causes of conflicts in 21st century africa

Table of Content

1. INRODUCTION:...............................................................................................................................3

2. LIST OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES..................................................................................................3

3. AFRICA AND CONFLICTS............................................................................................................4

3.1 BACKGROUND STATISTICS:.........................................................................................................4

4. DISPUTE VS CONFLICT................................................................................................................6

5. WHAT IS CONFLICT?....................................................................................................................6

6. TYPES OF CONFLICTS..................................................................................................................7

6.1 DYSFUNCTIONAL CONFLICT:.......................................................................................................76.2 FUNCTIONAL/CREATIVE CONFLICT:............................................................................................86.3 ARMED CONFLICT:.......................................................................................................................8

7. ALTERNATIVES TO CONFLICTS...............................................................................................8

8. CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA.........................................................................................8

8.1 POVERTY:.....................................................................................................................................98.2 THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM:..................................................................................................98.3 FORMALISATION OF EXPANSIONISM:........................................................................................108.4 RESOURCE CONTROL AND COMPETITION:...............................................................................118.5 ETHNICITY:.................................................................................................................................118.6 EXTERNAL MILITARY AID:..........................................................................................................118.7 BASE OF THE WAR:...................................................................................................................118.8 ECONOMIC REFORM PROGRAMS:.............................................................................................128.9 DYSFUNCTIONAL STATE:...........................................................................................................128.10 COMPETITION FOR THE STATE POWER:..................................................................................128.11 DEVELOPMENT:........................................................................................................................138.12 PROBLEM OF POLITICAL LIBERALISATION:.............................................................................138.13 MILITARISATION:......................................................................................................................13

9. IMPACTS OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA:...................................................................................13

9.1 COMMUNITY AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE:....................................................................................149.2 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS:..........................................................................................................15

10. ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS AND AFRICAN UNITY IN..........................................15

11. SOLUTION TO CONFLICTS IN AFRICA...............................................................................16

12. REFERENCES................................................................................................................................18

1. INRODUCTION:

This assignment dealt extensively on the issue of Conflicts in Africa and how

to put and end to this malady called Conflict on our continent. Comprehensive

names of all African countries were listed alphabetically with a thorough

background history of conflicts in Africa which was traced to the era of

colonialism in Africa with statistics and comparison of Africa with rest of the

world. Questions relating to conflicts, its meaning, and the difference between

dispute and conflicts are thoroughly examined with appropriate examples.

Also, critical examinations of issues like alternatives to Conflicts and the

Causes of Conflicts in Africa with statistical data to support the reasons.

Impact of Conflicts on the African community and its social structure and the

political institutions was also examined. The role of the United Nations and the

African Union in monitoring and maintaining peace in Africa is discussed while

solutions to check and also put to a halt Conflicts in Africa are opined.

Extensive use of relative maps and graphical statistics were employed to

support facts regarding the existence of Conflict as a canker worn that has

eaten deep into the fabric of Africa.

Conclusively, with appropriate references, this paper paints a clearer picture

of the devastating effects of Conflicts on the life of Africans and how to

prevent Conflicts in Africa while the efforts of the International organisations to

check Conflicts in Africa and the effects of their efforts so far are also

mentioned.

2. LIST OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES

Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape

Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo

(Kinshasa, formerly Zaire), Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea,

Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Ivory Coast,

Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania,

Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Republic of the

Congo (Brazzaville), Reunion, Rwanda, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone,

Ajibogun O Dele. Student Number 424780 2

Sao Tome & Principe, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania,

Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Western Sahara*, Zambia, Zanzibar, Zimbabwe.

3. AFRICA AND CONFLICTS

3.1 Background Statistics:

The population of Africa to the rest of the world is about 11% with a global

representation on trade of about 2% globally. Presently, 54 sovereign

nations/states are the entity of Africa as a continent and this represents 25%

of states globally. The African Unity (AU) recognises over 2000 different

languages being spoken in the continent.

Africa has witnessed more conflicts than any other continent in the world. The

United Nations security has spent not less than 75% of time and money

resolving conflicts and performing humanitarian duties in Africa than any other

part of the world. There have been over 9 million refugees and internally

displaced people due conflicts in Africa.

