Case Studies and Observational Research

Slides Prepared by Alison L. O’Malley

Passer Chapter 6

Case Studies

• In-depth analysis of an individual, social unit, or event•Remember Phineas Gage? •How do psychological scientists conducting case studies acquire their data?

Case Studies: Concerns

•Difficulty drawing causal conclusions •Generalizability of findings •Potential for observer bias

How can these concerns be overcome?

Observer Bias: Expectations can color perception

Observational Research

• Umbrella term for various types of nonexperimental research designs wherein trained observers record ongoing behavior

• Qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods approaches

• As opposed to case studies, involve multiple participants

Observational Research

Naturalistic observationParticipant observationStructured observation

Naturalistic Observation

• Researcher(s) strive for little to no interaction with participants

• Disguised: participants are not aware they’re being observed

• Undisguised: participants know they’re being observed

I’m watching you!

Naturalistic Observation

• Behavior examined in “ecologically valid” (i.e., real life) conditions

• But research design lacks control and some data may be overlooked

• Reactivity occurs when behavior is altered through the process of being observed

• Must remain mindful of APA Ethics Code

When are researchers permitted to forego informed consent?

Participant Observation

• Researchers embed themselves in the phenomena of interest

• Disguised vs. undisguised distinction still applies – participants may not know researchers are among them

• Ethnographic approaches are qualitative and incorporate interviews to develop a narrative of the research topic

Participant Observation

• Is participant observation more or less subject to reactivity than naturalistic observation?

• Is disguised participant observation ethical?

Critical Questions

Structured Observation

• Researchers “tweak” the research setting, influencing what happens when

• Sometimes called analogue behavioral observation in keeping with goal of creating “analogues” of naturally occurring situations

• Affords more efficiency and control compared to other forms of observational research, but greater potential for reactivity

Recording Observations

• Narrative records – extensive description of behavior as it unfolds

• Field notes – less comprehensive records of behavior

• Behavioral coding systems – categorize behaviors into mutually exclusive categories

Discuss whether each approach is more qualitative or quantitative.

Recording Observations

Develop a coding scheme for handshakes. Make sure that each category is accompanied by a clear operational definition.

Recording Observations

• Rating and ranking scales – observers evaluate participants’ standing on various dimensions

• Diaries – participants observe and record their own behaviors

Supplements to ongoing behavioral observations

What observational research strategy isused here? What sort of research questions could this researcher answer based upon her data?

Sampling Behavior

• Focal sampling – Focus on one participant at a time

• Scan sampling – Observe everyone for a short period of time at predetermined intervals

• Situation sampling – Observe behavior across multiple settings

• Time sampling – Conduct observations over representative set of time periods

Obtaining representative data without recording everything and everyone!

Practice Question

Questions of external validity pervade observational research. Which sampling strategy may be regarded as the most externally valid? a.Time sampling

b.Scan sampling

c.Focal sampling

d.Situation sampling

Overcoming Observer Bias

•Well-developed coding system•Observer training•Blind observation •Verify reliability of observer practices

10 6.5

4.5

3.0

Poor interrater reliability !

Avoiding Reactivity

•Disguised observation (an extreme form of unobtrusive measurement) •Habituation •Physical trace measures •Archival records

Archives

•How can observational research, correlational research, and experimental research work in concert to help satisfy the goals of science? •Description•Explanation•Prediction•Control

Closing Considerations