Western UniversityScholarship@Western

Aboriginal Policy Research Consortium International (APRCi)

2011

Cases and Materials on Federal Indian Law (6thEdition)David H. Getches

Charles F. Wilkinson

Robert A. Williams Jr.

Matthew L.M. Fletcher

Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/aprci

Part of the Indian and Aboriginal Law Commons

Citation of this paper:Getches, David H.; Wilkinson, Charles F.; Williams, Robert A. Jr.; and Fletcher, Matthew L.M., "Cases and Materials on Federal IndianLaw (6th Edition)" (2011). Aboriginal Policy Research Consortium International (APRCi). 213.https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/aprci/213

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1782717

Legal Studies Research Paper Series

Research Paper No. 09 - 07

Cases and Materials on Federal Indian Law (6th

Edition)

David H. Getches, Charles F. Wilkinson,

Robert A. Williams, Jr. and Matthew L.M.

Fletcher

This paper can be downloaded without charge from the

Social Science Research Network Electronic Paper Collection at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=1782717

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1782717

iii

Dedicated to

Vine Deloria, Jr. (1933–2005)Legal scholar, author, mentor, friend

and

Wilma Mankiller (1945–2010)Courageous and visionary tribal leader

Whose legacies are celebratedby this book on Federal Indian Law.

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1782717

v

PREFACE

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It is difficult to imagine another field of law so dynamic as Indian law. Inthe thirty years since our first edition was published, Indian law has expandedat warp speed (at least relative to the typical pace for change in the law).Thus, updating a casebook is a more challenging and thoroughgoing task thanit is in most other fields. More than eighty percent of the cases in this volumedid not exist when the first edition came out in 1978. Moreover, the apparentdirections of the law have shifted along with theoretical perspectives offeredby the growing number of scholars who contribute to Indian law. A briefhistory of the evolution of this work is illustrative.

During the mid–1970s, David Getches, Charles Wilkinson, and DanielRosenfelt prepared the first edition after several years of representing Indiantribes and groups through legal services programs, particularly the NativeAmerican Rights Fund (NARF). The content and organization was based onmaterials prepared at NARF to train Indian legal services attorneys. At thatpoint the field seemed arcane, but the authors believed it had promise as anintellectually exciting subject, charged with potent implications for a largelyforgotten minority group and great symbolic force for our system of law.Teachers in a few law schools, including Professors Wilkinson and Rosenfeltwho had become full-time law teachers, were offering Indian law courses.Fortunately, Professor Monroe Price had developed his pioneering casebookwhich appeared in 1973.

West Publishing Company took a considerable risk in accepting the firstedition of this book for publication, doubting that there would be a sufficientmarket. Everyone’s expectations were exceeded as courses proliferated in thenation’s law schools and in undergraduate programs, and as enrollments inthem increased. The organizing themes of the first edition are preserved here.The book proceeds from the foundation cases in Indian law, standing aslandmarks in a rich historical landscape. The periods of history are classifiedin ways that are now standard and the organization was adopted in otherworks such as the 1982 edition of Felix S. Cohen’s Handbook of FederalIndian Law, recently updated in 2005. The analysis of certain issues (e.g.,preemption in Indian law) has been accepted by scholars and courts and theanalytical approach to criminal jurisdiction has been used widely in classesand teaching materials.

By the time of the second edition in 1986, Professors Getches andWilkinson found it necessary to integrate a remarkable spate of SupremeCourt decisions that had applied the foundation cases in modern contexts—taxation, regulation, water rights, and fishing rights conflicts. With considera-

vi PREFACE

ble fealty, the Court carried forward the fundamental principles of federalpreemptive powers, tribal sovereignty, and limited state authority in Indiancountry. A few decisions suggested curious aberrations. Since the secondedition, the case law represented in the book has focused almost entirely onUnited States Supreme Court decisions, with some tribal court cases added toconvey an understanding of how the increasingly sophisticated tribal judicialsystems function. Provocative, new Indian law scholarship was added, alongwith materials on applications of Indian law principles to Alaska Natives,Native Hawaiians, and indigenous peoples in other countries.

The third edition saw several major changes. The addition of ProfessorWilliams as an author gave the book greater historical depth and sharpenedthe moral questions raised in studying the subject, with the inclusion of hisoriginal research revealing precedents for the foundations of Indian lawtracing to medieval times. Similarly, the growing body of materials in criticalrace studies could be well-represented because of Professor Williams’ leader-ship in that field. And he also enriched the book’s coverage of internationaland comparative materials.

