catching fire failsafe

firestarting methods

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C O P Y R I G H T

T E R M S A N D D I S C L A I M E R

making fire with the bow drill When you are first learning bow-drill fire-making, you must make conditions and your bow drill set such that the chance of getting a coal is the greatest. If you do not know the feeling of a coal beginning to be born then you will never be able to master the more difficult scenarios. For this it is best to choose the “easiest woods” and practice using the set in a sheltered location such as a garage or basement, etc. Even if you have never gotten a coal before, it is best to get the wood from the forest yourself. Getting it from a lumber yard is easy but you learn very little. Also, getting wood from natural sources ensures you do not accidentally get pressure-treated wood which, when caused to smoulder, is highly toxic. Here are some good woods for learning with (and good for actual survival use too):

► Eastern White Cedar ► Staghorn Sumac ► Most Willows ► Balsam Fir ► Aspens and Poplars ► Basswood ► Spruces

There are many more. These are centered more on the northeastern forest communities of North America. A good tree identification book will help you determine potential fire-making woods. Also, make it a common practice to feel and carve different woods when you are in the bush. A good way to get good wood for learning on is to find a recently fallen branch or trunk that is relatively straight and of about wrist thickness or bigger. Cut it with a saw. It is best if the wood has recently fallen off the tree. Willow and aspen often break off limbs, especially in ice storms. If no green wood can be found, then use solid dry wood. Cedar can often be found in pretty good condition as standing skeletons. Avoid sections of wood with lots of knots and wood with cracks in it (checks). Once you have a good section of wood (the more, the better), split it in half with an axe (or knife) to let it dry. A branch the diameter of your fist and a couple of feet long is a good size to work with. You want to have lots of material to experiment with as you burn through boards and spindles. Let the wood dry for about a week in the sun if possible, longer in the shade. Now you can make your set. Make sure you have a comfortable knife to work with as this will make things more enjoyable and safer. I suggest a light knife with a blade of about 1/16" thickness. Thinner blades require less effort to be pushed through wood. Avoid knives with finger guards as these just get in the way. A relatively short blade (about 3") is easier to work with. The handle shouldn’t have any sharp, boxy angles or uneven surfaces. Keep your knife sharp. Many knives will do. Mora knives form Sweden are very nice and inexpensive. Don’t hesitate to use the ground as a work surface for bracing the wood against. The more stable the wood you are carving is, the better.

making the set There are five parts to the bow-drill set. The bow, the string, the spindle/drill, the board, and the handhold. The drill spins against the board on one end and is held vertically by the handhold at the other end. The drill is spun by the bow and string.

The following describes how to carve the components of a beginner set from a larger chunk of wood. the board: Taking the once-split branch, cut it with a saw or whittle and snap it into a foot long length. Using an axe or a knife and baton (a short, sturdy branch for hitting the back of knife blades) combination, split the branch evenly down the middle. Keep splitting until you get a flat board that is about one inch thick, or the thickness of your thumb. Whittle it down to remove any protrusions so you end up with a flat, straight-sided rectangular shape (this isn’t very important). The board should be about three inches wide, but anything greater than two inches is fine. the spindle: Take a foot-long straight-grained section of wood (if possible, from one of your previous splits) and whittle it into a slightly less than one-inch diameter straight dowel. In other words, the dowel should have the same diameter as the first knuckle of your thumb. Whittle the last inch of each end into sharp points. The fatter the spindle, the less wear it places on the string, but a longer bow is required to result in the same amount of rotations taken per bow stroke. Essentially, this works the same way as the gearing on a bicycle. the handhold: Take the other half-split branch and saw off a section approximately four to five inches long. Whittle down the edges to remove any rough spots and to provide a comfortable surface for gripping. On the flat side of this, exactly in the center from all four sides, gouge a hole with the point of your knife. Make the hole about half an inch deep. Make the sides of the hole slope out at a 45 degree angle so as to form a cone shaped depression. the string: There are a wide variety of materials strings can be made of. These include: nylon, cotton, jute, leather, rawhide, buckskin, and a wide variety of wild plants. In general, use a string that is at least one and a half times the length of your bow. The string should be relatively thick. A thickness of a quarter-inch will last a long time. Shoelaces are usually not thick enough for repeated use. Cotton hockey skate laces will do. It is

best to avoid synthetics such as nylon as they sometimes melt from the friction unless thick enough. Thick cotton cord is just about ideal for repeated use. the bow: Find a section of a green (live) branch that is about the thickness of your index finger and almost straight or slightly curved and the length of your arm from elbow to fingertip. The bow should be reasonably flexible but not flimsy. It should not want to bend more than two inches from a straight line when flexed using a little strength. If it bends too easily or is prone to snapping, find a slightly thicker branch or use a denser wood. If it hardly bends at all then you can carefully whittle off a little wood on the inside of the curve. Make sure it bends evenly to avoid weak spots. The flexibility of the bow is important in the overall feel of the set. If the bow doesn’t bend, the string will slip frequently and soon break. If the bow is too flexible the string will also slip and you won’t be able to apply the torque that is required. Split the first two inches of each end of the bow with a knife. This is why you need a green branch. A dry branch will not split properly. Make sure the split is even and doesn’t run off to the side. The orientation of the split is very important if the bow has any curve.. When the bow is set on a flat surface, the splits should be parallel to that surface. Take two short lengths of cordage and snugly tie them around halfway up the splits. Use square knots of some other knot that will not work loose. The clove hitch is very good for this. Tie one end of the bowstring into a knot. Set this end into the split in the bow so the knot is on the side of the bow that is curving away from itself (convex). Make sure that the string is held tightly by the split by moving the short section of cordage up the split toward the bowstring. This will effectively tighten the split. Take the other end of the bowstring and repeat on the other side. The amount of slack in the string is something that must be adjusted through trial and error when you fit the spindle. For now the string should be somewhat loose or you won’t be able to load the spindle. technique & form If you are right-handed, hold the bow with this hand. Place the board flat on the ground so it is stable. Take your spindle and push the point into the board so that you make a mark. This mark should be about one full spindle width from the edge of the board (about an inch). It should also be at one end of the board so that you have room to place your foot. With your knife, gouge a shallow hole similar to the one in the handhold.

