraveAcircAacuteiquestIumlOcirc˘ OcircEgraveEumlUgravelsaquo intˆUcircUgravelsaquoparamiddotIumlmiddotIgraveiquest (paraiquestUgraveUacutemiddot 13 πmiddotOacuteOcirc˘middotUacutersaquoOcirc˘ 1859 - infinılsaquoOacutemiddot 27 ordmAcircsbquoUacuteOcirc˘middotUacutersaquoOcirc˘1943) UcircUgraveOcirc centˆpermilAcircIcirciquestIumlOcircAacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ degDaggerEcircUgraveOcirc˘

intEgrave middotOacute currenUcircmiddotIgraveAcirc UcircAcirc currenUcircEgraveIgraveOcirc UacuteˆUgraveiquestIcircOcirc˘UcircUgraveOcircIcircmiddotEgrave UcircAcirc AacuteIcircUacuteAcircIgravefi IcircmiddotUgraveUacutemiddotIcirc˘IumllsaquoUcircmiddotIgraveAcircOcirc˘ EgraveOcirc sbquomiddotıDagger IcircmiddotIgraveEgraveiquest Ecirc˘Iumllsaquo permilAcircOacute AcircrsaquopermilAcirc ˆ˜ UgraveOgraveUacutemiddotAcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddotUgraversaquo IgraveAcirc UgraveˆOacute IcircmiddotEgraveUacuteOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc IumllsaquoUacuteˆIgravemiddotfiIgraveOcircEgravemiddot sbquomiddotıDagger AcircOacute middotOacutecurrensbquomiddotUcircIgravemiddot Igravemiddot˜ IgravecurrenIumlIumlAcircUgravemiddotEgraveUacuteOcirc˜ DaggerbdquoEuml Ocirc˘UacutemiddotOacuteOcircEcircfiUacutemiddot

wwwpliroforikiorg | 5

centπinfinordmprodordfπtradeΔpartπΔpart tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintprodcentEgravemiddotEcircEumlIgraversaquo˙OcircOacuteUgravemiddot˜ UcircUgraveOcirc AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircfi paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo UacuteOcircˆıAcircrsaquoUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ ˘EumlUacuteAcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Ugravemiddot UacuteOcircEgravefiOacuteUgravemiddot Ucircmiddot˜

UcircAcirc AcircUacuteEgraveUcircUcircfiUgraveAcircUacuteOcirc˘˜ middotfi 1000 middotOacutemiddotAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircUgraveAcirc˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravepermilEgraveIcircOcircrsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave EcircrsaquoIumlOcircEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddotparaIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ ΔAcircmacrOacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave partEgraveIcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacuteEgraveOgraveOacute UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcirc

degEgravemiddot IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquoAcirc˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirciquest IgraveAcirc UgraveEgraveIgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave IcircUacutemiddotUgravelsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot Igravemiddot˜ UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml AcircEgraveIcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacutelsaquoUcircUgraveAcircIgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute AgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteEuml centEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoˆOacute trademacrcurrenUcircAcircˆOacute UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDagger trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AtildeUacuteEgraveUcircUgraversaquoOacutemiddot

paramiddotmiddotIgraveEgraveIumlUgraveEgraveiquestpermilOcirc˘ UgraveEumlIuml 22460680email c_papamiltiadouccsorgcy

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email c_papamiltiadouccsorgcy

6 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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partintcentprodsectoslashtradepartπtrade CCS

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8 | wwwpliroforikiorg

tradeAgraveordfordfpartΔradicAtildeparttrade ECDLCCS

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Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ(1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

Dr Eugene Schultz a valued associate and dear friend passedaway on Sunday 2nd October 2011 I came to know Gene ashe preferred to be called back in 2004 when he accepted ourinvitation to be a presenter at the Cyprus Infosec conference Wehad heard so much about him and were pleasantly surprised thatsuch a renown and respected information security guru wouldshow so much interest in travelling all the way from the UnitedStates to visit our small island and enlighten us with hisknowledge and wisdom Getting to know him in person was aneven greater surprise with his humble character his wit anddelightful humour The feedback we received from the conferenceaudience as well as the participants at his workshop completelyconfirmed his high reputation and fellow members started askingfor more follow-on workshops from him

Genersquos wife Cathy had escorted him on that 2004 trip and Iremember her commenting that she came all the way from theUnited States to a small island in the Mediterranean only to findout she would stay 40 kilometres away from the beach Thatinnocent comment led to Cyprus Infosec 2005 being organisedin Limassol but unfortunately Gene could not make it due to othercommitments He did however manage to be with us in 2007 and

in 2009 and Cyprus Infosec was always pencilled-in in his yearlyplans

2009 was to become the last time Gene participated in CyprusInfosec He contacted us in early 2010 to agree on the 2011dates and he even suggested other information securitypresenters that he admired He had come to consider himself aspart of the team and cherished the time he spent in Cyprus withus This year he planned to talk about Cloud Security and presenta newly developed 2-day workshop on the subject However inSeptember his close associate Paul Underwood sent us aworrying email telling us that Gene would not be able to participatedue to a serious illness A blog was set up to inform his friendsand colleagues on his health status and through that his wifeCathy finally informed us of his passing away

As a tribute to Gene the Cyprus Infosec 2011 conference washeld on November 2nd 2011 in his memory

Yiannos AletrarisMember of the Cyprus Infosec Organising Committee

wwwpliroforikiorg | 9

DR EUGENE SCHULTZ IN BRIEF

Gene was born September 10 1946 in Chicago to E Eugene Srand Elizabeth Schultz He graduated from UCLA and earned hisMS and PhD (in Cognitive Science 1977) at Purdue University inIndiana

While at Purdue University Gene met and married Cathy BrownThey were married for 36 years and raised three daughters SarahRachel and Leah

Gene was an active member of Cornerstone Fellowship andbelonged to a menrsquos Bible study His many interests included familygoing to his mountain home in Twain Harte model trains musictravelling the outdoors history reading and sports

Gene was one of the more notableand accomplished figures incomputing security over the last fewdecades During the course of hiscareer Gene was professor ofcomputer science at severaluniversities including the Universityof California at Davis and PurdueUniversity and retired from theUniversity of California at Berkeley

He consulted for a wide range of clients including US and foreigngovernments and the banking petroleum and pharmaceuticalindustries He also managed several information security practicesand served as chief technology officer for two companies

Gene formed and managed the Computer Incident AdvisoryCapability (CIAC) mdash an incident response team for the USDepartment of Energy mdash from 1986ndash1992 This was the firstformal incident response team predating the CERTCC by severalyears He also was instrumental in the founding of FIRST mdash theForum of Incident Response amp Security Teams

During his 30 years of work in security Gene authored or co-authored over 120 papers and five books He was manager of theI4 program at SRI from 1994ndash1998 From 2002ndash2007 he was theEditor-in-Chief of Computers and Security mdash the oldest journal incomputing security mdash and continued to serve on its editorial boardGene was also an associate editor of Network Security He was amember of the accreditation board of the Institute of InformationSecurity Professionals (IISP)

Gene testified as an expert several times before both Senate andHouse Congressional Committees He also served as an expertadvisor to a number of companies and agencies Gene was acertified SANS instructor instructor for ISACA senior SANS analystmember of the SANS NewsBites editorial board and co-author ofthe 2005 and 2006 Certified Information Security Managerpreparation materials

Dr Schultz was honored numerous times for his research serviceand teaching Among his many notable awards Gene received theNASA Technical Excellence Award Department of EnergyExcellence Award the Vanguard Conference Top Gun Award (forbest presenter) twice the Vanguard Chairmans Award the ISACAJohn Kuyers Best SpeakerBest Conference Contributor Award andthe National Information Systems Security Conference Best PaperAward One of only a few Distinguished Fellows of the InformationSystems Security Association (ISSA) he was also named to theISSA Hall of Fame and received ISSAs Professional Achievementand Honor Roll Awards

At the time of his death Dr Schultz was the CTO of EmaginedSecurity an information security consultancy based in San CarlosCalifornia He held certifications as a CISM CISSP and GSLC

E Eugene Schultz Jr 10946ndash21011 Rest in Peace

10 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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12 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 13

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

14 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

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Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

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CYPRUS INFOSEC WEEK 2011

ΔOcircOacute AcircUacutemiddotUcircIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc radicIcircUgraveOgravesbquoUacuteEgraveOcirc Ocirc tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacutemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot IgraveAcirc UgraveOcircparamiddotOacuteAcircEgraveUcircUgravelsaquoIgraveEgraveOcirc sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot˜ OcircUacuteAacuteiquestOacuteˆUcircmiddotOacute UgraveEumlOacute AcircsbquopermilOcircIgraveiquestpermilmiddot CyprusInfosec 2011 Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot AcircUacuteEgraveAcircIumliquestIgravesbquomiddotOacuteAcirc AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcirciquest UcircAcircIgraveEgraveOacuteiquestUacuteEgravemiddotIcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc IcircmiddotıEgraveAcircUacuteˆIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc IgraveOcircOacuteOcirclsaquoIgraveAcircUacuteOcirc Ucirc˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc prod AcircsbquopermilOcircIgraveiquestpermilmiddotUacuteOcircUcirccurrenEcircAcircUacuteAcirc currenOacutemiddot IumlOcircDaggerUcircEgraveOcirc UacutefiAacuteUacutemiddotIgraveIgravemiddot IgraveAcirc OcircIumlIumliquest IcircmiddotEgrave permilEgravemiddotEcircOcircUacuteAcircUgraveEgraveIcirciquestıcurrenIgravemiddotUgravemiddot AcircUacuteEgraveIumlmiddotIgravesbquomiddotOacuteOcircIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ ldquoIcircmiddot˘UgraveOcircDaggerrdquo ıcurrenIgravemiddotUgraveOcirc˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜UcircUgraveOcirc ldquocloudrdquo paramiddotUacutefiIumlOcirc UgraveOcirc permilDaggerUcircIcircOcircIumlOcirc OcircEgraveIcircOcircOacuteOcircIgraveEgraveIcircfi AcircUacuteEgravesbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacute EumlAcircsbquopermilOcircIgraveiquestpermilmiddot IcircDaggerIumlEgraveUcircAcirc OcircIgravemiddotIumliquest IcircmiddotEgrave lsaquoUgravemiddotOacute AcircEgraveUgrave˘macrlsaquo˜ tradeUgravemiddot IumlmiddotrsaquoUcircEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘Ucirc˘OacuteAcircpermilUacutersaquoOcirc˘ currenAacuteEgraveOacuteAcirc AacuteEgravemiddot UacuteOgraveUgraveEuml EcircOcircUacuteiquest middotUacuteOcirc˘UcircrsaquomiddotUcircEuml IgravecurrenUcircˆUgraveEumlIumlAcircpermilEgraveiquestUcircIcircAcircbdquoEuml˜ IcircmiddotUgraveiquest UgraveEumlOacute OcircOcircrsaquomiddot Ocirc ldquoAacuteIcircOcirc˘UacuteOcircDaggerrdquo Mr WinnSchwartau IgraversaquoIumlEumlUcircAcirc middotfi UgraveEgrave˜ prodparainfin AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot EcircIumlcurrenAacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddot ıcurrenIgravemiddotUgravemiddot UcircUgraveOcircOacuteUgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ Ocirc˘ UgraveOcircOacute IcircUacutemiddotUgraveOcircDaggerOacute ldquoIacuteDaggerOacuteEgraveOcirc Ugravemiddot sbquoUacuteiquestpermilEgravemiddotrdquo tradeUgravemiddotpermil˘UcirciquestUacuteAcircUcircUgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘ Cyprus Infosec 2011 Ucirc˘IgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIumlmiddotIgravesbquoiquestOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgrave OcircmiddotpermilfiIcircEumlUgraveOcirc˜ macrmiddotIgravefi˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IgravemiddotIcircUacuteOcircmacrUacutefiOacuteEgraveOcirc˘ Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacuteiquestUgraveEuml UgraveOcirc˘ poundAcircUcircIgraveOcircDagger

Cyprus Infosec IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger UgraveOcirc˘ trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ Dr EugeneShultz oslash˜ AcircIcirc UgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ Euml AcircsbquopermilOcircIgraveiquestpermilmiddot lsaquoUgravemiddotOacute middotEcircEgraveAcircUacuteˆIgravecurrenOacuteEuml UcircUgraveEuml IgraveOacutelsaquoIgraveEumlUgraveOcirc˘ radic degEgraveiquestOacuteOacuteOcirc˜ infinIumlAcircUgraveUacuteiquestUacuteEuml˜ AcircIcirc IgravecurrenUacuteOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcirc˘ centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDaggertrade˘IgravesbquoOcirc˘IumlrsaquoOcirc˘ middotOcircmacrmiddotEgraveUacuteAcircUgraveiquest UgraveOcirc Gene IgraveAcirc currenOacutemiddot UcircDaggerOacuteUgraveOcircIgraveOcirc middotEcircEgravecurrenUacuteˆIgravemiddot UcircUgraveEumlOacute

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intmiddotUgraversquo middotUacutemacrlsaquoOacute Ocirc degEgraveiquestOacuteOacuteOcirc˜ infinIumlAcircUgraveUacuteiquestUacuteEuml˜ middotUacuteOcirc˘UcircEgraveiquest˙AcircEgrave UgraveEuml OacuteAcircIcircUacuteOcircIumlOcircAacutersaquomiddot AacuteEgravemiddotUgraveOcirc IgravemiddotIcircUacuteOcircmacrUacutefiOacuteEgraveOcirc EcircrsaquoIumlOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ trade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcircfi Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacuteiquestUgraveEuml UgraveOcirc˘Cyprus Infosec UgraveOcircOacute Dr Eugene Shultz

radic paramiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacutersaquopermilEuml˜ paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDagger πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘partIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ (ISACA Cyprus Chapter)AacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute rsaquopermilUacute˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlUcircEumlIgravemiddotOacuteUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo middotOcircUcircUgraveOcircIumllsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEumlOacute middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute middot˘IacutemiddotOacutefiIgraveAcircOacuteˆOacuteIcircEgraveOacutepermilDaggerOacuteˆOacute UgraveˆOacute AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrˆOacute EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEuml˜OcircUacuteılsaquo˜ permilEgravemiddotIcirc˘sbquocurrenUacuteOacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveˆOacute trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircfiUgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜ IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜

radic Vernon Poole currenOacutemiddot˜ UgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcircfi˜ Ucirc˘OacuteAcircUacuteAacuteiquestUgraveEuml˜ UcircUgravemiddot IumlmiddotrsaquoUcircEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘Infosec IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger permilrsaquoOacuteAcircEgrave Ucirc˘IgravesbquoOcirc˘Iumlcurren˜ UcircUgraveEgrave˜ permilEgraveAcirc˘ıDaggerOacuteUcircAcircEgrave˜IcircmiddotEgrave permilEgraveOcircEgraveIcirclsaquoUcircAcircEgrave˜ UgraveˆOacute OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOgraveOacute Ograve˜ Oacutemiddot macrAcircEgraveUacuteEgraveUcircUgraveOcircDaggerOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UacutefiIumlOcirc˘˜UgraveOcirc˘˜ UcircAcirc UcircmacrcurrenUcircEuml IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute permilEgravemiddotmacrAcircrsaquoUacuteEgraveUcircEuml UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IgraveAcirc UgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ ldquoGovernance of InformationSecurity amp Other Initiativesrdquo

O Dr Andrew Jones AacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc IgraveAcirc UgraversaquoUgraveIumlOcirc ldquoSafe Computingin an Increasingly Hostile World Security 20rdquo AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacutemiddot˘IacuteEumlIgravecurrenOacuteEuml middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircEuml middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot˜ UgraveEuml˜IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi UgraveOcirc UcircmacrAcircpermilEgravemiddotUcircIgravefi permilEgraveIcircUgraveDaggerˆOacute IcircmiddotEgrave AcircEcircmiddotUacuteIgraveOcircAacuteOgraveOacutefiOcirc˘ Euml middotUcircEcirciquestIumlAcircEgravemiddot AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger UgraveˆOacute UcircmacrAcircpermilEgravemiddotUcircUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IcircUacuteEgraveUgraveEumlUacutersaquoˆOacute

radic David Lacey UcircUgraveOcirc iquestUacuteıUacuteOcirc UgraveOcirc˘ ldquoThe Future of InformationSecurity New Priorities New Skills and New TechnologiesrdquoAacuteUacuteiquestEcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcircOacute middotOacutemiddotpermil˘fiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc IcircfiUcircIgraveOcirc fiOcirc˘ Ugravemiddot fiUacuteEgravemiddot IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger UgraveOcirc˘AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDagger IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ UacuteOcircUcircˆEgraveIcircOcircDagger AcircUacuteEgravesbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgraveOcirc˜IcircmiddotUgravemiddotUacuteAacuteOcircDaggerOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave fiOcirc˘ fiIumlOcircEgrave IcircmiddotEgrave fiIumlmiddot sbquoUacutersaquoUcircIcircOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircUgraveOcirc permilEgravemiddotpermilrsaquoIcircUgrave˘Ocirc

4 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 5

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paramiddotmiddotIgraveEgraveIumlUgraveEgraveiquestpermilOcirc˘ UgraveEumlIuml 22460680email c_papamiltiadouccsorgcy

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6 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 7

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8 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ(1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

Dr Eugene Schultz a valued associate and dear friend passedaway on Sunday 2nd October 2011 I came to know Gene ashe preferred to be called back in 2004 when he accepted ourinvitation to be a presenter at the Cyprus Infosec conference Wehad heard so much about him and were pleasantly surprised thatsuch a renown and respected information security guru wouldshow so much interest in travelling all the way from the UnitedStates to visit our small island and enlighten us with hisknowledge and wisdom Getting to know him in person was aneven greater surprise with his humble character his wit anddelightful humour The feedback we received from the conferenceaudience as well as the participants at his workshop completelyconfirmed his high reputation and fellow members started askingfor more follow-on workshops from him

Genersquos wife Cathy had escorted him on that 2004 trip and Iremember her commenting that she came all the way from theUnited States to a small island in the Mediterranean only to findout she would stay 40 kilometres away from the beach Thatinnocent comment led to Cyprus Infosec 2005 being organisedin Limassol but unfortunately Gene could not make it due to othercommitments He did however manage to be with us in 2007 and

in 2009 and Cyprus Infosec was always pencilled-in in his yearlyplans

2009 was to become the last time Gene participated in CyprusInfosec He contacted us in early 2010 to agree on the 2011dates and he even suggested other information securitypresenters that he admired He had come to consider himself aspart of the team and cherished the time he spent in Cyprus withus This year he planned to talk about Cloud Security and presenta newly developed 2-day workshop on the subject However inSeptember his close associate Paul Underwood sent us aworrying email telling us that Gene would not be able to participatedue to a serious illness A blog was set up to inform his friendsand colleagues on his health status and through that his wifeCathy finally informed us of his passing away

As a tribute to Gene the Cyprus Infosec 2011 conference washeld on November 2nd 2011 in his memory

Yiannos AletrarisMember of the Cyprus Infosec Organising Committee

wwwpliroforikiorg | 9

DR EUGENE SCHULTZ IN BRIEF

Gene was born September 10 1946 in Chicago to E Eugene Srand Elizabeth Schultz He graduated from UCLA and earned hisMS and PhD (in Cognitive Science 1977) at Purdue University inIndiana

While at Purdue University Gene met and married Cathy BrownThey were married for 36 years and raised three daughters SarahRachel and Leah

Gene was an active member of Cornerstone Fellowship andbelonged to a menrsquos Bible study His many interests included familygoing to his mountain home in Twain Harte model trains musictravelling the outdoors history reading and sports

Gene was one of the more notableand accomplished figures incomputing security over the last fewdecades During the course of hiscareer Gene was professor ofcomputer science at severaluniversities including the Universityof California at Davis and PurdueUniversity and retired from theUniversity of California at Berkeley

He consulted for a wide range of clients including US and foreigngovernments and the banking petroleum and pharmaceuticalindustries He also managed several information security practicesand served as chief technology officer for two companies

Gene formed and managed the Computer Incident AdvisoryCapability (CIAC) mdash an incident response team for the USDepartment of Energy mdash from 1986ndash1992 This was the firstformal incident response team predating the CERTCC by severalyears He also was instrumental in the founding of FIRST mdash theForum of Incident Response amp Security Teams

During his 30 years of work in security Gene authored or co-authored over 120 papers and five books He was manager of theI4 program at SRI from 1994ndash1998 From 2002ndash2007 he was theEditor-in-Chief of Computers and Security mdash the oldest journal incomputing security mdash and continued to serve on its editorial boardGene was also an associate editor of Network Security He was amember of the accreditation board of the Institute of InformationSecurity Professionals (IISP)

Gene testified as an expert several times before both Senate andHouse Congressional Committees He also served as an expertadvisor to a number of companies and agencies Gene was acertified SANS instructor instructor for ISACA senior SANS analystmember of the SANS NewsBites editorial board and co-author ofthe 2005 and 2006 Certified Information Security Managerpreparation materials

Dr Schultz was honored numerous times for his research serviceand teaching Among his many notable awards Gene received theNASA Technical Excellence Award Department of EnergyExcellence Award the Vanguard Conference Top Gun Award (forbest presenter) twice the Vanguard Chairmans Award the ISACAJohn Kuyers Best SpeakerBest Conference Contributor Award andthe National Information Systems Security Conference Best PaperAward One of only a few Distinguished Fellows of the InformationSystems Security Association (ISSA) he was also named to theISSA Hall of Fame and received ISSAs Professional Achievementand Honor Roll Awards

At the time of his death Dr Schultz was the CTO of EmaginedSecurity an information security consultancy based in San CarlosCalifornia He held certifications as a CISM CISSP and GSLC

E Eugene Schultz Jr 10946ndash21011 Rest in Peace

10 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

16 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 17

Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

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Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

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paramiddotmiddotIgraveEgraveIumlUgraveEgraveiquestpermilOcirc˘ UgraveEumlIuml 22460680email c_papamiltiadouccsorgcy

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8 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ(1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

Dr Eugene Schultz a valued associate and dear friend passedaway on Sunday 2nd October 2011 I came to know Gene ashe preferred to be called back in 2004 when he accepted ourinvitation to be a presenter at the Cyprus Infosec conference Wehad heard so much about him and were pleasantly surprised thatsuch a renown and respected information security guru wouldshow so much interest in travelling all the way from the UnitedStates to visit our small island and enlighten us with hisknowledge and wisdom Getting to know him in person was aneven greater surprise with his humble character his wit anddelightful humour The feedback we received from the conferenceaudience as well as the participants at his workshop completelyconfirmed his high reputation and fellow members started askingfor more follow-on workshops from him