Most striking in the third edition was the inclusion of new cases thatwere apparently out of step with the most venerable and reliable principles inthe field and seemed to be built on the ‘‘aberrations’’ included in the secondedition. This phenomenon, as the first pages in many Indian law articles ofthis period illustrate, led newcomers to the field to describe it in terms of itscomplexity and confusion. Indeed, the Supreme Court had become especiallyactive in protecting non-Indian rights and property and began to writeopinions that created exceptions to established, two hundred year-old princi-ples; they could be read as carving out new principles.

The fourth edition confirmed a continuing trend of Supreme Courtdecisions that departed from the foundation cases that constituted most of thefirst edition and which still dominate the first part of the book. The effect ofthese decisions was to erode and fragment the territory where tribal lawprevails, and suggested a serious undermining of tribal sovereignty, even astribes were becoming more competent and determined to govern.

The fourth edition also added new material on reservation economicdevelopment, examining the role and importance of tribal sovereignty in thisarea where tribes continue to gain ground economically. Legalized gambling,which has proven to be lucrative for many tribes, was also covered in moredetail than in earlier editions.

The fifth edition demonstrated that in many ways, Indian law hasreached a crossroads. New Supreme Court decisions suggested that theJustices are deeply divided over fundamental questions in the field. One of theJustices has gone so far as to say that Indian law is ‘‘schizophrenic,’’ and thedecisions added to the fifth edition on important issues such as the scope ofthe federal trust responsibility to tribes, the extent of congressional plenarypower over Indian affairs, and limits on tribal sovereignty over non-membersrevealed that the Rehnquist Court fomented instability and unpredictabilityin the field. The fifth edition also added new materials on tribal courts and

viiPREFACE

tribal customary law, protection of Indian sacred sites on public lands, andcomparative and international human rights developments.

The sixth edition, with the inclusion of author Matthew L.M. Fletcher,argues for the first time that Native nations have moved into a new era of lawand policy—nation-building. Self-determination has helped to propel Nativenations into an era of building modern and successful nations, and thisedition incorporates materials on the reality of ground-level tribal governancethat draw on Professor Fletcher’s expertise and experience concerning triballaw and tribal courts. The Supreme Court’s dissonance on the foundationalprinciples of federal Indian law—this will be the first edition of the casebookunable to report on a significant advance or defense of tribal interests in thefederal courts—has motivated Native nations to advance the field in legisla-tive and regulatory arenas. Further, given the approval by the ObamaAdministration of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of IndigenousPeoples, Native nations may be looking farther outward to assert their basichuman rights as indigenous peoples.

As with prior editions, we are deeply indebted to many colleagues whocontributed to the content and direction of the book. Among those whosecomments, suggestions, and ideas were influential are: Professor BarbaraCosens of the University of Idaho furnished valuable information on tribalwater rights settlements. Professor Kate Fort offered excellent commentaryon the Indian Child Welfare Act materials. We also thank Wenona Singel,John Petoskey, and Zeke Fletcher, who commented on and supplied materialsfor the tribal courts and gaming materials.

We also want to acknowledge the fine research and editorial assistance ofUniversity of Colorado Law School student Anne Mariah Tapp, Class of 2012,and University of Arizona Rogers College of Law students Katherine C.Belzowski, LL.M., Grant Christensen, LL.M., Joseph Ezzo, Jr., Class of 2012,Jill Marie Kappus, LL.M., Sherri L. Mitchell, Class of 2011.

We give special thanks to The University of Arizona Rogers College ofLaw, the University of Colorado Law School, and the Michigan State Universi-ty College of Law for providing funding for research assistants, summerresearch, and for the substantial overhead necessary to prepare this edition.

A word on our use of excerpted material is in order. In addition to ouredited versions of judicial decisions we include abridgements of the copyright-ed articles and other material with permission. Our acknowledgments to theauthors and other copyright holders begin on the next page. In reprintingexcerpts of cases and other materials we have indicated our omissions of textwith ‘‘ * * * ’’ while preserving the author’s indication of omissions fromquoted material by use of ‘‘ TTT ’’. We have, however, omitted citations tocases and other authority without notation. Footnotes in the original workalso have been eliminated without notation, although where they are included

viii PREFACE

in the excerpt, we have used the original numbering. Footnotes signaled withan asterisk and the notation ‘‘Ed.’’ were added by us.

