caring for our australian alps catchments
TRANSCRIPT
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments
A climate change action strategy for the Australian Alpsto conserve the natural condition of the catchments and
to help minimise threats to high quality water yields
Summary Report for Policy Makers
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This Report was prepared for the Australian Government by:Graeme L. Worboys and Roger B. Good
The documen t is a Summ ary For P olicy Makers of a 20 11 Technical Report pr epared for the Australian Alps Liaison
Committee and the Department of Climate Change and Energy Efciency titled:
Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments: A Climate Change Action Strategy for the Australian Alps to conservethe natural condition of the catchments and to help minimise threats to high quality water yields
The Summary Report is published by the Department of Climate Change and Energy Efciency
www.climatechange.gov.au
This work is licensed u nd er th e Creative Commons Attribu tion 3 .0 Austr alia Licence. To view a copy of this license,
visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au
The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efciency asserts the right to be recognised as author of the originalmaterial in the following manner:
or
Commonwealth of Australia (Department of Climate Change and Energy Efciency) 2011
ISBN: 978-1-921299-60-5 (pdf)
978-1-921299-61-2 (paperback)
Citation: Worboys, G.L. and Good, R.B. (2011) Caring For Our Australian Alps Catchments: Summary Report ForPolicy Makers, Department of Climate Change and Energy Efciency, Canberra
Important Notice - Please Read
The Summar y Report is prod uced for general information only and does not r epresent a st atemen t of the policy of
the Common wealth of Austra lia. The Common wealth of Austra lia and all person s acting for the Common wealth
prepar ing this repor t accept no liability for the accuracy of or inferences from the m aterial contained in this
publication, or for any action as a result of any person s or groups interp retation s, deductions, conclusions or actions
relying on t his mat erial.
Cover photo collage (left to right): Main Range, Kosciuszko National Park, Winter 1980; Snowy River in spring thaw;Massed Silver Snow daisies and Billy Buttons, Club Lake Creek, Kosciuszko National Park.
Rear photo collage (left to right): Victorian Alps from Kosciuszko National Park; upper Club Lake Creek, a headwater
stream of the Snowy River; Snow-gum, Charlotte Pass.Facing page (left to right): Silver Snow Daisy; Club Lake Creek; Snow-gum at the treeline, Charlotte Pass
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
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Summary Report for Policy Makers iii
Table of Contents
Contents iii
List of gures and tables iv
Preface v
Summary of key ndings vi
Executive summary vii
1. The Australian Alps catchments 1
2. Climate change threats to the Alps catchments 5
3. 2010 Catchment Condition status 18
4. Protecting catchment condition and delivering optimum yield of quality water 335. 2010 catchment management 39
6. The natural values of the Australian Alps catchments 42
7. Key messages and policy directions 53
8. Conclusion 58
References 59
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchmentsiv
List of Figures and Tables
Figures
1.1 The Murray Darling Basin and the Australian Alps catchments (inset) 2
1.2 Australian Alps nation al parks and protected areas 3
2.1 Natural condition and its link to water yield, water ow regime and water quality 5
2.2 Some impacts to natural condition and their effects on water yield, water ow regime and water quality 5
2.3 Climate change inuenced mean temperature increases for Australia for the past 40 years 6
2.4 Climate change inuenced mean total rainfall for Australia for the past 40 years showing a decline for
Southeastern Australia 6
3.1 The 235 Australian Alps sub-catchments assessed for their condition and trend in condition 18
3.2 Catchment condition assessment coding and trend in condition criteria 19
3.3 Catchm ent condition status depicted by colour 23
3.4 Catchment trend in condition status depicted by colour 23
3.5 Assessed natural condition of the Alps sub-catchments 24
3.6 Assessed trend in condition of Alps sub-catchments 24
3.7 Sub-catchments identied as having serious soil erosion problems in 2010 25
3.8 [Diagrams 1-5] The degradation ofSphagnum bog wetlands an d associated fringing wet
heath communities 26
3.9 Headward tunnelling erosion and owline incision above an Erosion-Pavement-Feldmark 27
3.10 Incised erosion of organic soils, Club Lake Creek, Kosciuszko National Park 273.11 Sub-catchments identied as declining in condition relative to their catchment yield status 28
3.12 Sub-catchments with feral horse problems 29
3.13 Sub-catchments with introduced deer populations 31
3.14 Sub-catchments with major weed management issues 32
6.1 Southeastern Australia Bioregions identied by the Interim Biographic Regionalisation (IBRA 6.1)
including the Australian Alps 43
6.2 Physiography of the Australian Alps 46
6.3 Mean annual precipitation for the Australian Alps showing the highest catchment yields
coinciding with the highest relief 47
Tables
2.1 Climate change predictions 14
2.2 Measured climate change trends (1900-2009) 16
3.1 Criteria used to guide interviewee assessment of catchment condition 21
4.1 Management responses needed for the Alps sub-catchments 34
4.2 Climate change management issues requiring additional responses 36
6.1 The Australian Alps national parks and other protected areas 42
6.2 Area of bioregions conserved as protected areas in the Alps 44
6.3 Annual average water volumes in gigalitres (GL) owing from the Australian Alps protected areacatchments (sourced from the literature) 48
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Summary Report for Policy Makers v
Preface
This is a Summary for Policy Makers of a
technical assessment report of climate chan ge
adaptat ion responses needed for th e Australian
Alps catchmen ts titled Caring for our Australian
Alps Catchments.
The full Technical Report was commissioned by
the Australian Alps Liaison Committee (AALC)
and the Departm ent of Climate Change and
Energy Efciency (DCCEE) and was completed by
Dr Graem e Worboys, Roger Good and Andy Spate
in close co-operation with the Alps protected
area Agencies. It was subm itted t o th e AALC and
DCCEE in June 2010 (Worboys et al, 2011). Its
purp ose was to evaluate the n atural condition
of Austr alias high moun tain catchm ents within
the Australian Alps nat ional parks and protected
areas in 2010; to identify signicant current and
future thr eats to those catchments associated with
climate chan ge and to assess priority adaptation
responses.
This was the second catchment condition
assessment completed for the Australian Alps.