Genersquos wife Cathy had escorted him on that 2004 trip and Iremember her commenting that she came all the way from theUnited States to a small island in the Mediterranean only to findout she would stay 40 kilometres away from the beach Thatinnocent comment led to Cyprus Infosec 2005 being organisedin Limassol but unfortunately Gene could not make it due to othercommitments He did however manage to be with us in 2007 and

in 2009 and Cyprus Infosec was always pencilled-in in his yearlyplans

2009 was to become the last time Gene participated in CyprusInfosec He contacted us in early 2010 to agree on the 2011dates and he even suggested other information securitypresenters that he admired He had come to consider himself aspart of the team and cherished the time he spent in Cyprus withus This year he planned to talk about Cloud Security and presenta newly developed 2-day workshop on the subject However inSeptember his close associate Paul Underwood sent us aworrying email telling us that Gene would not be able to participatedue to a serious illness A blog was set up to inform his friendsand colleagues on his health status and through that his wifeCathy finally informed us of his passing away

As a tribute to Gene the Cyprus Infosec 2011 conference washeld on November 2nd 2011 in his memory

Yiannos AletrarisMember of the Cyprus Infosec Organising Committee

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DR EUGENE SCHULTZ IN BRIEF

Gene was born September 10 1946 in Chicago to E Eugene Srand Elizabeth Schultz He graduated from UCLA and earned hisMS and PhD (in Cognitive Science 1977) at Purdue University inIndiana

While at Purdue University Gene met and married Cathy BrownThey were married for 36 years and raised three daughters SarahRachel and Leah

Gene was an active member of Cornerstone Fellowship andbelonged to a menrsquos Bible study His many interests included familygoing to his mountain home in Twain Harte model trains musictravelling the outdoors history reading and sports

Gene was one of the more notableand accomplished figures incomputing security over the last fewdecades During the course of hiscareer Gene was professor ofcomputer science at severaluniversities including the Universityof California at Davis and PurdueUniversity and retired from theUniversity of California at Berkeley

He consulted for a wide range of clients including US and foreigngovernments and the banking petroleum and pharmaceuticalindustries He also managed several information security practicesand served as chief technology officer for two companies

Gene formed and managed the Computer Incident AdvisoryCapability (CIAC) mdash an incident response team for the USDepartment of Energy mdash from 1986ndash1992 This was the firstformal incident response team predating the CERTCC by severalyears He also was instrumental in the founding of FIRST mdash theForum of Incident Response amp Security Teams

During his 30 years of work in security Gene authored or co-authored over 120 papers and five books He was manager of theI4 program at SRI from 1994ndash1998 From 2002ndash2007 he was theEditor-in-Chief of Computers and Security mdash the oldest journal incomputing security mdash and continued to serve on its editorial boardGene was also an associate editor of Network Security He was amember of the accreditation board of the Institute of InformationSecurity Professionals (IISP)

Gene testified as an expert several times before both Senate andHouse Congressional Committees He also served as an expertadvisor to a number of companies and agencies Gene was acertified SANS instructor instructor for ISACA senior SANS analystmember of the SANS NewsBites editorial board and co-author ofthe 2005 and 2006 Certified Information Security Managerpreparation materials

Dr Schultz was honored numerous times for his research serviceand teaching Among his many notable awards Gene received theNASA Technical Excellence Award Department of EnergyExcellence Award the Vanguard Conference Top Gun Award (forbest presenter) twice the Vanguard Chairmans Award the ISACAJohn Kuyers Best SpeakerBest Conference Contributor Award andthe National Information Systems Security Conference Best PaperAward One of only a few Distinguished Fellows of the InformationSystems Security Association (ISSA) he was also named to theISSA Hall of Fame and received ISSAs Professional Achievementand Honor Roll Awards

At the time of his death Dr Schultz was the CTO of EmaginedSecurity an information security consultancy based in San CarlosCalifornia He held certifications as a CISM CISSP and GSLC

E Eugene Schultz Jr 10946ndash21011 Rest in Peace

10 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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tradeUgraveEgrave˜ 5 iexclOcircAcircIgravesbquoUacutersaquoOcirc˘ 2009 permilEgraveAcircIacutelsaquomacrıEuml Euml 1Euml paramiddotAacuteIcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot πpermilUacute˘UgraveEgraveIcirclsaquodegAcircOacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo trade˘OacutecurrenIumlAcirc˘UcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveiquestUacuteIcircAcircEgravemiddot UgraveEuml˜ OcircOcircrsaquomiddot˜

ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

intAgraveparaƒπinfinintO πiexcltradeΔπΔradicYΔradicpartsectEdegAtilderadicAgrave tradeAgravetradeΔprodordfAΔoslashiexclparasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHtradeparamiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacuteEgravepermilEuml˜

AcircIacuteAcircIumlcurrenAacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc AcircOacuteEgravemiddotIgraveAcircIumlcurren˜ centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi trade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc ΔOcirc centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfitrade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc AcircEgravepermilEgraveOgraveIcircAcircEgrave IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi UgraveEgrave˜ permilUacutemiddotUcircUgraveEumlUacuteEgravefiUgraveEumlUgraveAcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircIumllsaquoUacuteˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute middotIcircOcircIumlOcircDaggerıˆOacute UcircUgravefimacrˆOacute

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircmiddotrsaquopermilAcirc˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute permilEgraveiquestmacr˘UcircEuml AacuteOacuteOgraveUcircAcircˆOacute UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveEuml˜AcircEgraveıAcircOgraveUacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ UgraveˆOacutetrade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute ˘EgraveOcircıcurrenUgraveEumlUcircEuml AcircAcircIacuteAcircUacuteAacutemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircEgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacutemiddotUacutemacrOgraveOacute IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml UgraveAcircmacrOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacute UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute OcircUacuteılsaquoUacutemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave AcircOacutersaquoUcircmacr˘UcircEuml UgraveEuml˜ currenUacuteAcirc˘Oacutemiddot˜ UcircOcirc˘permillsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircEuml˜ Ocirc˘ middotEcircOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ middotIumlIumliquest IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml UgraveˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute middotmiddotUacutemiddotrsaquoUgraveEumlUgraveEumlUgraveAcircmacrOacuteOcircAacuteOacuteˆUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircfiUgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveEumlOacute Acirc˘UacuteDaggerUgraveAcircUacuteEuml AcircEgraveIgravefiUacuteEcircˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteUcircUgraveAcircIumlAcircmacrOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircOacuteEumlIgravecurrenUacuteˆUcircEuml ˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave middotUacuteOcircmacrlsaquo IcirciquestıAcirc permil˘OacutemiddotUgravelsaquo˜sbquoOcirclsaquoıAcircEgravemiddot˜ UcircUgravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotfiIcircUgraveEumlUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteAcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgravelsaquoUcircAcircˆOacute OcircEgrave OcircOcircrsaquoAcirc˜ middotUacutecurrenmacrOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave middotfiUgraveOcircOacute ISACA

CISA (Certified Information Systems Auditor) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 70000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 1978

CISM (Certified Information Security Manager) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 10000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 2002

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CRISC (Certified in Risk and Information Systems Control)IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacute UgraveˆOacute 1000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacutecurrenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UcircUgraveEgrave˜ middotUacutemacrcurren˜ UgraveOcirc˘ 2010

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

16 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 17

Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

6 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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8 | wwwpliroforikiorg

tradeAgraveordfordfpartΔradicAtildeparttrade ECDLCCS

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Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ(1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

Dr Eugene Schultz a valued associate and dear friend passedaway on Sunday 2nd October 2011 I came to know Gene ashe preferred to be called back in 2004 when he accepted ourinvitation to be a presenter at the Cyprus Infosec conference Wehad heard so much about him and were pleasantly surprised thatsuch a renown and respected information security guru wouldshow so much interest in travelling all the way from the UnitedStates to visit our small island and enlighten us with hisknowledge and wisdom Getting to know him in person was aneven greater surprise with his humble character his wit anddelightful humour The feedback we received from the conferenceaudience as well as the participants at his workshop completelyconfirmed his high reputation and fellow members started askingfor more follow-on workshops from him

Genersquos wife Cathy had escorted him on that 2004 trip and Iremember her commenting that she came all the way from theUnited States to a small island in the Mediterranean only to findout she would stay 40 kilometres away from the beach Thatinnocent comment led to Cyprus Infosec 2005 being organisedin Limassol but unfortunately Gene could not make it due to othercommitments He did however manage to be with us in 2007 and

in 2009 and Cyprus Infosec was always pencilled-in in his yearlyplans

2009 was to become the last time Gene participated in CyprusInfosec He contacted us in early 2010 to agree on the 2011dates and he even suggested other information securitypresenters that he admired He had come to consider himself aspart of the team and cherished the time he spent in Cyprus withus This year he planned to talk about Cloud Security and presenta newly developed 2-day workshop on the subject However inSeptember his close associate Paul Underwood sent us aworrying email telling us that Gene would not be able to participatedue to a serious illness A blog was set up to inform his friendsand colleagues on his health status and through that his wifeCathy finally informed us of his passing away

As a tribute to Gene the Cyprus Infosec 2011 conference washeld on November 2nd 2011 in his memory

Yiannos AletrarisMember of the Cyprus Infosec Organising Committee

wwwpliroforikiorg | 9

DR EUGENE SCHULTZ IN BRIEF

Gene was born September 10 1946 in Chicago to E Eugene Srand Elizabeth Schultz He graduated from UCLA and earned hisMS and PhD (in Cognitive Science 1977) at Purdue University inIndiana

While at Purdue University Gene met and married Cathy BrownThey were married for 36 years and raised three daughters SarahRachel and Leah

Gene was an active member of Cornerstone Fellowship andbelonged to a menrsquos Bible study His many interests included familygoing to his mountain home in Twain Harte model trains musictravelling the outdoors history reading and sports

Gene was one of the more notableand accomplished figures incomputing security over the last fewdecades During the course of hiscareer Gene was professor ofcomputer science at severaluniversities including the Universityof California at Davis and PurdueUniversity and retired from theUniversity of California at Berkeley

He consulted for a wide range of clients including US and foreigngovernments and the banking petroleum and pharmaceuticalindustries He also managed several information security practicesand served as chief technology officer for two companies

Gene formed and managed the Computer Incident AdvisoryCapability (CIAC) mdash an incident response team for the USDepartment of Energy mdash from 1986ndash1992 This was the firstformal incident response team predating the CERTCC by severalyears He also was instrumental in the founding of FIRST mdash theForum of Incident Response amp Security Teams

During his 30 years of work in security Gene authored or co-authored over 120 papers and five books He was manager of theI4 program at SRI from 1994ndash1998 From 2002ndash2007 he was theEditor-in-Chief of Computers and Security mdash the oldest journal incomputing security mdash and continued to serve on its editorial boardGene was also an associate editor of Network Security He was amember of the accreditation board of the Institute of InformationSecurity Professionals (IISP)

Gene testified as an expert several times before both Senate andHouse Congressional Committees He also served as an expertadvisor to a number of companies and agencies Gene was acertified SANS instructor instructor for ISACA senior SANS analystmember of the SANS NewsBites editorial board and co-author ofthe 2005 and 2006 Certified Information Security Managerpreparation materials

Dr Schultz was honored numerous times for his research serviceand teaching Among his many notable awards Gene received theNASA Technical Excellence Award Department of EnergyExcellence Award the Vanguard Conference Top Gun Award (forbest presenter) twice the Vanguard Chairmans Award the ISACAJohn Kuyers Best SpeakerBest Conference Contributor Award andthe National Information Systems Security Conference Best PaperAward One of only a few Distinguished Fellows of the InformationSystems Security Association (ISSA) he was also named to theISSA Hall of Fame and received ISSAs Professional Achievementand Honor Roll Awards

At the time of his death Dr Schultz was the CTO of EmaginedSecurity an information security consultancy based in San CarlosCalifornia He held certifications as a CISM CISSP and GSLC

E Eugene Schultz Jr 10946ndash21011 Rest in Peace

10 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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12 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 13

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

14 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

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Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 7

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Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ(1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

Dr Eugene Schultz a valued associate and dear friend passedaway on Sunday 2nd October 2011 I came to know Gene ashe preferred to be called back in 2004 when he accepted ourinvitation to be a presenter at the Cyprus Infosec conference Wehad heard so much about him and were pleasantly surprised thatsuch a renown and respected information security guru wouldshow so much interest in travelling all the way from the UnitedStates to visit our small island and enlighten us with hisknowledge and wisdom Getting to know him in person was aneven greater surprise with his humble character his wit anddelightful humour The feedback we received from the conferenceaudience as well as the participants at his workshop completelyconfirmed his high reputation and fellow members started askingfor more follow-on workshops from him

Genersquos wife Cathy had escorted him on that 2004 trip and Iremember her commenting that she came all the way from theUnited States to a small island in the Mediterranean only to findout she would stay 40 kilometres away from the beach Thatinnocent comment led to Cyprus Infosec 2005 being organisedin Limassol but unfortunately Gene could not make it due to othercommitments He did however manage to be with us in 2007 and

in 2009 and Cyprus Infosec was always pencilled-in in his yearlyplans

2009 was to become the last time Gene participated in CyprusInfosec He contacted us in early 2010 to agree on the 2011dates and he even suggested other information securitypresenters that he admired He had come to consider himself aspart of the team and cherished the time he spent in Cyprus withus This year he planned to talk about Cloud Security and presenta newly developed 2-day workshop on the subject However inSeptember his close associate Paul Underwood sent us aworrying email telling us that Gene would not be able to participatedue to a serious illness A blog was set up to inform his friendsand colleagues on his health status and through that his wifeCathy finally informed us of his passing away

As a tribute to Gene the Cyprus Infosec 2011 conference washeld on November 2nd 2011 in his memory

Yiannos AletrarisMember of the Cyprus Infosec Organising Committee

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DR EUGENE SCHULTZ IN BRIEF

Gene was born September 10 1946 in Chicago to E Eugene Srand Elizabeth Schultz He graduated from UCLA and earned hisMS and PhD (in Cognitive Science 1977) at Purdue University inIndiana

While at Purdue University Gene met and married Cathy BrownThey were married for 36 years and raised three daughters SarahRachel and Leah

Gene was an active member of Cornerstone Fellowship andbelonged to a menrsquos Bible study His many interests included familygoing to his mountain home in Twain Harte model trains musictravelling the outdoors history reading and sports

Gene was one of the more notableand accomplished figures incomputing security over the last fewdecades During the course of hiscareer Gene was professor ofcomputer science at severaluniversities including the Universityof California at Davis and PurdueUniversity and retired from theUniversity of California at Berkeley

He consulted for a wide range of clients including US and foreigngovernments and the banking petroleum and pharmaceuticalindustries He also managed several information security practicesand served as chief technology officer for two companies

Gene formed and managed the Computer Incident AdvisoryCapability (CIAC) mdash an incident response team for the USDepartment of Energy mdash from 1986ndash1992 This was the firstformal incident response team predating the CERTCC by severalyears He also was instrumental in the founding of FIRST mdash theForum of Incident Response amp Security Teams

During his 30 years of work in security Gene authored or co-authored over 120 papers and five books He was manager of theI4 program at SRI from 1994ndash1998 From 2002ndash2007 he was theEditor-in-Chief of Computers and Security mdash the oldest journal incomputing security mdash and continued to serve on its editorial boardGene was also an associate editor of Network Security He was amember of the accreditation board of the Institute of InformationSecurity Professionals (IISP)

Gene testified as an expert several times before both Senate andHouse Congressional Committees He also served as an expertadvisor to a number of companies and agencies Gene was acertified SANS instructor instructor for ISACA senior SANS analystmember of the SANS NewsBites editorial board and co-author ofthe 2005 and 2006 Certified Information Security Managerpreparation materials

Dr Schultz was honored numerous times for his research serviceand teaching Among his many notable awards Gene received theNASA Technical Excellence Award Department of EnergyExcellence Award the Vanguard Conference Top Gun Award (forbest presenter) twice the Vanguard Chairmans Award the ISACAJohn Kuyers Best SpeakerBest Conference Contributor Award andthe National Information Systems Security Conference Best PaperAward One of only a few Distinguished Fellows of the InformationSystems Security Association (ISSA) he was also named to theISSA Hall of Fame and received ISSAs Professional Achievementand Honor Roll Awards

At the time of his death Dr Schultz was the CTO of EmaginedSecurity an information security consultancy based in San CarlosCalifornia He held certifications as a CISM CISSP and GSLC

E Eugene Schultz Jr 10946ndash21011 Rest in Peace

10 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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tradeUgraveEgrave˜ 5 iexclOcircAcircIgravesbquoUacutersaquoOcirc˘ 2009 permilEgraveAcircIacutelsaquomacrıEuml Euml 1Euml paramiddotAacuteIcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot πpermilUacute˘UgraveEgraveIcirclsaquodegAcircOacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo trade˘OacutecurrenIumlAcirc˘UcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveiquestUacuteIcircAcircEgravemiddot UgraveEuml˜ OcircOcircrsaquomiddot˜

ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

intAgraveparaƒπinfinintO πiexcltradeΔπΔradicYΔradicpartsectEdegAtilderadicAgrave tradeAgravetradeΔprodordfAΔoslashiexclparasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHtradeparamiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacuteEgravepermilEuml˜

AcircIacuteAcircIumlcurrenAacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc AcircOacuteEgravemiddotIgraveAcircIumlcurren˜ centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi trade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc ΔOcirc centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfitrade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc AcircEgravepermilEgraveOgraveIcircAcircEgrave IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi UgraveEgrave˜ permilUacutemiddotUcircUgraveEumlUacuteEgravefiUgraveEumlUgraveAcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircIumllsaquoUacuteˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute middotIcircOcircIumlOcircDaggerıˆOacute UcircUgravefimacrˆOacute

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircmiddotrsaquopermilAcirc˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute permilEgraveiquestmacr˘UcircEuml AacuteOacuteOgraveUcircAcircˆOacute UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveEuml˜AcircEgraveıAcircOgraveUacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ UgraveˆOacutetrade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute ˘EgraveOcircıcurrenUgraveEumlUcircEuml AcircAcircIacuteAcircUacuteAacutemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircEgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacutemiddotUacutemacrOgraveOacute IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml UgraveAcircmacrOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacute UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute OcircUacuteılsaquoUacutemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave AcircOacutersaquoUcircmacr˘UcircEuml UgraveEuml˜ currenUacuteAcirc˘Oacutemiddot˜ UcircOcirc˘permillsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircEuml˜ Ocirc˘ middotEcircOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ middotIumlIumliquest IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml UgraveˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute middotmiddotUacutemiddotrsaquoUgraveEumlUgraveEumlUgraveAcircmacrOacuteOcircAacuteOacuteˆUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircfiUgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveEumlOacute Acirc˘UacuteDaggerUgraveAcircUacuteEuml AcircEgraveIgravefiUacuteEcircˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteUcircUgraveAcircIumlAcircmacrOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircOacuteEumlIgravecurrenUacuteˆUcircEuml ˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave middotUacuteOcircmacrlsaquo IcirciquestıAcirc permil˘OacutemiddotUgravelsaquo˜sbquoOcirclsaquoıAcircEgravemiddot˜ UcircUgravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotfiIcircUgraveEumlUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteAcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgravelsaquoUcircAcircˆOacute OcircEgrave OcircOcircrsaquoAcirc˜ middotUacutecurrenmacrOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave middotfiUgraveOcircOacute ISACA

CISA (Certified Information Systems Auditor) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 70000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 1978

CISM (Certified Information Security Manager) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 10000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 2002

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CRISC (Certified in Risk and Information Systems Control)IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacute UgraveˆOacute 1000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacutecurrenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UcircUgraveEgrave˜ middotUacutemacrcurren˜ UgraveOcirc˘ 2010

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

16 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 17

Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

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8 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ(1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

Dr Eugene Schultz a valued associate and dear friend passedaway on Sunday 2nd October 2011 I came to know Gene ashe preferred to be called back in 2004 when he accepted ourinvitation to be a presenter at the Cyprus Infosec conference Wehad heard so much about him and were pleasantly surprised thatsuch a renown and respected information security guru wouldshow so much interest in travelling all the way from the UnitedStates to visit our small island and enlighten us with hisknowledge and wisdom Getting to know him in person was aneven greater surprise with his humble character his wit anddelightful humour The feedback we received from the conferenceaudience as well as the participants at his workshop completelyconfirmed his high reputation and fellow members started askingfor more follow-on workshops from him

Genersquos wife Cathy had escorted him on that 2004 trip and Iremember her commenting that she came all the way from theUnited States to a small island in the Mediterranean only to findout she would stay 40 kilometres away from the beach Thatinnocent comment led to Cyprus Infosec 2005 being organisedin Limassol but unfortunately Gene could not make it due to othercommitments He did however manage to be with us in 2007 and

in 2009 and Cyprus Infosec was always pencilled-in in his yearlyplans

2009 was to become the last time Gene participated in CyprusInfosec He contacted us in early 2010 to agree on the 2011dates and he even suggested other information securitypresenters that he admired He had come to consider himself aspart of the team and cherished the time he spent in Cyprus withus This year he planned to talk about Cloud Security and presenta newly developed 2-day workshop on the subject However inSeptember his close associate Paul Underwood sent us aworrying email telling us that Gene would not be able to participatedue to a serious illness A blog was set up to inform his friendsand colleagues on his health status and through that his wifeCathy finally informed us of his passing away

As a tribute to Gene the Cyprus Infosec 2011 conference washeld on November 2nd 2011 in his memory

Yiannos AletrarisMember of the Cyprus Infosec Organising Committee

wwwpliroforikiorg | 9

DR EUGENE SCHULTZ IN BRIEF

Gene was born September 10 1946 in Chicago to E Eugene Srand Elizabeth Schultz He graduated from UCLA and earned hisMS and PhD (in Cognitive Science 1977) at Purdue University inIndiana

While at Purdue University Gene met and married Cathy BrownThey were married for 36 years and raised three daughters SarahRachel and Leah

Gene was an active member of Cornerstone Fellowship andbelonged to a menrsquos Bible study His many interests included familygoing to his mountain home in Twain Harte model trains musictravelling the outdoors history reading and sports

Gene was one of the more notableand accomplished figures incomputing security over the last fewdecades During the course of hiscareer Gene was professor ofcomputer science at severaluniversities including the Universityof California at Davis and PurdueUniversity and retired from theUniversity of California at Berkeley

He consulted for a wide range of clients including US and foreigngovernments and the banking petroleum and pharmaceuticalindustries He also managed several information security practicesand served as chief technology officer for two companies