D.H.G.R.A.W.C.F.W.M.L.M.F.

i

SUMMARY OF CONTENTS

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Page

PREFACE MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM iiiACKNOWLEDGMENTSMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM iiiTABLE OF CASESMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM iii

Chapter One. Introduction: Indians and Indian Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1A. The Study of Indian Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1B. American Indians Today—An Overview MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 8C. Perspectives on Indian LawMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 29

PART ONE. THE HISTORY OF FEDERAL INDIAN LAWAND POLICY

Chapter Two. The European Doctrine of Discovery and Ameri-can Indian Rights MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 43

A. Medieval and Renaissance OriginsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 44B. The English North American Colonial Era Influence on United

States Federal Indian Law and Policy MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 54C. United States Colonizing Legal Theory MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 64

Chapter Three. The Federal–Tribal Treaty Relationship: TheFormative Years (1789–1871) MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 74

A. Colonial Era OriginsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 74B. ‘‘The Savage as the Wolf’’: The Founders’ First Indian Policy MMMMMMMMMMM 87C. Legislative Enforcement of the Treaty Policy: Trade and Intercourse

Acts MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 90D. Removal MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 94E. The Status of Indian Treaties in United States LawMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 128

Chapter Four. Centuries of Shifting Law and Policy MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 140A. Allotments and Assimilation (1871–1928) MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 141B. The Period of Indian Reorganization (1928–1945) MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 187C. The Termination Period (1945–1961)MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 200D. The Era of Self–Determination (1961–Present) MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 216

PART TWO. FEDERAL INDIAN LAW AND POLICY IN CON-TEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

Chapter Five. The Federal–Tribal RelationshipMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 244A. Tribal Property Interests MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 244B. The Federal–Tribal Relationship as a Source of Federal PowerMMMMMMMMMM 305C. The Federal–Tribal Relationship as a Source of Indian Rights MMMMMMMMMMM 329

ii SUMMARY OF CONTENTS

PageChapter Six. Tribal Sovereignty and the Challenge of Nation–

BuildingMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 367A. Customary and Traditional American Indian Legal Systems MMMMMMMMMMMMM 368B. Tribal Governments as Independent Sovereigns MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 373C. The Contemporary Scope of Tribal Sovereignty Under the Indian

Civil Rights Act MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 379D. Tribal Sovereign Immunity MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 394E. Tribal Justice Systems in Historical and Cultural Context MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 403

Chapter Seven. Tribal Sovereignty and Jurisdiction: Congres-sional and Judicial Recognition and Limitations MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 447

A. The Arena of Federal and Tribal Jurisdiction: ‘‘Indian Country’’MMMMMMM 448B. Federal Criminal Jurisdiction MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 470C. ‘‘Public Law 280’’—A Congressional Transfer of Jurisdiction to Some

StatesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 488D. Judicially–Imposed Limitations on Tribal Jurisdiction in Indian

CountryMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 505

Chapter Eight. Tribal and State Conflicts Over Civil Regulato-ry and Adjudicatory JurisdictionMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 532

A. Civil Adjudicatory Jurisdiction in Indian CountryMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 532B. Taxation and RegulationMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 588C. Federal Environmental Regulation in Indian Country: Treating

Tribes as States MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 635D. Judicial Jurisdiction by Congressional Statute: The Indian Child

Welfare Act of 1978 MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 647

Chapter Nine. The Nation–Building Challenge: Federal IndianLaw and Reservation Development MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 665

A. Managing the Resources of the Reservation MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 677B. Indian Gaming MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 708

Chapter Ten. Indian Religion and Culture MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 727A. Protection of American Indian Sacred Lands and SitesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 728B. Protection of American Indian Religious Practices and BeliefsMMMMMMMMMMM 746C. Protection of American Indian Cultural ResourcesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 758

Chapter Eleven. Water Rights MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 766A. Water Law in the West MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 768B. Nature and Extent of Indian Reserved Water RightsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 771C. Quantification MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 793D. Regulation and Administration of Water in Indian Country MMMMMMMMMMMMMM 832

Chapter Twelve. Fishing and Hunting Rights MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 838A. Regulation of On–Reservation Fishing and Hunting MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 840B. Off–Reservation Fishing and HuntingMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 849

PART THREE. THE FRONTIERS OF INDIGENOUSPEOPLES’ RIGHTS

Chapter Thirteen. Rights of Alaska Natives and Native Hawai-iansMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 887

A. Alaska Natives: Looking Forward to the Past? MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 888B. Hawaii: Islands of NeglectMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 909

iiiSUMMARY OF CONTENTS

PageChapter Fourteen. Comparative and International Legal Per-

spectives on Indigenous Peoples’ RightsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 952A. Native Law in Other NationsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 953B. Emerging Voices: Indigenous Rights and International LawMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1004

INDEXMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1033

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Page

PREFACE MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM iiiACKNOWLEDGMENTSMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM iiiTABLE OF CASESMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM iii