The bow is tilted slightly down to avoid rubbing the string against itself. Also, the stabilizing of the left hand against the shin is very important.

Now, put your left foot on the board (if you are right-handed) so the inside ball of your foot is next to the shallow gouge. Your right knee should be on the ground and you should be sitting on your right foot. Your right leg should be parallel to the board. Another possibility is to raise your butt off your foot and lean your chest on your left knee -use whatever works for you. Load the spindle by wrapping the string around the spindle so that the spindle is outside of the bow. This may require some adjusting of the string. The spindle should feel like it’s going to pop out. The tighter the string becomes, the better, just don’t make it so tight that it breaks the bow. Holding the loaded spindle and bow in your right hand, place the bottom point of the spindle into the hole in the board. Cap the other end with the handhold and apply some pressure to keep the spindle from popping out. Let go of the bow. The bow should be pointing itself up towards you. If it is pointing down, reload the spindle so the bow is pointing up.

Make sure the spindle is on the opposite side of the string to the bow. Otherwise the spindle will knock against the bow while stroking.

burning in You can now begin the “burn-in” process. This is to form the handhold hole. Simply begin stroking the bow back and forth slowly. Keep the pressure on the handhold fairly high. Eventually, you should see a small amount a smoke forming at one or both ends of the spindle. Pick up a little bit of speed until both ends are smoking. It is most important that the handhold end smoke at this point. If it refuses to, even when you pick up the speed and push down harder, reload the spindle so the top is now the bottom and vice versa. Repeat until the handhold starts to smoke. Keep going until the hole in the handhold is the same diameter as the drill. It should match the curve of the drill point exactly now. Now you must lubricate this end (keep track of which end is up and which is down!) This is to keep it from smoking and taking away your energy so all your power can be focused on the lower end. Unload the spindle and rub the top into the hole in the handhold. Blow off any dust. Push the drill into the handhold as hard as you can and slowly rotate the drill. Again, blow off any dust. Now, rub this end into your hair and along the sides of your nose. This is to transfer the natural oils found on your skin onto the wood. It helps if you haven’t showered for a day. Repeat the pushing-in procedure. You may want to push the end of the spindle against a smooth rock. This effectively hardens the end of the spindle by compressing the wood. To baseball players, this is known as “boning”. Repeat the pressing of the spindle into the handhold hole and rubbing the tip into your hair until it develops a sheen. Keep all moisture away from this as it will cause the wood to expand and it will bind in the handhold causing friction and burning. You want the frictionless end of the spindle to be very rounded. This distributes the pressure forces over a greater area reducing the tendency of the spindle to drill up into the handhold. If you imagine an electric drill, a small bit will require less effort to drill through a material than a very large one. We want to prevent the drill from burning at this end so we use a large surface area. cutting the notch You must now make a notch in the board next to the “burned-in” hole so the ground-off powder has a place to accumulate. Take your knife and scribe a 45 degree angle in the top of the board that originates form the center of the hole. The two lines will go to the closest edge of the board. Cut out the wood in between these lines so that you have removed about a one-eighth fraction of the burned-in hole. This slice should go all the way to the bottom of the board so that you have removed a wedge of wood on one side of the board pointing to the center of the drill hole. getting the coal Place something under the board where the notch is to catch the coal. This can be paper, birch bark, etc. If you are on a floor, the coal will melt it so keep that in mind. Put yourself into the position explained earlier and begin drilling. Be sure to put the lubricated end of the drill in the handhold. You can now begin the first stage, “powder”. Drill slowly and with firm pressure until the bottom end begins smoking. Keep the smoke down to just a wisp. You should see powder accumulating in the notch. Keep this slow pace until the notch is just about filled. Now lighten the pressure and drill very fast. This is the “heat” stage. The idea is to make heat, not powder. It should begin to smoke heavily. If not, apply a bit more pressure until it does. Keep going until you are totally surrounded by smoke. At this point, stop drilling and carefully remove the drill. If there is smoke coming from the powder pile for more than a few seconds you probably have a coal. Gently blow on the coal until it begins to glow red. You may now transfer it to a tinder bundle. This is simply a fist-sized bundle of dry grasses, fibrous inner bark of certain trees, etc. Blow on it until it flames up. Sometimes you can skip the powder stage and just go for the heat. This is usually when the wood is very dry, soft, and easy to work with. Every piece of wood is different, even from the same tree.

reading the powder If the drill begins smoking in the handhold end you will have to re-lubricate it. You may have to switch the ends of the spindle as one end may be slightly harder than the other. Another solution is to “shoulder” the lower end of the spindle. This is simply reducing the diameter of the last inch or so of the drill. This results in less pressure being needed to drill the spindle into the board. This often solves the problem of the handhold burning as well as the problem of the lower end of the spindle refusing to start burning. Remember, the suggestions below are for the powder stage. The heat stage should produce the least amount of powder with the most amount of heat. In other words, you should be pushing down enough only to make lots of smoke, but no more powder. If you push down too much you run the risk of making crusty powder and pushing all the good powder you so carefully made out of the notch. This is not so important with dry, soft woods, but is very important when using damp or slightly harder than ideal woods. Colour Consistency Problem Light Brown Dusty Going too slow, not pushing down hard enough Light Brown Fuzzy Going too slowly Dark Brown/Black Fuzzy Perfect

Dark Brown/Black Little Rolls Difficult, sometimes going too fast & not pushing down enough

Dark Brown/Black Crusty Pushing down too hard, going too fast Color is associated with speed. Light brown means there is not enough heat being generated, hence you must drill faster. Black means there is plenty of heat generated although you have to be careful not to push too hard.