Gene formed and managed the Computer Incident AdvisoryCapability (CIAC) mdash an incident response team for the USDepartment of Energy mdash from 1986ndash1992 This was the firstformal incident response team predating the CERTCC by severalyears He also was instrumental in the founding of FIRST mdash theForum of Incident Response amp Security Teams

During his 30 years of work in security Gene authored or co-authored over 120 papers and five books He was manager of theI4 program at SRI from 1994ndash1998 From 2002ndash2007 he was theEditor-in-Chief of Computers and Security mdash the oldest journal incomputing security mdash and continued to serve on its editorial boardGene was also an associate editor of Network Security He was amember of the accreditation board of the Institute of InformationSecurity Professionals (IISP)

Gene testified as an expert several times before both Senate andHouse Congressional Committees He also served as an expertadvisor to a number of companies and agencies Gene was acertified SANS instructor instructor for ISACA senior SANS analystmember of the SANS NewsBites editorial board and co-author ofthe 2005 and 2006 Certified Information Security Managerpreparation materials

Dr Schultz was honored numerous times for his research serviceand teaching Among his many notable awards Gene received theNASA Technical Excellence Award Department of EnergyExcellence Award the Vanguard Conference Top Gun Award (forbest presenter) twice the Vanguard Chairmans Award the ISACAJohn Kuyers Best SpeakerBest Conference Contributor Award andthe National Information Systems Security Conference Best PaperAward One of only a few Distinguished Fellows of the InformationSystems Security Association (ISSA) he was also named to theISSA Hall of Fame and received ISSAs Professional Achievementand Honor Roll Awards

At the time of his death Dr Schultz was the CTO of EmaginedSecurity an information security consultancy based in San CarlosCalifornia He held certifications as a CISM CISSP and GSLC

E Eugene Schultz Jr 10946ndash21011 Rest in Peace

10 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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ΔOcirc permilEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc laquoISACAraquo permilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutelsaquoıEumlIcircAcirc UcircUgraveEgrave˜ prodparainfin UgraveOcirc1969 IcircmiddotEgrave IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacuteAcircrsaquo UcircmiddotOacute IcircAcircOacuteUgraveUacuteEgraveIcircfi˜ EcircOcircUacutecurrenmiddot˜ IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircfiUacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ IcircmiddotEgraveIcircmiddotıOcircpermillsaquoAacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgrave˙fiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc˜ IgraveAcirc UgraveOcircOacute currenIumlAcircAacutemacrOcirc trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacuteparaIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ ŒIcircUgraveOcircUgraveAcirc UgraveOcirc laquoISACAraquo AcircIacuteAcircIumlrsaquomacrıEumlIcircAcirc UcircAcirc currenOacutemiddot permilEgraveAcircıOacutelsaquoIcircmiddotEgrave IcircmiddotUgravemiddotIacuteEgraveˆIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgravefi IgraveAcirc middotUacuteOcirc˘Ucircrsaquomiddot UcircAcirc AcircUacuteEgraveUcircUcircfiUgraveAcircUacuteAcirc˜ middotfi160 macrOgraveUacuteAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave currenUacutemiddotOacute UgraveˆOacute 86000 IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute Ocirc˘ middotUcircmacrOcircIumlOcircDaggerOacuteUgravemiddotEgraveAcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcirciquest IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot UgraveOcircOacute currenIumlAcircAacutemacrOcirc IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacutepermilEgravemiddotIcirc˘sbquocurrenUacuteOacuteEumlUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ tradelsaquoIgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveOcirclaquoISACAraquo Ugrave˘AacutemacriquestOacuteAcircEgrave middotAacuteIcircfiUcircIgraveEgravemiddot˜ middotOacutemiddotAacuteOacuteOgraveUacuteEgraveUcircEuml˜ UcircmiddotOacute Ocirc IcircmiddotUgraveAcircIacuteOcircmacrlsaquoOacuteOcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgravefi˜ Ocirc˘ AcircEgravepermilEgraveIcircAcircDaggerAcircUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc ıcurrenIgravemiddotUgravemiddot middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml˜ IcircEgraveOacutepermilDaggerOacuteˆOacuteUacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircUacuteılsaquo˜ permilEgravemiddotIcirc˘sbquocurrenUacuteOacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveˆOacutetrade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ UacuteOcircˆıOgraveOacuteUgravemiddot˜ IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger iquestIumlIumlˆOacute UgraveEumlAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircmiddotrsaquopermilAcirc˘UcircEuml IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOgrave˜ middotOacutemiddotAacuteOacuteˆUacuteEgraveUcircIgravecurrenOacutemiddotUacutefiUgrave˘middot permilEgraveAcircıOacutelsaquo Ucirc˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgravemiddot UcircAcircIgraveEgraveOacuteiquestUacuteEgravemiddot currenOacuteUgrave˘middot permilEgravemiddotEcircOgraveUgraveEgraveUcircEuml˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcirciquest currenOacuteıAcircUgravemiddot

ΔOcirc int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc partIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ middotfiUgraveEuml UacuteOgraveUgraveEuml UcircUgraveEgraveAacuteIgravelsaquo UgraveEuml˜ permilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot˜ UgraveOcirc˘ currenmacrAcircEgrave AcircEgravepermilAcircrsaquoIacuteAcircEgrave Igraversaquomiddot IgraveOcircOacutemiddotpermilEgraveIcirclsaquopermil˘OacutemiddotIgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AacuteAcircAacuteOcircOacutefi˜ Ocirc˘ middotOcircpermilAcircEgraveIcircOacuteDaggerAcircUgravemiddotEgrave middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgraveIacuteEuml IgraveAcircAacuteiquestIumlOcirc˘AcircOacutepermilEgravemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgraveOcirc˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ucirc˘IgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOcircmacrlsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc UgraveOcirc OcircOcircrsaquoOcirc IgravecurrenUcircmiddot UcircAcircIumlrsaquoAacuteOcirc˘˜ IgravelsaquoOacuteAcirc˜ middotfi UgraveEuml˜ EgravepermilUacuteDaggerUcircAcircˆ˜ UgraveOcirc˘ currenEcircUgravemiddotUcircAcirc Oacutemiddot middotUacuteEgraveıIgraveAcircrsaquo 68 IgravecurrenIumlEumlprod middotpermillsaquoUacuteEgraveUgraveEuml middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircEuml AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEuml permilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ AcircpermilUacutemiddotEgraveOgraveOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgraveIcircmiddotEgrave middotfi UgraveOcirc AacuteAcircAacuteOcircOacutefi˜ fiUgraveEgrave Ocirc UacutefiIumlOcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute AcircEgravepermilEgraveIcircOgraveOacute UcircUgraveOcircOacute IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc UgraveOcirc˘AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ UgraveˆOacute trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜middotOcircIcircUgraveiquest OcircIumlOcirccurrenOacutemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave IgraveAcircAacutemiddotIumlDaggerUgraveAcircUacuteEuml sbquomiddotUacuteDaggerUgraveEumlUgravemiddot UcircUgraveEgrave˜ IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquoAcirc˜ UgravefiUcircOcircUgraveOcirc˘ permilEumlIgravefiUcircEgraveOcirc˘ fiUcircOcirc IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ EgravepermilEgraveˆUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDagger UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot

tradeUgraveEgrave˜ 5 iexclOcircAcircIgravesbquoUacutersaquoOcirc˘ 2009 permilEgraveAcircIacutelsaquomacrıEuml Euml 1Euml paramiddotAacuteIcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot πpermilUacute˘UgraveEgraveIcirclsaquodegAcircOacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo trade˘OacutecurrenIumlAcirc˘UcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveiquestUacuteIcircAcircEgravemiddot UgraveEuml˜ OcircOcircrsaquomiddot˜

ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

intAgraveparaƒπinfinintO πiexcltradeΔπΔradicYΔradicpartsectEdegAtilderadicAgrave tradeAgravetradeΔprodordfAΔoslashiexclparasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHtradeparamiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacuteEgravepermilEuml˜

AcircIacuteAcircIumlcurrenAacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc AcircOacuteEgravemiddotIgraveAcircIumlcurren˜ centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi trade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc ΔOcirc centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfitrade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc AcircEgravepermilEgraveOgraveIcircAcircEgrave IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi UgraveEgrave˜ permilUacutemiddotUcircUgraveEumlUacuteEgravefiUgraveEumlUgraveAcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircIumllsaquoUacuteˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute middotIcircOcircIumlOcircDaggerıˆOacute UcircUgravefimacrˆOacute

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircmiddotrsaquopermilAcirc˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute permilEgraveiquestmacr˘UcircEuml AacuteOacuteOgraveUcircAcircˆOacute UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveEuml˜AcircEgraveıAcircOgraveUacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ UgraveˆOacutetrade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute ˘EgraveOcircıcurrenUgraveEumlUcircEuml AcircAcircIacuteAcircUacuteAacutemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircEgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacutemiddotUacutemacrOgraveOacute IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml UgraveAcircmacrOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacute UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute OcircUacuteılsaquoUacutemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave AcircOacutersaquoUcircmacr˘UcircEuml UgraveEuml˜ currenUacuteAcirc˘Oacutemiddot˜ UcircOcirc˘permillsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircEuml˜ Ocirc˘ middotEcircOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ middotIumlIumliquest IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml UgraveˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute middotmiddotUacutemiddotrsaquoUgraveEumlUgraveEumlUgraveAcircmacrOacuteOcircAacuteOacuteˆUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircfiUgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveEumlOacute Acirc˘UacuteDaggerUgraveAcircUacuteEuml AcircEgraveIgravefiUacuteEcircˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteUcircUgraveAcircIumlAcircmacrOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircOacuteEumlIgravecurrenUacuteˆUcircEuml ˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave middotUacuteOcircmacrlsaquo IcirciquestıAcirc permil˘OacutemiddotUgravelsaquo˜sbquoOcirclsaquoıAcircEgravemiddot˜ UcircUgravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotfiIcircUgraveEumlUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteAcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgravelsaquoUcircAcircˆOacute OcircEgrave OcircOcircrsaquoAcirc˜ middotUacutecurrenmacrOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave middotfiUgraveOcircOacute ISACA

CISA (Certified Information Systems Auditor) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 70000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 1978

CISM (Certified Information Security Manager) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 10000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 2002

CGEIT (Certified in the Governance of Enterprise IT) IgraveAcirccurrenUacutemiddotOacute UgraveˆOacute 3000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEumlUgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 2008 IcircmiddotEgrave

CRISC (Certified in Risk and Information Systems Control)IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacute UgraveˆOacute 1000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacutecurrenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UcircUgraveEgrave˜ middotUacutemacrcurren˜ UgraveOcirc˘ 2010

prod UacutemiddotAacutepermilmiddotrsaquomiddot middotOacuteiquestUgrave˘IacuteEuml UgraveˆOacute Ucirc˘OacutemiddotIumlIumlmiddotAacuteOgraveOacute IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgravemiddotpermilEgraveIcircUgraveDaggerOcirc˘ middotIumlIumliquestIcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc AacuteAcircAacuteOcircOacutefi˜ fiUgraveEgrave ˙OcircDaggerIgraveAcirc UcirclsaquoIgraveAcircUacutemiddot UcircUgraveEumlOacute laquointOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacutersaquomiddot UgraveEuml˜paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜raquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot permilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacuteAcircrsaquo Oacutecurrenmiddot permilAcircpermilOcircIgravecurrenOacutemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave OacutecurrenAcirc˜Acirc˘IcircmiddotEgraveUacutersaquoAcirc˜ AacuteEgravemiddot middotOacuteiquestUgrave˘IacuteEuml Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot sbquomiddotUcircrsaquo˙AcircUgravemiddotEgrave iquestIgraveAcircUcircmiddot UcircUgraveEuml UacutemiddotAacutepermilmiddotrsaquomiddotAcircIacutecurrenIumlEgraveIacuteEuml UgraveˆOacute UgraveAcircmacrOacuteOcircIumlOcircAacuteEgraveOgraveOacute IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AcircEgraveIcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacutersaquomiddot˜ Ocirc˘middotOcircUgraveAcircIumlOcircDaggerOacute Ocirc˘UcircEgravemiddotUcircUgraveEgraveIcircfi AcircUacuteAacutemiddotIumlAcircrsaquoOcirc AacuteEgravemiddot EgraveOcirc middotOacuteOcircEgravemacrUgravelsaquo IcircmiddotEgravemiddotOcircUgraveAcircIumlAcircUcircIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo permilEgravemiddotIcirc˘sbquocurrenUacuteOacuteEumlUcircEuml IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEuml sbquoAcircIumlUgraversaquoˆUcircEuml UgraveEuml˜middotOacuteUgravemiddotAacuteˆOacuteEgraveUcircUgraveEgraveIcircfiUgraveEumlUgravemiddot˜ UgraveˆOacute AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacutelsaquoUcircAcircˆOacute UacuteOcircUcircpermilrsaquopermilOcirc˘Oacute EgravepermilEgravemiddotrsaquoUgraveAcircUacuteEumlUcircEumlIgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot UcircUgraveEgrave˜ middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircAcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacutelsaquoUcircAcircˆOacute AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgraveUgraveOcircOacute middotOcircUgraveAcircIumlAcircUcircIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircfi currenIumlAcircAacutemacrOcirc UgraveˆOacute UgraveAcircmacrOacuteOcircIumlOcircAacuteEgraveOgraveOacute IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacutersaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAcircEgraveIcircOcircEgraveOacuteˆOacutersaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircUgraveAcircIumlAcircUcircIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo permilEgravemiddotmacrAcircrsaquoUacuteEgraveUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute IcircEgraveOacutepermilDaggerOacuteˆOacute

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intmiddotUgraveiquest UgraveEumlOacute permilEgraveiquestUacuteIcircAcircEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc˘ 2011 UgraveOcirc πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc permilEgraveOcircUacuteAacuteiquestOacuteˆUcircAcirc IgraveAcircAcircEgraveUgrave˘macrrsaquomiddot permilEgravemiddotIumlcurrenIacuteAcircEgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AcircIcircmiddotEgravepermilAcirc˘UgraveEgraveIcirciquest UcircAcircIgraveEgraveOacuteiquestUacuteEgravemiddot IgraveAcirc currenIgraveAcircEgraveUacuteOcirc˘˜OcircIgraveEgraveIumlEumlUgravecurren˜ UcircAcirc UcircUgraveOcircmacrAcirc˘IgravecurrenOacutemiddot ıcurrenIgravemiddotUgravemiddot AcircOacutepermilEgravemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgraveOcirc˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacuteIcircmiddotIumlDaggerUgraveAcircUacuteEuml AcircOacuteEumlIgravecurrenUacuteˆUcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave IcircmiddotUgraveiquestUacuteUgraveEgraveUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘fiˆ˜

ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

16 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 17

Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Dr EUGENE SCHULTZ(1946 ndash 2011)Yiannos Aletraris

Dr Eugene Schultz a valued associate and dear friend passedaway on Sunday 2nd October 2011 I came to know Gene ashe preferred to be called back in 2004 when he accepted ourinvitation to be a presenter at the Cyprus Infosec conference Wehad heard so much about him and were pleasantly surprised thatsuch a renown and respected information security guru wouldshow so much interest in travelling all the way from the UnitedStates to visit our small island and enlighten us with hisknowledge and wisdom Getting to know him in person was aneven greater surprise with his humble character his wit anddelightful humour The feedback we received from the conferenceaudience as well as the participants at his workshop completelyconfirmed his high reputation and fellow members started askingfor more follow-on workshops from him

Genersquos wife Cathy had escorted him on that 2004 trip and Iremember her commenting that she came all the way from theUnited States to a small island in the Mediterranean only to findout she would stay 40 kilometres away from the beach Thatinnocent comment led to Cyprus Infosec 2005 being organisedin Limassol but unfortunately Gene could not make it due to othercommitments He did however manage to be with us in 2007 and

in 2009 and Cyprus Infosec was always pencilled-in in his yearlyplans

2009 was to become the last time Gene participated in CyprusInfosec He contacted us in early 2010 to agree on the 2011dates and he even suggested other information securitypresenters that he admired He had come to consider himself aspart of the team and cherished the time he spent in Cyprus withus This year he planned to talk about Cloud Security and presenta newly developed 2-day workshop on the subject However inSeptember his close associate Paul Underwood sent us aworrying email telling us that Gene would not be able to participatedue to a serious illness A blog was set up to inform his friendsand colleagues on his health status and through that his wifeCathy finally informed us of his passing away

As a tribute to Gene the Cyprus Infosec 2011 conference washeld on November 2nd 2011 in his memory

Yiannos AletrarisMember of the Cyprus Infosec Organising Committee

wwwpliroforikiorg | 9

DR EUGENE SCHULTZ IN BRIEF

Gene was born September 10 1946 in Chicago to E Eugene Srand Elizabeth Schultz He graduated from UCLA and earned hisMS and PhD (in Cognitive Science 1977) at Purdue University inIndiana

While at Purdue University Gene met and married Cathy BrownThey were married for 36 years and raised three daughters SarahRachel and Leah

Gene was an active member of Cornerstone Fellowship andbelonged to a menrsquos Bible study His many interests included familygoing to his mountain home in Twain Harte model trains musictravelling the outdoors history reading and sports

Gene was one of the more notableand accomplished figures incomputing security over the last fewdecades During the course of hiscareer Gene was professor ofcomputer science at severaluniversities including the Universityof California at Davis and PurdueUniversity and retired from theUniversity of California at Berkeley

He consulted for a wide range of clients including US and foreigngovernments and the banking petroleum and pharmaceuticalindustries He also managed several information security practicesand served as chief technology officer for two companies

Gene formed and managed the Computer Incident AdvisoryCapability (CIAC) mdash an incident response team for the USDepartment of Energy mdash from 1986ndash1992 This was the firstformal incident response team predating the CERTCC by severalyears He also was instrumental in the founding of FIRST mdash theForum of Incident Response amp Security Teams

During his 30 years of work in security Gene authored or co-authored over 120 papers and five books He was manager of theI4 program at SRI from 1994ndash1998 From 2002ndash2007 he was theEditor-in-Chief of Computers and Security mdash the oldest journal incomputing security mdash and continued to serve on its editorial boardGene was also an associate editor of Network Security He was amember of the accreditation board of the Institute of InformationSecurity Professionals (IISP)

Gene testified as an expert several times before both Senate andHouse Congressional Committees He also served as an expertadvisor to a number of companies and agencies Gene was acertified SANS instructor instructor for ISACA senior SANS analystmember of the SANS NewsBites editorial board and co-author ofthe 2005 and 2006 Certified Information Security Managerpreparation materials

Dr Schultz was honored numerous times for his research serviceand teaching Among his many notable awards Gene received theNASA Technical Excellence Award Department of EnergyExcellence Award the Vanguard Conference Top Gun Award (forbest presenter) twice the Vanguard Chairmans Award the ISACAJohn Kuyers Best SpeakerBest Conference Contributor Award andthe National Information Systems Security Conference Best PaperAward One of only a few Distinguished Fellows of the InformationSystems Security Association (ISSA) he was also named to theISSA Hall of Fame and received ISSAs Professional Achievementand Honor Roll Awards

At the time of his death Dr Schultz was the CTO of EmaginedSecurity an information security consultancy based in San CarlosCalifornia He held certifications as a CISM CISSP and GSLC

E Eugene Schultz Jr 10946ndash21011 Rest in Peace

10 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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ΔOcirc int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc partIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ middotfiUgraveEuml UacuteOgraveUgraveEuml UcircUgraveEgraveAacuteIgravelsaquo UgraveEuml˜ permilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot˜ UgraveOcirc˘ currenmacrAcircEgrave AcircEgravepermilAcircrsaquoIacuteAcircEgrave Igraversaquomiddot IgraveOcircOacutemiddotpermilEgraveIcirclsaquopermil˘OacutemiddotIgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AacuteAcircAacuteOcircOacutefi˜ Ocirc˘ middotOcircpermilAcircEgraveIcircOacuteDaggerAcircUgravemiddotEgrave middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgraveIacuteEuml IgraveAcircAacuteiquestIumlOcirc˘AcircOacutepermilEgravemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgraveOcirc˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ucirc˘IgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOcircmacrlsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc UgraveOcirc OcircOcircrsaquoOcirc IgravecurrenUcircmiddot UcircAcircIumlrsaquoAacuteOcirc˘˜ IgravelsaquoOacuteAcirc˜ middotfi UgraveEuml˜ EgravepermilUacuteDaggerUcircAcircˆ˜ UgraveOcirc˘ currenEcircUgravemiddotUcircAcirc Oacutemiddot middotUacuteEgraveıIgraveAcircrsaquo 68 IgravecurrenIumlEumlprod middotpermillsaquoUacuteEgraveUgraveEuml middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircEuml AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEuml permilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ AcircpermilUacutemiddotEgraveOgraveOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgraveIcircmiddotEgrave middotfi UgraveOcirc AacuteAcircAacuteOcircOacutefi˜ fiUgraveEgrave Ocirc UacutefiIumlOcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute AcircEgravepermilEgraveIcircOgraveOacute UcircUgraveOcircOacute IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc UgraveOcirc˘AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ UgraveˆOacute trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜middotOcircIcircUgraveiquest OcircIumlOcirccurrenOacutemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave IgraveAcircAacutemiddotIumlDaggerUgraveAcircUacuteEuml sbquomiddotUacuteDaggerUgraveEumlUgravemiddot UcircUgraveEgrave˜ IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquoAcirc˜ UgravefiUcircOcircUgraveOcirc˘ permilEumlIgravefiUcircEgraveOcirc˘ fiUcircOcirc IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ EgravepermilEgraveˆUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDagger UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot

tradeUgraveEgrave˜ 5 iexclOcircAcircIgravesbquoUacutersaquoOcirc˘ 2009 permilEgraveAcircIacutelsaquomacrıEuml Euml 1Euml paramiddotAacuteIcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot πpermilUacute˘UgraveEgraveIcirclsaquodegAcircOacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo trade˘OacutecurrenIumlAcirc˘UcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveiquestUacuteIcircAcircEgravemiddot UgraveEuml˜ OcircOcircrsaquomiddot˜

ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

intAgraveparaƒπinfinintO πiexcltradeΔπΔradicYΔradicpartsectEdegAtilderadicAgrave tradeAgravetradeΔprodordfAΔoslashiexclparasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHtradeparamiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacuteEgravepermilEuml˜

AcircIacuteAcircIumlcurrenAacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc AcircOacuteEgravemiddotIgraveAcircIumlcurren˜ centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi trade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc ΔOcirc centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfitrade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc AcircEgravepermilEgraveOgraveIcircAcircEgrave IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi UgraveEgrave˜ permilUacutemiddotUcircUgraveEumlUacuteEgravefiUgraveEumlUgraveAcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircIumllsaquoUacuteˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute middotIcircOcircIumlOcircDaggerıˆOacute UcircUgravefimacrˆOacute