Chapter One. Introduction: Indians and Indian Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1Sec.A. The Study of Indian Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1

1. What Is Federal Indian Law? MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 12. Why Study Indian Law? MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 6

B. American Indians Today—An Overview MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 8C. Perspectives on Indian LawMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 29

Robert A. Williams, Jr., Columbus’s Legacy: The Rehnquist Court’s Perpetua-tion of European Cultural Racism Against American Indian Tribes 29

Charles F. Wilkinson, American Indians, Time and the Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 31David H. Getches, A Philosophy of Permanence: The Indians’ Legacy for the

West MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 34Matthew L.M Fletcher, Looking to the East: The Stories of Modern Indian

People and the Development of Tribal Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 36

PART ONE. THE HISTORY OF FEDERAL INDIAN LAWAND POLICY

Chapter Two. The European Doctrine of Discovery and Ameri-can Indian Rights MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 43

Sec.A. Medieval and Renaissance OriginsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 44

1. The Crusading Legal Tradition MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 442. The Crusading Legal Tradition and Europe’s ‘‘Age of Discovery’’ 463. Spanish Colonial Law and the Rights of American Indians MMMMMMMMMMM 484. Spanish Legal Theory and Indian Rights MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 50

Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 53B. The English North American Colonial Era Influence on United

States Federal Indian Law and Policy MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 541. Early Precedents MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 552. Early English Colonial Practice Respecting Indian Rights MMMMMMMMMMMM 57

Chester E. Eisinger, The Puritan’s Justification for Taking the Land MMMMMMM 57NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 59

3. British Imperial Policy and Indian LandsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 594. The Founders’ Debates on Indian LandsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 61

C. United States Colonizing Legal Theory MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 64Johnson v. McIntosh MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 64Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 70

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageChapter Three. The Federal–Tribal Treaty Relationship: The

Formative Years (1789–1871) MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 74Sec.

A. Colonial Era OriginsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 74Dorothy V. Jones, British Colonial Indian Treaties MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 75Treaty of Peace Between the French, the Iroquois, and Other Nations MMMMMMMMMMMM 77Robert A. Williams, Jr., Linking Arms Together: American Indian Treaty

Visions of Law and Peace, 1600–1800 MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 81Note: The Virginia Colony’s Treaty Relations With Powhatan’s ConfederacyMMM 85

B. ‘‘The Savage as the Wolf’’: The Founders’ First Indian Policy MMMMMMMMMMM 87George Washington to James Duane MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 87NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 88Treaty of Hopewell With the CherokeesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 89NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 90

C. Legislative Enforcement of the Treaty Policy: Trade and IntercourseActs MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 90

Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in the Formative Years: IndianTrade and Intercourse Acts, 1790–1834MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 91

NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 93D. Removal MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 94

1. The Justifications for Indian Removal MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 942. The Cherokee Cases MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 96

Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in the Formative Years:Indian Trade and Intercourse Acts, 1790–1834 MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 99

Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 102Cherokee Nation v. Georgia MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 105NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 111Worcester v. GeorgiaMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 113Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 122

3. The Legacy of the Cherokee Cases MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 126D’arcy McNickle, They Came Here First MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 126Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 127

E. The Status of Indian Treaties in United States LawMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1281. Canons of Construction MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 128

Charles F. Wilkinson & John M. Volkman, Judicial Review of IndianTreaty Abrogation: ‘‘As Long as Water Flows or Grass Grows Upon theEarth’’— How Long a Time Is That? MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 128

Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 131United States v. WashingtonMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 132Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 136

2. Treaties and Reserved RightsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 136United States v. WinansMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 137Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 139

Chapter Four. Centuries of Shifting Law and Policy MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 140Sec.

A. Allotments and Assimilation (1871–1928) MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1411. ‘‘Civilizing’’ the Indian: The BIA and the Reservation System MMMMMM 142

S. Lyman Tyler, A History of Indian Policy MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 142NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 144Indian Commissioner Medill on Indian Colonies MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 144Indian Commissioner Mix on Reservation Policy MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 146Indian Commissioner Taylor on Indian Civilization MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 147

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PageSec.A. Allotments and Assimilation (1871–1928)—Continued

2. Reforms and the End of Treaty–Making MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 148Report of the Board of Indian Commissioners MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 149Indian Commissioner Parker on the Treaty System MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 150President Grant’s Peace PolicyMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 151Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 151

3. Expansion of Federal Power Over the Reservation MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 153Ex Parte Crow Dog MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 153NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 157United States v. Kagama MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 158Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 160United States v. Sandoval MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 160Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 162Note: Indian Citizenship and Tribalism MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 163