Fig 1: New World Maps, Stealth Conflicts, December 30, 2008 Source: Virgil Hawkins, Virgil Hawkins, author of Stealth Conflicts; How the World’s Worst Violence Is Ignored (Ashgate, October 2008), provides a useful map


http://stealthconflicts.wordpress.com/

http://stealthconflicts.wordpress.com/2008/12/30/new-world-maps/

representing conflict death tolls between 1990 and 2007 where the square area of continents/regions corresponds to their proportion of conflict death tolls:

Conflicts in Africa, as everywhere, are caused by human action, and can be

ended by human action. Most of these conflicts has been characterised by

extreme brutality. In Rwanda alone, in 100 days, about a million people were

massacred, a scale of killings that is unprecedented in world history. More

than 30 wars have been fought in Africa since 1970, and most of these have

been internal rather than inter-state wars (Anup Shah 2009). From the above

one can infer that most of the Conflicts in Africa are based on internal

wrangling, Example of this can be seen fron the Ogoni land in Nigeria.

In 1996 alone records shows 14 out of the 53 countries in Africa were

involved in armed conflicts and it resulted in more that 8 million refugees and

displaced people. Zimbabwe is another bomb waiting to explode as many

Zimbabweans has fled the country to neighbouring counties in millions as a

result of the political crisis in that country which has crippled the whole country

as a result of the dispute from their last general election.(wikipaedia). From

this disturbing historical statistics, it is not far fetch to conclude that Africa is a

Conflicts ridden Continent.

There are reasons for conflicts; there are no ‘good’ reasons why these

conflicts should be allowed to degenerate into violence and brutality. Other

alternatives to conflicts resolution should be embraced. Disputes and

disagreement between one another should not be allow to resort into Conflicts

as between individuals, groups or as nations.


Fig 2: Map of Africa – African countries and year of independence

4. DISPUTE VS CONFLICT

Disputes mean those situations in which the issues are negotiable, there can

be compromise and the issue does not involve consideration of altered

institutions and sacrifice. By contrast, dispute is the behaviour which is the

main concern of the conflict. Series is the kind of behaviour on the part of the

person, group or nations that goes beyond the normal disagreement and

confrontations that characterised much of the usual social, economic and

competitive life of society. Gasiye A (2003)

5. WHAT IS CONFLICT?

Conflicts refer to disputes, disagreements, quarrels, struggles, fights, and

wars between individuals, groups and countries. All over the world, there is no

complete agreement as to how wealth, among other issues like power and


status among individuals and groups should be shared and how to use it to

effect the necessary changes and reforms. Since we all have diverse interests

both as groups, nations and individuals, our aims are bound to differ with one

another. Conflict s occurs when the deprived group, nation or individuals

attempt to increase their share of power and wealth or to modify the dominant

values, norms, beliefs or ideology. Gesiye A (2003). Conflicts involve more

that one person, groups, multinationals or nations. Issues becomes a Conflict

when disputes or disagreements cannot be resolved and that should be

avoided

Conflict could be viewed as a triangle with structure, attitudes and behaviour

as it vertices. Conflict with reference to ‘structure’ means the conflicts

situation, the parties, and the conflict of interest among them. Conflict arises

where the parties come to have incompatible interests among them. Conflicts

arise where the parties come to have incompatible interests, values or goals.

‘Attitudes’ refer to the tendency for the parties to see conflict from their own

point of view, to identify with one side, and to diminish the concerns of others

and lastly, ‘behaviours’ includes gestures and communications, which can

convey either a hostile or a conciliatory intent. Galtung (1996). Irreconcilable

differences as an avenue for Conflicts is established but no matter what the

problem is, there is a need to pursue the side of peace

6. TYPES OF CONFLICTS

There are two (3) types of conflicts

1. Dysfunctional Conflict

2. Functional or Creative Conflict

3. Armed Conflict

6.1 Dysfunctional Conflict:

This is reflected in its characteristics. It involves destruction and loss of lives,

properties, investment opportunities, hunger and starvation, diseases,

insecurity, lack of legitimate law and order and when it leads to violence,

wars, mass strike, massacres and other forms of disruption follows


6.2 Functional/Creative Conflict:

This is a constructive way of expressing conflict. It reflects the differences and

variety of human opinion and activity which exists in any free society. Where

creative or functional conflict, which is a major source of innovations, new

ideas, institutions and social change are suppressed altogether, a nation

becomes stagnant and static.

6.3 Armed Conflict:

When a conflict turn into open combat with at least 25 battles related deaths

per year, then it is described as armed conflict. This is common between

governments (inter state) of between governments and armed groups within

the states or between opposed armed groups (intra-state).

7. ALTERNATIVES TO CONFLICTS

Avoidance: In a Conflict situation, all possible means should be encouraged

to avoid it degenerating into Conflict.

Collaboration: In a Conflict situation, one can work together with the

aggrieved party to avoid the situation resulting into Conflict.