The rst was published by the Australian
Academy of Science in 1957 (AAS 1957) and led to
major catchment conservation works for the Alps.
The 20 11 Technical Report was prepared based
on guidance from a multi-organisation Steering
Committee; the generous input of experts from
many organisations; expert condition assessment
advice from experienced protected area rangers
and managers; and, the latest research data and
ana lysed inform ation p rovided by the AALC and
State, Territory and Comm onwealth Governm ent
organisations including CSIRO, and, catchment
research scientists.
The following Summary for Policy Makers
does not n ecessarily repr esent the views of the
governments of the ACT, NSW and Victoria or the
Australian Government. It does however provide
valuable guidance for responding to issues which
may impact one of Australias most important
economic resources, the high quality water
owing from the Australian Alps which provides
on average, around 29% of the total annual owsof the Murr ay Darling Basin.
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchmentsvi
Summary of Key Findings
The provision of an annual average of 9600
gigalitres of high quality water from the
Australian Alps to the Murray-Darling Basin is
an ecosystem service of nat ional economic, social
and environm ental importan ce. This water could
be worth as much as $9.6 billion per year to the
Australian economy th rough its contributions t o
agricultural production and oth er industries in the
Basin; through electricity generation and through
recreation and tourism to the Alps region.
The pure, potable water helps support ma ny of
the 2.1 million people living in the Basin as well as
people in Adelaide and man y towns an d regional
areas of South Australia. Waters owing east from
the Alps are also of great econom ic impor tan ce.
The Australian Alps n ational parks an d other
protected areas which protect th ese water
catchments are extremely signicant for their
outstanding biodiversity, landscape and scenic
values. They have been ofcially listed as part of
Australias National Heritage.
In 20 10, a second catchmen t condition assessmen t
of the Australian Alps was undertaken. The rst
was completed b y the Austr alian Academ y of
Science in 1957.
The assessment identied that the existing effects
of climat e chan ge as well as soil erosion, pest
animals and weeds were impacting the natural
condition of the catchment s and th us on water
quality, water yield and water ow regimes.
The catchments were found to be highly vulnerableto projected climate change impacts and the
poten tial for futur e severe erosion was of special
concern. The assessment identied that 60% of
235 sub-catchments across 1.64 million hectares
of Alps parks were in a poor or moderate (natural)
condition and 76% were in a declining or no-
trend-change condition. There were very serious
whole-of-Alps catchment threats including soil
erosion, feral horse impacts an d weed invasions.
Projected climate changes for 2050 identify
harsher conditions for the catchmen ts. This
includes up to 24% reduction in precipitation;
an a verage tem peratur e rise of potentially up to
2.90C; a substantial reduction in snow covered
area; more droughts; more frequent severe re
events and more severe storms.
Climate change for the greater south-eastern
Australia is also predicted to be drier in 2050. The
Alps water is valuable in 20 10, b ut every gigalitre
owing from the Alps catchments to the Murray-
Darling Basin will become m ore import ant in the
future.
This high quality water yield is directly linked to
good, natur al catchment condition. The water is a
signicant ecosystem service of benet to people,
and t he catchment s will need active man agement
to maintain their nat ural condition and to be
resilient to projected climate change effects.
The 2010 catchm ent condition assessment
found th at without substantial mana gement
interventions to deal with these threat s, the
delivery of high quality water was likely to be
impacted, with the Alps catchments providing
water of poorer quality and often in large sudden
ows rather than gradual releases. The catchments
would be less able to deal with severe stor m
events, resulting in extreme water runoff and ash
oods. Degradation of the natural condition of the
catchments would have major national economic
impacts as well as imp lications for th e safety of
people.
Six whole-of-Alps catchment priority management
actions are p roposed. These climate change
adaptation responses target key threats; build
climate change resilience; optimise water yields;and extend over 15 years to be effective. These
Priority Actions were costed at about $7 million
per an num which is small relative to the estimat ed
annu al economic value of the water generated
from th e Alps.
New and impr oved man agement responses are
considered urgent to optimise high quality water
yields, in the face of the identied immediate
threats and the increasing effects of predicted
hotter an d dr ier conditions resulting from
climate change. Investment in th ese adaptation
man agement actions are in the nat ional economic
interest and would generate major long term social
and environmental benets.
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Summary Report for Policy Makers vii
Executive Summary
The high quality and reliable waters from the
Austr alian Alps are of nationa l econom ic, social
and environmental importance. In 2005, 3980
gigalitres (GL) of Victorian Alps waters owing
annually to the Murray-Darling Basin were
conservatively estima ted to be worth
$4 billion to Australias economy. On this basis
then, the average annual 9600GL generated by
the Australian Alps catchments could, in 2005
terms, be worth as much as $9.6 billion a year to
the n ational econom y.
These Alps waters represent around 29% of the
annual average inows of the Murray-Darling
Basin. They are very reliable and help genera te
$15 billion worth of Australias agricultural
produce annually including 45% of Australias
irrigated production ($5.5 billion); 56% of its
grape crop; 42% of fruit and nuts and 32% of its
total dairy production. The water helps support
many of the 2 .1 million Austr alians living in
the Basin, Adelaide and many towns of SouthAustr alia. The Alps catchm ents also deliver water
to easterly (coastal) owing streams and maintain
a $ 300 million per annum environmentally
sustainable hydroelectric power generation. The
high quality waters also contribute to a vibrant
$280 million per annum snow and mountain
based tourism industr y supported by snow
making and potable water supplies.
The Alps waters bring man y environmen tal
benets. They contribute to the well-being
of natural ecosystems of the h igh m ountain
catchments; they provide environmental ows
for downstream r ivers and they help to dilute the
effects of salt and silt laden waters sour ced from
the greater Murray-Darling Basin catchments.
The integrity of this high quality Alps water
however is vulner able. It is highly reliant on the
high moun tain catchments of the Alps parks
being in good, natu ral condition. Any redu ction
in condition, could seriously impact water quality,
water yield and natural ow regimes.The Australian Alps are extremely important for
their out standing biodiversity, their r emarkable
geodiversity and lan dscape an d scenic values.