Consistency is associated with downward pressure. Dusty means tiny floury fragments are being ground off. This isn’t so much of a problem in itself, but it usually occurs because there is not enough pressure down and not enough speed. Fuzzy is perfect. This provides the most amount of surface area for combustion to take place. Crusty means there is too much pressure down. This usually occurs in combination with too much speed. This powder will not ignite easily because there is little surface area for combustion reactions to take place. Light brown, dusty powder Light brown, fuzzy powder Dark brown/black, fuzzy: Perfect powder

Dark brown/black, little rolls Dark brown/black, crusty This will usually allow you to adjust your technique and get a coal. Sometimes however, this isn’t possible. For instance, if you are pushing down as much as you can and still getting dusty powder or hardly any powder at all you have done all you can with technique. Your next option is to shoulder the spindle down a little more as was mentioned before. This way the set will require less downward pressure to produce more powder allowing you to fill the notch with the same amount of strength. A downside of this is that the set becomes more sensitive making it easier to push too hard! If the problem seems to be not enough speed, there are a couple things you can do. First, you could make another spindle this time a little wider. The wider spindle will generate more heat because the edges of the drill will be traveling faster than the narrower spindle. The second option and probably better is to use a longer bow. This may or may not be of help, depending on how long your bow already is. This allows you to reach higher speeds by taking longer strokes, resulting in less time spent stopping and starting the bow. Finally, there is the problem of getting powder in the form of little rolls. These look like the rolls you would get after using an eraser. Sometimes these happen because the wood is somewhat damp. Other times, you get these when the wood is a little hard. The best way to approach this, in my experience, is to shoulder the spindle down a bit, build up a good pile of powder (whatever it looks like), and just try to make as much heat and smoke as you can. Usually this results in a coal, but if you are already tired it can be very difficult. It is very important that the fundamentals are learned before attempting the more advanced techniques. If you don’t learn how to read what the wood is telling you, your coal-producing reliability will be unpredictable in the more difficult scenarios. You should be able to get a coal nearly every time you try when using a proven set before you move onto made-from-scratch bow-drills. Keeping a notebook of your experiences and experiments will greatly aid in advancing your ability.

fire by can For those people who would like to make a solar reflector from the bottom of a can, but don't want to put in too much muscle, here are some alternate methods to try. Every home probably has some "scouring powder" and toothpaste around.

Rubbing a bit of scouring powder on the bottom of the can will brighten it significantly. Following up with some toothpaste will produce a "reasonably" reflective surface. (Note - "Comet" was used in this case. As per the photo - the cleanser advertises the addition of "Bleach." In general, it is a very bad idea to use bleach on metals. The directions on the can instructed that it was ok to use on metals. Please make sure that whatever you use is safe on metals -- especially aluminum.)

a better reflector To make a better solar reflector, one can use more specialized abrasives. What would one want to do this? The previous method produces a "reasonable" but not great lens. If the day is hazy, or the sun is low in the horizon, or if the tinder used is not that good -- one needs a better mirror.

This is a picture of a "raw" aluminum can bottom. I cut the bottom off just to make storage of the reflector a bit easier.

The first step is to use fine steel wool - or a scouring pad. This will remove any printing that is on the bottom and will get rid of any larger scratches or matt finishes.

The next steps involve using finer and finer abrasives. These abrasives are available at many hardware stores -- or from jeweler's supply stores. Here, Emery Cake is used. The next finer abrasive is Brown Tripoli. The final abrasive is Red Rouge. This picture shows the final polished can bottom.

For comparison, this is the back-side of the can bottom. This shows what the original surface looked like.

Here is a picture of a pocket-knife being magnified by the reflector.

And of course - the final proof - smoke! Depending on the type of can used, the shape of the bottom will vary and therefore the focal point may also vary. In order to effectively utilize these "can" reflectors, one needs to identify the focal point. If the can is well polished, the sun is bright and one uses a good tinder - a little movement of the tinder will quickly identify the focal point - i.e. there will be smoke. If things are marginal, here is a way to help identify the focal point.

Wear sunglasses to protect the eyes, and also to make the focal dot more visible

Take a piece of newspaper that is black on one side, and white on the other. The idea is to have the white side facing the reflector, and the black side facing outward. The white side will reduce absorption so that the paper does not burn too quickly, while the black side provides good contrast.

In this picture you can see a large bright circle on the newspaper.

As the piece of newspaper is moved away from the reflector, the bright circle gets smaller. .... until the focal point is reached - at which point the paper will probably burn through - as in this photo. Note the position of this focal point -and place your other tinders in the same place.

coal extenders Coal extenders are materials which will hold a coal for a long time. They are very useful for carrying fire for

an extended period of time, perhaps while on the move. They could also be used when you are in the process of starting a fire, but don't yet have all the material needed to actually make the fire. The coal extender could be used to hold the coal while you go out and collect more materials. Or, let's say you find that your tinder bundle simply won't blow into a fire - perhaps it's too damp. A coal extender will allow you to go search for more suitable materials for a tinder bundle without having wasted all that energy you expended just getting the coal (say by using a hand drill or bow drill).

Cattail heads make ok coal extenders.

Closeup view

Various types of pith of plants may be useful as cola extenders. Here is a piece of mullein pith holding a coal very nicely.

This is Mullein pith, still inside the stem. As mentioned above, Tinder Fungus is the most effective coal extender I know of.

To carry a coal, set the piece of Tinder Fungus or False Tinder Fungus smouldering. Then wrap it in something to keep the air off it while you carry it. It needs to breath a little though, or the coal will go out. Experiment with ways of carrying it. I have used birch bark wrapped around it, leaving a tiny hole at the top for the smoke to escape. Check it periodically to ensure that the coal hasn't spread - it has a tendency, especially if too much air gets at it, to spread and start to consume the entire piece of fungus.

I was able to carry fire in a small 2" x 3" piece for about 2 hours, wrapped in a piece of birch bark. The fungus may get rather hot as the coal penetrates deeper into it. Makes a good hand warmer, though!

This photo shows a piece of False Tinder Fungus that has been smouldering for about 1/2 - 3/4 hour.

A variation on the theme of coal extenders is that of flame extenders.