Compromise: Sometimes to avoid Conflicts, compromised is advised for

peace to reign. That gives enough time for reconciliation. Example of this is

the present Zimbabwe government of two parties.

Forging new ground: In a Conflict situation, the stake holders can come

together to work together

8. CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA

The roots of social conflicts are associated with the struggle for maintaining or

challenging a dominant power status Dahrendorf (1975), frustration generated

by relative deprivation (Gurr, 1970), repression of basic needs Burton(1982),

and differences in cultural norms and values Avruch, et al (1991); LeBaron

(1997). The need for one to be able to meet his daily basic needs is very

essential. Living a life of fulfilment and contentment is non negotiable to man

hence where the daily bread is threatened, there is bound to be Conflict.


The causes of conflicts in Africa are numerous, interconnected and

interrelated, ranging from individual to group violation, to structural inequality

and injustice. Some causes of conflicts in Africa are local while others are the

result transformations in the international structure since the end of the cold

war. Continuing economic decline and material insecurity are accompanied in

many countries in Africa by increase in political instability and conflicts.

8.1 Poverty:

Both poverty and conflict are related. Poverty can cause conflict while conflict

can lead to poverty based on the state of insecurity and bad governance

Draman R (2003). Many communities in Africa most especially the conflict

torn areas are suffering from hunger and starvation. Africa as a continent is

seen as a poor continent

8.2 The Legacy of Colonialism:

European nations were bickering over themselves about the spoils of Africa

which has began to be a lucrative business in order to prevent conflicts

between them, the historical Berlin Conference took place between 1884-

1885 in Berlin to lay down the rules on how they will partition Africa between

themselves.

Between 1870 and the beginning of the famous World War 1, Europeans

scramble for Africa. Colonial administration started to take hold. In some

areas, the Europeans settled and thus creating a dominant minority societies.

France even planned to incorporate Algeria into the French State; such was

the dominance and confidence of the colonial rulers at the time. In most areas

where they don’t have manpower or resources to fully administer the territory

they were forced to rely on the local power structure to help them. Throughout

Africa, Europe stake claims Shah A (2009).


Fig 3: Africa Maps Showing Modern and Pre-Colonial Areas

Courtesy of Black Studies Library (BSL)

Colonialism ended as European countries started fighting themselves during

the World War 1and in effects weakened them in the process. The extent of

the damage done to Africa was irreparable.

Slavery and colonialism in some part of Africa had almost erased culture and

community with an education and civilizing program that gave African only a

minimal skill set that served the European colonial interests.

8.3 Formalisation of Expansionism:

The British pushed their boundaries in Southern Sudan and Kenya until they

met with resistance from Ethiopia, France and Italy, all whom were busy

widening their rule concurrently. This trend continued after independence with

Somali irredentism, Ethiopia annexation of Eritrea, claims on French protected

Djibouti. This further led to what we have today as countries.


http://empathosnationenterprises.com/Consulate/EN-Library/Black-Studies/africamaps.html

8.4 Resource Control and Competition:

The central role of states in determining resource distribution makes it a major

target and, when power is over-centralised, it becomes a reason for conflicts.

Resource scarcity and control in Africa arise from the natural resources base,

population pressures and environmental degradation.

8.5 Ethnicity:

This is a tool leaders use to gain and consolidate power. These divide and

rule system created enduring ethnically linked economic and political

inequalities which help fuel continuing cycles of rebellion and repression.

Leaders emphasised differences rather than similarities among ethnic

communities. Demand for liberation and ethnic self determination are often

rather a form of “elite advocacy” representing particular organised movements

on behalf of an entire “nations” and “people”.

8.6 External Military Aid:

Conflicts in Africa have been fuelled greatly by external military aids to

government and rebel groups. At the apex of 1980s arms transfers, USSR

was providing Ethiopia with $1 billion per year in arms, while USA underwrote

a significant portion of the defence budgets of Sudan, Somalia and Kenya.

France, East Germany, Cuba, Israel, Iran and Libya have all been significant

arms providers to combatants in Africa during the past decade. The private

arms dealers have also been active in Africa also

8.7 Base of the War:

This has to do with the rich natural resources Africa have. Timber, oil,

diamond and copper to mention but a few, compounded in many cases by the

foreign extractive industries presence, their opaque, unreported payment to

the government and the government unreported use of the money. War

serves as a distraction


8.8 Economic Reform Programs:

June 2002 G8 summit pointed out as cause of conflicts in Africa to include the

legacy of colonialism, the support of the G8 for repressive regimes in the Cold

War, the creation of debt traps, the massive failures of structural adjustment

programs (SAP) impose by the IMF and World bank and the deeply unfair rule

of the international trade. Introduction of fees for free services can promote

social tensions, as has the removal of certain producer and consumer

subsidies. Austerities measures have caused food riots and other forms of

instability in a country like Nigeria in 1989 Shah A (2009).