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircmiddotrsaquopermilAcirc˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute permilEgraveiquestmacr˘UcircEuml AacuteOacuteOgraveUcircAcircˆOacute UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveEuml˜AcircEgraveıAcircOgraveUacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ UgraveˆOacutetrade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute ˘EgraveOcircıcurrenUgraveEumlUcircEuml AcircAcircIacuteAcircUacuteAacutemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircEgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacutemiddotUacutemacrOgraveOacute IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml UgraveAcircmacrOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacute UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute OcircUacuteılsaquoUacutemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave AcircOacutersaquoUcircmacr˘UcircEuml UgraveEuml˜ currenUacuteAcirc˘Oacutemiddot˜ UcircOcirc˘permillsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircEuml˜ Ocirc˘ middotEcircOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ middotIumlIumliquest IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml UgraveˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute middotmiddotUacutemiddotrsaquoUgraveEumlUgraveEumlUgraveAcircmacrOacuteOcircAacuteOacuteˆUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircfiUgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveEumlOacute Acirc˘UacuteDaggerUgraveAcircUacuteEuml AcircEgraveIgravefiUacuteEcircˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteUcircUgraveAcircIumlAcircmacrOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircOacuteEumlIgravecurrenUacuteˆUcircEuml ˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave middotUacuteOcircmacrlsaquo IcirciquestıAcirc permil˘OacutemiddotUgravelsaquo˜sbquoOcirclsaquoıAcircEgravemiddot˜ UcircUgravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotfiIcircUgraveEumlUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteAcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgravelsaquoUcircAcircˆOacute OcircEgrave OcircOcircrsaquoAcirc˜ middotUacutecurrenmacrOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave middotfiUgraveOcircOacute ISACA

CISA (Certified Information Systems Auditor) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 70000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 1978

CISM (Certified Information Security Manager) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 10000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 2002

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CRISC (Certified in Risk and Information Systems Control)IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacute UgraveˆOacute 1000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacutecurrenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UcircUgraveEgrave˜ middotUacutemacrcurren˜ UgraveOcirc˘ 2010

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

16 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 17

Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

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ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

DR EUGENE SCHULTZ IN BRIEF

Gene was born September 10 1946 in Chicago to E Eugene Srand Elizabeth Schultz He graduated from UCLA and earned hisMS and PhD (in Cognitive Science 1977) at Purdue University inIndiana

While at Purdue University Gene met and married Cathy BrownThey were married for 36 years and raised three daughters SarahRachel and Leah

Gene was an active member of Cornerstone Fellowship andbelonged to a menrsquos Bible study His many interests included familygoing to his mountain home in Twain Harte model trains musictravelling the outdoors history reading and sports

Gene was one of the more notableand accomplished figures incomputing security over the last fewdecades During the course of hiscareer Gene was professor ofcomputer science at severaluniversities including the Universityof California at Davis and PurdueUniversity and retired from theUniversity of California at Berkeley

He consulted for a wide range of clients including US and foreigngovernments and the banking petroleum and pharmaceuticalindustries He also managed several information security practicesand served as chief technology officer for two companies

Gene formed and managed the Computer Incident AdvisoryCapability (CIAC) mdash an incident response team for the USDepartment of Energy mdash from 1986ndash1992 This was the firstformal incident response team predating the CERTCC by severalyears He also was instrumental in the founding of FIRST mdash theForum of Incident Response amp Security Teams

During his 30 years of work in security Gene authored or co-authored over 120 papers and five books He was manager of theI4 program at SRI from 1994ndash1998 From 2002ndash2007 he was theEditor-in-Chief of Computers and Security mdash the oldest journal incomputing security mdash and continued to serve on its editorial boardGene was also an associate editor of Network Security He was amember of the accreditation board of the Institute of InformationSecurity Professionals (IISP)

Gene testified as an expert several times before both Senate andHouse Congressional Committees He also served as an expertadvisor to a number of companies and agencies Gene was acertified SANS instructor instructor for ISACA senior SANS analystmember of the SANS NewsBites editorial board and co-author ofthe 2005 and 2006 Certified Information Security Managerpreparation materials

Dr Schultz was honored numerous times for his research serviceand teaching Among his many notable awards Gene received theNASA Technical Excellence Award Department of EnergyExcellence Award the Vanguard Conference Top Gun Award (forbest presenter) twice the Vanguard Chairmans Award the ISACAJohn Kuyers Best SpeakerBest Conference Contributor Award andthe National Information Systems Security Conference Best PaperAward One of only a few Distinguished Fellows of the InformationSystems Security Association (ISSA) he was also named to theISSA Hall of Fame and received ISSAs Professional Achievementand Honor Roll Awards

At the time of his death Dr Schultz was the CTO of EmaginedSecurity an information security consultancy based in San CarlosCalifornia He held certifications as a CISM CISSP and GSLC

E Eugene Schultz Jr 10946ndash21011 Rest in Peace

10 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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ΔOcirc int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc partIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ middotfiUgraveEuml UacuteOgraveUgraveEuml UcircUgraveEgraveAacuteIgravelsaquo UgraveEuml˜ permilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot˜ UgraveOcirc˘ currenmacrAcircEgrave AcircEgravepermilAcircrsaquoIacuteAcircEgrave Igraversaquomiddot IgraveOcircOacutemiddotpermilEgraveIcirclsaquopermil˘OacutemiddotIgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AacuteAcircAacuteOcircOacutefi˜ Ocirc˘ middotOcircpermilAcircEgraveIcircOacuteDaggerAcircUgravemiddotEgrave middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgraveIacuteEuml IgraveAcircAacuteiquestIumlOcirc˘AcircOacutepermilEgravemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgraveOcirc˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ucirc˘IgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOcircmacrlsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc UgraveOcirc OcircOcircrsaquoOcirc IgravecurrenUcircmiddot UcircAcircIumlrsaquoAacuteOcirc˘˜ IgravelsaquoOacuteAcirc˜ middotfi UgraveEuml˜ EgravepermilUacuteDaggerUcircAcircˆ˜ UgraveOcirc˘ currenEcircUgravemiddotUcircAcirc Oacutemiddot middotUacuteEgraveıIgraveAcircrsaquo 68 IgravecurrenIumlEumlprod middotpermillsaquoUacuteEgraveUgraveEuml middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircEuml AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEuml permilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ AcircpermilUacutemiddotEgraveOgraveOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgraveIcircmiddotEgrave middotfi UgraveOcirc AacuteAcircAacuteOcircOacutefi˜ fiUgraveEgrave Ocirc UacutefiIumlOcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute AcircEgravepermilEgraveIcircOgraveOacute UcircUgraveOcircOacute IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc UgraveOcirc˘AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ UgraveˆOacute trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜middotOcircIcircUgraveiquest OcircIumlOcirccurrenOacutemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave IgraveAcircAacutemiddotIumlDaggerUgraveAcircUacuteEuml sbquomiddotUacuteDaggerUgraveEumlUgravemiddot UcircUgraveEgrave˜ IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquoAcirc˜ UgravefiUcircOcircUgraveOcirc˘ permilEumlIgravefiUcircEgraveOcirc˘ fiUcircOcirc IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ EgravepermilEgraveˆUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDagger UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot

tradeUgraveEgrave˜ 5 iexclOcircAcircIgravesbquoUacutersaquoOcirc˘ 2009 permilEgraveAcircIacutelsaquomacrıEuml Euml 1Euml paramiddotAacuteIcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot πpermilUacute˘UgraveEgraveIcirclsaquodegAcircOacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo trade˘OacutecurrenIumlAcirc˘UcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveiquestUacuteIcircAcircEgravemiddot UgraveEuml˜ OcircOcircrsaquomiddot˜

ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

intAgraveparaƒπinfinintO πiexcltradeΔπΔradicYΔradicpartsectEdegAtilderadicAgrave tradeAgravetradeΔprodordfAΔoslashiexclparasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHtradeparamiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacuteEgravepermilEuml˜

AcircIacuteAcircIumlcurrenAacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc AcircOacuteEgravemiddotIgraveAcircIumlcurren˜ centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi trade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc ΔOcirc centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfitrade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc AcircEgravepermilEgraveOgraveIcircAcircEgrave IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi UgraveEgrave˜ permilUacutemiddotUcircUgraveEumlUacuteEgravefiUgraveEumlUgraveAcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircIumllsaquoUacuteˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute middotIcircOcircIumlOcircDaggerıˆOacute UcircUgravefimacrˆOacute

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircmiddotrsaquopermilAcirc˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute permilEgraveiquestmacr˘UcircEuml AacuteOacuteOgraveUcircAcircˆOacute UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveEuml˜AcircEgraveıAcircOgraveUacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ UgraveˆOacutetrade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute ˘EgraveOcircıcurrenUgraveEumlUcircEuml AcircAcircIacuteAcircUacuteAacutemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircEgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacutemiddotUacutemacrOgraveOacute IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml UgraveAcircmacrOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacute UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute OcircUacuteılsaquoUacutemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave AcircOacutersaquoUcircmacr˘UcircEuml UgraveEuml˜ currenUacuteAcirc˘Oacutemiddot˜ UcircOcirc˘permillsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircEuml˜ Ocirc˘ middotEcircOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ middotIumlIumliquest IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml UgraveˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute middotmiddotUacutemiddotrsaquoUgraveEumlUgraveEumlUgraveAcircmacrOacuteOcircAacuteOacuteˆUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircfiUgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveEumlOacute Acirc˘UacuteDaggerUgraveAcircUacuteEuml AcircEgraveIgravefiUacuteEcircˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteUcircUgraveAcircIumlAcircmacrOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircOacuteEumlIgravecurrenUacuteˆUcircEuml ˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave middotUacuteOcircmacrlsaquo IcirciquestıAcirc permil˘OacutemiddotUgravelsaquo˜sbquoOcirclsaquoıAcircEgravemiddot˜ UcircUgravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotfiIcircUgraveEumlUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteAcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgravelsaquoUcircAcircˆOacute OcircEgrave OcircOcircrsaquoAcirc˜ middotUacutecurrenmacrOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave middotfiUgraveOcircOacute ISACA

CISA (Certified Information Systems Auditor) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 70000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 1978

CISM (Certified Information Security Manager) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 10000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 2002

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CRISC (Certified in Risk and Information Systems Control)IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacute UgraveˆOacute 1000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacutecurrenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UcircUgraveEgrave˜ middotUacutemacrcurren˜ UgraveOcirc˘ 2010

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

16 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 17

Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

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ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 11

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prod rsaquopermilUacute˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot UgraveOcirc˘ laquoint˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDagger πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ partIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜raquo UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcirc permilAcircOacute ımiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerUcircAcirc OacutemiddotpermilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacuteEumlıAcircrsaquo UcircAcirc EgraveOcirc IcircmiddotUgraveiquestIumlIumlEumlIumlEuml AcircOcircmacrlsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave currenUacutemacrAcircUgravemiddotEgrave OacutemiddotUcirc˘IgraveIumlEumlUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave currenOacutemiddot IcircAcircOacutefi Ocirc˘ ˘lsaquoUacutemacrAcirc UcircUgraveOcircOacute AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircfi IcircfiUcircIgraveOcircmiddot˘Ugravefi UgraveEuml˜ ıAcircUcircIgraveOcircıcurrenUgraveEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc˘ AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEuml˜ OcircUacuteılsaquo˜permilEgravemiddotIcirc˘sbquocurrenUacuteOacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveˆOacute Ucirc˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜

radicEgrave UacuteOcircUcirciquestıAcircEgraveAcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UcircUgravecurrenEcircıEumlIcircmiddotOacute IgraveAcircAcircEgraveUgrave˘macrrsaquomiddot UcircUgraveEgrave˜ 16 πOcirc˘OacutersaquoOcirc˘ 2010 fiUgravemiddotOacute UgraveOcirc centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi trade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc UgraveOcirc˘permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ laquoISACAraquo (Information Systems Audit ampControl Association) Ocirc˘ AcircpermilUacuteAcircDaggerAcircEgrave UcircUgraveOcirc tradeEgraveIcirciquestAacuteOcirc UgraveˆOacute prodparainfin currenpermilˆUcircAcircUgraveEumlOacute AcircrsaquoUcircEumlIgraveEuml currenAacuteIcircUacuteEgraveUcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA CyprusChapter UcircmiddotOacute IumllsaquoUacuteAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotOacutemiddotAacuteOacuteˆUacuteEgraveUcircIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IgraveAcirc currenpermilUacutemiddot UgraveEumlsectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot tradeUgraveEgrave˜ 20 radicIcircUgraveˆsbquoUacutersaquoOcirc˘ UgraveOcirc˘ 2011 UgraveOcirc ISACA CyprusChapter lsaquoUacuteAcirc IcircmiddotEgrave EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi AcircAacuteAacuteUacutemiddotEcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot˜ UcircmiddotOacutetradeˆIgravemiddotUgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc UcircDaggerIgraveEcircˆOacutemiddot IgraveAcirc UgraveOcircOacute AcircUacutersaquo tradeˆIgravemiddotUgraveAcircrsaquoˆOacute IcircmiddotEgrave πpermilUacute˘IgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute iexclfiIgraveOcircIgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute AcircˆOacute˘Igraversaquomiddot laquoint˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc partIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacuteparaIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜raquo

ΔOcirc permilEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc laquoISACAraquo permilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutelsaquoıEumlIcircAcirc UcircUgraveEgrave˜ prodparainfin UgraveOcirc1969 IcircmiddotEgrave IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacuteAcircrsaquo UcircmiddotOacute IcircAcircOacuteUgraveUacuteEgraveIcircfi˜ EcircOcircUacutecurrenmiddot˜ IumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircfiUacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ IcircmiddotEgraveIcircmiddotıOcircpermillsaquoAacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgrave˙fiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc˜ IgraveAcirc UgraveOcircOacute currenIumlAcircAacutemacrOcirc trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacuteparaIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ ŒIcircUgraveOcircUgraveAcirc UgraveOcirc laquoISACAraquo AcircIacuteAcircIumlrsaquomacrıEumlIcircAcirc UcircAcirc currenOacutemiddot permilEgraveAcircıOacutelsaquoIcircmiddotEgrave IcircmiddotUgravemiddotIacuteEgraveˆIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgravefi IgraveAcirc middotUacuteOcirc˘Ucircrsaquomiddot UcircAcirc AcircUacuteEgraveUcircUcircfiUgraveAcircUacuteAcirc˜ middotfi160 macrOgraveUacuteAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave currenUacutemiddotOacute UgraveˆOacute 86000 IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute Ocirc˘ middotUcircmacrOcircIumlOcircDaggerOacuteUgravemiddotEgraveAcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcirciquest IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot UgraveOcircOacute currenIumlAcircAacutemacrOcirc IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacutepermilEgravemiddotIcirc˘sbquocurrenUacuteOacuteEumlUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ tradelsaquoIgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveOcirclaquoISACAraquo Ugrave˘AacutemacriquestOacuteAcircEgrave middotAacuteIcircfiUcircIgraveEgravemiddot˜ middotOacutemiddotAacuteOacuteOgraveUacuteEgraveUcircEuml˜ UcircmiddotOacute Ocirc IcircmiddotUgraveAcircIacuteOcircmacrlsaquoOacuteOcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgravefi˜ Ocirc˘ AcircEgravepermilEgraveIcircAcircDaggerAcircUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc ıcurrenIgravemiddotUgravemiddot middotOacuteUgraveEgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOgraveEgraveUcircEuml˜ IcircEgraveOacutepermilDaggerOacuteˆOacuteUacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircUacuteılsaquo˜ permilEgravemiddotIcirc˘sbquocurrenUacuteOacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveˆOacutetrade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ UacuteOcircˆıOgraveOacuteUgravemiddot˜ IgraveAcircUgravemiddotIacuteDagger iquestIumlIumlˆOacute UgraveEumlAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircmiddotrsaquopermilAcirc˘UcircEuml IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOgrave˜ middotOacutemiddotAacuteOacuteˆUacuteEgraveUcircIgravecurrenOacutemiddotUacutefiUgrave˘middot permilEgraveAcircıOacutelsaquo Ucirc˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgravemiddot UcircAcircIgraveEgraveOacuteiquestUacuteEgravemiddot currenOacuteUgrave˘middot permilEgravemiddotEcircOgraveUgraveEgraveUcircEuml˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcirciquest currenOacuteıAcircUgravemiddot

ΔOcirc int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc partIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ middotfiUgraveEuml UacuteOgraveUgraveEuml UcircUgraveEgraveAacuteIgravelsaquo UgraveEuml˜ permilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot˜ UgraveOcirc˘ currenmacrAcircEgrave AcircEgravepermilAcircrsaquoIacuteAcircEgrave Igraversaquomiddot IgraveOcircOacutemiddotpermilEgraveIcirclsaquopermil˘OacutemiddotIgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AacuteAcircAacuteOcircOacutefi˜ Ocirc˘ middotOcircpermilAcircEgraveIcircOacuteDaggerAcircUgravemiddotEgrave middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutepermilAcircEgraveIacuteEuml IgraveAcircAacuteiquestIumlOcirc˘AcircOacutepermilEgravemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgraveOcirc˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ucirc˘IgraveIgraveAcircUgraveOcircmacrlsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc UgraveOcirc OcircOcircrsaquoOcirc IgravecurrenUcircmiddot UcircAcircIumlrsaquoAacuteOcirc˘˜ IgravelsaquoOacuteAcirc˜ middotfi UgraveEuml˜ EgravepermilUacuteDaggerUcircAcircˆ˜ UgraveOcirc˘ currenEcircUgravemiddotUcircAcirc Oacutemiddot middotUacuteEgraveıIgraveAcircrsaquo 68 IgravecurrenIumlEumlprod middotpermillsaquoUacuteEgraveUgraveEuml middotOacuteiquestAacuteIcircEuml AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEuml permilEumlIgraveEgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquomiddot UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ AcircpermilUacutemiddotEgraveOgraveOacuteAcircUgravemiddotEgraveIcircmiddotEgrave middotfi UgraveOcirc AacuteAcircAacuteOcircOacutefi˜ fiUgraveEgrave Ocirc UacutefiIumlOcirc˜ UgraveˆOacute AcircEgravepermilEgraveIcircOgraveOacute UcircUgraveOcircOacute IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc UgraveOcirc˘AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ UgraveˆOacute trade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜middotOcircIcircUgraveiquest OcircIumlOcirccurrenOacutemiddot IcircmiddotEgrave IgraveAcircAacutemiddotIumlDaggerUgraveAcircUacuteEuml sbquomiddotUacuteDaggerUgraveEumlUgravemiddot UcircUgraveEgrave˜ IumlAcircEgraveUgraveOcirc˘UacuteAacutersaquoAcirc˜ UgravefiUcircOcircUgraveOcirc˘ permilEumlIgravefiUcircEgraveOcirc˘ fiUcircOcirc IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ EgravepermilEgraveˆUgraveEgraveIcircOcircDagger UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot

tradeUgraveEgrave˜ 5 iexclOcircAcircIgravesbquoUacutersaquoOcirc˘ 2009 permilEgraveAcircIacutelsaquomacrıEuml Euml 1Euml paramiddotAacuteIcircDaggerUacuteEgravemiddot πpermilUacute˘UgraveEgraveIcirclsaquodegAcircOacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo trade˘OacutecurrenIumlAcirc˘UcircEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveiquestUacuteIcircAcircEgravemiddot UgraveEuml˜ OcircOcircrsaquomiddot˜

ISACA CYPRUS CHAPTER

intAgraveparaƒπinfinintO πiexcltradeΔπΔradicYΔradicpartsectEdegAtilderadicAgrave tradeAgravetradeΔprodordfAΔoslashiexclparasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHtradeparamiddotUcircmacriquestIumlEuml˜ paraEgraveUcircUcircmiddotUacuteEgravepermilEuml˜

AcircIacuteAcircIumlcurrenAacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc AcircOacuteEgravemiddotIgraveAcircIumlcurren˜ centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfi trade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc ΔOcirc centEgraveOcircEgraveIcircEumlUgraveEgraveIcircfitrade˘IgravesbquoOcircDaggerIumlEgraveOcirc AcircEgravepermilEgraveOgraveIcircAcircEgrave IgravecurrenUcircmiddot middotfi UgraveEgrave˜ permilUacutemiddotUcircUgraveEumlUacuteEgravefiUgraveEumlUgraveAcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircIumllsaquoUacuteˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacute middotIcircOcircIumlOcircDaggerıˆOacute UcircUgravefimacrˆOacute

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircIcircmiddotrsaquopermilAcirc˘UcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute permilEgraveiquestmacr˘UcircEuml AacuteOacuteOgraveUcircAcircˆOacute UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveEuml˜AcircEgraveıAcircOgraveUacuteEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveEuml˜ UacuteOcircUcircUgravemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc˘ AcircIumlcurrenAacutemacrOcirc˘ UgraveˆOacutetrade˘UcircUgraveEumlIgraveiquestUgraveˆOacute paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute ˘EgraveOcircıcurrenUgraveEumlUcircEuml AcircAcircIacuteAcircUacuteAacutemiddotUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircEgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacutemiddotUacutemacrOgraveOacute IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml UgraveAcircmacrOacuteEgraveIcircOgraveOacute UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute OcircUacuteılsaquoUacutemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo UcircUgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute UacuteOcircOgraveıEumlUcircEuml IcircmiddotEgrave AcircOacutersaquoUcircmacr˘UcircEuml UgraveEuml˜ currenUacuteAcirc˘Oacutemiddot˜ UcircOcirc˘permillsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgraveAacuteOacuteOgraveUcircEuml˜ Ocirc˘ middotEcircOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute UgraveOcirc˘˜ UgraveOcircIgraveAcircrsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ middotIumlIumliquest IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveEumlOacute˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml UgraveˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ IgraveAcirc UgraveEumlOacute middotmiddotUacutemiddotrsaquoUgraveEumlUgraveEumlUgraveAcircmacrOacuteOcircAacuteOacuteˆUcircrsaquomiddot IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteAcircOacuteEgraveIcircfiUgraveAcircUacutemiddot UgraveEumlOacute Acirc˘UacuteDaggerUgraveAcircUacuteEuml AcircEgraveIgravefiUacuteEcircˆUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteUcircUgraveAcircIumlAcircmacrOgraveOacute UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘

ntilde UgraveEumlOacute AcircOacuteEumlIgravecurrenUacuteˆUcircEuml ˘OcircUcircUgravelsaquoUacuteEgraveIacuteEuml IcircmiddotEgrave middotUacuteOcircmacrlsaquo IcirciquestıAcirc permil˘OacutemiddotUgravelsaquo˜sbquoOcirclsaquoıAcircEgravemiddot˜ UcircUgravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ πOacuteUcircUgraveEgraveUgraveOcircDaggerUgraveOcirc˘ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotfiIcircUgraveEumlUcircEuml UgraveˆOacuteAcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraveEgraveIcircOgraveOacute EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgravelsaquoUcircAcircˆOacute OcircEgrave OcircOcircrsaquoAcirc˜ middotUacutecurrenmacrOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave middotfiUgraveOcircOacute ISACA