4. The General Allotment Act MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 165Delos Sacket Otis, History of the Allotment Policy, Hearings on H.R. 7902

Before the House Comm. on Indian AffairsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 166John Collier, Memorandum, The Purposes and Operation of the Wheeler–

Howard Indian Rights Bill, Hearings on H.R. 7902 Before the Senateand House Committees on Indian Affairs MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 171

Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 173Ann Laquer Estin, Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock: The Long Shadow, in the

Aggressions of Civilization: Federal Indian Policy Since the 1880’s 176Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 183Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 184

5. Assimilationist Policies MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 185B. The Period of Indian Reorganization (1928–1945) MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 187

1. The Indian Reorganization Act: Design for Modern Tribal Gov-ernments MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 188

Comment, Tribal Self–Government and the Indian Reorganization Act of1934 MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 189

Edward H. Spicer, Cycles of ConquestMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 194Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 195

2. The Contributions of Felix Cohen MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 197Felix S. Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 198NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 199

C. The Termination Period (1945–1961)MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 2001. Passage of the Termination Program MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 200

Gary Orfield, A Study of the Termination Policy MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 201NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 203

2. The Effects of Termination: Some Rights Lost; Some Retained MMMMM 204Charles F. Wilkinson & Eric R. Biggs, The Evolution of the Termination

Policy MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 204Menominee Tribe of Indians v. United States MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 207Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 211Repealing the Act Terminating Federal Supervision Over the Property

and Members of the Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 214Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 215

D. The Era of Self–Determination (1961–Present) MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 2161. A Reaction to Termination MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 2162. President Nixon’s Message to Congress MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 217

Message From the President of the United States Transmitting Recom-mendations for Indian Policy MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 217

NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 2193. Congressional Response and New Tribal Responsibilities MMMMMMMMMMMMM 220

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageSec.D. The Era of Self–Determination (1961–Present)—Continued

4. The Supreme Court and the Modern Indian Rights MovementMMMMMM 224Morton v. Mancari MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 225Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 230

5. The 21st Century Challenge: Shaping a New Era of FederalIndian Law and Policy Through Native Nation Building MMMMMMMMMM 239

NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 242

PART TWO. FEDERAL INDIAN LAW AND POLICY IN CON-TEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

Chapter Five. The Federal–Tribal RelationshipMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 244Sec.A. Tribal Property Interests MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 244

United States v. Shoshone Tribe of IndiansMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 245Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 248Sioux Tribe v. United States MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 249Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 252Montana v. United StatesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 253Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 257Tee–Hit–Ton Indians v. United StatesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 259Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 266Note: Tribal Property Rights, the Indian Claims Commission, and Contempo-

rary International Human Rights Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 267Case of Mary and Carrie Dann v. United States Case No. 11.140 (Judgment

on the Merits) MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 275Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 279County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 280Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 289City of Sherrill, New York v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 290Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 295Note: Tribal Recognition MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 299NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 304

B. The Federal–Tribal Relationship as a Source of Federal PowerMMMMMMMMMM 3051. The Marshall Model of Indian Rights and Congressional Plenary

Power in Indian Affairs MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 306Robert A. Williams, Jr., The Algebra of Federal Indian Law: The Hard

Trail of Decolonizing and Americanizing the White Man’s IndianJurisprudence MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 307

Robert Laurence, Learning to Live With the Plenary Power of CongressOver the Indian Nations: An Essay in Reaction to Professor Williams’Algebra MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 308

Robert A. Williams, Jr., Learning Not to Live With Eurocentric Myopia: AReply to Professor Laurence’s Learning to Live With the Plenary Powerof Congress Over the Indian Nations MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 310

Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 3112. Treaty Abrogation MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 313

United States v. Dion MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 313Note: Indian Treaty Abrogation and Congressional IntentMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 319

C. The Federal–Tribal Relationship as a Source of Indian Rights MMMMMMMMMMM 3291. Executive Accountability Under the Trust Relationship MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 329

Seminole Nation v. United States MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 329Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 331United States v. Navajo NationMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 334Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 339

vTABLE OF CONTENTS

PageSec.C. The Federal–Tribal Relationship as a Source of Indian Rights—

Continued2. Executive Agency Conflicts in the Administration of the Federal

Trust Responsibility to Indians MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 346Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribe of Indians v. Morton MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 347Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 351

3. Congressional Accountability Under the Trust Relationship MMMMMMMMM 355United States v. Sioux Nation of IndiansMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 355Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 365

Chapter Six. Tribal Sovereignty and the Challenge of Nation–BuildingMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 367