They are an iconic par t of Austr alia and are
National Heritage listed. The Alps help conserve
one of the richest biodiversity areas on th e
mainland. Many birds and an imals are found
nowhere else in Australia or t he world, and
man y are thr eatened or endan gered, including
the Mount ain Pygmy Possum an d th e strikingly
coloured Corroboree Frog. The Alps ora include
the massed summer wildower areas of the alpine
herbelds; the ancient gnarled Snow-gums at
the snowline; tall wet eucalypt and rainforest
communities; and dry native pine woodlands in
the r ainshadow areas of the m ountains. Glacial
landscapes; limestone cave systems; deep gorges;
plunging waterfalls; broad river valleys and the
highest an d very rugged winter sn ow covered
moun tains of the Australian mainland ad d to
diversity, scenic appeal and importance of
this area.
The effects of climate chan ge are pr edicted toadversely impact these natural values of the
Alps and this would th reaten th e delivery of high
quality water yields. In 2010, an assessment of
the n atural condition of the Alps pr otected area
catchm ents was completed. It was presented
in a Technical Report titled -Caring for our
Australian Alps Catchments- (Worboys et al,
2011). The report assessed the natural condition
of 235 sub-catchments; identied signicant
current an d predicted climate change threats and
identied management adaptation investments(Priority Actions) needed to respond to the most
serious threats. This Summary Report presents
aspects of the full Technical Report, and its
contents are briey presented here.
1. The Australian Alps catchments
The Australian Alps encompass the upper
catchm ents of the Snowy, Murray an d
Murru mbidgee Rivers th at deliver water directly
and indirectly (through th e Snowy Mountains
Scheme) to the Murray-Darling Basin and easterly
owing streams. These high Alps catchments fall
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchmentsviii
within the Australian Alps national par ks and
other protected areas (Alps parks) which span
1.64 million hectares and include the nationallyrecognised Namadgi National Park (Australian
Capital Territory), Kosciuszko National Park
(New South Wales) and the Alpine National
Park (Victoria). The protected areas are actively
man aged for th eir natu ral condition. The Alps
parks are National Heritage listed, they are
recognised as a National Landscape an d two sites
within the Alps ar e recognised as inter national
Ramsar wetlands. They help protect 70% of the
Austr alian Alps Bioregion. The Alps are a n iconic
destination for Austr alians, they have a rich
cultural heritage of great antiquity and they are
managed for conservation as a single landscape by
three protected area management organisations
under the guidance of an Alps co-operative
management agreement.
2. Climate change threats
The effects of clima te change are pred icted to be
the single greatest thr eat to th e natu ral condition
values of the Austr alian Alps catchmen ts.
Projected climate change for the Alps for the year
2050 includes:
increases in mean temperatures of 0.6
to 2.9C;
a predicted decrease in overall precipitation by
up to 24% by 2050;
lower humidity;
less snow cover;
changed river ow regimes with the absence of
the annual spring snow-thaw run-off;
more frequent and hotter res;
more droughts;
more severe storms; and
higher total ultraviolet r adiation due to less
cloud and m ore sunlight in the m ountains.
Changes to the Australian Alps catchments are
predicted as a result of these inuences and
include a number of direct effects such as:
dieback and exposure to soil erosion andneedle-ice activity in alpine plant communities,
such as the Tall Alpine Herbelds;
a reduction in the extent of plant communities,
such as the Short Alpine Herbeld, which
depend on semi-permanent snow patches; the dr ying out of import ant Sphagnum bogs
and wetlands;
changes in the distribution and abund ance of
plant species, such as the expansion of the Tall
Alpine Herbeld community into Short Alpine
Herbeld areas; the expansion of shrubland
(heaths) into areas which have become drier;
an expansion of feldmark communities into
new erosion areas and an overall up-mountain
movement of vegetation commun ities. Some
plant communities may no longer exist;
degradation of mou ntain forests such as Alpine
Ash communities which will be subject to
increased frequency and severity of res; and
changes to the habitats of fauna species
dependen t on snow cover such as the
Mountain Pygmy Possum.
Such changes are pr edicted t o directly threaten
the n atural condition of the Alps catchm ents an d
this would impact water quality, water yield and
water ow regimes through:
more frequent and severe wildre events that
rem ove protective catchment vegetation cover
and lead to soil erosion, water quality and
water ow regime impacts;
post wildre regeneration of forests within
the catchments which retains water within-
catchm ent for forest types such as Mountain
Ash, and t he resu lting impacts on water yield
delivered by the catchments;
the cover of the alpine vegetation reduced by
increased UV, resulting in soil erosion of the
altitudinally highest catchmen ts which are t he
highest water yielding areas;
altitudinal (up-mountain) plant distribution
shifts leading to disturbed an d changing
environmental settings, soil exposure and
erosion;
reduced vegetation cover and exposed soil
areas caused by disturbance from res, feral
horses, wild pigs, other feral animals and areas
affected by hu man s that will be impacted b y
more frequent severe storm events and intense
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Summary Report for Policy Makers ix
rain fall. This will result in mor e severe soil
erosion and catastrophic ood run-off.
The issue of soil cover protection on catchm entsis complex. For the forested Alps catchments
mainta ining soil stability is dependen t on there
being 70 to 100 percent vegetation cover and
greater than 10 t onnes per h ectare of ground
litter. This level of cover will be difcult to achieve
and m aintain un der predicted temperature
increases, reduced total precipitation an d m ore
frequent high intensity res. Smaller levels of
fuel load cover (such as 10 tonnes per hectare)
may reduce the capacity of forest ecosystems to
facilitate rainfall inltration. This could result
in higher soil surface water ows. Such high
discharge rates could result in ooding with
downstream d am storages not being able to
store, regulate and release environmental ows
efciently.
Other in direct clima te change effects may imp act
the Alps catchments. These could include:
reduced water yield caused by frequent res
killing subalpine Snow-gum communities
(which otherwise help enh ance water yield
from ra in, clouds, fog, hoar frosts and
improved snow deposition); and
reduced water yield thr ough enhan ced
evaporation (warmer tem peratur es and less
snow covered area), and use by willows and
other weeds.
The Alps catchmen ts need to be resilient as
possible to these predicted thr eats. Understanding
the condition of the catchments and t he natur e of
any threats is an importan t start to m anaging forresilience.