CISA (Certified Information Systems Auditor) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 70000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 1978

CISM (Certified Information Security Manager) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 10000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 2002

CGEIT (Certified in the Governance of Enterprise IT) IgraveAcirccurrenUacutemiddotOacute UgraveˆOacute 3000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEumlUgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 2008 IcircmiddotEgrave

CRISC (Certified in Risk and Information Systems Control)IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacute UgraveˆOacute 1000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacutecurrenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UcircUgraveEgrave˜ middotUacutemacrcurren˜ UgraveOcirc˘ 2010

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

16 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 17

Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

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CISA (Certified Information Systems Auditor) IgraveAcirc currenUacutemiddotOacuteUgraveˆOacute 70000 EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircEgraveEumlIgravecurrenOacuteˆOacute IgraveAcircIumlOgraveOacute middotfi UgraveEumlOacute currenOacutemiddotUacuteIacuteEuml UgraveEuml˜EgraveUcircUgraveOcircOcircrsaquoEumlUcircEuml˜ UgraveOcirc 1978

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ntilde Continuous Auditing amp Continuous Monitoring UsingTechnology to Drive Value by managing Risk amp MonitoringPerformance

ntilde Introduction to Computer Forensics

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash Key Concepts andImplementation methodology

ntilde Identity amp Access Management ndash A practical Implementation

ntilde A Risk Based Approach to Data Protection

ntilde GSM Threads amp Vulnerabilities

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

16 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 17

Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 13

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partrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave AcircOacuteAcircUacuteAacutefi IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ permilEgraveAcircıOacuteOcircDagger˜ OcircUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteEgraveUcircIgraveOcircDagger ISACA middotfi UgraveOcirc1991 AgravelsaquoUacuteIacuteAcirc paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ Central Indiana ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacuteinfinIgraveAcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo IcircmiddotEgrave AcircrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave paraUacutefiAcircpermilUacuteOcirc˜ UgraveOcirc˘ ISACA Chapter UcircUgraveEumlOacute intDaggerUacuteOcircpartrsaquoOacutemiddotEgrave IgravecurrenIumlOcirc˜ UgraveEuml˜ radicUacuteAacutemiddotOacuteˆUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ partEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo˜ UgraveOcirc˘ int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircOcircDaggertrade˘OacutepermilcurrenUcircIgraveOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveOcirc centEgraveAcircıOacutecurren˜ trade˘OacutecurrenpermilUacuteEgraveOcirc πNFOSEC

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

14 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

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Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

GOVERNANCE OFINFORMATION SECURITY ampOTHER INITIATIVESVernon Poole

As information security incidents increase especially cyber security incidentsorganisations need to respond to these challenges as a governance issue and definespecific tasks that staff at all levels can undertake as part of a managementframework This article will enable executive management and the Board toundertake their roles in Information Security Governance

As the global economy depends on the secure flow of information within and acrossorganisations information security is an issue of vital importance A secure andtrusted environment for information greatly enhances consumer benefits businessperformance and productivity and national security

Conversely an insecure environment creates the potential for serious damage togovernments and organisations that could significantly undermine customers andcitizens For those engaged in the Critical National Infrastructure the stakes areparticularly high Where do we stand in the effort to bolster information security If the stakes are so high why havenrsquot we made more progress

14 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

16 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 15

CURRENT POSITION

1 Increasing laws amp regulations call for more attention onInformation Security ndash but only a few organisations areactively addressing their information security needs

Information security is important Companies and individuals wantmore security vendors are responding with more secure productsindustry and consumers recognise the need for information securityndash but there is a cost of security and demonstrating return onsecurity investment is sometimes difficult The good news is thatsecurity profession and national governments are actively engagedin addressing the information security challenge For example inUK The Government have developed a Security Policy Frameworkamp in USA they have developed the Californiarsquos Database SecurityBreach Notification Act July 2003 which requires companies tonotify customers if they believe a systems breach has led to therelease of their personal information (this may become an EUregulation in 18 months time)

2 Information security is often treated as a technology issuewhen it should be treated as a governance issue TheBoard and executive management must be activelyengaged

Businesses today face increased scrutiny when it comes tocorporate governance accountability and ethics Sarbanes-OxleyAct of 2002 (SoX) created an obligation at the CEO and boardlevel to pay attention to information security Implementation ofan effective IT security program is ultimately a matter ofenlightened organizational self-interest Companies are takingaction to protect their own information and information entrustedto them by customers suppliers and other partners They areestablishing responsibility for information security and adoptingprograms to evaluate and address the vulnerabilities and theinternal and external threats However within many organizationstwo important barriers to effective computer security exist

ntilde responsibility is solely to the Chief Information Security Officer(CISO)

ntilde lack of a framework for action -- how to set priorities assigntasks ampmonitor implementation

3 There are existing frameworks that outline the actionsnecessary to remedy the problem ISO27001 amp COBIT aretwo examples with the emerging BMIS (Business Model onInformation Security) amp COBIT5 next year offering the bestway to address these governance issues

ISO27001 amp ISO27002 (Code of Practice on Information SecurityManagement) are the global de-facto standards which enables all

organisations to set up an effective Information SecurityManagement System (ISMS)

Business Model for Information Security (BMIS) from InformationSecurity Audit and Control Association (ISACA) allows anorganisation to understand the driving Organisational requirementsin respect of Governance ndash taking account of People Process ampTechnology but also to account for the dynamic interconnectionsof Culture Architecture Emergence Governance amp HumanFactors COBIT5 from ISACA ndash to be published in 2012 will be anintegrated knowledge base and depending who you are as astakeholder ndash CISO Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA)or management role ndash you can establish what you need to do asa Governance contributor

4 Lack of progress is the failure to adopt such frameworks ndashthey can guide an organisation on implementing practicalsolutions

Governance entails the systematic oversight and execution ofinformation security functions By themselves recommendedpractices ndash no matter how strong the consensus is for them ndashare not enough they must be married with an information securitygovernance framework that assures effective implementation Agovernance framework is important because it provides aroadmap for the implementation evaluation and improvement ofinformation security practices An organization that builds such aframework can use it to articulate goals and drive ownership ofthem evaluate information security over time and determine theneed for additional measures

RECOMMENDATIONS

1 Government and industry should recognize that asignificant regulatory regime already exists for informationsecurity

Some laws address information security directly others addressit indirectly through such issues as financial governanceprivacy or reporting requirements Organisations should begindeveloping programs to comply with them eg SoX Basel IIPayment Card Industry (PCI) Compliance

2 We should develop an information security governanceframework that organizations can readily adopt

One of the most important features of a governance framework isthat it defines the roles of different members of an organisation Byspecifying who does what it allows organizations to assign specifictasks and responsibilities A common element in almost all securitybest practices is the need for the support of senior management

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

16 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 17

Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

management functions can fall into four categories ndash CEOBoardExecutive Management Steering Committee and CISO -

CEOBoard has responsibility for

ntilde Oversight and coordination of policies

ntilde Oversight of business unit compliance

ntilde Compliance reporting

ntilde Actions to enforce accountability

Executive Management has responsibility for

ntilde Providing information security protection commensurate withthe risk and business impact

ntilde Providing security training

ntilde Developing the controls environment and activities

ntilde Reporting on effectiveness of policies procedures andpractices

Steering Committee has responsibility for

ntilde Providing security guidance for information and systems

ntilde Periodically assessing assets and their associated risks

ntilde Assessing appropriate levels of security for the information intheir systems

ntilde Ensuring that policies and procedures cost-effectively reducerisk to acceptable levels

ntilde Ensure that security and controls are tested periodically

CISO has responsibility for

ntilde Developing maintaining and ensuring compliance to thesecurity program

ntilde Designating a security officer with primary duties and trainingin IT security

ntilde Developing the required policies to support the security programand business user needs

ntilde Developing the information use and categorization plan

ntilde Assisting senior managers with their security responsibilities

ntilde Conducting security awareness program

Components of the Framework

Information Security Governance includes elements required toprovide management assurance that its directionintent are reflectedin the Information Security regime by utilizing a structured approachto implementing an IS program 6 basic outcomes arerecommended-

1 Strategic alignment

2 Risk management

3 Value delivery -optimizing IS investments in support of businessobjectives

4 Resource management

5 Performance measurement

6 Assurance Integration

MANAGEMENTLEVEL

STRATEGICALIGNMENT

RISK MANAGEMENT VALUE DELIVERY PERFOMANCE

MEASUREMENTRESOURCE

MANAGEMENTPROCESS

ASSURANCE

Board of Directors

Require demonstrablealignment

Policy of riskmanagemnet in all

activities

Ensure regulatorycompliance

Require reporting ofsecurity activity costs

Require reporting ofsecurity effectiveness

Policy of knowledgemanagement andresource utilization

Policy of assuranceprocess integration

Executive Management

Institute processes tointegrate security withbusiness objectives

Ensure roles andresponsibilities includerisk management in all

activities

Monitor regulatorycompliance

Require business casestudies of security

initiatives

Require monitoring andmetrics for security

activities

Ensure processes forknowledge capture and

efficiency metrics

Provide oversight of allassurance functions

and plans forintegration

Steering Committee

Review securitystrategy and integrationefforts ensure business

owners supportintegration

Identify emerging riskspromote business unit

security practises

Identify complianceissues

Review adequatenessof security initiatives ot

serve businessfunctions

Review and advise vis-agrave-vis securityinitiatives meet

business objectives

Review processes forknowledge capture and

dissemination

Identify critical businessprocesses and

assurance providers

Direct assuranceintegration efforts

Chief InformationSecurity Officer

Develop securitystrategy oversee

security program andinitiatives liaise with

business processowners for ongoing

alignment

Ensure risk andbusiness impact

assessments developrisk mitigation

strategies

Enforce policy andregulatory compliace

Monitor utilization andeffectiveness of

security resources

Develop and implementmonitoring and metrics

approaches

Direct and Monitorsecurity activities

Develop methods forknowledge capture anddissemination develop

metrics foreffectivemess and

efficiency

Liaise with otherassurance providers

Ensure that gaps andoverlaps are identified

and addressed

16 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 17

Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

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pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 17

Interpreting the Framework

The framework poses three sets of questions

1 What am I required to do

2 How do I accomplish my objectives

3 How effectively do I achieve my objectives

Because the framework describes proactive actions it not onlyclarifies roles and responsibilities but also helps managementselect a security practice reference (like ISO 27001 or the emergingISO27014 ndash still being finalised) that is appropriate for theirorganisation

Consistent with Key Security Practices

Any Governance Framework must include the following key securityrequirements

1 The need for risk assessments Risks must be understood andacknowledged and the security measures that are taken mustbe commensurate with these risks

2 The need for a security organizational structure

3 The need to create communicate implement endorsemonitor and enforce security policies

4 The need to make every member of the organization aware ofthe importance of security and to train them in good securitypractices

5 The need for access controls to make certain only identified andauthorized users with a legitimate need can access informationand system resources

6 The need to consider security throughout the system life cycle

7 The need to monitor audit and review system activity in aroutine and regular function

8 The need for business continuity plans that are tested regularly

AUTHOR Vernon is Head of Business Consultancyresponsible for Sapphirersquos team of consultantswho deal with Information AssuranceGovernance and all best practice standards onInformation Security Management andassociated areas

(ISO27000 series ITIL COBIT5 RiskIT)

He is recognised as one of the thought leaders on InformationSecurity Governance He now sits on ISACArsquos new COBIT5Taskforce developing ISACArsquos new in depth approach toInformation Security Governance He is both CISMCGEITqualified

Vernon can be reached at Vernonpoolesapphirenet

SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE AT PLIROFORIKIThe CCS invites articles from CCS Members other IT and business Professionals researchers academics

and the IT Industry for the next issues

Articles and papers may deal on any aspect of Information Technology and submitted on a continuous basis to the editorial committee who will acknowledge receipt of the paper or article and notify the author(s)

about the acceptance (or rejection) of the paper and the planned publication time

Please review the details and instructions through our website wwwpliroforikiorg and submit your articlespapers via email to infoccsorgcy

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

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ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

SAFE COMPUTING IN ANINCREASINGLY HOSTILEWORLD SECURITY 20

Dr Andrew Jones

The world in which data lives is always changing But in the last few years it haschanged dramatically and this means that the challenge of protecting networks anddata has become even more difficult Due the proliferation of national labs whosegoals is to compromise other networks attacks have become increasinglysophisticated The old security solutions will no longer suffice and system architectsmust design networks with security as a design goal Security 20 means thatnetworks must adhere to a range of fundamental security rules or accept that theywill be violated

wwwpliroforikiorg | 19

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

SOVEREIGN HACKING

It has long been accepted that some nations have maintainedorganizations whose purpose is to monitor or spy on theelectronic activities of other countries In the United States it iswidely assumed that the National Security Agency monitors asmuch electronic communications as possible both inside the USand around the world This is a natural evolution of efforts tomonitor the enemies communications during various wars Thereare lots of famous tales and books on the subject of spy activitiesand efforts to decode messages or prevent the enemy frombreaking your codes Bletchley Park located outside of Londonwas a secret organization whose only purpose was to decodeWWII German messages encrypted by the famous Enigmamachine Although Bletchley Park was disbanded after that warit was only natural that as communications moved to computersspying in that realm would follow

We call this activity sovereign hacking Sovereign hacking refersto activities whose purpose is to violate networks in the interestof a sovereign government It is usually conducted by laboratorieswith highly trained experts and extensive research infrastructureand monetary support Many nations around the world nowsupport such laboratories

Sovereign hacking requires deep knowledge of networkarchitectures operating systems and vulnerability vectorsDeveloping this knowledge and the resulting techniques used tobreech well-defended networks requires extensive research Thismakes all networks vulnerable and unavoidably this knowledgeand these techniques migrate out of the secret labs and into thewider world

Hacking has gone far beyond merely gaining access to networksin order to read secret messages or learn specifications of newdefense systems Those are passive activities hacking has alsobecome active It is now possible to assume control of a networkremotely and have it carry out your bidding Does this meanhacking has become a weapon Yes and that surely makes manyother weapons systems obsolete

RECENT HACKS

Lets look at some recent hacks and see what they can tell usabout the current hacking environment

The RSA hack was particularly spectacular since the RSA tokenis so widely used and often considered the gold standard ofauthentication The hackers penetrated the algorithm thatgenerates the one-time password from the RSA card serialnumber This allowed them (or anyone with this information) to

effectively bypass the authentication process As a result the one-time password generation algorithm had to be revamped andliterally millions of tokens had to be replaced A huge hidden costwas the loss of customer confidence that RSA suffered in thisevent

This hack required subtle social engineering to learn the detailsof the RSA system architecture and considerable knowledgeabout the code in the Adobe Flash program to gain remoteadministration capabilities on a machine inside RSA This allowedthe hackers to carry out a series of attacks to gain further accessto the networks and accomplish the multistage penetration

The important lesson to draw from this attack is that hackers areno longer lone dissidents looking for a quick victory This hackwas probably the work of several groups each of which hadexpertise in different areas

SONY PLAYSTATION NETWORK

This was another high-profile attack that affected millions ofpeople around the world Like the RSA hack this penetrationrequired extensive knowledge in several areas The blogospheresuggests that the coalition that accomplished this hack might befrom Russia (due to the database knowledge required) and thatthey were simply after account information that could be sold forready cash Perhaps they succeeded beyond their expectations

Before all the doors had been closed the hackers gained accessto the data in over 77 million on-line accounts It is not clear thatthey were able to steal all that data Downloading and storingdata from 77 million accounts requires a lot of bandwidth andsignificant storage But they probably did get a lot of credit carddata and surely profited from it

The lesson here is that Sony spent a significant amount of timeand resources to implement a database that could handle millionsof customer accounts but did not use a trusted operating system(or did not configure those features) that allowed isolation of dataand access This error is easy to understand given the size andsophistication of the Playstation network

Sony had to shutter the on-line gaming service for a period oftime to fix the holes and is still fighting demands for various formsof compensation from former customers

BARRACUDA NETWORKS

This hack was more amusing than instructional (It is amusing tous certainly not to Barracuda Networks) Still there are a fewlessons that can be taken from this

20 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 21

Barracuda Networks is a developer of firewalls web and spamfilters and is generally considered to provide pretty good securityfor its customers Not surprisingly Barracuda Networks used itsown products to protect its internal networks Using a well-knownSQL injection technique hackers successfully accessed theBarracuda Networks Sales and Marketing Department databasewhich stored sales leads marketing data and other sensitiveinformation

So the hackers breeched the Barracuda Networks firewall Nothat was not necessary the firewall was off-line for an upgradewhen the network was compromised So that means the hackerswere really lucky and struck at exactly the opportune momentOr perhaps they had inside knowledge Of course either of thosesituations is possible But more than likely it was simply the casethat hackers were probing the network all the time continuouslyOnce the firewall was off-line the door was open and they wereable to access things easily

This simple hack illustrates two important issues first withexternal perimeter-based security it is best not to leave the gateunlocked This might be called single point security and thatallows for the possibility of single point failure Second hackingis not a sometime activity it is continuous Many studies haveconcluded that once a device is placed on-line hacking probesbegin almost immediately and they continue

CITIGROUP

Citigroup is one of the largest global banks in the world As suchthey are surely a prime target for a wide variety of hackers - afterall that is where the money is This hack while extremelysuccessful was simple and straight-forward

The hack was successful in that the hackers accessed andprobably downloaded the information from at least 200000accounts This account data included names passwords andtransaction information - all valuable data if you are looking to sellthe information either above ground (to legitimate marketingresearch organizations) or below ground (for identity theft) Thehacking team exploited a simple flaw in Java that allowed them -once they had access to a single account - to jump from oneaccount to another It was a brute force method but it waseffective Again with no internal controls once the flaw wasdiscovered all the doors were open

Citigroup has thus far avoided releasing details of the hack

THE F35 JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER

This is the hack that illustrates the current state of data hacking TheF35 is a military aircraft that has been developed by a coalition ofcountries It employees highly advanced technology and sophisticatedcomputer controls and data gathering In fact it has been called amainframe with a jet engine It reportedly flies with 75 million linesof code aboard That is one reason that this weapons system is themost expensive development ever undertaken by the US military

Again this hack required multiple hacking techniques extensiveexpertise in several different areas and the will to devote largeamounts of resources to obtain this information Clearly this wasthe work of sovereign hackers rather than rogue programmerslooking to sell credit card information

LockheedMartin is the prime contractor although several othercontractors and countries are integral to the developmentLockheedMartin employed numerous industry-standard securitytechnologies Still the data system was hacked and the thieves -spies in this case - obtained very specific data on the actual real-time performance performance specifications maintenance dataand weapons capabilities

Of course when the plane is airborne it is not connect to anynetworks (for the most part there is communication between theplane and ground stations in several modes) This was notgeneralized data that was obtained the data was specific to eachaircraft and flight and came from data downloaded after eachflight The hackers apparently had access to this data for at leasttwo years before the breech was discovered

Apparently this hack was accomplished by compromising one ofthe contractors networks which had access to the primary datanetwork LockheedMartin shut down all access to their networkbut clearly the damage had already been done

Could the hackers have gained physical control of the aircraft andcaused it to attack the wrong target Could they cause it to simplycrash Neither possibility seems that remote Simply installingrouge code that executed at the proper time - say once engineRPM exceed a set value - could easily cause some subsystemaboard the plane to malfunction Clearly this appears to be anearly skirmish in cyber warfare

If you are comfortable in your efforts securing your network ifare able to sleep soundly confident that all the doors are lockedwake up If someone can hack a weapon system developmentsuch as the F35 which has access to all the most sophisticatedsecurity technology most anything can be hacked All it takes arethe resources and will

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

BASIC SECURITY

It is possible to thwart most threats to your system by employingthe basic foundations of security Of course it would be nice tohave a silver bullet - a single device or technique that guaranteedyour network could not be hacked (at least by ordinary hackers)Since that silver bullet is not yet available we have to return to thebasics authentication encryption and a trusted operating system

Authentication means that you know who is at the end of the wirewho is requesting access who you can trust Most authenticationsystems use very simple - and very untrustworthy - techniquesfor identifying users for convenience A simple password is easyto hack and Windows will even remember it for you That oftenmeans that physical access to a machine is equivalent to accessto the network

A true three factor authentication system is required Three factorsmean that you are identified by something you have (the RSAtoken for example) and something you are (a fingerprint or irisscan) and something you know (the one-time password) Wehave seen that with two factor authentication once the token ishacked access is easy So the factors must be very difficult tocompromise For example most fingerprint readers rely on acentral database to store the fingerprint signatures If thatdatabase is hacked a fingerprint reader is useless

Encryption is often touted as the ultimate solution to all datasecurity In mathematics vernacular we would say that encryptionis necessary but not sufficient Data should be encrypted bothwhile in storage and during transmission But the data must bedecrypted to be useful and encryption does not help preventhacking

A trusted operating system (a TOS) is the only way to ensure thatthe damage done by a hacker is controlled or limited Notice thatI did not say that a TOS could not be hacked any system can behacked But a TOS gives you control over a number of things thatallow you to limit access to very specific data and prevent datafrom migrating from one sensitivity level to another It is apowerful tool in the ongoing hacking arms race

The concepts that are embodied in a TOS were developed over30 years ago and have remained constant and useful since thattime Therefore we will not belabor the features of a TOS herethey are probably already familiar to most system administratorsIn summary the advantages of a TOS are due to features thatallow fine-grained control of access to resources and providecompartmentalization privilege assignment and role assignmentImplementing and configuring a TOS is a complex and difficulttask It also imposes additional overhead - sometimes significant

overhead - on normal administrative tasks Hence manyadministrators avoid dealing with a TOS apparently hoping thatcombinations of other security technologies will be sufficient Theevidence weighs heavy against that position

CONCLUSIONS

Given the above analysis and observations it is impossible toavoid the conclusion that there is cyber warfare under waybetween many sovereign hacking groups Unfortunately thetechniques and sophistication used by theses sovereign hackinggroups has migrated out into the old world of hacking for fun andprofit - now mostly hacking for profit This means that everyoneis subject to significantly increased risks of their network beingviolated It is time to upgrade to Security 20