Sec.A. Customary and Traditional American Indian Legal Systems MMMMMMMMMMMMM 368B. Tribal Governments as Independent Sovereigns MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 373

Talton v. Mayes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 373Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 374United States v. Wheeler MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 376

C. The Contemporary Scope of Tribal Sovereignty Under the IndianCivil Rights Act MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 379

Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 381Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 387Note: Santa Clara, Feminist Legal Theory, and the Definition of ‘‘Member-

ship’’ in Native Nations MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 389D. Tribal Sovereign Immunity MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 394

Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma v. Manufacturing Technologies, Inc. MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 395Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 398

E. Tribal Justice Systems in Historical and Cultural Context MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 4031. Tribal Courts in the Modern Era: Origins, Growth and Develop-

ment MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 403Williams v. LeeMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 405Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 407

2. Tribal Courts in the Contemporary United States Legal System MMM 408Native Nation Courts: Key Players in Nation Rebuilding MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 408Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 410

3. Tribal Court Decision Making in Modern Tribal Legal Systems MMMM 410a. The Preservation and Restoration of Tribal Customs and

Traditions in Tribal Common Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 411Raymond D. Austin, ADR and the Navajo Peacemaker Court MMMMMMMMMMMMM 412In the Matter of the Appeal of Lee MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 414Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 417Village of Mishongnovi v. Humeyestewa MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 421Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 425

b. Alternative Tribal Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: Peacemak-er Courts and Sentencing Circles MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 426

Nancy A. Costello, Walking Together in a Good Way: Indian Peace-maker Courts in Michigan MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 426

NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 428c. The Rise of ‘‘Intertribal Common Law’’, or a Tribal Law for

Nonmembers? MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 429Matthew L.M. Fletcher, Toward a Theory of Intertribal and Intratri-

bal Common Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 429Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 431

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PageSec.E. Tribal Justice Systems in Historical and Cultural Context—Contin-

uedd. The Special Challenge of Litigating the Indian Civil Rights Act

in Tribal CourtsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 432Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 433Note: On Sex and Race Based Laws in Indian Country MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 434

4. Tribal Constitutions MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 4405. Tribal Code Development MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 443

Wenona T. Singel, Cultural Sovereignty and Transplanted Law: Tensionsin Indigenous Self–Rule MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 443

NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 445

Chapter Seven. Tribal Sovereignty and Jurisdiction: Congres-sional and Judicial Recognition and Limitations MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 447

Sec.A. The Arena of Federal and Tribal Jurisdiction: ‘‘Indian Country’’MMMMMMM 448

1. Litigating ‘‘Indian Country’’: Reservation Diminishment and Dis-establishment MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 448

Solem v. BartlettMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 451Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 456Note: Demographics and the Disestablishment and Diminishment of

Indian ReservationsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 459Note: Land in Trust as Ensuring Tribal Jurisdiction MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 463Carcieri v. Salazar MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 465Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 470

B. Federal Criminal Jurisdiction MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 4701. The Indian Country Crimes Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1152 MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 472

Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 4742. The Major Crimes Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1153 MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 474

United States v. Antelope MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 477Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 479

3. The Assimilative Crimes Act, 18 U.S.C. § 13 MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 480Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 482

4. An Analytical Approach to Criminal Jurisdiction in Indian Coun-try MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 483

Note on the Indian Status of Major Crimes Act Defendants MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 487C. ‘‘Public Law 280’’—A Congressional Transfer of Jurisdiction to Some

StatesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 488Carole E. Goldberg, Public Law 280: The Limits of State Jurisdiction Over

Reservation IndiansMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 489Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 494Bryan v. Itasca County MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 496Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 501Carole Goldberg–Ambrose, Public Law 280 and the Problem of Lawlessness

in California Indian Country MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 502Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 504

D. Judicially–Imposed Limitations on Tribal Jurisdiction in IndianCountryMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 505

1. Implied Limitations on Tribal Criminal JurisdictionMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 506Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 506Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 512United States v. Lara MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 517Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 527

2. Implied Limitations on Tribal Civil Regulatory Jurisdiction MMMMMMMMM 528Montana v. United StatesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 528Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 531

viiTABLE OF CONTENTS

PageChapter Eight. Tribal and State Conflicts Over Civil Regulato-

ry and Adjudicatory JurisdictionMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 532Sec.