Here a lump of spruce sap is burning brightly. It will last for several minutes or longer, depending on the size of the lump.

flint, steel and battery

In this method of fire-making, sparks are shaved off a piece of steel by striking it briskly with a piece of flint or other rock. In actual use, the steel is struck against the flint, since it's usually easier to do it that way. A piece of char-cloth is held against the flint (or other rock) to catch the sparks. Once a spark is caught by the char-cloth, it is easy to blow into flame. Char-cloth is made by placing pieces of woven cotton inside an airtight metal container. That container is then placed in a fire and left there until the cotton becomes charred and black. Due to the lack of air in the container the cotton doesn't actually burn.

The flint and steel firemaking kit. This can be obtained at most outdoor and camping stores.

Small Battery A small battery and fine steel wool can be used to start a fire. Simply bridge the battery terminals with the

steel wool and a spark will instantly form in the steel wool.

This photo shows the spark immediately forming as the battery terminals are bridged with the steel wool. A 9 volt battery is being used here.

The spark travels quickly through the steel wool. This could be placed in a tinder bundle and blown into flame.

tinder fungus Tinder Fungus is a type of fungus that holds a coal very well for a long period of time, and ignites easily. Tinder Fungus grows on live birch trees and looks like a blotch of blackened wood. It is rather hard. It resembles black bark that has peeled away slightly from the tree and thickened. The part that you use is inside the blackened outer layer, the red-brown material. It crumbles readily, so you can use it as part of tinder when making fire (or in a fire piston), or keep it in a whole piece for carrying a coal.

Here is a nice big chunk of Tinder Fungus at the base of a live birch tree.

This picture shows the Tinder Fungus cut open to reveal the red-brown interior

Here's a small Tinder Fungus growing farther up a live birch tree.

Note how it looks like a chunk of thick, blackened, chunky bark.

Tinder Fungus sometimes grows on trees other than birch.

Here's a picture of it growing on a Hop Hornbeam tree (Ironwood).

Here's a larger one. The left picture is a closeup of the fungus. The right picture shows it growing on the birch tree.

This photo, taken through a microscope, shows a human hair overlaid on a piece of tinder fungus.

From the photo it is pretty clear why tinder fungus works so well!

Here are a couple pictures of the largest tinder fungus I ever came across.

The shape was like a volcano on its side. Sap was dripping through the "mouth" of the "volcano."

From observation, it seems that tinder fungus usually grows at some injury site on a tree. In the case of this huge example, it seems like there was a steady stream of sap - which was able to feed and grow a huge fungus.

While on the topic, there seems to be some debate as to how to prepare tinder

fungus. I have read in places that it doesn't work very well when dried. My limited experience has shown that if the fungus is dried to quickly - then it is less effective. Drying in an oven turns out a particularly bad product. For this large fungus, I cut it up into pieces which were then placed into a pillow case. The pillow case was kept out of the sun, but did have a bit of airflow. The trick is to dry slowly, but not so slowly that molds start to appear. The dried fungus works very well.

Well, not exactly a primitive living picture! But it shows the two types of Tinder Fungus.

The False Tinder Fungus is the stripy one on the left, and there's a small one underneath it, and some more small ones to the rear. The Tinder Funguses are the red-brown chunks with black on one side.

Leaving stuff out like this is also a good reminder of primitive skills, Nature, the Earth, and the like. ...You come home from work, all stressed out from working in an office or on a machine all day, walk in, throw something together for supper, sit down to eat, and see the bowl of Tinder Fungus (or whatever). "Oh yeah, that's what's real, that's what it's all about".

Both of these funguses are fairly aromatic when burning, and are said to have medicinal properties. Tinder Fungus smells nicer that False Tinder Fungus.

plumber's stove

materials list

• 1/2 pint ( 8 fl oz ) paint or stain can with press-on lid

• 3-inch-wide by about 12- inch-long piece of sheet metal ( thin guage steel - not aluminum )

• ( 1 ) Radiator hose clamp - big enough to go around the can

• ( 1 ) Bag of cotton balls

instructions

1. Use paint thinner to clean out the can of all paints or stains then wash out with soap and water.

2. Stuff the can full of cotton balls to the rim. Pack them in, but not too tight.

3. Wrap the sheet metal strip around the can to form a ring, and trim off excess so as to have a 3/4-round ring for the burner wind screen.

4. Position the ring about 1 inch down on the can so that 2 inches protrude above the can's top and clamp on the radiator hose clamp and tighten down the metal ring to the can as tight as you can get it. (This may distort the can a bit but the steel can is very tough and it won't break it).

5. Bend over the corner edges of the ring on top, so you or your pack won't get cut on it's sharp edges.

6. Use a pair of sheet metal snips and cut a series of "V" groves around the top edges of the burner ring, being sure there's enough flat ring surface to support a pot or cup. Pour in enough alcohol fuel to soak the cotton "wick" -- that'll be about 6 to 7 oz. of fuel -- and seal the lid.

using the stove Using the Plumber"s stove is pretty straight forward, just pry off the lid with a spoon or pocket knife, light the wick and set your pot or cup of beverage on the stove in order to heat or boil. To put out the flames , just drop the lid upside-down on the can and let it cool before sealing the lid. This little stove burns about 50 minutes on one filling and will boil 16 ounces of water in ten minutes. You don't have to fill it every time you need to use it. It's very safe and the bottom stays cool when in use ( I've used it indoors many times ). As a bonus, in an emergency, you will have a bunch of alcohol-soaked fire starters on hand. homemade fuel bottle Take a 16 oz peroxide bottle ( very tough plastic ) and a drinking spout from a spring water bottle ( pull to open /push to close ) and you've got a super no-spill fuel bottle for alcohol fuels.

three-fuel stove

parts list

► A one pound coffee can (actually a 12 oz can; does anyone still sell coffee in a pound can?)

► Some 1/4 inch wire mesh (also known as "hardware cloth")

► A 3 oz tuna can coffee can

► Leave the bottom of the can attached. ► Along the top, cut two 2 inch wide by 1/2

inch high slots about 1 inch apart from each other. These vents will allow air to pass out under your pot and keep it from smothering the fire.