Security 20 means that security must be designed into the basicsystem architecture It cannot be added on You must use atrusted operating system that has the capability to isolatecompartments and control root privileges Finally it means thatyou are absolutely sure who is accessing your system by usingtrue three factor authentication

In the past it was acceptable to address threats as uncommonevents that had atypical signatures or unusual patterns Thisallowed security devices to watch for these odd occurrencesand interdict them or at least protect against them

Security 20 must be holistic and address the fact that threatsare no longer characterized by simple errant signatures the entiresystem must be part of the protection mechanism Security 20must also be agile - it must protect against new attack vectorsthat were not anticipated when the system was designed It mustalso allow for quickly and efficiently adding and removing accessor access levels as needs change Finally it must be pervasive inthat it must address threats from end to end of the system Thismeans that data stored in the network operating center isprotected and the data collection and access systems at the endof the wire can also be trusted

Viewing your network architecture and security in the Security 20model and implementing these principals has another benefit itwill allow you to once again sleep soundly at night

22 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 23

AUTHOR Dr Jones is the recent Chief Executive Officerand President of Argus Systems Group ArgusSystems Group is the developer of PitBulltrusted operating system currently sold by IBMas Trusted AIX

Dr Jones was a founding member of OpenPrairie Ventures where he evaluated business plans and potentialinvestments He was also the lead investor when Open Prairieacquired the assets of Argus

Dr Jones has been the founder and operator of several newtechnology business and taught technology commercializationand other subjects at the University of Illinois

Dr Jones received his PhD from the University of Alabama inPhysics (1975) an MBA from the University of Illinois (1978)and a BS and MS in Physics and Math from the University ofAlabama (1965 1972)

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

THE FUTURE OFINFORMATION SECURITYNEW PRIORITIES NEWSKILLS AND NEWTECHNOLOGIES

David Lacey

The business environment of the future will be very different fromTodayrsquos Boundaries between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing will dissolve Everyone and everything will belinked to the Internet In order to survive these radical changesorganisations must embrace the uncertainty and the new risks thisenvironment creates

This paper explores the impact of future trends and sets out a newagenda for the priorities skills and technologies of information securitymanagers

24 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 25

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGYLANDSCAPES

Digital networks are transforming organisations This is a longterm trend as enterprises slowly evolve from a relatively staticmechanistic form demanded by the Industrial Age to a moredynamic adaptable style encouraged by the Information AgeAmongst other changes there will be major differences in thenature of corporate governance and the location of business

Horizontal peer-to-peer information flows will displace traditionalvertical command-and-control flows opening up newpossibilities for external partnerships and virtual supply chainsbut at the same time undermining the influence and authority ofcorporate policy and standards The nature of wealth will alsoevolve as intellectual assets such as ideas know howrelationships and reputation become more valuable requiringsecurity to extend its traditional scope from safeguarding physicalassets and data to protecting concepts ability and transactions

Dynamic information flows will become more significant thanstatic stocks of data as a generator of wealth challenging thetraditional role of security as a barrier to physical and electronicflows At the same time corporate boundaries will shift ordissolve both between organisations and between personal andbusiness computing

The increasing business use of mobile devices coupled with theintroduction of cloud computing is already creating an environmentin which the users have already left the building and theapplications are following In response the focus of securitymanagement needs to change from securing private infrastructuretowards influencing behaviour and managing external relationships

Virtualization is also transforming both the problem and solutionspaces changing the nature of the target and its attack vectorsand introducing new possibilities for security features Examplesof such technologies include servers that continuously refreshoperating system software and client devices that enable the ring-fenced use of multiple user personae

Cyberspace itself presents a different environment from a securityperspective as it creates a world that blends fact and fantasy inwhich people feel anonymous and concealed encouraging themto relax and feel less inhibition to explore dark unacceptablesubjects (such as pornography) or to be unusually hostile rudeand angry Users can commit acts or reveal information that gobeyond anything that might be contemplated in the physical worldAnd there are no disapproving glances in cyberspace todiscourage inappropriate behaviour

TRENDS IN SECURITY THREATS

The increasing value of information combined with the greateravailability of knowledge and networking tools means that securitythreats will become increasingly strategic professional andcollaborative Internal security threats will also increase with theinevitable growth in the reach and power of user accesscapabilities to corporate databases

Advanced persistent threats such as those originating fromaggressive intelligence services are long-term sophisticated andwell funded The targets of these threats are likely to becomebroader and deeper and they will inevitably progress beyond meretheft of intellectual property towards sabotage of competingcommercial or national interests

Modern industrial supervisory control and data acquisition(SCADA) systems used to control industrial plants are powerfulenough to destroy a plant yet many have been built and operatedwith insufficient attention to security vulnerabilities Many haveexternal connections to enable remote maintenance Offensivetechniques are many and varied including resonance wear andsurge attacks Unfortunately there are no quick or cheap fixes forvulnerable systems This exposure will therefore be a growingconcern for many years

External sourcing of services fuelled by lower costs in developingcountries will introduce additional security risks from crimeespionage and corruption In countries where the rule of law isnot fully developed greater attention to due diligence andrelationship management will be necessary to mitigate the risk ofdeliberate breaches of contract With less direct control of thesupply chain a greater degree of monitoring will be needed tomaintain visibility of events and controls

Information has three major components confidentiality integrityand availability But they are not equally addressed In particularthe integrity component is not sufficiently recognised creating agrowing exposure in a threat landscape that will increasingly seekto manipulate rather than steal corporate secrets Networksprovide opportunities for both accidental and deliberate attemptsto distort data whether through lsquoChinese whispersrsquo or deliberateIndeed the true nature of cyber warfare is more the art of illusionthan the science of sabotage

A further challenge for security is the forthcoming ldquoinformationTsunamirdquo created by the massive growth in data (up to 60 peryear) which enables growing numbers of people to have greateraccess to even more data Cloud computing enables much largervolumes of data to be stored and processed resulting in

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

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wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

increasing citizen concern about stored data and an inevitablebreakdown in manual security practices

In the short and medium term there will also be an enhancedthreat of system and infrastructure outages during the next fewyears as solar activity is forecast to peak massively between 2012and 2015 potentially threatening electricity supplies and takingout GPS and mobile communications

SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING SECURITYMANAGEMENT METHODS

To be fit for the future information security management needsto begin by recognising and correcting its existingshortcomings Security thinking and countermeasures havechanged little in three decades despite a continuously evolvingproblem space The current approach is rooted in industrial agelsquoprocessrsquo thinking rather than a real-time improvisationalresponse

Regulatory compliance discourages innovation as it promotesestablished standards and discourages innovative emergingsolutions Security management has become more of a lsquotick-boxrsquo compliance activity than a thoughtful creative processFew security managers today have sufficient time or incentiveto address emerging risks when they are bogged down in papertrails of evidence to demonstrate compliance against hundredsof mandatory control objectives

Excessive copying of lsquobest practicesrsquo is also building adangerous lsquomonoculturersquo that favours the attacker Potentialforms of attack can be quickly tested against a small range ofstandard security products which are likely to compromise thedefensive perimeter for most organisations

CHANGES NEEDED TO MEET FUTURECHALLENGES

The future focus of security will be on assets that are externalmobile global intellectual abstract volatile accelerating diverseand complex These are characteristic that information securitymanagement in its existing form will struggle to address Againsta stifling background of increasing legal and compliancedemands security practitioners must aim to adopt new prioritiesnew skills and new technologies to meet the challenges presentedby this paradigm shift

Priorities need to change by placing less focus on safeguardinginternal infrastructure and more on external supply chains byfocusing less on outstanding audit actions and more on real time

events and by spending less time on specifying security controlsand more on persuading other people to address security

New or better skills are needed in supply chain leadership thoughsmarter due diligence better contract development and moreeffective relationship management Further skills are needed toinfluencing user or customer behaviour through an appreciationof psychology and marketing techniques and an ability toinfluence people across social networks

Better strategic response skills are also required to manageincidents of increasing business impact on abstract intellectualassets such as reputation and legal standing Practitioners willneed to develop strategic crisis management skills as well as anenhanced intelligence and investigation capability supported bybroader and deeper digital forensic skills

Greater use of technology will be required to support these newpriorities and skills Virtualisation is a powerful technology thattransforms both the problem and solution spaces Whether usedat the client or server level it changes the nature of the attacksurface and the potential attack vectors as well as enablingmultiple users personae and operating systems to co-exist on acommon platform

Cloud based security services also offer great potential byleveraging a much broader knowledge base of events and threatsDashboard technology provides a catalyst for centralisingpreviously disparate information feeds of security informationenabling greater intelligence and investigation capabilities to bedeveloped through increased use of data mining fusion andvisualisation technologies

To be resistant to the more sophisticated attacks of the futureplatforms and systems also need to be hardened to a much higherlevel of security In practice this can be achieved by exploitingestablished but under-utilised security measures such asMicrosoftrsquos Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) and the trustedcomputing standards and products developed by the TrustedComputing Group (TCG)

Behind the scenes the TCG has been encouraging the roll out ofTrusted Platform Modules (TPMs) in more than 500 millionprofessional laptops and servers This technology can be usedfor strong device authentication encryption key managementtrusted execution multi-level security and secure health checkingIt also enables control of the client device to be fully or partiallytransferred from the user to the organisation

Few of the above skills and technologies have been adopted orfully exploited by security practitioners Partly this is because of

26 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 27

ignorance partly it is due to the absence of incentives to innovateand partly it is because of a lack of creativity across the globalsecurity community But the consequences of the new security

threat landscape are challenging and inescapable Unless we havethe ambition to change the mindset knowledge and skills ofsecurity practitioners the outlook for security will be bleak

AUTHOR Mr David Lacey is a leading expert on informationsecurity and risk with more than 25 yearsexperience of directing corporate policy andprogrammes for the UK Foreign amp CommonwealthOffice Royal DutchShell and the Royal Mail

David is a keen innovator and is responsible for developing manycontemporary ideas and techniques

He was the creator of the body of text that is now ISO 27002and the founder of the Jericho Forum David is a now anindependent researcher writer and consultant and the author ofthe books ldquoManaging the Human Factor for Information Securityrdquoand ldquoManaging Security in Outsourced and OffshoredEnvironmentsrdquo He is a member of the Infosecurity Europe ldquoHallof Famerdquo

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

TO WHAT EXTEND ISTHE TURING TEST STILLIMPORTANTChristos Papademetriou

The Turing Test originally proposed as a simple operational definition ofintelligence has now been around for more than half a century This paperchronicles some comments on Turings classic article from its publication to thepresent Within this context the alternative versions of the Turing Test thatwere proposed in order to assess machine intelligence are discussed

zFinally the question of whether the Turing Test is still important isconsidered The conclusion reached is that the Turing Test has been and willprobably continue to be a very influential if controversial mathematicalmodel

28 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 29

INTRODUCTION

The short and extraordinary life of the British mathematician AlanTuring identifies with the ldquobeginningrdquo of Artificial Intelligence (AI)In 1950 Alan Turing published his famous paper ldquoComputingMachinery and Intelligencerdquo Since then it has been a widelydiscussed topic In that paper he described a method for humansto test AI programs This project will examine to what extent theTuring Test (TT) is still important

In the first section of the project the TT and some comments onthat test will be analysed and the alternative versions of the TT willbe discussed Then the question of whether the TT is still importantis considered In the final section a conclusion is reached Thepurpose of this paper is to analyse and show why the TT ishistorically significant and to what extent it is still important today

THE TURING TEST

The TT was suggested by Alan Turing in 1950 (Mauldin 1994)Alan Turing proposed an interactive test to replace the questionldquoCan machines thinkrdquo this test has become known as the TuringTest and its validity for determining intelligence or thinking is still inquestion (Bradford and Wollowski 1994) Turingrsquos aim was toprovide a method to assess whether a machine can think or notHe states at the beginning of his paper that the question ldquoCanmachines thinkrdquo is a highly ambiguous one He attempts totransform this into a more concrete form by proposing what iscalled the Imitation Game (IG) (Turing 1950 p5)

The game is played with a man (A) a woman (B) and aninterrogator (C) whose gender is not important The interrogatorstays in the room apart from A and B The main purpose of theinterrogator is to determine which of the other two is the womanwhile the objective of both the man and the woman is to convincethe interrogator that heshe is the woman and the other is not(Hodges 1997)

According to Turing (1950) the new agenda to be discussedinstead of the equivocal ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo was ldquoWhat willhappen when a machine takes the part of A in this game Will theinterrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played likethis as he does when the game is played between a man and awomanrdquo (Turing 1950 pp4-5)

As is now generally understood what the TT really tries to assessis the machinersquos ability to imitate a human being rather than itsability to simulate a woman Most subsequent remarks on the TTignore the gender issue and assume that the game is playedbetween a machine (A) a human (B) and an interrogator (C) ldquoInthis version Cs aim is to determine which one of the two entities

heshe is conversing with is the humanrdquo (Saygin et al 2000 p3)If the interrogator is consistently unable to distinguish the personfrom the machine the machine will be said to have passed the Testand will be said to be intelligent

SOME COMMENTS ON THE TURING TEST

Gunderson (1964) clearly believed that passing the TT would notnecessarily be a proof of real machine intelligence Because ofthis the test is based on a behaviouristic construal of thinkingHe proposed that thinking is a very broad concept and that amachine passing the Imitation Game is merely exhibiting a singleskill artificial intelligence which is not human but made by humanthan the all-purpose abilities defined by thinking

Gunderson points out some important issues pertaining toTuringrsquos replacement question ldquoCan machines thinkrdquo He asksthe question ldquoCan rocks imitaterdquo and continues to describe theldquotoe-stepping-gamerdquo (Gunderson 1964 p62) in a way that isidentical to the way Turing described his IG (Turing 1950) Onceagain the game is played between a man (A) a woman (B) andan interrogator (C) The interrogatorrsquos aim is to distinguishbetween the man and the woman by the way hisher toe isstepped on C stays in a room apart from the other two andcannot see or hear the toe-stepping counterparts There is a smallopening in the wall through which C can place hisher foot Theinterrogator has to determine which one of the other two is thewoman by the way hisher toe is stepped on ldquoWill the interrogatordecide wrongly as often as when the game is played between aman and a womanrdquo (Gunderson 1964 pp62-64) FurtherGunderson (Gunderson 1964) claimed that playing the ImitationGame successfully could well be achieved in ways other than bythinking without saying precisely what these other ways mightbe

According to Frenchrsquos (2000) article Stevenson (1976) writing adecade later when the difficulties with AI research had becomeclearer criticized Gundersonrsquos single-skill objection insisting thatto play the game would require ldquoa very large range of otherpropertiesrdquo (French 2000 p5) Whitby (1997) states that the TThas become a distraction and he sees the main source as amistaken reading of ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo(Turing 1950) He is of the opinion that ldquoTuringrsquos paper [hasbeen] interpreted as a closer to an operational test than he himselfintendedrdquo (Whitby 1997 p54) and that ldquothe last thing neededby AI qua science is an operational definition of intelligenceinvolving some sort of comparison with human beingsrdquo (Whitby1997 p62)

Taking a historical view Whitby (1997 p53) describe fourphases in evolving interest in the TT

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

30 | wwwpliroforikiorg

ldquo1950 - 1966 A source of inspiration to allconcerned with AI

1966 - 1973 A distraction from some morepromising avenues of AI research

1973 - 1990 By now a source of distractionmainly to philosophers rather than AI workers

1990 onwards Consigned to historyrdquo

ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS OF TURING TEST

In this section it is important to summarize some alternatives tothe TT that were proposed in order to assess machine intelligence

HARNAD AND THE TTT

Stevan Harnadrsquos main contribution to the TT debate has been theproposal of the Total Turing Test (TTT) an indistinguishability testthat requires the machines to respond to all of our inputs ratherjust verbal ones Clearly the candidate machine for the TTT is arobot with sensorimotor capabilities (Harnad 1989 Harnad1991)

Besides to the TTT Harnad also mentions a Total Total TuringTest (TTTT) which requires neuromolecular indistinguishabilityBut this more stringent version of the TT will not be necessaryaccording to Harnad If we know how to make a robot that canpass the TTT he says we will have solved all the problemspertaining to mind-modelling However neural data might be usedas clues about how to pass the TTT (Harnad 1991) Harnadthinks TTTT much as a scientist can ask for empirical story endsthere (Harnad 2000) but he does not think that we have to ldquogothat farrdquo

THE INVERTED TURING TEST

Recently Stuart Watt has proposed the Inverted Turing Test (ITT)(Watt 1996) Watts believes that the TT is inseparable from ldquonaivepsychology1rdquo because in order to pass the TT a machine mustconvince the interrogator of that which is in its mind He callsnaive psychology ldquothe psychological solution to the philosophicalproblemrdquo (Watt 1996) Wattrsquos ITT requires that machine be ableto prove its human-ness by exercising naive psychology Inparticular should exhibits that its power discrimination isindistinguishable from that of the human judge in the TT Nodoubt the TT is literally inverted and a system passes [the ITT] if

it is itself unable to differentiate between 2 person or among ahuman and an engine that can pass the standard TT but whichcan separate between a human and an engine that can be toldapart by a normal TT with a human observer (Watt 1996)

French (1996) uses the technique of a ldquoHuman SubcognitiveProfilerdquo that can show that a mindless program using the Profilecould pass this variant of the TT Ford and Hayes (1996) renewtheir appeal to reject particular test as any kind of meaningfulyardstick for AI Collins (1997) suggests his own type of test theEditing Test based on the skilful way in which humans lsquorepairrsquodeficiencies in speech written texts and handwriting for exampleand the breakdown of computers to accomplish the sameinterpretative competence Short passages of typed text are quitesensible to reveal interpretative asymmetry and thatrsquos why aTuring-like test turning on the differential ability to sub-edit suchshort passages is enough to expose whether the profoundproblem of AI has been solved (Collins 1997)

THE TRULY TOTAL TURING TEST

In their article ldquoThe Turing Test 50 Years Laterrdquo Saygin et al(2000 p26) mentioned that very recently Schweizer (1998)proposed the ldquoTruly Total Turing Testrdquo (TRTTT) Schweizer (1998)believes even Hamadrsquos TTT to be an insufficient test forintelligence Before he proposes the TRTTT Schweizer states hisown opinions about the adequacy of behavioural criteria He viewssuch tests as ldquodealing with evidence for intelligence but not asconstitutive or definitionalrdquo (Schweizer 1998 p264)

In the Truly Total Turing Test robots as a race should be able toinvent languages build a society and achieve results in sciencefor example similar to the human race (Schweizer 1998)

LOEBNER PRIZE

Will machines ever be able to think of their own will And will webe able to tell if and when they do Pondering these questions in1950 the British mathematician Alan Turing came up with asimple solution of settling the matter Every year since 1991computer programmers have competed for the Loebnerrsquos prizeof $1000002 and a gold medal The winner will be the firstprogram that will pass an unrestricted TT (Shieber 1994)

One of the aims of the Loebner competition as Loebner statesis to advance the field of artificial intelligence(httpwwwloebnernet) Few serious scholars of the TT take thiscompetition seriously and Minsky has even publicly offered $100

1 Basically the term given to the natural human tendency and ability to ascribe mental states to others and to themselves (Watt 1996)2 Now Loebner requires that this program should also be able to process audiovisual input

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 31

3 Such systems are usually called language understandinggeneration systems conversation agents or simply chatbots4 Multi-User-Dungeons These are games played interactively on the Internet by multiple players

for anyone who can convince Loebner to put an end to thecompetition (Shieber 1994)

RAY KURZWEIL VERSUS MITCHELL D KAPOR

The Long Bets Foundation a non-profit group founded by twolong-time Silicon Valley gadflies Stewart Brand and Kevin Kellystarted an online forum in year 2002 for those willing to put theirmoney and reputations behind their speculation (Zipern 2002)

Ray Kurzweil an artificial intelligence expert bet Mitchell D Kaporthe founder of Lotus Development that by 2029 (a computer) -or (machine intelligence) will pass the TT which states thatartificial intelligence will be proved when a machinersquos conversationcan be mistaken for a personrsquos Each man wagered $10000 ofhis own money (Wired Magazine 2002)

IS TURING TEST STILL IMPORTANT

It is obvious that 60 years after the original paper about TT thistest is still important even now Asseveration of that are theLoebner competition and the bet between Ray Kurzweil andMitchell D Kapor Furthermore in almost all the articles about TTthat were written between 1950 and 2003 there is the assertionthat over the coming years the researchers will try to produce amachine capable of in order to passing the TT

We are in the year 2011 but what has really been done of passingthe TT According to Saygin et al (2000 p34) ldquoover the yearsmany natural language systems have been developed withdifferent purposes including that of carrying out conversationswith human users3 These systems chat with people on theWWW play MUDs4 give information about specific topics tellstories and enter TT competitions However none has been ableto pass the TT so farrdquo

French (2000 p3) believes that in 300 yearsrsquo time people willstill be discussing the point of view raised by Turing in his paperIt could even be argued that the TT will take on an even greaterimportance several centuries in the future when it might providea moral yardstick in a world where machinery will move aroundmuch as we do will use normal language and will act togetherwith humans in ways that are almost beyond belief today In shortone of the questions in front of future generations may well be -To what extent do machines have to act like humans before itbecomes immoral to damage or destroy them- And the very realmeaning of the TT is our decision of how well machines act likehumans Frenchrsquos thesis suggests convincingly why the TT is stillvalid today

CONCLUSION

Alan Turing was a remarkable man His ideas in computing andmachinery have helped developed the world into what it is todayHe did much influential break through work in getting people tothink about Artificial Intelligence As a result of the abovediscussion the general conclusion can be made that after 60 yearsof the original paper about the TT it is still important It is possiblethat the TT will remain important until the time that somebodycreates a machine which will pass the TT A machine that musthave the ability to think and react as the human brain does As afinal remark it is better to agree with the words of French thatldquoThe TT will remain important not only as a landmark in a historyof the development of intelligent machines but also with realrelevance of future generations of people living in a world in whichthe cognitive capacities of machines will be vastly greater thanthey are nowrdquo (French 2000 pl)

LIST OF REFERENCES

Bradford PG and Wollowski M (1994) A Formalisation of theTuring Test Department of Computer and Science IndianaUniversity

Collins prod M (1997) ldquoThe Editing Test for the Deep Problem ofAIrdquo Psychology 8(01)

Ford KM and Hayes PJ (1996) ldquoThe Turing Test is Just as badWhen Invertedrdquo Psychology 7(43)

French RM (1996a) ldquoThe Inverted Turing Test How a MindlessProgram Could Pass Itrdquo Psychology 7(39)