3. Catchment threats, conditionand trend in condition
In 20 10 the n atural condition of the Australian
Alps catchmen ts was assessed for the second
time in history and the rst time in 50 years. A
total of 235 sub-catchments in the Australian
Alps protected areas were assessed using three
categories of condition (good, moderate or poor).The trend in condition was also identied as
either declining, no-trend-change or improving.
This assessment provides an essential baseline
from which to m onitor climate change impacts.
The assessment identied 60% of the 235 sub-catchm ents were in a poor or moderate natur al
condition. The trend in their condition identied
that 76% were in a declining or no-trend-
change cond ition. The Austr alian Alps protected
area Agencies have undertaken considerable
conservation work for up to 66 years, but it takes
man y years to restore lands d isturbed by prior
landuse. In addition new threats and pr essures
were impacting the natur al condition of the
moun tains and m ost of the restored areas were
still vulner able to clima te change.
The 2010 assessment found serious threats
that included active soil erosion and increasing
num bers of feral horses and d eer which contribute
to soil erosion. Feral horses num bers were
reported as having increased by 300% from 2003
to 2009 and are predicted to achieve a further
55% increase by 2012. Control action was needed
given that feral horses contr ibute to er osion
and pollution of the very highest catchment s
by grazing, trampling and by causing incisionto moun tain wetlands and streams. Through
such action, they directly impact endan gered
Sphagnum bog ecological commu nities an d
their r ich d iversity of vertebrat e and invertebrat e
species. Addition al serious thr eats included
frequent severe res and the presence of four
weed species with great poten tial to spread
(blackberry, broom, hawkweed and willow). In
their 20 10 condition, th e Alps catchm ents were
considered to be vulnerable to p redicted climate
change effects.
4. Protecting catchment conditionand delivering optimum yieldsof high quality water
In r esponse to the catchm ent condition
assessment the Technical Report recommen ded
six Priority Actions to guide the Australian Alps
Liaison Comm ittee in prepar ing an adap tive
man agement response for the catchm ents.The Actions focused on h alting catchmen t
degradation, improving water quality, improving
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchmentsx
catchm ent resilience and optimising water
ow regime and water yield. Improvements
in the capacity to man age in a climate changeenvironment were also identied and included
introducing adaptive management techniques,
using new and improved man agement tools,
monitoring th e change in condition of the
catchm ents, identifying threats an d un dertaking
research into complex catchment management
issues. The Actions also identied targets that
directly involved the p eople of the Alps with th e
implementation of adaptive management in t he
catchments.
5. 2010 catchment management
The 11 Alps nat ional par k and ot her p rotected
areas were r eserved at different times between
1944 and 1996 and are managed by ACT
Parks, Conservation and Lands, the NSW
Nationa l Parks and Wildlife Service and Pa rks
Victoria. An integrated, cooperative and
transboundary management approach for the
Alps parks is achieved th rough a Memorand um of
Understanding (MOU) which includes the threeAgencies and the Comm onwealth Governm ent.
The MOU is managed by the Australian Alps
Liaison Committee (AALC). The combined annual
investment by the three Agencies in 2009-10 for
all aspects of managem ent of the Alps parks was
$52.69 million.
The process of forma l reservation of the protected
areas does not mean that th ese lands always
possess a near-pristine condition status; rather,
much of the land had a previous land use historyand requires some form of rehabilitation and
continued active man agement to r estore its
full suite of conservation values. This prior
landuse of parks and new threats in a d ynamic
environm ent are the main determ inants of a
catchm ents nat ural condition statu s. Constant
threat management (and often restoration work)
is needed for all catchment s, with som e areas
needing considerably more (long-term) work
than others.
6. The Natural Values of the AlpsCatchments
The signicant natural, cultural and social values
of the National Heritage listed Australian Alps
parks help maintain the n atural condition of the
catchments. These include their an cient geological
heritage and glacial landforms; the rich deep
alpine humu s soils and their import ance as a
temporary reservoir for in-catchment waters;
the absolute pur ity of the Alps waters and the
diversity of water yield for sub-catchments that
is dependent on their altitude and location. The
Alps are important for their diversity of ora; thespecial role of wetland ecosystems in catchments;
the special native Australian fauna found in the
high country;. and the Alps natural scenery,
recreation opportun ities and opp ortun ities for
scientic discovery for Australians.
7. Key messages and policyrecommendations
The Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments
Technical Report provides key messages and
policy recommendations which are:
Water from t he Alps catchments is of national
economic importance;
The natural (good) condition of the catchments
helps deliver high quality and reliable water
yield;
Climate change is impacting the n atural
condition of the Alps catchments;
The 2010 catchm ent condition assessment
found the Alps catchmen ts to be especially
vulnerab le to the pr edicted effects of clima te
change and there was an urgency for
adequately resourced management responses
to be implemented;
Management inter ventions (Priority
Actions) are needed to respond to severe and
immediate thr eats, to restore and maintain
natu ral condition and to optimise water yield,
maximise water quality and maintain natural
ow regimes in a climate change environment;
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Summary Report for Policy Makers xi
Whole-of-Alps large-scale adaptative
man agement respon ses to climate change
would signicantly benet the nationaleconomy.
8. Conclusion
New and improved policy responses are n eeded
to deal with climate change and other threats
to th e nat ural condition of the Australian Alps
catchments, the high quality waters they yield
and their natural water ow regimes. On-ground
responses are needed at a whole-of-Alps scale,
with additional resources and imp lemented over
a sufcient time frame (15 years) to be effective.
These interventions include the protection
and enhan cement of water yield th roughweed removal and Snow-gum restoration; the
protection of water quality by removing threat
vectors and minimising soil erosion; and, the
protection of water ow regimes by conserving
natu ral vegetation cover. Investment in climate
change adaptation responses will directly benet
the n ationa l econom y and will help conser ve
Australias outstanding National Heritage listed
alpine areas.
Alpine Groundsel (Senecio pectinatus) massed display, Club Lake Creek, Kosciuszko National Park, January 2011.