8.9 Dysfunctional State:

Political exclusion through single party, state dominated authoritarian rule has

been an important cause of Africa’s deepening crisis. One state party exhibits

various gradations of exclusionary rule, from fascist fundamentalist to

narrowly base authority Election processes are manipulated, flawed or tightly

controlled. Opposition’s political parties are often not inclusive in the

government as they have the monopolistic control of the machinery of the

state. Examples of few are Arab control of Sudan, Issa Somali control of

Djibouti, and former Amhara control of Ethiopia and presently Mugabe control

of Zimbabwe.

8.10 Competition for the state power:

There has been a profound demographic shift from post Cold war era in

Africa, stemming from contests over state power and also from the transfer of

states assets and resources that result in changes in government.

Fundamentalist backed by the Sudanese government have gained control of

the productive infrastructures and marketing channels in Northern Sudan and

are penetrating the North and southern part of the country, pursuing policies

of ethnic cleaning with great economic potentials such as Nuba Mountains

and Northern Bahr al-Ghazar.


8.11 Development:

This also has contributed to conflicts in Africa through states decision about

investment in export sectors, especially in Agriculture and livestock. It is

common in African states to steer investment in areas controlled by the ruling

elites: resulting investment patterns led to extraordinary disparities in

economic opportunities from region to region. The most conflict areas in Africa

are generally places that were excluded from the fruits of the state

investment. Example of this can be seen from the Ogoni land in Nigeria where

they have nothing to show for the dredging of oil in their community.

8.12 Problem of Political Liberalisation:

In Africa, attempt to liberalise political processes with multi party elections

have been incomplete and fraught with difficulties. To Africa, liberalisation is

risky as change of any sort can cause instability. During the process for

political liberalisation, new elites and old ruling groups, fighting over public

support, often resort to nationalist appeals as winner takes all approach to

democracy often cause conflict. These increase conflict between different

political, economic and identity interest groups as it is prevalent in Africa.

8.13 Militarisation:

Military rule was prominent in Africa. Well organised primitive weaponry can

be devastating as seen in Rwanda. Access to arms is becoming easier day by

day considering the level of conflicts that has degenerated to war in Africa.

Militarisation has continue to improvish Africa, $1 Million is spent per day by

Sudan to finance war in the South while Mengistu Halle Mariam is spending

over $700 Million per year on arms.

9. IMPACTS OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA:

The toll of violence on individual, family and the country in a conflict situation

makes life a constant process of adapting to basic insecurity and permanent

crisis. Civilians mostly women and children are the major victims of conflicts.

The people are prevented from meeting their daily basic needs, and

agricultural farms are destroyed creating shortage in full supply leading to


hunger and starvation. . In Africa, genocide and diseases are estimated to

have claimed at least 19.6 million lives since 1945 not to mention Angola and

Mozambique war.

The number of refuges has increased from 2.5 million in 19 Conflicts, and in

most cases leads to war and war displaced people and make millions

homeless.

Fig 4: Statistics of refugees in Africa Source: UNHCR, January 2009

Conflict situation have a very serious effects on the economy as conflict

situations reorients resources from socio-economic development to military. It

also reduces investment and retard development. Total destruction of the

social structure and infrastructures, human capital, local economic institutions

and also create insufficient labour for production. Trade and economic

activities are disrupted, economy collapse. Outbreak of disease and violent

crime (rape) and investment by the government will be drastically reduced.

9.1 Community and Social Structure:

Conflicts destroy the society social structure and coping mechanism as the

women and children are the targets. Also increases insecurity, hostilities, and

promotes diseases. For example, after the Rwanda killings in 1994, death


continues, number of refugee’s increases and the internally displaced suffer

for lack of water and food

9.2 Political Institutions:

In a state of conflict, the national political system is destroyed and the killing of

the old (present) and young (future) is the order of the day. Bitterness, division

and lack of trust are the order of the day between clans leading to the

destruction of the traditional political systems and traditions.

10. ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS AND AFRICAN UNITY IN

MAINTAING PEACE IN AFRICA

As of 1998, 14 counties in the region have experienced arm conflict or civil

strife, 11 were under political crisis and turbulence and only the remaining 15

enjoyed more or less stable political conditions.