French RM (2000b) ldquoThe Turing Test The First Fifty YearsrdquoTrends in Cognitive Sciences 4(3) 115-121

Gunderson (1964) ldquoThe Imitation Gamerdquo In Anderson AR edMinds and Machines London Prentice-Hall (1964) pp 60-71

Harnad S (1989) ldquoMinds Machines and Searlerdquo Journal ofExperimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence (1) 5-25

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

32 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Harnad S (1991) ldquoOther Bodies Other Minds A MachineIncarnation of an Old Philosophical problemrdquo Minds andMachines (1) 43-54

Harnad S (2000) ldquoTuring Indistinguishability and the BlindWatchmakerrdquo In Fetzer J amp Mulhauser G (eds) EvolvingConsciousness Amsterdam John Benjamins (in press)

Hodges A (1997) Turing Phoenix London

Mauidin ML (1994) Chatterbots Tinymuds and the Turing TestEntering the Loebner Prize Competition Carnegie Mellon University[online] Available atlthttpwwwlazytdcomltipubaaai94htmlgt [20 August 2010]

Saygin AP Cicekli I and Akman V (2000) ldquoTuring Test 50Years Laterrdquo Minds and Machines 10(4)

Schweizer P (1998) ldquoThe Truly Total Turing Testrdquo Minds andMachines 8 263-272

Shieber SM (1994) ldquoLessons from Restricted Turing TestrdquoCommunications of the Association for Computing Machinery37 70-78

Stevenson J (1976) ldquoOn the imitation gamerdquo Philosophia 6131-133

Turing A (1950) ldquoComputing Machinery and Intelligencerdquo InAnderson AR ed Minds and Machines London Prentice-Hall(1964) 4-30

Wired Magazine (2002) ldquoA computer will pass the Turing test by2029rdquo Wired Magazine Issue 1005

Watt S (1996) Naive Psychology and the Inverted Turing TestPsycoloquy 7(14)

Whitby B (1997) ldquoWhy The Turing Test is AIs Biggest BlindAlleyrdquo 53-63 [online] Available atlthttpwwwcogssusxacukusersblaywtthtmlgt [ 24 August2010]

Zipem A (2002) ldquoCompressed Data On a Futurists ForumMoney Backs Up Predictionsrdquo The New York Timeslthttpwwwloebnernet gt [20 August 2010]lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2DetailPlayershtmlgt [22August 2010] lthttpwwwmacrovucomCCTMap2htmlgt [ 18 August 2010]

AUTHOR Christos Papademetriou a native of Pafosteaches at the University of Neapolis in Pafos Heobtained a BSc (Hons) in Accounting andBusiness (2001) and MA in InternationalManagement (2002) from the University ofSunderland and a BSc (Hons) in Computing from

the University of Portsmouth At the moment he is in the finalyear of his doctorate in Social Sciences at University of Leicester

AgravepararadicμAsectpartΔpart Δradic Aƒpoundƒradic tradeinfintrade tradeΔprodiexcl parasectprodƒradicordmradicƒπintHradic int˘trade˘para IcircmiddotIumlAcircrsaquo Ugravemiddot IgravecurrenIumlEuml UgraveOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave iquestIumlIumlOcirc˘˜ AcircmiddotAacuteAacuteAcircIumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircEgravemacrAcircEgraveUacuteEumlIgravemiddotUgraversaquoAcirc˜ AcircUacuteAcirc˘OacuteEumlUgravecurren˜ IcircmiddotEgrave middotIcircmiddotpermilEumlIgravemiddot˚IcircOcircDagger˜

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircIumliquestpermilOcirc˘ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlOcirc˘Oacute Ugravemiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot UgraveOcirc˘˜ AacuteEgravemiddot Ugravemiddot AcircfiIgraveAcircOacutemiddot UgraveAcircDaggermacrEuml UgraveOcirc˘ AcircUacuteEgraveOcircpermilEgraveIcircOcircDagger

Δmiddot iquestUacuteıUacutemiddot IgraveOcircUacuteOcircDaggerOacute Oacutemiddot middotOacutemiddotEcirccurrenUacuteOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc OcircOcircEgravemiddotpermillsaquoOcircUgraveAcirc Ugrave˘macrlsaquo UgraveOcirc˘ UgraveOcircIgravecurrenmiddot UgraveEuml˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ IcircmiddotEgrave Oacutemiddot ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlIumlOcircOacuteUgravemiddotEgrave UcircAcirc Ucirc˘OacuteAcircmacrlsaquo sbquoiquestUcircEuml UcircUgraveEuml Ucirc˘OacuteUgravemiddotIcircUgraveEgraveIcirclsaquo AcircEgraveUgraveUacuteOcirclsaquo Euml OcircOcircrsaquomiddot ımiddot AcircOacuteEumlIgraveAcircUacuteOgraveUcircAcircEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotUacutemiddotIumlmiddotsbquolsaquo

UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotıOgrave˜ IcircmiddotEgrave AacuteEgravemiddot UgraveEumlOacute middotOcircpermilOcircmacrlsaquo (lsaquo middotfiUacuteUacuteEgravebdquoEuml) UgraveOcirc˘ IcircAcircEgraveIgravecurrenOacuteOcirc˘ IcircmiddotEgrave UgraveOcirc UacuteOcircsbquoIumlAcircfiIgraveAcircOacuteOcirc macrUacutefiOacuteOcirc permilEumlIgraveOcircUcircrsaquoAcirc˘UcircEuml˜

paramiddotUacutemiddotIcircmiddotIumlOgrave AcircIumlcurrenAacuteIacuteUgraveAcirc UgraveEgrave˜ UcircmacrAcircUgraveEgraveIcirccurren˜ IumlAcircUgraveOcircIgravecurrenUacuteAcircEgraveAcirc˜ IcircmiddotEgrave OcircpermilEumlAacutersaquoAcirc˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ UgraveEuml˜ EgraveUcircUgraveOcircUcircAcircIumlrsaquopermilmiddot˜ Igravemiddot˜ wwwpliroforikiorgIcircmiddotEgrave ˘OcircsbquoiquestIumlAcircUgraveAcirc Ugravemiddot IcircAcircrsaquoIgraveAcircOacuteiquest Ucircmiddot˜ IgravecurrenUcircˆ EumlIumlAcircIcircUgraveUacuteOcircOacuteEgraveIcircOcircDagger Ugravemiddotmacr˘permilUacuteOcircIgraveAcircrsaquoOcirc˘ UcircUgraveEuml permilEgraveAcircDaggerı˘OacuteUcircEuml infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 33

THE ROLE OF EFFECTIVEPROJECT MANAGEMENTIN PROJECT SUCCESSIDENTIFYING SUCCESS CRITERIA ampTHE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Andreas Solomou Kyriakos E Georgiou

ldquoThe use of project and teams has modified the theory and practice of managementrdquo(Cleland Bursic Puerzer amp Vlasak 1998 p ix) as organizationsrsquo strive to achieveexcellence through optimal management of their resources Early research acknow-ledgedthat Project Management (PM) is the most efficient way of managing complex initiatives asopposed to traditional methods of management (Avots 1969) PM has evolved over the pastforty years through extensive research has become a discipline and Structured PMMethodologies have been developed to help organisations manage complex projects involatile environments However project failure rate re-mains relatively high and actualProject Success appears to be trivial for researchers and academics This paper a first oftwo contributes to the body of knowledge on PM theory and practice The objective of theproposed research is to answer specific questions which will help to identify the linkbetween the effective use of project man-agement and project success Nowadays itappears that the PM success criteria have moved beyond the ldquoiron trianglerdquo (Atkinson1999 p 338) to include the ldquosoft systemsrdquo involved in PM Furthermore recent researchhas identified critical success factors for which limited research has been done (Georgiou K2010) These already identified success criteria and factors will provide the basis of theproposed research

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

INTRODUCTION

Project Management (PM) is becoming increasingly a strategiccompetence for organisations Recent research has identified thata significant number of organisations are changing their structurefrom the pure functional form towards more projectised or mixedforms The volatile business environment (Eizenhardt 1989) andthe competing forces require optimal management of resourcesin order to balance requirements against cost ldquoOrganisations areunder pressure to develop and execute innovative businessstrategies and projectsrdquo (Srivannaboon amp Milosevic 2006 p493) and ldquoin order to introduce change they need the disciplinesinherent in formal PMrdquo (Kay 2010 p 14)

PM was initially used in military projects and constructionengineering However PM evolution was swift and today it iswidely used not only in ldquotraditional sectorsrdquo but also in sectorswhere the project deliverables are intangible PM is employed insectors which have not only high technical requirements but alsodemand extensive managerial interaction such as changemanagement (Lehmann 2010) information management and

information systems The diverse nature and complexity of theseprojects has rendered the use of PM imperative Existing researchis restricted within mainly the field of project management (Kwakamp Anbari 2009 p 435) However recently there is increasinginterest to investigate the relationship of PM and project successin diverse disciplines especially from the managementperspective (Kwak amp Anbari 2009 p 435)

During the past forty years the importance of Project Managementhas been increasingly acknowledged (Kerzner 2006 p 35) andPM is now established as an important discipline in businessmanagement Beyond the research regarding successful projectmanagement extensive research exists in relation to ProjectManagement schooling There is an ongoing debate to identifythe knowledge and skills which project managers must possessin order to be able to successfully cope with ldquothe increasing levelof complexity chaos and uncertainty in project environmentsrdquo(Thomas amp Mengel 2008)

Figure 1 The Project Triangle of Constrains (Adopted from PMI 2008)

Scope

Schedule

ConstrainConstrain Constrain

Risk Resources

Quality Budget

34 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

The extensive use of PM in the organisations let to the need todevelop a specific methodology in order to have a ldquosinglecommon structured methodrdquo (McHugh amp Hogan 2010) tomanage projects A PM Methodology is a structured approach fordelivering a project and it consists of a set of processes withclearly defined inputs and outputs tools amp techniques resourcesand activities (Turner 2000 cited in McHugh amp Hogan 2010p2) Among other objectives of the project management is theuse of the existing organisational structure and resources todeliver results without adversely disturbing the routine operationsof the company (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 81) A structuredmethodology assists organisations to minimise impact on thedaily activities of the organisation streamlines project objectiveswith organisationrsquos strategy and minimises resistance to change(Kerzner 2010)

Organisations until recently developed their own PMmethodologies according to the specific nature and characteristicsof each project However the increasing number of projects andtheir diversity forced organisations to acknowledge the importanceand versatility of structured PM methodologies Thesemethodologies are flexible and can be tailored to any project typeirrespectively of the nature of its deliverables According to thesemethodologies a project is completed in one or more phaseswhich can be sequential overlapping or iterative and each phaseis comprised of processes (Figure 2) Each process has a numberof knowledge areas with specific inputs tools and techniques andoutputs (PMI 2008) upon which the organisation relies at anygiven point during the project to evaluate the project progress andultimately its successful implementation Another important aspectof these methodologies is the ldquoOrganisational Assetsrdquo (PMI2008) A process with which organisations build a database withpast projectsrsquo experiences and represents an important point ofreference for future projects

A number of PM Methodologies exist (Cook-Davis 2002 p 185)however the two most acknowledged are the Projects inControlled Environments (PRINCE2) developed by the UK Officeof Government Commerce and Project Management Body ofKnowledge (PMBoK) developed by the Project ManagementInstitute (PMI) in the United States (US) The majority oforganisations today are using the above methodologies andrequire that their project managers are certified by the respectiveorganisations

1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The first objective of the literature review will be to define ProjectSuccess Oxford Dictionary defines success as ldquothe gaining ofwhat is aimedrdquo (Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) Chan amp Chan (KeyPerformance Indicators for Measuring Construction Success2004) argue that certain criteria are essential in order to measureproject success Oxford Dictionary defines a criterion as ldquoastandard or principal by which something is measured for valuerdquo(Hornby Cowie amp Gimson) If these terms are combined togetherthen the criteria of project success can be defined as a ldquoset ofprinciples or standards by which favourable outcomes can becompleted within a set specificationrdquo (Chan amp Chan 2004 p 204)

It appears that project success has been trivial to researchersAs Tuman (1986 cited in Baccarini 1999) identified there is adiverse mix of the stakeholders in a project therefore a muchwider range of needs concerns and issues must be addressedin order to assess a projectrsquos success Shenhar et al (1997 p5) and Shenhar et al (2001 p 702) argue that success of aproject is perceived in a different way by each stakeholderTherefore they suggest a distinction between two different typesof projects in order to assess project success operationallymanaged projects and strategically managed projects Similarlyto other researchers they perceive project success as amultidimensional concept comprising of three major dimensionsas presented in Figure 2 The three dimensions of Projectsuccess (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Researchers like De Wit (Measuring Project Success 1988)Nicholas (1989 - cited in Bjeirmi 1996 p 83) and (Cook-Davis2002) make a distinction between project success and projectmanagement success Cook-Davis (The Real Success Factorson Projects 2002) goes one step further to make anotherdistinction between success criteria and success factors (Figure4) ldquoProject success is measured against the overall objectivesof the project while project management success is measuredagainst the widespread and traditional measures of performanceagainst cost time and qualityrdquo (Cook-Davis 2002)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 35

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Figure 2 The three dimensions of Project success (Adopted from Shenhar 2001)

Figure 3 The success components according to Cook-Davis (2002)

Project Objectivesmeasurments

Inputs to managementsystem that lead tosuccess

Performance Measurments

Measures by which aproject or a business

will be judged

Project Success

Project Managment

Success

Success Factors

Success Criteria

36 | wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Munns amp Bjeirmi (1996 p 82) argue that the outcome of a project(product service result) exists for a varying period according tothe nature of the project Therefore the focus of projectmanagement is distinct from that of the project because of itsshort-term use until delivery of the final product as opposed tothe product itself that has long-term effects (Figure 5)

Baccarini (1999) identifies two distinct components of successthe product success and the PM success and uses the LogicalFramework Method (LFM)1 to define Project Success (Figure 6)Each component is further divided into subcomponents andassessed separately ldquoLFM uses a top-down approach to

formulate an hierarchy of project objectives such that at any givenlevel the lower objectives are the means to satisfying the nexthigher level of objectivesrdquo (Baccarini 1999)

Yu et al (2005) did an extensive review of existing literature andhave concluded that two different approaches exist in the questfor assessing project success the product-oriented approach andthe value-centred approach The researchers identifiedweaknesses in the product oriented approach which emphasiseson the traditional criteria of cost time and quality therefore theyfocused on the value-centred approach This approach consistsof two key concepts Net Project Execution Cost (NPEC) and Net

1 The LFM was developed by the American Aid Association to improve the management of development projects (Baccarini 1999)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

Figure 4 The scope of success in the project life cycle (Munns amp Bjeirmi 1996 p 85)

wwwpliroforikiorg | 37

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Product Operation Value (NPOV) The researchers argue that thisapproach addresses inadequacies of other methods or modelsused to assess project success However the NPEC and NPOVconcepts are complex difficult to measure and have not beeneither evaluated or established yet

Researchers also argue that the definition of project success isdirectly related to the nature of the project and the success criteriaset for the specific project Furthermore there is a clear distinctionbetween Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors that willbe discussed in the next section However there is evidently noconsensus among researchers on a clear-cut definition of projectsuccess and a multitude of definitions exist based on theperspective each researcher adopts It is suggested that the value-centred proposition by Maude and Willis (1991 cited in Yu et al2005) that ldquosoftware development projects are be said to fail iffor whatever reason it would have been more economic not tohave run the project at allrdquo is more appropriate for this researchwhich will focus on Information Management and InformationSystems

11 Project Success Criteria and the Critical Success Factors

It is important for the purpose of the research to identify anddistinguish the Project Success Criteria and Project CriticalSuccess Factors within the existing literature and isolate thosewhich are more frequently mentioned These will be used withinthe context of the research

Chan amp Chan (2004 p 204) did an extensive review of the late1980rsquo and early 1990rsquos literature and concluded that the basiccriteria to measure project success are time cost and qualityHowever Westervel (2003) argues that ldquoperceiving projectsuccess as the compliance with time cost and quality constraintsappears to be a narrow viewrdquo in relation to the size uniquenessand complexity of each project He developed a ldquoProjectExcellence Modelrdquo (Figure 7) based on the EFQM-model with thepurpose to link Project Success Criteria and Critical SuccessFactors ldquoThe EFQM Excellence Model (Figure 8) was developedin 1988 and is a non-prescriptive - practical managementframework used by over thirty thousand organisationsrdquo thatenables organisations irrespectively of their size structure ormaturity to ldquodevelop sustainable excellencerdquo (EFQM 2011) Theresearcher argues that Project success criteria are linked with theldquoResults Areasrdquo and the Critical Success Factors with theldquoOrganisational Areasrdquo His model suggests a universal clusteringof criteria and a definition of six organisational areas where criticalsuccess factors can be studied The assessment of projectsuccess is enabled by linking Success Criteria and CriticalSuccess Factors (Westerveld 2003 p 415)

Figure 2 the Project Excellence Model developed by Westervel (The Project Excellence Model Linking Success Criteria and Critical Success Factors 2003)

38 | wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

The preliminary literature review has revealed that there isextensive research on critical success factors and a plethora ofsuch factors have been already identified

Cook-Davis (2002) uses a different approach from otherresearchers on the quest for defining project success factors Hisresearch identifies three questions the answer of which willidentify the critical factors that lead to successful projects

a) What factors are critical to project management success

b)What factors are critical to success on an individual project

c)What factors lead to consistently successful projects

The specific research identified twelve ldquorealrdquo2 success factors(Table 1) that derived from either hard data or from ldquosofterevidencerdquo

Kanter amp Walsh (2004) argue that an ldquoorganisationrsquos ability todevelop and implement projects depends on the organisationrsquosskills and experience its track record the management climateand the specific projectrdquo Their research focused on InformationTechnology organisations and was facilitated through twosubsequent workshops each attended by the same thirty projectmanagers The research identified five project success factorsupon which further study is required (Table 2)

Milosevic amp Patanakul (2005) drawing on Brown amp Eisenhardtrsquos(1989) Eisenhardtrsquos (1997) and Lengnick-Hall amp Wolff (1999)work on critical success factors in high velocity marketsdeveloped an empirical research to address two questions

1 What are the major factors in standardised projectmanagement efforts on the organisational projectmanagement level

2 What standardised project management factors on theorganisational project management level are of interestbecause they may impact project success

Further to these questions the researchers made a series ofhypotheses in relation to standardised project managementHowever their research did not focused on the internationally-acknowledged project management methodologies but rather onproject management methodologies developed by theorganisations under study

One of the most comprehensive researches on critical successfactors is that of Fortune amp White (2006) The researchers haveused the ldquoFormal System Modelrdquo across sixty-three publicationssince the 1960rsquos and have identified at least twenty-seven factorsThese are ranked by the number of citation the author of thepublication has received A list of the more prominent factors ispresented in a comprehensive table in Appendix 2 and will beused as a basis for the research

Figure 3 the Graphical representation of the EFQM-Model of Excellence (EFQM 2011)

2 The researcher uses the term ldquorealrdquo as the results of his research derived from an empirical research

wwwpliroforikiorg | 39

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Q1 What factors are critical to project management success

1 Adequacy of company-wide education on the concepts of risk management

2 Maturity of an organisationrsquos processes for assigning ownership of risks

3 Adequacy with which a visible risk register is maintained

4 Adequacy of an up-to-date risk management plan

5 Adequacy of documentation of organisational responsibilities on the project

6 Keep project (or project stage duration) as far below three years as possible (1 year is considered to be better)

7 Allow changes to scope only through a mature scope change control process

8 Maintain the integrity of the performance measurement baseline

Q2 What factors are critical to success on an individual project

9 The existence of an effective benefits delivery and management process that involves the mutual co-operation of projectmanagement and line management functions

Q3 What factors lead to consistently successful projects

10 Organisations Portfolio and programme management practices

11 The quality of set of metrics (both for performance and success) used by the organisation

12 An effective means of ldquolearning form experiencerdquo

Table 1 the twelve ldquorealrdquo success factors on projects (Cook-Davis 2002)

1 Define and promulgate functional requirements and control changes

2 Develop realistic project schedules

3 Match skills to needs at the proper time

4 Know and respond to the real status of the project

5 Establish and control the performance of the contractors

Table 2 the five project success factors that drew consensus in Kanter amp Walshrsquos (2004) research

40 | wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

12 The Critical Success Factors of projects within the CyprusBusiness amp Economic Environment

All critical success factors identified in the literature will besurveyed however more weight will be placed upon those factorsthat are more relevant to the Cypriot business environment andspecifically to the Information Management Sector The proposedresearch will take place among professionals that participate inInformation ManagementInformation Management Systemsrsquorelated projects Due to the particularity of the businessenvironment and the influence of culture it appears that there arecritical success factors (Georgiou K 2011) other than thoseidentified in the preliminary literature review and the research willtry to identify them

Cyprusrsquo economy heavily depends on the services sector andCyprus is becoming an internationally acknowledged centreoffering high quality services especially banking services Suchservices demand the implementation of complex InformationManagement Systems and there is an increasing need to managethese projects At the same time though PM knowledge skillsand experience are practically non-existent and basic projectsuccess criteria are neglected A frequent example of thisinexperience is the initiation of Projects without a Project Owner-Sponsor or Champion (Georgiou K 2011)

In a recent research within a large service organisation Georgiouamp Georgiou (2010 p 27) have identified Project Management tobe ldquovital to the implementation successrdquo of an EnterpriseResource Planning System (ERP) but more significantly that ldquothecollection and analysis of the requirements of users to be as acritical success factor for which limited and insignificantresearchrdquo exists (Georgiou amp Georgiou 2010 p 28)Additionally the researchers identified communication and topmanagement support to have a catalytic role in the success ofthe project Although the researchers make a clear distinctionbetween these key factors in the specific case study there is astrong connection between them According to PMI projectldquoPlanning Process Grouprdquo within the ldquoScoperdquo knowledge area(Appendix 3) the most important process is to ldquoCollect

Requirementsrdquo (PMI 2008 p 43) The predecessor of thespecific process in the ldquoInitiating Process Grouprdquo is ldquoIdentifyStakeholdersrdquo According to PMI (A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge 2008) ldquoIdentify stake-holdersrdquois a process that belongs to the knowledge area ofldquoCommunicationrdquo (Appendix 3) which is considered one of themost important areas of the specific methodology Severalauthors such as Lanning (2001) Loonam amp McDonagh Bhatti(2005) and Mabert Soni amp Vankataramanan (cited in Georgiou ampGeorgiou 2010 p29) have identified ldquoCommunicationrdquo as acritical success factor in the implementation of such informationsystems while Brown (2007 cited in Georgiou amp Georgiou2010) rank ldquoCommunicationrdquo as the second most critical area inimplementation and especially important in the adoption phasewhen introducing new information technology in organisationsSeveral other critical success factors identified by Georgiou ampGeorgiou (2010) have a direct or indirect relationship with projectmanagement and project management methodologies Theproposed research will build on the specific research focusing onldquorequirements managementrdquo through the context of PMmethodologies