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchmentsxii
Lake Cootapatamba, a glacial moraine dammed lake near Mount Kosciuszko, Kosciuszko National Park
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 1
1. The Australian Alps Catchments
1.1 Introduction
This is a summ ary report of a Technical Report
titled Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments.
The full Technical Report provides an assessment
of the condition of the Alps catchments in 2010;
the identication of serious and worsening
threats; the likely impacts of predicted climate
and suggested m anagement responses. Business
as usual management responses were consideredinadequate to deal with the severe threats and
climate change trends and th e Technical Report
advises major remedial on-ground and systems
management responses. Six Priority Actions
and 30 Targets were presen ted in det ail. The
Technical Report was submitted to the Australian
Alps Liaison Committee in J une 20 10 and
published in J une 2011.
This Summary Report is an overview of the
Technical Report. It presents t he results of a
catchment condition assessment of the Australian
Alps and identies key messages and policy
directions arising from the evaluation. It describes
why water generated from the Alps catchment s is
of critical imp ortance for the economic future of
the Murray-Darling Basin and Australia and the
impacts of projected climate change on the Alps
catchments values.
1.2 Economic importance of the Alps
catchmentsWater from th e Alps catchment s is important for
the Austr alian economy and especially for the 2.1
million Australians living in the Murray-Darling
Basin, the people of Adelaide and for man y towns
of South Australia. It was estimated in 2005 that
the value of the 3980GL of water owing from
the Victorian Alps catchments, when all social
and production benets were considered, was
worth at least $4 billion annually (PV 2009c). The
Alps, on average, yield around 9600GL of waterper annum for the Murray-Darling Basin. Based
on the Victorian gures of 1000GL being worth
approximately $1 billion, this Alps water could,
indicatively, be worth in the order of $9.6 billion
to th e Australian economy.
The 9600GL represents around 29% of the
average 32,800GL yearly inow yield of the
Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) and is generated
from just 1% of the 1000000 Km2 Basin (MDBA
2010) (Figure 1.1). These waters contribute
signicantly to the agricultural production of
the MDB and Austr alias econom y. The Basin
generates $15 billion worth of Australias
agricultural produce annually including 45% of
Australias irrigated production; 56% of its grape
crop; 42% of fruit and nuts and 32% of its total
dairy production. It includes 40% of Australias
farms an d su pports 2.1 million Australians
(MDBA 2010 p21).
The natu ral condition of the Austr alian Alps
catchments helps deliver high quality (pure),sediment free mount ain water to the river
systems. The impound men ts and tur bines of
the hydroelectric power stations of the Snowy
and Kiewa hydroelectric schemes benet
from th e essentially sedimen t free water, with
hydroelectric power generated by these schemes
worth approximately $300 million annually
(Young 2004 p229). Additional benets of $45
million per an num are achieved from th is green
power for reduced carbon offsets (Young 2004
p229). The pure water helps reduce snow making
and delivery of potable water costs for the $280
million per annu m Alps ski industr y. Natural
condition in th e moun tains also helps to maintain
natural water ow regimes in the catchments. The
natural vegetation, litter cover and consequent
water inltration tempers rapid run-off in the
steep mou ntains. This provides some slope
stability; it tempers downslope water ow and
is of particular im port ance for peop les safety in
the m ountains d uring prolonged severe weathersystems with heavy rain and ooding. The cost
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments2
of providing alternative precautionary slope
stabilisation would be very high.
For downstream t owns and water users, the highquality of the water also means less potable water
supply treatment costs. For the health of the
greater r iver system, th e Alps provides water for
environmental ows and it helps dilute the effects
of the salt and silt laden river waters of the greater
Murray-Darling Basin.
The natural (good) condition of the Alps
catchments and the high quality water generated
is of national economic import ance. But these
catchm ents are dynamic and need constant
man agement responses for threats to their natural
condition . This is especially impor tan t in the
context of climate change.
1.3 Geography
The Austr alian Alps with their h ighest peak,
Mount Kosciuszko (2228 metres) are the highest
lands of the Austr alian continen t. They are located
in the south-eastern corner of mainland Australia
and extend over 500 kilometres north to south
from the New South Wales (NSW) Brindabella
Ranges, thr ough Namadgi National Park in the
Australian Capital Territory (ACT), to the Snowy
Mountains (NSW) and then to the Victorian Alps
(Anderson and Atkins 2010) (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.1 The Murray-Darling Basin and the Australian Alps catchments (inset)(Source: NSW DECCW 2010)
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 3
Figure 1.2 The Australian Alps national parks and protected areas(Source: NSW DECCW 2010)
1.4 Signicance of the AustralianAlps catchments
The Australian Alps n ational parks an d oth er
protected areas (Alps parks) and their catchments
are a special place. They extend across 1.64
million h ectares and ar e famous for their wintersnowelds; summer alpine wildowers and
rugged mou ntain scenic beauty. Their rich
her itage includes Aboriginal tr aditional use of
great antiquity and recent histories including
exploration; scientic discovery; the Man from
Snowy River mountain folklore; grazing; mining;
forestry; hydroelectric development; tourism
and conservation. The Australian Alps have been
recognised nationa lly for their special values
with National Heritage Listing and recognition
as a National Landscape. Specic features such
as the Ginini Wetlands (Namad gi National Park,
ACT) and Blue Lake (Kosciuszko National Park,
NSW) are recognised internationally as Ramsar
Wetlands. Kosciuszko National Park in the heart
of the Alps pa rks is a UNESCO World Man and
the Biosphere Reserve.
The natural values of the Austr alian Alps are
outstand ing. This is a special high moun tain
Bioregion in a cont inent which averages 330
met res in a ltitude. The Australian Alps Bioregion
includes evidences of past glacial and periglacial
activity including glacial lakes; diverse granitic,
sedimentary an d volcanic landscapes and
special geological featur es such a s limeston e
caves and outcrops of serpentinite. It has r ich,
deep alpine hum us soils and their associated
rolling Tall Alpine Herbeld landscapes; clear
cascading streams an d rivers and dynam icmoun tain weather. The Alps support a diverse
ora with more than 850 vascular plants, a
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments4
nationally threatened ecological community
(Alpine Sphagnum Bogs) and rare and endemic
alpine plant species such as th e Anemon eButtercup (Ranunculus anemoneus). The
moun tain habitats support un usual and colourful
invertebrates including the brightly coloured
red and blue striped Mountain Grasshopper
(Acripeza reticulata). They also support over
300 vertebrat e species such as t he Alpine Water
Skink (Eulamprus kosciuskoi), Flame Robin
(Petroica phoenicea) and black and yellow striped
Corr oboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree).