A. Civil Adjudicatory Jurisdiction in Indian CountryMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 5321. Suits Against Tribal Members MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 532

Note: Personal Jurisdiction and State Service of Process in Indian Coun-tryMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 534

2. Suits Against Non–Members of the TribeMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 537National Farmers Union Insurance Companies v. Crow Tribe of Indians 538Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 542Note: The Supreme Court’s Application of the Montana Rule to Tribal

JurisdictionMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 546Strate v. A–1 Contractors MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 551Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 557Nevada v. Hicks MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 558Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 570Plains Commerce Bank v. Long Family Land and Cattle Co.MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 572Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 583Note: Enforcing Tribal Court Judgments in State and Federal Courts MMMMMM 586

B. Taxation and RegulationMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 5881. Tribal Authority to Tax and Regulate in Indian CountryMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 589

Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache TribeMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 589Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 594

2. State Authority to Tax in Indian Country: The Scope of FederalPreemption Over Reservation Economic Development MMMMMMMMMMMMM 596

Note: Preemption in Indian Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 601Washington v. Confederated Tribes of the Colville Indian Reservation MMMMMM 605NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 612Note: Tribal Sovereign Immunity and Enforcing the Collection of ‘‘Con-

cededly Lawful’’ State Taxes From Non–Members of the Tribe in IndianCountry MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 613

Wagnon v. Prairie Band Potawatomi NationMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 618Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 626

3. State Taxation of Land and Natural Resource Development inIndian Country MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 628

Montana v. Blackfeet Tribe of IndiansMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 628Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 630Note: Resolving Jurisdictional Disputes by Cooperative AgreementMMMMMMMMMMM 634

C. Federal Environmental Regulation in Indian Country: TreatingTribes as States MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 635

1. The Clean Air Act MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 6372. Clean Water ActMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 6393. Resources Conservation and Recovery Act MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 6414. Other Federal Environmental StatutesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 642

Note: Fulfilling Trust Responsibilities Over Indian Lands MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 645D. Judicial Jurisdiction by Congressional Statute: The Indian Child

Welfare Act of 1978 MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 647Barbara Ann Atwood, Flashpoints Under the Indian Child Welfare Act:

Toward a New Understanding of State Court Resistance MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 648

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageSec.D. Judicial Jurisdiction by Congressional Statute: The Indian Child

Welfare Act of 1978—ContinuedMatthew L.M. Fletcher, The Origins of the Indian Child Welfare Act: A

Survey of the Legislative HistoryMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 650Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 654Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 659Note: Judicially–Created Common Law ‘‘Exceptions’’ to the Application of

ICWA MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 661

Chapter Nine. The Nation–Building Challenge: Federal IndianLaw and Reservation Development MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 665

Stephen Cornell, Sovereignty, Prosperity and Policy in Indian Country Today MMMMMM 666Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 673

Sec.A. Managing the Resources of the Reservation MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 677

1. Land Leasing in Indian Country MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 677Reid Peyton Chambers & Monroe E. Price, Regulating Sovereignty:

Secretarial Discretion and the Leasing of Indian Lands MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 678Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 679

2. Mineral DevelopmentMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 683Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 685Note: Problems in Federal Management of Indian Mineral Resources and

RevenuesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 6913. Timber Management MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 693

Note: Federal Income Taxation of Reservation Enterprises MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 6964. The Role of Tribal Sovereignty in the Management and Control of

Reservation Resources: A Case Study on Indian Tribes and theEndangered Species Act MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 697

Testimony of Ronnie Lupe, Chairman of the White Mountain ApacheTribe Prepared for the U.S. Senate Committee on Environment andPublic Works Subcommittee on Drinking Water, Fisheries and Wildlife 699

NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 702Statement of the Relationship Between the White Mountain Apache Tribe

and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 702Note: The Secretarial Order on ‘‘American Indian Tribal Rights, Federal–

Tribal Trust Responsibilities, and the Endangered Species Act’’ MMMMMMMMMMM 704Note: The Role of Federal Indian Law in Reservation Economic Develop-

mentMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 706B. Indian Gaming MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 708

1. The Supreme Court’s Application of Public Law 280’s Regulato-ry–Prohibitory Distinction MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 709

California v. Cabazon Band of Mission IndiansMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 709Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 714

2. The Congressional Response to Cabazon: the Indian GamingRegulatory Act MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 715

Matthew L.M. Fletcher, Bringing Balance to Indian Gaming MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 717Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 721

Chapter Ten. Indian Religion and Culture MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 727Sec.A. Protection of American Indian Sacred Lands and SitesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 728

Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 728Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 737Note: Federal Regulatory Responses to Protection of Indian Sacred Sites on

Public Lands: The Move Toward Tribal Consultation MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 738

ixTABLE OF CONTENTS

PageSec.B. Protection of American Indian Religious Practices and BeliefsMMMMMMMMMMM 746

Employment Division, Department of Human Resources of Oregon v. Smith MMM 746Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 752

C. Protection of American Indian Cultural ResourcesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 7581. The Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act

(NAGPRA) MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 7582. The National Museum of the American Indian ActMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 7603. The Archeological Resources Protection Act MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 7604. Other Federal, State, and Tribal Laws Protective of Indian Cul-

tureMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 761NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 762

5. Intellectual Property RightsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 763NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 764

Chapter Eleven. Water Rights MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 766Sec.