► Cut three 1 inch wide by 1/2 inch high slots so that their tops will be 3 inches down from the top of the can. Only cut the top three sides of these slots. The bottom is left uncut so that when completed the metal can be bent down into the can to form support tabs for the alcohol/Esbit burner.

► Along the bottom of the can, and in-line with the top two vents, cut two 2 inch wide by 1 inch high slots. These vents will act as the air intakes when burning wood in the stove.

using the stove

wire mesh ► Cut a circular piece of wire mesh about 4

inches in diameter. Cut it to fit so that you can easily drop it into the top of the stove and have it rest securely on the three tabs you previously created. This mesh will serve as the platform on which the alcohol/Esbit burner will rest.

► Cut a smaller piece of wire mesh of sufficient size to cover the top of the tuna can. This wire mesh acts as a catalyst to help improve the efficiency of the alcohol burning.

► Other than taking its top off, eating the contents, and washing it out, nothing else needs to be done to the tuna can. It will serve as the alcohol/Esbit burner. If you really want to, you can remove the label. That's all there is to it!

To use the stove as a wood burner, just use the coffee can alone. Load it up with very small pieces of wood (I never use anything bigger than pencil-sized), get them going (Vaseline soaked cotton balls make wonderful fire starters), and put your pot on top. Make sure the intake vents face into the wind. The additional air coming in the vents will help the fire burn hotter. When burning wood you’ll find that you’ll need to keep your eye on the stove. It only holds a small amount of wood which will need to be replenished fairly often. My experience with this stove as a wood burner is that two cups of very cold water will require about two "can-fulls" of wood and 15 minutes to come to a boil. When the first can-

full starts to burn down, lift your pot and add another load of wood, making sure that you don’t smother the fire in the process. To use the stove as an alcohol burner, put the 4 inch circle of wire mesh onto the three internal tabs, put the tuna can in the center of the wire mesh, and add alcohol to it. Then put the small wire mesh piece on top and light the alcohol. The wire mesh heats up as the alcohol burns and causes the stove to burn more efficiently. This very simple alcohol burner will get water up to a boil just as fast, if not faster, than a commercial Trangia alcohol stove. When using the alcohol stove make sure that the intake vents face away from the wind. This allows the back of the stove to provide a windscreen for the flame and greatly increases its efficiency. To use the stove as an Esbit stove, put the 4 inch circle of wire mesh onto the three internal tabs and put the tuna can upside -down in the center of the wire mesh circle. Put you Esbit fuel tab on top of the tuna can’s bottom and light it. Again, when burning Esbit tablets, make sure the intake vents of the stove face away from the wind. That’s it. If you make one of these stoves, I hope you enjoy playing with it as much as I have. Also, there’s probably a lot of room for improvement in the design of the alcohol burner for this stove. Once I got to the point where I’d found something that works as well as the commercial Trangia units, I stopped working on it. You don’t have to do the same and can likely come up with a design that’s more efficient in burning alcohol than mine. In any case, enjoy this three-fuel stove!

making charcoal Making charcoal is surprisingly easy. But it is not something you want to do in your backyard except in small quantities. The method I describe here is what is known as the retort or indirect method. Basically, wood is placed in a container and cooked. All the volatile gases are driven off and charcoal remains. This is exactly the method used be the wood chemical industry before petrochemicals superceded it. We, however are going to use these volatile gases as fuel for the charcoal making fire. Almost like pulling yourself of by your bootstraps but not quite. The concept is simple. Start a fire under the container. Begin driving off the gases. Route these gases back

under the container. Ignite the gases with the fire already burning under the container. Use these gases to drive of more gas and ignite without adding any other fuel to the fire. When the gas is all driven off the fire dies. Let everything cool off, open the container and you have charcoal. I use pine charcoal. It burns hot and clean with virtually no ash. It also burns fast. I burn up a lot of charcoal when I am forging. I have tried hardwood charcoal in my forge but it seems to burn down to a lot of ash and small pieces restricting the air flow. I also have a hard time getting it to welding heat. Small blades such as knives were fine, but I could not seem to generate the heat I needed for the large hunks of steel I forge and weld. I get my raw material from construction sites. I have never had anybody tell me no when I ask to pick up their cutoff scrap. For me this is ideal raw material. It is scrap that would go in a land fill. It is already the right size for efficient cooking and it has already been dried. This is important. If you use green wood you will use a lot of energy just driving off the water. This is the only material I have ever used. If you use something else you are breaking new ground and will have to experiment with the info I give you here. One caveat here. Never use pressure treated wood. One of the ingredients is arsenic. You do not what to burn it

and release the vapors for you or anyone else to breathe. If you are not sure whether piece of wood is pressure treated leave it. The same goes for plywood, the glues and binders can be nasty stuff. The method I use requires 55 gallon barrels. Once you get the idea I am sure you can modify this method to suite your needs.

The first thing you need is a barrel or barrels depending on how big you want to go. Pictured below is the type barrel you need. Pay attention here. This barrel has a removable lid and bung hole in the bottom. Both features are important. Without the removable lid you cannot load your wood, reseal it and then open it to get your charcoal out. Throw away the rubber seal that comes with it. You will just melt it and make a big mess if you try to use it. The bung hole in the bottom makes it easy to get the gases out. This hole accepts 2" threaded iron pipe. Most towns have a company that recycles barrels. These cost me $25 each. I used hollow 4" blocks for the top. Slide them over 1" iron pipe for support. 2 pipes for each row of blocks. You might have to chip out some concrete in the cavities to get the pipe through. Create a hole in the back of the kiln in order to add fuel to the fire and allow air in for combustion. I did this one with some creative stacking.