Seventeen m amm als are either rare, vulnerable
or threaten ed such as the endan gered Mountain
Pygmy Possum (Burramys parvus). The Alps
are importan t for intern ational, national and
regional migratory species and the h igh m ountain
catchm ents are destinations for birds that ar e
the subject of international migratory bird
agreements.
1.5 Managing the catchments
The exceptional natural values of the Alps
catchm ents ar e actively man aged by the p rotected
area Agencies of the ACT, NSW and Victoria
and through a uniquely Australian co-operative
man agement agreement for t he Australian Alps.
This 24 year old transboundary cooperative
man agement at the headwaters of our most
important rivers is described in Chapter 5. The
natur al heritage values that are being ma naged
are also presented in more detail, given th eir
importan ce for und erstanding the concept of
natural condition for the Alps, in Chapter 6.
1.6 Climate change and the Alps
Climate change is impacting the n atural condition
of the Alps catchmen ts and th is is affecting the
water quality, its ow regime and the overall
water yield of the catchments. This has major
economic implications for the Murray-Darling
Basin. These thr eats are d escribed in m ore detail
in Chapter 2 .
Alpine Podolepis (Podolepis sp.) [three frames] and Native Dandelion (Microseris lanceolata) massed owering[centre-left], Club Lake Creek Kosciuszko National Park, January 2011. Part o the massed summer wildfower displays andexceptional natural values o the Australian Alps
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 5
2. Climate Change Threats to the
Alps CatchmentsPredictions of the effects of enhanced greenhouse climate change
suggests that the alpine environments and their dependent biota
are amongst the most vulnerable environments in Australia and
their protection and that of the adjacent eucalypt montane forests
and woodlands are vital for biodiversity conservation at the
national scale(Mansergh et al, 2004 p73)
Water yield, water quality and water ow regimes
(ecosystem services) from the Alps are directly
linked to th e natu ral condition of the catchments
and this condition is affected by climate change
(Figure 2.1).
Natural condition is good condition, and is
dened as the condition of the Alps catchments
pre-European settlement. It is the naturally
vegetated, stable, and non-eroding Alps
catchments, th eir associated healthy, functioningecosystems an d th eir stable or nat urally eroding
soils and natural surface and sub-surface water
ows. Natural condition helps dene restoration
goals for th e man y disturbed a reas of the Alps. It
is a conservation goal to retain ar eas in this state
despite constant t hreats to the catchments.
Figure 2.1 Natural condition and its link to wateryield, water ow regime and water quality
Figure 2.2 Some impacts to natural condition andtheir association with water yield, waterow regime and water quality
Natural condition enh ances the resilience (and
stability) of catchments to climate change impacts
and oth er thr eats such as invasive animal and
plant species and human use (Figure 2.2). In
addition, it helps mainta in the nat ural scenic
beauty, ecosystem function and biodiversity
richness of the Alps.
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments6
Climate chan ge threats to th e natu ral condition
of the catchm ents are p redicted to impact high
quality water delivery from the Alps. The climatechange effects that have been measur ed and
predicted changes for the natur al environmen ts
of the Alps catchments are briey reviewed here.
Some of the implications are also described.
2.1 Temperature
The Alps have been warming at ab out 0 .20C
per decade over the past 35 years (Green and
Pickering 2009) which is at a higher rate
than man y other areas of Australia (Figure2.3). Climate change predictions identify that
tempera tures will continue to r ise and for the
year 2050 average temperatures will have further
increased by somewhere between +0.6 to +2.90C
(NSW DEC 2006; Green and Pickering 2009).
Figure 2.3: Climate change inuenced meantemperature increases for Australia for thepast 40 years
(Source: Australian Bureau of Meteorology)
Higher average temperatures have many
predicted implications including the up-mountain
shift of vegetation comm unities and animal
habitats; more storms; more drought conditions
and a higher re frequency and more severe re
behaviour.
2.2 Precipitation
In the past 54 years there has been a signicantdecrease in snow as measured at the 1830 metre
altitude Spencers Creek Snow Course, Kosciuszko
National Park (Green and Pickering, 2009 p214).
Snow covered terrain in 1980, Main Range of KosciuszkoNational Park
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
Snow cover has declined on average by 15 metre-
days per decade. [Metre days are calculated when
the depth of snow is multiplied by the nu mber
of days at that depth and sum ming the weekly
result to give a single gure for each year]. This is
from 213 metre-days in the decade following 1954
to 146 in the past 10 years (Green and Pickering
2009 p214). Spring thaw has been occurring onaverage two days earlier per decade, with very low
snow years (1999 and 2006) represented by the
two earliest thaws on record (Green and Pickering
2009 p214).
Figure 2.4: Climate change inuenced mean totalrainfall for Australia for the past 40 yearsshowing a decline for SoutheasternAustralia
(Source: Australian Bureau of Meteorology)
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 7
Predicted higher temper atures will mean
any p recipitation falling in the Alps will fall
increasingly as rain rather than snow. Climatechange predictions identify that the snow-
covered-area sustaining snow for more than
60 days may be reduced by up to 96% by 2050
(Hennessy et al, 2003). There are also predicted
changes in pr ecipitation regimes for the Alps.
The Murray-Darling Basin (including the Alps)
is likely to be 10% drier than past experience
(Prosser 2009; MDBA 2010 p33). This is based
on (median) 2030 climate change predictions
completed for the Murray-Darling Basin
Auth ority. The overall amoun t of precipitation
in the Alps is predicted to decrease by up to 24%
by 2050 (Hennessy et al, 2003) and an increased
num ber of droughts are p redicted. Severe storms
are predicted along with their implications for
heavy rain and potentially excessive and rapid
ooding events.