SOME OF THE CONFLICTS STATES IN AFRICA

NigeriaAngolaBotswanaBurundiDemocratic Republic of the CongoRepublic of the CongoCote d'IvoireEritreaEthiopiaKenyaLiberiaSao Tome PrincipeSierra LeoneSomaliaSudanTanzaniaZimbabwe

• Madagascar

Fig 5: Map of Africa courtesy of: Perry-Casta Òeda. The

University of Texas at Austin

African Union (AU), United Nation (UN) and their regional organisations have

made serious efforts to deal with the scourge of conflicts by promoting peace

negotiation and brokering peace agreement in Burundi, Cote d’ Ivoire,

Democratic republic of Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Angola, and the Sudan while

there is a democratically elected government in Liberia. Peacekeeping


mission to conflict torn zones to protect the civilians, children and women and

restoring law and order in countries where there we coup de tat in Africa e g

Guinea Bissau, Sao Tome, And Sierra Leone. Also, appointing special

mediators to resolve conflicts in Sudan and Somalia and Convening of a

conference of peace and development in the Great Lakes region by the UN.

The Implementation of the ruling of the international court of Justice of 10

October 2002, on the land and maritime boundary between Nigeria and

Cameroon and use of Arbitration to resolve conflicts between Ethiopia and

Eritrea.

11. SOLUTION TO CONFLICTS IN AFRICA

Although Africa is seen as a conflicts ridden continent, the significance of the

selection of Africa for the first official overseas visit of Ban Ki-moon as

Secretary-General of the UN reflect the importance of Africa as the cradle of

civilization for the world. On the part of the United Nation, there is need to do

more for the continent through aid, peace keeping and immediate response

in a dispute situation before it degenerates into arm conflicts. Effective use of

sanctions, dialogues and application of conflict prevention approaches should

be embrace.

African leaders should hold responsible for lack of progressive stewardships,

accountability and bad governance. Democracy should be encouraged all

over the continent so that everybody can participate in the government and

the country resources properly distributed among all the stakeholders to avoid

conflicts.

In conclusion, although there are lots of Conflicts in Africa for quite

sometimes now but the Continent is gradually getting out of the madness

called “Conflicts”, Africans themselves through the African Union (AU) is doing

much to check all these Conflicts situations and mediate where possible.

Extensive discussion on the cause and solutions to conflicts as discussed in

this paper with emphasis on the alternative approaches to prevent Conflict are


thoroughly discussed. The International community are to do more for Africa

and also check the activities of the multinationals.


12. REFERENCES

1. Africa: Africa World Press Guide: Compiled and Edited by World

Views: Conflicts in Africa: Causes and Prospects for Resolutions

Retrieved on 3rd June 2009 from

http://www.worldviews.igc.org/awpguide/conflicts

2. Africa Recovery (2003). Africa seeks own solutions to conflict: Africa

Recovery (Online) vol.17 #1, May 2004. Retrieved on the 16 th of May

2009 from http://www.africarecovery.com

3. Africa Renewal (2004). Progress in tackling Africa’s conflicts. (online)

Africa Renewal, Vol.18 #3, October 2004, page 15

4. Angaye G (2003). Causes and Cures of Conflicts in Nigeria (online)

Retrieved on 30th May 2009 from

http://www.nigerdeltacongress.com/gartcles/causes

5. Boulden J (2003). Dealing with Conflicts in Africa: The United Nations

and regional Organisation. Palgrave Macmillan Press

6. Burton J (1990). Conflict: resolution and Prevention. The Macmillan

Press Ltd, London.

7. Draman R (2003). Poverty and Conflicts in Africa: Expanding a

Complex Relationship. Final Draft of paper for Expert Group Meeting

on Africa-Canada Parliamentary Strengthening Program, Addis Ababa,

May 19-23, 2003. Retrieved on 6th of June, 2009 from

http//www.parlcent.ca/povertyreduction/seminar

8. Gutto S (2002). Respect Can Provide Possible Solutions to Conflicts.

Retrieved form http://www.wfn.org/2002/10


http://www.wfn.org/2002/10

http://www.nigerdeltacongress.com/gartcles/causes

http://www.africarecovery.com/

http://www.worldviews.igc.org/awpguide/conflicts

9. Hawkins V (2008). Stealth Conflicts: How the World’s Worst Violence Is

Ignored. Ashgate Press.

10.Jeong H (1999). Research on Conflict Resolution. Ashgate Publishing

Company, England.

11.Nye J (2000). Understanding International Conflict: An Introduction to

Theory and History. (3rd Edition) Longman Publisher.

12.Shah A, (2009). Conflicts in Africa. (online) Retrieved on 5th June 2009

from http://www.globalissues.org/article/84


http://www.globalissues.org/article/84

causes of conflicts in 21st century africa

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