The picture below shows the arrangement of the barrels. I used 1" threaded pipe to make the stand but anything will work that will take the heat. The 2" pipe for each barrel consists of 1-male/female elbow that screws into the barrel. 2-female/female elbows. 1-6" pipe, 1-24" pipe, 1-36" pipe and 1-end cap. I was lucky. My local hardware store had these sizes already made up. I drilled 1/2" holes every 6" down each side of the 36" pipe that goes under the barrel. When I screwed it in I made sure the holes were pointing left and right so that the flames would be directed around both sides of the barrel. That's it . Now you are ready to enclose it. Here is the raw material. This is enough for one barrel. For a two barrel burn, you need about three barrels worth of scrap. Two to make charcoal out of, one for fuel. Now you are ready to make some charcoal. Load the barrel(s) with the short stuff. Around 12" or less. Use the longer pieces for fuel. Don't pack the wood into the barrel. There needs to be some space for the gas to escape the wood. If you are too neat about how you put the wood in, it is like trying to char one big piece of wood.

This might would work if you did not enclose it but you would have to use a lot more fuel. I just used concrete blocks dry stacked. They are not ideal. Some of them cracked from the heat. But it still works pretty good. Once the barrels are loaded, I just stack more blocks in the front. I use 4" solid blocks for the last row in order to create a gap for smoke to escape and create a good air flow to fuel the fire. Put the wood in, clamp the lid on and stack the blocks in front of the opening. Go around to the back and stack wood under the barrels, a lot of it. You want to make a whopping hot fire. Get the fire going and keep it going good and hot. A single barrel will take about 20-30 minutes to start producing gas. Twin barrels about 45.

The gasses will start slowly and you will see flames just licking out of the holes drilled in the bottom pipe. In about 5 or 10 minutes it will be like a pressurized gas valve was turned on. Flames will shoot out the holes, hit the side walls travel up and around the barrels and possibly shoot out the top gap accompanied by a loud roaring sound. Hardwood may not be as dramatic but pine really puts on a show. Here is a close up of the wood in the front part of the barrel.

Once the gases ignite, you don't need to add any more fuel. In fact you probably won't want to go near it. During the first part of the burn there will be a lot of smoke, some of it quite black. Once it really gets going though, there will just be an incredible amount of heat. Let it burn until the fire dies on its own, about 2 hours. This means all the gases have been driven off. It is best to let it cool down overnight. Opening it too soon and allowing air in can ignite the hot charcoal. Here is a close up of an individual piece. it is charred all the way through. Here This is all the wood that did not char all the way through. This is fairly typical amount for a burn.

The next day open it up and shovel out your charcoal. Wear a respirator, there will be a lot of fine charcoal dust in the air as you shovel it. Here is the charcoal just after opening the lids. You can get some idea of the volume loss by comparing to the picture before the burn. Not to bad. Much less than the direct method. But we had to burn nearly a barrels worth of wood for fuel. So in the end it may all even out. You can't get something for nothing Here is the yield. Two and a half 32 gallon trash bags Making charcoal can be time consuming but it is not hard and it is fun. There is something satisfying about loading scrap wood in a barrel, applying fire then removing a different substance from the barrel. Makes you feel like the alchemist of old.

fire safety and extinguishers types of extinguishers With so many fire extinguishers to choose from, selecting the proper one for your home can be a daunting task. Everyone should have at least one fire extinguisher at home, but it's just as important to ensure you have the proper type of fire extinguisher. Fire protection experts recommend one for the kitchen, the garage and workshop. Fire extinguishers are divided into four categories, based on different types of fires. Each fire extinguisher also has a numerical rating that serves as a guide for the amount of fire the extinguisher can handle. The higher the number, the more fire-fighting power. The following is a quick guide to help choose the right type of extinguisher.

• Class A extinguishers are for ordinary combustible materials such as paper, wood, cardboard, and most plastics. The numerical rating on these types of extinguishers indicates the amount of water it holds and the amount of fire it can extinguish.

• Class B fires involve flammable or combustible liquids such as gasoline, kerosene, grease and oil. The numerical rating for class B extinguishers indicates the approximate number of square feet of fire it can extinguish.

• Class C fires involve electrical equipment, such as appliances, wiring, circuit breakers and outlets. Never use water to extinguish class C fires - the risk of electrical shock is far too great! Class C extinguishers do not have a numerical rating. The C classification means the extinguishing agent is non-conductive.

• Class D fire extinguishers are commonly found in a chemical laboratory. They are for fires that involve combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, potassium and sodium. These types of extinguishers also have no numerical rating, nor are they given a multi-purpose rating - they are designed for class D fires only.

Some fires may involve a combination of these classifications. Your fire extinguishers should have ABC ratings on them. Here are the most common types of fire extinguishers:

• Water extinguishers or APW extinguishers (air-pressurized water) are suitable for class A fires only. Never use a water extinguisher on grease fires, electrical fires or class D fires - the flames will spread and make the fire bigger! Water extinguishers are filled with water and pressurized with oxygen. Again - water extinguishers can be very dangerous in the wrong type of situation. Only fight the fire if you're certain it contains ordinary combustible materials only.

• Dry chemical extinguishers come in a variety of types and are suitable for a combination of class A, B and C fires. These are filled with foam or powder and pressurized with nitrogen.

o BC - This is the regular type of dry chemical extinguisher. It is filled with sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate. The BC variety leaves a mildly corrosive residue which must be cleaned immediately to prevent any damage to materials.

o ABC - This is the multipurpose dry chemical extinguisher. The ABC type is filled with monoammonium phosphate, a yellow powder that leaves a sticky residue that may be damaging to electrical appliances such as a computer

Dry chemical extinguishers have an advantage over CO2 extinguishers since they leave a non-flammable substance on the extinguished material, reducing the likelihood of re-ignition.