2.3 Changes in weather
High intensity storms in the Alps can be damaging
to both vegetation and soils. Intense storm s have
already resulted in erosion of areas of exposed
soils following extreme wildres in the Australian
Alps in 2001, 2003, and 2007. Soils exposed
by feral horses, intr oduced deer and other feral
animals and development a ctivities by human s
are also impacted b y these events.
Intense summer thunderstorm developing over theAustralian Alps in 2010
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
More intense storm s are pr edicted for the Alps,
including more intense precipitation events (PV
2009a). Increasing temperatures and decreasingprecipitation together with oth er secondary
clima te regime chan ges such as lower hum idity,
increased number of cloud-free days and
increased levels of ultra-violet radiation (UV) are
also predicted (Good 2008, Good et al, 2010). An
increase in t he n umb er of frosts may also occur
in some alpine ar eas given a reduction in sn ow
cover an d an increasing nu mber of cloud free
days (Williams et al, 2009). These changes will
have impacts on the existing native vegetation
species and communities. Drought conditions will
occur and extreme and catastrophic re weather
conditions are predicted to be more frequent.
2.4 Impacts to native ora
The Alps plant comm unities most impacted
initially by clima te chan ge will be th e higher
elevation alpine an d suba lpine commun ities
including Snowpatch and Feldmark; Tall Alpine
Herbeld; Short Alpine Herbeld and Sod-tussock
Grasslands an d groundwater commu nities.
In t he highest catchmen ts of the alpine area
it is predicted that the Short Alpine Herbeld
will disappear and be rep laced by Tall Alpine
Herbeld, while the Sod-tussock Grasslands
and wet herbelds will dry and become Tall
Alpine Herbeld (Pickering et al, 2004; Green
and Pickering 2009). These dynamic changes in
community distribution will not greatly impact
water yield from the alpine area catchments in
the short-term but, as the predicted extinctionof a number of inter-tussock herbaceous species
occurs, fragmentat ion of the vegetat ive cover will
occur leading to soil exposure and eventually,
increased soil erosion. This dir ectly affects water
quality. Seasonal melt-water ows will diminish
as snow patches diminish, thereby affecting the
ow regimes and the immediate downstream
vegetation commun ities (Green an d Pickering
2009).
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments8
Short Alpine Herbeld community in 1974 (located belowthe snow patches) near Club Lake, Kosciuszko NationalPark. At this site in 2010, this plant community had been
colonised by Tall Alpine Herbeld species
(Source: Roger Good collection)
The high elevation alpine an d subalpine ar eas are
also the areas of highest precipitation and, while
relatively sma ll, they are the h ighest yielding
catchm ents on a un it area basis. It is an area
which will need to be managed very carefully,
where chan ge in condition will need to be
monitored closely and where adapt ive responses
such as soil conservation work m ay be needed.The individual alpine area sub-catchments yield
the most water per catchment area. However the
greater part of the subalpine and m ontan e areas
are forested and it is these forested catchment s
which contr ibute th e greatest total volume of
water, both as surface runoff and a s contributions
to groundwater and subsequent groundwater
seepage to the rivers and streams. Hotter and
drier climatic conditions will inuence the rate
of forest ground litter accumulation and most
signicantly, the reduction of fuel moisture ofground litter fuels (Williams et al, 2009).
Other predicted changes in vegetation include
vegetation t hickening due to increased CO2;
changes in treeline (downslope into frost hollow
basins and upslope into higher altitudinal areas);
the d rying of wetlands, bogs and fens (Dunlop an d
Brown 2008); and, the impacts of more frequent
and intense res on re sensitive species such as
Alpine Ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis) (Williams et
al, 2009).
2.5 Impacts to native fauna
Endemic alpine species such as t he Mount ain
Pygmy Possum (Burramys parvus) and Broad-
toothed Rat (Mastocomys fuscus) which are
dependent on r eliable winter snow cover for th eir
survival will be directly impacted by the var iable
snow cover and a futur e withou t snow cover.
Many habitats presently suitable for these species
will be lost (Pickering et al, 2004).
Mountain Pygmy Possum (Burramys parvus),Australian Alps
(Source: Linda Broome)
It is pred icted tha t there will be a loss of some
subalpine and alpine specialist species and more
generally, an up-mountain migration of species
(Dunlop and Brown 2008). Invasive species are
predicted to cause additional problems.
2.6 Invasive species
The fragmentation of native vegetation and
exposure of soils provides opportunities for
invasion by exotic plant species, particularly
those that adapt to or benet from changes in
environm ental conditions and climate change,
such as Broom (Cytisus spp) and Hawkweed
(Hieracium spp). The increasing upward invasion
of these weed species to the h ighest elevations is
already occurring and will be furth er enh anced by
predicted warmer conditions.
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 9
An outbreak of the aggressive weed Hawkweed(Hieracium sp) discovered near Round Mountain inKosciuszko National Park in December 2010. Treatmentresponses were immediately implemented
(Source: Anthony Evans)
Introduced animals are (similarly) moving higher
into the Alps. Feral hor ses (Equus calballus) and
their associated dam age to bogs and fens are of
par ticular concern . The organic soils of many of
these m ires are being damaged by feral horses and
then further incised by more rapid water ru noff.
2.7 Soil erosion from less snow
Where the Alps ora is impacted by reduced snow
cover, th e soil stability may also be impacted. The
reduced snow cover (which other wise provides
an insulation layer) may lead to increased freeze-
thaw ice or frost-heave (needle ice) activity in
alpine soils, includin g some of those which were
restored in NSW in the 1960s.
Winter needle ice formed on a road edge, Mount Sarah,Alpine National Park, Victoria. The soil moisture reezesovernight, orms needle ice crystals, expands vertically
and lits some soil with it. Repeated many times, thisdestabilises any exposed soil areas and leaves disturbedsoil ready or erosion at snow melt or during rainall events
(Source: Sera Cutler)
2.8 Frequent extreme res and soilerosion and water yield impacts
Predicted dryer forest fuels and higher energy
electr ical storm s are likely to lead to m ore
frequent wildre ignitions and higher intensity
res. For obligate seeders (which depend entirely
on seed to regenerate after re) such as Mountain
Ash (Eucalyptus regnans), an increase in re
frequency may inuence catchment yield through
larger areas of post-re regenerating forests.