A. Water Law in the West MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 768Harold A. Ranquist, The Winters Doctrine and How It Grew: Federal

Reservation of Rights to the Use of Water MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 768B. Nature and Extent of Indian Reserved Water RightsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 771

Winters v. United States MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 771Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 773Arizona v. CaliforniaMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 775Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 779United States v. Adair MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 783Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 790

C. Quantification MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 7931. Jurisdiction MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 793

Colorado River Water Conservation District v. United States MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 793Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 798

2. Adjudication MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 801In re General Adjudication of All Rights to Use Water in the Big Horn

River System MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 801Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 808Note: Reservation Purposes and the Quantification Process MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 810

3. Finality of AdjudicationMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 814Nevada v. United StatesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 814Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 820

4. Non–Judicial Quantification MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 8225. Marketing Tribal Water MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 830

D. Regulation and Administration of Water in Indian Country MMMMMMMMMMMMMM 832United States v. Anderson MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 832Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 835

Chapter Twelve. Fishing and Hunting Rights MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 838Sec.

A. Regulation of On–Reservation Fishing and Hunting MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 840New Mexico v. Mescalero Apache TribeMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 840Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 846Note: Cooperative Wildlife Management Agreements MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 847

x TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageSec.B. Off–Reservation Fishing and Hunting MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 849

1. Pacific NorthwestMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 849United States v. WinansMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 850NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 851Washington v. Washington State Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel

Association MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 857Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 866

2. Great LakesMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 869Minnesota v. Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa Indians MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 874Note: Interpretation of Indian Treaty LanguageMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 883

PART THREE. THE FRONTIERS OF INDIGENOUSPEOPLES RIGHTS

Chapter Thirteen. Rights of Alaska Natives and Native Hawai-iansMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 887

Sec.A. Alaska Natives: Looking Forward to the Past? MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 888

1. Historical Background MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 8882. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement ActMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 8893. Native Lands in Alaska MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 893

Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 893Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 896

4. Alaska Native Self–Governing Rights and Status MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 897John v. BakerMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 899NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 903

5. Native Culture and Subsistence RightsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 904Note: Survival of Alaska Native Subsistence Rights Under ANILCA and

Alaska State Law MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 905B. Hawaii: Islands of NeglectMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 909

1. Historic Claims and Contemporary WrongsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 9102. Native Rights Under Hawaiian Common and Statutory Law MMMMMMMM 917

Public Access Shoreline Hawaii (PASH) v. Hawai‘i County PlanningCommission MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 917

Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 9263. Enforcing Native Rights Under Federal LegislationMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 928

Day v. Apoliona MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 928Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 933

4. Native Hawaiians as Native Americans MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 936Rice v. Cayetano MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 936Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 944Note: Toward Federal Recognition of Native Hawaiians MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 946Hawaii v. Office of Hawaiian Affairs MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 949Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 951

Chapter Fourteen. Comparative and International Legal Per-spectives on Indigenous Peoples’ RightsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 952

Sec.A. Native Law in Other NationsMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 953

1. Canada MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 953Douglas Sanders, Aboriginal Rights in Canada: An Overview MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 953Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 955Guerin v. The Queen MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 958NoteMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 963

xiTABLE OF CONTENTS

PageSec.A. Native Law in Other Nations—Continued

Delgamuukw v. British Columbia MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 963Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 972Note: Treaties or International Human Rights Law as More Effective

Alternatives to Litigation for First Nations in Canada? MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 9772. New ZealandMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 980

J.G.A. Pocock, Law, Sovereignty, and History in a Divided Culture: TheCase of New Zealand and the Treaty of Waitangi MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 980

Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 9853. Australia MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 990

Mabo v. Queensland MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 990Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 999

B. Emerging Voices: Indigenous Rights and International LawMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 10041. The United Nations Human Rights SystemMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1004

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous PeoplesMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1004Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1010Note: Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political

Rights and Indigenous Peoples’ Human Rights MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 10122. The Inter–American Human Rights System MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1015

The Protection of Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Over Lands and NaturalResources Under the Inter–American Human Rights System MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1015

Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1021Case of the Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v. NicaraguaMMMMMMMM 1022Notes MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1028

INDEXMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 1033