• Carbon Dioxide (CO2) extinguishers are used for class B and C fires. CO2 extinguishers contain carbon dioxide, a non-flammable gas, and are highly pressurized. The pressure is so great that it is not uncommon for bits of dry ice to shoot out the nozzle. They don't work very well on class A fires because they may not be able to displace enough oxygen to put the fire out, causing it to re-ignite. CO2 extinguishers have an advantage over dry chemical extinguishers since they don't leave a harmful residue - a good choice for an electrical fire on a computer or other favorite electronic device such as a stereo or TV. It is vital to know what type of extinguisher you are using. Using the wrong type of extinguisher for the wrong type of fire can be life-threatening. These are only the common types of fire extinguishers. There are many others to choose from. Base your selection on the classification and the extinguisher's compatibility with the items you wish to protect. Fire needs fuel, oxygen and heat in order to burn. In simple terms, fire extinguishers remove one of these elements by applying an agent that either cools the burning fuel, or removes or displaces the surrounding oxygen. Fire extinguishers are filled with water or a smothering material, such as CO2. By pulling out the safety pin and depressing the lever at the top of the cylinder (the body of the extinguisher), this material is released by high amounts of pressure. How it Works At the top of the cylinder, there is a smaller cylinder filled with compressed gas. A release valve acts as a locking mechanism and prevents this gas from escaping. When you pull the safety pin and squeeze the lever, the lever pushes on an actuating rod which presses the valve down to open a passage to the nozzle. The compressed gas is released, applying a downward pressure on the fire-extinguishing material. This pushes the material out the nozzle with high amounts of pressure. Although the temptation is to aim the extinguisher at the flames, the proper way to use the extinguisher is to aim it directly at the fuel. Water Extinguishers Water extinguishers are filled with regular tap water and pressurized with oxygen. The best way to remove heat is to dump water on the fire but, depending on the type of fire, this is not always the best option. Dry Chemical Extinguishers Dry chemical extinguishers are filled with either foam or powder, usually sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate, and pressurized with nitrogen. Baking soda is effective because it decomposes at 158 degrees Fahrenheit and releases carbon dioxide (which smothers oxygen) once it decomposes. Dry chemical extinguishers interrupt the chemical reaction of the fire by coating the fuel with a thin layer of powder or foam, separating the fuel from the surrounding oxygen. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) extinguishers CO2 extinguishers contain carbon dioxide, a non- flammable gas, and are highly pressurized. The pressure is so great that it is not uncommon for bits of dry ice to shoot out. CO2 is heavier than oxygen so these extinguishers work by displacing or taking away oxygen from the surrounding area. CO2 is also very cold so it also works by cooling the fuel.

using extinguishers Before using your fire extinguisher, be sure to read the instructions before it's too late. Although there are many different types of fire extinguishers, all of them operate in a similar manner. Use this acronym as a quick reference (it is a good idea to print this reference and pin it next to your fire extinguisher):

P A S S Pull the Pin at the top of the extinguisher. The pin releases a locking mechanism and will allow you to discharge the extinguisher. Aim at the base of the fire, not the flames. This is important - in order to put out the fire, you must extinguish the fuel. Squeeze the lever slowly. This will release the extinguishing agent in the extinguisher. If the handle is released, the discharge will stop. Sweep from side to side. Using a sweeping motion, move the fire extinguisher back and forth until the fire is completely out. Operate the extinguisher from a safe distance, several feet away, and then move towards the fire once it starts to diminish. Be sure to read the instructions on your fire extinguisher - different fire extinguishers recommend operating them from different distances. Remember: Aim at the base of the fire, not at the flames!!!! A typical fire extinguisher contains 10 seconds of extinguishing power. This could be less if it has already been partially discharged. Always read the instructions that come with the fire extinguisher beforehand and become familiarized with its parts. It is highly recommended by fire prevention experts that you get hands-on training before operating a fire extinguisher. Most local fire departments offer this service. Once the fire is out, don't walk away! Watch the area for a few minutes in case it re-ignites. Recharge the extinguisher immediately after use. maintaining extinguishers Inspect fire extinguishers at least once a month (more often in severe environments). Fire extinguisher maintenance is important for everyone’s safety. If the extinguisher is damaged or needs recharging, replace it immediately! You must ensure that:

• The extinguisher is not blocked by equipment, coats or other objects that could interfere with access in an emergency.

• The pressure is at the recommended level. On extinguishers equipped with a gauge (such as that shown on the right), the needle should be in the green zone - not too high and not too low.

• The nozzle or other parts are not hindered in any way. • The pin and tamper seal (if it has one) are intact. • There are no dents, leaks, rust, chemical deposits and/or other signs of abuse/wear. Wipe off any

corrosive chemicals, oil, gunk etc. that may have deposited on the extinguisher. Some manufacturers recommend shaking your dry chemical extinguishers once a month to prevent the powder from settling/packing. Fire extinguishers should be pressure tested (a process called hydrostatic testing) after a number of years to ensure that the cylinder is safe to use. Consult your owner's manual, extinguisher label or the manufacturer to see when yours may need such testing.

IMPORTANT: Recharge all extinguishers immediately after use regardless of how much they were used. An inspection is a “quick check” to give reasonable assurance that a fire extinguisher is available, fully charged and operable. The value of an inspection lies in the frequency, regularity, and thoroughness with which it is conducted. The frequency will vary from hourly to monthly, based on the needs of the situation. Inspections should always be conducted when extinguishers are initially placed in service and thereafter at approximately 30-day intervals. MAINTENANCE Fire extinguishers should be maintained at regular intervals (at least once a year), or when specifically indicated by an inspection. Maintenance is a “thorough check” of the extinguisher. It is intended to give maximum assurance that an extinguisher will operate effectively and safely. It includes a thorough examination and any necessary repair, recharging or replacement. It will normally reveal the need for hydrostatic testing of an extinguisher. location of extinguishers Having a fire extinguisher is one thing, having it handy in case of an emergency, is another. It is recommended to have at least one fire extinguisher on each floor of your home. Also, keep them in plain sight and no more than five feet above the floor. Do not put them in closets because that will cost you valuable time when you are reaching for it. And even though a fire extinguisher may not match your décor, do not put it behind curtains or drapes. The most important places to have a fire extinguisher are in areas that are more susceptible to fire. These areas are the kitchen and the garage. Kitchen: According to U.S. Fire Administration statistics, the kitchen is the place where fires most often start. If you have a fire extinguisher in the kitchen, most grease fires can be contained. Do not put the fire extinguisher near the stove as it will be out of your reach if the fire is on the stovetop. You should not have to risk burns just to reach your extinguisher. Therefore, the best place to put the fire extinguisher is by the door of the kitchen so you have easy access to it. Garage: It is a good idea to keep a fire extinguisher here because in most homes, this is the place we use as storage. Often, leftover paints, solvents, and building materials will be piled up without a second thought. Again, the best location to mount the fire extinguisher is by the door. fire prevention The National Fire Protection Association reports 85% of fire deaths occur in the home, making fire prevention a top priority in every home. Here is a list of some of the less obvious tips for fire prevention, based on the most common causes of fires: Cooking equipment