Recent research reveals that ldquotechnical Project Management Toolsand Methods are so developed and widely used that now it is timeto turn the focus on developing leadership skillsrdquo (Hyvari 2006p 223) This is a challenging field where indepth research isrequired and the propose research will touch

From the preliminary literature review it appears that there issignificant research in regards to the Project Success ProjectSuccess Criteria and the Critical Success Factors of Projects Itappears though that there is gap as to the type and impact ofproject methodologies that organisations are using to managetheir projects and to what extent these methodologies arecustomised to achieve the desired results Further to the impactof project management methodologies though the proposedresearch will try to identify those factors that are part of projectmanagement methodologies and are the key success factors ofprojects and are related to the Information ManagementInformation Systems sector in Cyprus

wwwpliroforikiorg | 41

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

REFERENCES

Atkinson R (1999) Project Managment Cost Time and QualityTwo Best Guesses and a Phenomenon its Time to Accept otherSuccess Criteria International Journal of Project Management 17(6) 337-342

Avots I (1969) Why does Project Management Fails CaliforniaManagement Review 12 (1) 77-82

Baccarini D (1999) The Logical Framework Method for DefiningProject Success Project Management Journal 30 (4) 25-32

Chan A P amp Chan A P (2004) Key Performance Indicatorsfor Measuring Construction Success Benchmarking AnInternational Journal 11 (2) 203-221

Cleland D I Bursic K M Puerzer R amp Vlasak Y A (Eds)(1998) Project Management Case Book Project ManagementInstitute

Cook-Davis T (2002) The Real Success Factors on ProjectsInternational Journal of Project Management 20 (3) 185-190

Cryer P (2006) The Research Students Guide to Success (3rdEdition ed) Berkshire United Kingdom Open University Press ampMcGraw-Hill Education

Dawkins R (1989) Chapter 11 - Memes the new replicators InThe Selfish Gene (2nd Edition ed pp 189-201) New YorkOxford University Press

De Wit A (1988) Measuring Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 6 (3) 164-170

EFQM (2011) EFQM Excellence Model Retrieved March 292011 from EFQM httpwwwefqmorgentabid132defaultaspx

Eizenhardt K M (1989) Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments Academy of Management Journal 32 (3)543-576

Fortune J amp White D (2006) Framing of Project CriticalSuccess Factors by a Systems Model International Journal ofProject Management 24 53-65

Georgiou K (2010) Cristical Success Factors for theImplementation of Enterprise Resource Planning MBADissertation Kingston University Nicosia

Georgiou K (2011) Introduction of Proposal - Enquiry e-mailPersonal Communication [E-mail] Sent on Saturday 30 of June2011 at 1146 AM

Georgiou K amp Georgiou E K (2010) Critical Success Factorsfor the Implementation of an Enterprice Resource PlanningSystem Information Management (20)

HHornby A Cowie A amp Gimson A Oxford Advanced LearnersDictionary of Current Eanglish Oxford Oxford University Press

Hyvari I (2006) Project Managment Effectiveness in Project-Oriented Business Organisations International Journal of ProjectManagement 24 216-225

Kanter J amp Walsh J (2004 March) Toward More SuccessfulProject Management Information Systems Management 16-21

Kay R J (2010) An APMP Primer - PRINCE2 Edition (First ed)

Kerzner H (2010) Project Management Best Practices -Achieving Global Excellence (Second Edition ed) New York JohnWiley amp Sons Inc

Kerzner H (2006) Project Management A Systems Approach toPlanning Scheduling and Controlling (Ninth ed) New JerseyJohn Wiley and Sons Inc

Kumar R (2011) Research Methodology A Step by Step Guideto Beginners (Third Edition ed) London Sage Publications Ltd

Kwak H Y amp Anbari F T (2009) Analysing ProjectManagement Research Perspectives from Top ManagementJournals International Jounal of Project Management 27 435-446

Lehmann V (2010) Connecting changes to projects using ahistorical perspective Towards some new canvases forresearchers International Journal of Project Management 28328-338

McHugh O amp Hogan M (2010) Investigating the Rationale forAdopting an Internationally-Recognised Project ManagementMethodology in Ireland The View of the Project ManagerInternational Journal of Project Management

Milosevic D amp Patanakul P (2005) Standardised ProjectManagement may Increase Development Project SuccessInternational Journal of Project Management 23 181-192

Munns A K amp Bjeirmi B F (1996) The Role of ProjectManagement in Achieving Project Success International Journalof Project Management 14 (2) 81-87

42 | wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

PMI (2008) A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge (4th Edition ed) Pensylvania United States ProjectManagement Institude Inc

Rudestam K E amp Newton R (1992) Surviving your DissertationSage

Shenhar A J Dvir D Levy O amp Maltz A C (2001) ProjectSuccess A Multidiamensional Strategic Concept Long RangePlanning 34 699-725

Shenhar A J Levy O amp Dvir D (1997) Mapping theDiamensions of Project Success The Professional Journal ofProject Management Institute 28 (2) 5-13

Srivannaboon S amp Milosevic D Z (2006) A two-way influencebetween business strategy and project management InternationalJournal of Project Management 24 493-505

Thomas J amp Mengel T (2008) Preparing project managers todeal with complexity ndash Advanced project management educationInternational Journal of Project Management 26 304-315

Westerveld E (2003) The Project Excellence Model LinkingSuccess Criteria and Critical Success Factors InternationalJournal of Project Management 21 411-418

Yu A G Flett P D amp Bowers A J (2005) Developing a Value-Centred Proposal for Assessing Project Success InternationalJournal of Project Management 23 428-436

AUTHORSAndreas Solomou is an ECDL CertifiedTraining Professional and has managedseveral training projects as well as productdesign and development projects He iscurrently studying for a postgraduate degreein Business Administration from KingstonUniversity He can be reached atandreassolomoucytanetcomcy

Kyriakos E Georgiou is one of the longtimeeditors of the journal His professionalactivities include both academia and the realworld of business and banking He isstudying for a DBA from the University ofKingston London UK and his researchinclude information technologymanagement business value and

productivity from information technology He can be reached atkegeorglogoscynet

wwwpliroforikiorg | 43

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Of course you know this man unless yoursquove beenliving under a rock for all these years Steve Jobsthe co-founder of Apple Computers (now Apple Inc)NeXT Inc and Pixar Animation Studios is looking atus and smiles

DO YOU KNOWTHIS MANDr Philippos Peleties Photo from Wikipedia

the free encyclopedia

44 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 45

A difficult man a control freak a man with a binary view of things-- excellent or terrible -- possessing a singular focus on visionand execution a master of persuasion the man who created areality distortion field around him Steve Jobs has trail blazedthrough the years creating art that fits the function simplicity overcomplexity but also control over freedom He didnrsquot inventanything but saw the whole when others saw the parts He didnrsquotthink people knew what they wanted until they were shown whatthey wanted ldquoThe best way to predict the future is to invent itrdquoHe stayed true to this throughout his life Love him or hate himas binary as his view of the world he has left an indelible markon our lives and through the use of his creations the MacintoshiPod iPhone iPad and the rest a part of his soul has remainedwith us

Steven Paul Jobs was born out of wedlock on February 24 1955in San Fransisco His parents American Joanne Carole Schiebleand her Syrian university instructor Abdulfattah John Jandali metat the University of Wisconsin Joannersquos father was not in favorof her marrying Abdulfattah a Mouslim so when Joanne becamepregnant and later gave birth to Steve she decided to put him upfor adoption Her only stipulation was that the adopting parentswould have to be university graduates

Paul Reinhold Jobs and his wife Clara adopted the newly bornand named him Steven Paul Jobs Even though they were notuniversity graduates thus not fitting the exact requirements theypromised that they would send Steven or simply Steve touniversity

Steversquos childhood was uneventful a typical late 1950rsquos and early1960rsquos lifestyle His father Paul had a love for the mechanicsand cars so he made sure he transplanted this love to Steve aswell Being a perfectionist insisting that the ldquoinside should lookas good as the outside even though nobody would see itrdquo instilledupon Steve the sense that whatever you do should be beautifulirrespective of who if any would see it This had a profoundeffect on his development and later career in Apple and elsewhere

As a teenager Steve was involved in the Hewlett-Packard ExplorerClub The Club encouraged its members to do projects so oneday Steve wanting some electronic parts he looked up HPrsquos CEOon the phonebook and gave him a call asking for the parts BillHewlett not only got him the part but also a summer job at HP

While at school he met a brilliant kid who even thought was fiveyears older he was emotionally at the same age StephenWozniak Wozniakrsquos electronics wizardry was legendary The twoof them got along together and forged a relationship where laterWozniak would create and Steve would sell

Upon graduation from high school Steve attended Reed Collegein Oregon However after one semester he decided he did notwant to be bound by formal requirements so he dropped outHowever he remained on campus auditing classes One of thesewas a class in calligraphy It is this very class that let him insistthat the Macintosh has multiple typefaces and proportionallyspaced fonts leading to the True Type Fonts that we are allfamiliar with

Returning home after eighteen months at Reed Jobs got a workat the up and coming video game powerhouse Atari Howeverhe was forced to take the nightshift as his insistence on dietingbut not washing forced a small smell rebellion among his daytimecoworkers

In early 1974 Steve took all the money he made working at Atariand left for India to ldquofind his gururdquo Despite the amusement of hisAtari manager Steve was serious about it The journey to Indiawas a spiritual journey in search of his inner self After spendingseven months and visiting countless places he declared that hisjourney was over and returned home With a shaved head Indiancotton robes and a dark chocolate skin from the sun he was afar cry from the polished Steve Jobs to become

The mid 70rsquos ware a time of discovery Computers were no longerthe big machines that only large corporations could afford TheAltair the first ldquopersonal computerrdquo made sure of it or at leastshowed the way Not much of a computer the personal computerkit sparked a frenzy of interest and development Homebrewcomputer clubs sprang around It is in this setup that AppleComputer was born Steve Jobs Stephen Wozniak and RonWayne drew up the partnership agreement that made Apple areality The name was chosen by Jobs He was a vegetarian whohad spent time tending an apple farm in Oregon

The fledgling company set up shop in Jobrsquos parentsrsquo garage Thescene was quite laughable Steve in shorts barefoot circuitboards littering the place Wozniak doing his magic with Apple IIIt is in this setting that Mike Markkula walked looking for his nextventure capital investment Mike was a young guy fresh off Intelgetting rich with stock options and retiring at the age of thirty-one Without too much thought he sank a quarter of a milliondollars into the fledgling company Mike was in and so was hisinvolvement with Apple Computers for the next twenty or so years

Apple II was launched in April 1977 in San Francisco at thefirst West Coast Computer Faire An overwhelming successApple secured attention and customers A real company doingreal products looking towards the future A very bright futureindeed

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

By 1981 Apple had sold a bit over 200000 Apple II This was asuccess beyond expectation by any measure Everybody shouldhave been happy But Steve was not He was restless looking forthe next big thing He knew that Apple II was Wozniakrsquos inventionand that it would forever be his machine Steve wanted somethingof his own so he started Apple III After two years of developmentand countless hour of testing Apple III hit the market It was afailure a flop Even before the introduction of Apple III Stevesensing that the product would not live up to his expectationsstarted a new project

The ldquoLocal Integrated Software Architecturerdquo or ldquoLisardquo projectaimed at the next generation personal computer Even though theldquoLisardquo acronym was clever everybody knew that this computer

was named after Lisa Jobrsquos daughter out of wedlock With aradical new design a 16-bit microprocessor and a load of othernew technologies Lisa was supposed to be the next big thing Itwasnrsquot and Jobs was more frustrated than ever He berated hiscolleagues a mode of operation that stayed with him for the restof his life and said he was tired of it all

Jef Raskin a former professor and Applersquos Manager of Publicationshad a vision of creating a simple ldquocomputer for the massesrdquo anldquoappliancerdquo type of machine Jef was convinced that a characterbased interface was certainly not for the masses As he had accessto the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centerrsquos work on Graphical UserInterface (GUI) he prompted Jobs to visit the Center In whatperhaps is one of the biggest ironies in the computer industry thecompany that invented the GUI Xerox was totally eclipsed by thecompany that copied it Apple It wasnrsquot that Xerox did not try tomarket the GUI They were simply ineffective They had the rightvision (GUI workstations communicating via Ethernet in a LANarrangement and sharing printers and other peripheral devices) butthey lacked in execution In all fairness to Apple Apple did notsimply copy the technology but greatly improved it

Lisa was an expensive system With a price tag of $10000 in1983 very few if any could afford it It was not the revolutionthat Jobs had hoped for It would never be

Raskinrsquos idea for a computer for the masses was still a smallproject in need for a bigger idea The GUI that was invented forLisa was to become the GUI for this new computer The name ofit the Macintosh

The Macintosh or Mac was named after the McIntosh variety ofapples A major project within Apple it was directed by Jobshimself The Macintosh team grew out of the small team Raskinhad set for his computer

As the Mac team grew and got more ldquointo the Macrdquo tensionsstarted to surface between them and the Apple III team Jobrsquosextreme style of management and overall attitude exacerbated thistension Calling themselves ldquothe Piratesrdquo ldquoitrsquos better to be a piratethan join the armyrdquo and guided under the maxims of ldquodonrsquotcompromiserdquo and ldquoreal artists shiprdquo Jobs instilled in them a highlycompetitive spirit

The Macintosh was unveiled through a lot of fanfare on January24 1984 The stage and Jobrsquos performance was to become histrademark for years to come The Ridley Scott directed ldquo1984rdquocommercial showing a running athlete smashing the screen witha big hammer where the ldquoBig Brotherrdquo was proclaiming to themesmerized masses that ldquowe shall prevailrdquo played on a bigscreen After an equally mesmerizing introduction the Mac was

Image via Wikipedia

46 | wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

wwwpliroforikiorg | 47

pulled out of a cloth bag put on a table and shown for all toadmire Jobs pulled a 3 oacute inch floppy diskette loaded the Macand in the theme of Chariots of Fire the words ldquoMACINTOSHrdquoscrolled on its screen In an electronic synthesized speech theMacintosh introduced itself amidst the ensuing pandemoniumHistory was made and Jobs was at the center of it

The year was 1985 Jobs was flying high after his success withthe Macintosh The Apple III production was coming to an endand the Lisa and Macintosh divisions were folded into one Butdark clouds started forming on the horizon Jobs managementstyle became erratic John Sculley the Apple CEO who was lureda few years back from Pepsi Cola under the famous ldquoDo you wantto sell sugar water for the rest of your life or do you want tocome with me and change the worldrdquo lure by Jobs was askedby the board to contain Jobs A power struggle between Jobs andSculley turned out ugly In the end Sculley won and Jobs at 30was out For the first time since Apple came to existence Jobswas not part of it

After a short period of desolation Jobs started NeXT The mainproduct was the infamous black Cube NeXT was a powerfulworkstation featuring a sassy GUI running on top of a UNIX-likekernel and an optical drive NeXT was unveiled on October 121988 in San Francisco At a list price of $6000 it would be a hardpill to swallow for most of its target audience university studentsThose were my exact sentiments After watching a presentationdone by one of the many NeXT evangelists I thought to myselfthat there was no way I a poor graduate student could affordsuch a machine Luckily the University had bought a few so Iwas able to admire Steversquos new creation firsthand

In an irony of fate even though neither the Cube nor its operatingsystem NeXTSTEP would survive for long both would gain theirplace in history the World Wide Web would first start on a CERNNeXT Cube and the OS X operating system that is currentlyfeatured on all Macs would call NeXTSTEP its father Last but notleast the iOS Applersquos operating system for mobile devices looksat NexTSTEP as its grandfather

A story about Jobrsquos life wouldnrsquot be complete without some wordsabout Pixar Animation Studios the third large endeavor in hiscache of achievements Pixar Animation Studios started its life asLucasfilmrsquos Computer Division Jobs bought the division in 1986and renamed it A mostly hardware driven establishment owningto the Pixar Image Computer it had a soft spot for computeranimation producing short films whenever the occasion arose Itsjovial digital animation group director John Lasseter (still seen asthe director of such Pixar blockbusters as Toy Story Cars andCars 2) was running the group as a sideline its main purposebeing as a show to the hardware

One of Pixarrsquos biggest buyers was the Walt Disney CorporationThrough his savvy style Jobs persuaded Disney to do a three-picture animated film deal with Pixar Toy Story opened to criticalsuccess on November 1995 followed by A Bugrsquos Life and ToyStory 2 As Jobs vied for creative control over his movies Disneyattempted to displace him In the end Disney bought Pixar whichmade Jobs the biggest single shareholder in Walt DisneyCorporation and a vital member of its Board of Directors

Sculleyrsquos reign at Apple came to a close in June 1993 after tenyears at the helms He was replaced by Michael Spindlerpresident of Apple Europe His stay at Apple was as disastrousas short He was himself replaced by Jill Amelio in February 1996Amelio the ex-National Semiconductors CEO tried to transformApple and right all its wrongs for Apple had become acomplacent company with low quality products and no well-defined strategies for the future One particular strategy that waslacking was that of the operating system After going through anumber of iterations Apple bought NeXT and used its NeXTSTEPoperating system as the basis for OS X the current Mac operatingsystem Amelio then asked Jobs to assist Apple as an advisorJobs was back at Apple after eleven years as an outcast It didnrsquottake too long before Amelio was voted out by the Board and Jobswas voted in as the interim CEO of Apple The grand plan wascoming to fruition

One of the first things Job did after becoming interim CEO was tofocus on revitalizing the aging Macintosh product line the iMacwith its translucent body and its ease to navigate the Internet itwas introduced in May 1998 Apple with fresh investment moneyfrom its archrival Microsoft with Jobs at the helms looked straightinto the future and smiled The strategy was to focus on foursectors with only four products professional and consumerdesktop and laptop

The iMac was a resounding success Jobrsquos strategy seemed tobe working Next was the introduction of Applersquos own store theApple Store Unparalleled in providing the right customerexperience all stores featured clear glass facades with bencheslittered with Apple products and blue T-shirt employees whoseenthusiasm was unparalleled (I had the opportunity to visit theFifth Avenue Apple Store in New York City and I can attest to thefeeling and experience firsthand)

The Apple Stores were once again a resounding success Nothingseemed to be stopping Jobs from taking the next big step comeup with a digital audio player capable of holding a thousand songsall in your pocket The iPod was introduced on October 23 2001The rest as they say is history

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

The iPod was a revolutionary product It was easy to use it hada great capacity it was ldquochiquerdquo and it was in With a lot of helpfrom iTunes the management software which controlled allupdates to iPod and the large library of easy to buy songs iPodwas taking over the world Its white earphones when everycompetitor was having black earphones on their digital playersgave a distinct signature to its owner Jobs was at long last inheaven

By 2005 twenty million iPod were sold per year four times asmany as the year before This represented a 45 share of Applersquosyearly revenues Jobs a perpetually restless man was worriedthat something could mess up this success He was looking forthe next big thing

The next big thing or so Jobs thought was a mobile phone TheROKR was a collaboration among Motorola Apple and wirelesscarrier Cingular An ugly and difficult phone to use included digitalplayer functionality Jobs was not happy The ROKR had neitherthe elegance of the iPod nor Jobs the control of both softwareand hardware that he was used to and looked for Jobs knew thatthe direction was right but the product was wrong EnterFingerWorks a small company in Delaware making a line of multi-touch trackpads The ldquofinger is the stylusrdquo was their style andproducts like the iGesture pad showed the way Apple bought thecompany in early 2005 The race for the iPhone was on

The iPhone was introduced on January 9 2007 at the Macworld2007 convention in San Francisco In one of the bestpresentations that Jobs ever gave iPhone was shown to be threedevices rolled into one an iPod a mobile phone and an Internetcommunication device

Parallel to the iPhone Jobs was developing a tablet computer atouchpad However for marketing reasons he held back itsintroduction and instead introduced the iPhone bearing the sametechnologies The iPad was announced on January 27 2010 onceagain in San Francisco Its success was followed by the iPad2the second generation device unveiled on March 2nd 2011

Jobs moving along and always looking towards the futureintroduced the iCloud the Apple cloud services got involved inthe design of the new Apple campus with a huge buildingresembling a UFO and counted his days These days werenumbered

Steven Paul Jobs passed away on October 5th 2011 in his homein Palo Alto surrounded by his wife of 20 years Laurene theirthree children his daughter Lisa and his sister Patty Six weeksprior to his death he had resigned as CEO of Apple Cancer whichfirst struck him in 2003 took him down Cancer knew no bounds

I have never met Steve but I have followed his path for the past30 years I still remember the 1983 issue of Byte magazine withLisa the first GUI based computer from Apple on its front coverAt a time when I was punching cards on a UNIVAC mainframethe sight of a GUI was as refreshing and mesmerizing as therainbow after the storm He will be missed

NOTES

My sources for this article were four Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson Wikipedia YouTube and ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo

The first was the authorized biography of Jobs who sensing that the end was near gave absolute freedom to Walter Isaacson the ex-Chairman and CEO of CNN and managing editor of TIME to write about him

The second was the omnipresent Wikipedia

The third was YouTube with its many clips regarding statements and interviews Steve Jobs gave through the years Viewing the manyproduct introductions gave me a sense of history in the making

The fourth was Martyn Burkersquos 1999 TV movie about Jobs and Gates

The method I used to write this article was to first read the book make a mental map of Jobrsquos life and look for details in Wikipediacrosschecking them with the book and YouTube The ldquoPirates of Silicon Valleyrdquo gave an added overall ldquoartisticrdquo view of events

48 | wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

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ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

49 | wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

int˘UacuteEgravemiddotIcircfi˜ tradeDaggerOacutepermilAcircUcircIgraveOcirc˜ paraIumlEumlUacuteOcircEcircOcircUacuteEgraveIcirclsaquo˜ordmIumlˆUacutersaquoOacuteEuml˜ 11 City Forum 3Ocirc˜ fiUacuteOcircEcircOcirc˜ degUacute 303

1065 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜Δpound 27038 1641 sectAcirc˘IcircˆUcircrsaquomiddot intDaggerUacuteOcirc˜

ΔEumlIuml +357 22 460 680ordmmiddotIacute +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg

Cyprus Computer Society11 Florinis str City Forum 3rd floor Office 303

1065 Nicosia CyprusPO Box 27038 1641 Nicosia Cyprus

Tel +357 22 460 680Fax +357 22 767 349

wwwccsorgcy infoccsorgcy

wwwpliroforikiorg