• Keep appliances clean, and wipe surfaces after spills. Clean stove surfaces and ovens regularly. • Wear tight-fitting sleeves, or roll them up when cooking • Keep flammable objects, including pot holders, dish towels and curtains, at least three feet away from the

stove. • Wood and coal stoves, fireplaces, chimneys, and all other solid-fueled heating equipment needs to be

inspected annually by a professional and cleaned accordingly. • Assure microwaves have enough room to breathe, that all the vents are cleared of obstructions. • If there is a microwave fire, keep the door closed and unplug the microwave. Make sure to have the

microwave oven serviced before you use it again. • If there is an oven fire, keep the door closed and turn off the heat. If the fire doesn't go out immediately, call

the fire department.

• A grease fire occurs when oil or greasy foods are heated and ignite. The simplest way to fight a grease fire is to carefully slide a lid over the pan. Turn off the burner, don't move the pan, and keep the lid on until the pan cools completely. Baking Soda may also be used to suffocate the fire. NEVER PUT WATER ON A GREASE FIRE. Water causes the grease to splatter and the fire to spread. Also, NEVER attempt to take a grease fire outdoors. It will be too hot to carry and you will drop it, causing a major house fire. Heating Equipment • Heating equipment is the leading cause of home fires during the winter months of December, January and February, and is the second leading cause of home fires year round. • When buying heaters, look for devices with automatic shutoff features. • Be sure any gas-fueled heating device is installed with proper attention to ventilation, and never put un-vented gas space heaters in bedrooms or bathrooms. Liquefied Petroleum (LP) gas heaters with self-contained fuel supplies are prohibited for home use by NFPA codes. • Never leave space heaters on when you leave the room. • Space heaters should be kept at least three feet away from anything that can burn. • Don't use extension cords with space heaters. The high amount of current they require could melt the cord and start a fire. • When lighting a gas space heater, strike your match first, then turn on the gas. • Never use a gas range as a substitute for a furnace or space heater. Electrical Distribution Equipment • Wiring, outlets, switches, circuit breakers and other electrical devices are the third leading cause of home fires and the second leading cause of fire deaths. • Replace or repair loose or frayed cords on all electrical devices. • If outlets or switches feel warm, shut off the circuit and have them checked by an electrician. • Try to avoid extension cords. If you feel an extension cord is necessary, make sure that it is not frayed or worn. Do not run it under carpet or around doorways. • Never overload a socket. The use of "octopus" outlets or "power bar", outlet extensions that accommodate several plugs, is strongly discouraged. Try to limit one high-wattage appliance into each individual outlet at a time. • If a circuit breaker trips or a fuse blows frequently, cut down on the number of appliances on that line. In many older homes, the capacity of the wiring system has not kept pace with today's modern appliances and can overload electrical systems. Some overload signals include: dimming lights when an appliance goes on, fuses blowing frequently or shrinking TV picture. • Assure there's plenty of air space around home entertainment units such as the TV and stereo to avoid overheating. Although some fires are caused by electrical system failures and appliance defects, many are caused by the misuse and poor maintenance of electrical appliances, incorrectly installed wiring, and overloaded circuits and extension cords. Other Sources • Never smoke in bed. Always look under cushions and in trashcans for burning cigarettes before going to bed. Check carpeting where ashtrays have been used. • Get rid of stored newspaper or other unnecessary materials. Newspapers stored in a damp, warm place may ignite spontaneously. • Install smoke detectors on every level of your home and outside of sleeping areas. • Mount a fire extinguisher in the kitchen, garage and workshop. • Agree in advance on an escape plan. There should be at least two exits in every room.

Note: Half of all home fire deaths occur at night, so fire hazard checks and special attention to fire prevention should occur before going to bed.

fighting a fire All fires can be very dangerous and life-threatening. Your safety should always be your primary concern when attempting to fight a fire. Before deciding to fight a fire, be certain that:

• The fire is small and not spreading. A fire can double in size within two or three minutes. • You have the proper fire extinguisher for what is burning. • The fire won't block your exit if you can't control it. A good way to ensure this is to keep the exit at your back. • You know your fire extinguisher works. Inspect extinguishers once a month for dents, leaks or other signs of

damage. Assure the pressure is at the recommended level. On extinguishers equipped with a gauge, the needle should be in the green zone - not too high and not too low.

• You know how to use your fire extinguisher. There's not enough time to read instructions when a fire occurs. How to Fight a Fire Safely:

• Always stand with an exit at your back. • Stand several feet away from the fire, moving closer once the fire starts to diminish. • Use a sweeping motion and aim at the base of the fire. • If possible, use a "buddy system" to have someone back you up or call for help if something goes wrong. • Be sure to watch the area for awhile to ensure it doesn't re-ignite.

Never Fight A Fire If:

• The fire is spreading rapidly. Only use a fire extinguisher when the fire is in its early stages. If the fire is already spreading quickly, evacuate and call the fire department.

• You don't know what is burning. Unless you know what is burning, you won't know what type of fire extinguisher to use. Even if you have an ABC extinguisher, there could be something that will explode or produce highly toxic smoke.

• You don't have the proper fire extinguisher. The wrong type of extinguisher can be dangerous or life-threatening.

• There is too much smoke or you are at risk of inhaling smoke. Seven out of ten fire-related deaths occur from breathing poisonous gases produced by the fire. Any sort of fire will produce some amount of carbon monoxide, the most deadly gas produced by a fire. Materials such as wool, silk, nylon and some plastics can produce other highly toxic gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide, or hydrogen chloride. Beware - all of these can be fatal. Smoke inhalation or exposure to fire itself can be life threatening so get educated about the basics in CPR and burn treatment.