Such regrowth ut ilises larger am ounts of water
in-catchment (Williams and Gill 1995). For
Alpine Ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis), another
Feral horses (Equus calballus) in the highest and remaining unburnt catchment areas following the 2003 Australian Alpsres, Kosciuszko National Park
(Source: Dane Wimbush collection)
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments10
obligate seeder, the seed source may diminish
with increasing re frequency (if the Ash does
not reach seed bearing maturity prior to the nextre event) and there may be species composition
changes in the catchments (Williams et al, 2009).
These frequent high intensity forest res will
in turn impact the stability of the un derstorey
vegetation sp ecies leading to fragment ation of the
forested areas.
The main tenance of soil stability in th e forested
Alps catchm ents is very much depend ent on
the retention of a vegetative cover of 70 to
100 percent and greater tha n 10 ton nes per
hectare of ground litter (10 to 35 t/ha) (Costin
et al, 1960; Good 1976; Worboys 1981; Good
1982; Good 1986; Costin 2004; Leaver 2004).
This level of vegetative and litter cover will be
difcult to achieve and maintain under predicted
tempera ture increases, reduced t otal precipitation
and more frequent high intensity res. This
min imum level of vegetative cover for catchm ent
stability is also the m inimu m fuel level which
contributes to high intensity wildres. It is a
direct tension between catchment conservationand wildre management objectives for the Alps.
Furth er research work is needed t o investigate
this complexity.
With declining plant species nu mbers a nd
vegetation and grou nd litter cover, the soils of the
forested catchments are m ore pron e to acceleratederosion as evidenced in th e Alps following th e
2003 res. Any unstable and eroding catchments
will have higher catchment discharge rates,
carrying high levels of sedimen ts to dam storages
and reducing the quality of the water.
2.9 Climate change and water yield,water quality and ow regime
Water yield
A nat ural vegetated cond ition will help maint ain
water yields from catchm ents. Managing for
clima te change th reat s to water yields includes
managing for res, removing weeds and restoring
critical ecosystems. Though difcult to achieve
in hotter and drier conditions, a lower frequency
of major, intense, forest res in the catchments
may help increase yield through less in-catchment
water being committed to post-re forest
regeneration. The restorat ion of previously killed
high altitude Snow-gum communities (from
grazing and burning [Byles 1932 cited in Zylstra
2006, Costin et al, 2004]) will help enhance water
yield in a predicted environment of declining
precipitation (Costin and Wimbush 1961). These
2003 Australian Alps wildre, Kosciuszko National Park
(Source: Michelle Watson)
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 11
restored high altitude Snow-gum communities
will harvest add itional water from cloud, fog and
hoar frosts and will maintain en hanced snowdeposition (a snow-fence effect) in winter (Costin
and Wimbush 1961, Costin et al, 2004). Climate
change and its associated warm er conditions will
enhan ce the distribution of man y weeds. The
removal of willows which extract an estimated
5.5 megalitres of water for every 2-3 kilometres
of infested river (Doody 2011) will enhance
downstream water yield.
Water quality
Clear, high quality water is sourced from non-
eroding catchm ents and climate change maycause impacts to vegetation cover and resulting
soil erosion. Non-natural soil erosion impacts
high mountain stream s and impacts downstream
infrastructure, including impoun dmen ts which
service hydroelectric power generation a nd
domestic water supply dams. Disturban ce of
natu ral vegetation in h igh altitude environmen ts
exposes soils to soil erosion.
Areas of subalpine Snow-gums (Eucalyptus paucifora) inKosciuszko National Park were killed by grazing and re.This has happened in two ways. Historic wildre events
burnt the Snow-gums, they resprouted and stock grazedthe new growth which killed the trees. The practice oburning-o Snow-gums also caused resprouting which was
subsequently grazed. It is these human disturbed areaswhich are proposed or restoration to achieve 10% wateryield enhancement or the high mountain catchments.
(Source: Roger Good collection)
The Corin Dam ACT, in October 2010
The reservoir sources its high quality water rom theAustralian Alps catchments in Namadgi National Parkand the water is used as a source o drinking water or
Australias national capital, Canberra
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments12
Flow regime
Vegetation in a natural condition helps prevent
rapid run-off, soil erosion and slope instabilityand assists in maintaining water quality. In
the alpine ar ea, damaged vegetation can lead
to rap id incision, undercutting, tun nelling and
headwater erosion of the alpine hu mus soils.
In forested lan ds, a very careful catchment
management balance is required. The majority
of the Alps forests have, at equilibrium fuel
accumu lation, fuel loads in th e order of 20 to
70 tonnes per hectare (t/ha) (Good 1982; Good
1986; Leaver 2004). Smaller levels of forest litter
cover such as 10t/ha may reduce the capacity of
forest ecosystems to facilitate rainfall inltration
(Costin 2004). This could result in higher soil
surface water ows, erosion, higher discharge
rates and downstream d am storages not being
able to efciently store, regulate and release the
consequent environmental ows. The capacity
Thick subalpine understory regeneration in an Alpine Ash(Eucalyptus delegatensis) community, Alpine National
Park near Falls Creek Victoria in 2007. This area burntduring the 2003 Australian Alps res. The alpine ashregenerates only rom seed ater re and creates dense
regrowth
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
Kosciuszko National Park in 2011. This ormer SphagnumBog community was restored in the 1960-70s and shows
expanding Sphagnum (brighter green on the let) but newentrenched erosion and soil loss (photo centre) whichrequires maintenance to prevent urther soil loss
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
Simple soil erosion control intervention work at a critical
endangered species site. Two year old restoration workat the 2003 re damaged Pengilleys Sphagnum bogendangered ecological community, near Smiggin Holes,Kosciuszko National Park. The hessian covered straw
impoundment has contained the water, prevented streamincision and allowed the wetland to partially regenerate
(Source: Roger Good collection)
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 13
to regulate such water ows for multiple use
is centra l to the opera tion of the engineered
Murray and Murrum bidgee Rivers system, part ofthe Murray-Darling Basin Scheme. Excess water
owing over impoundment spillways becomes lost
water in terms of its potential for multiple-use.
In t he climate chan ge predicted future of more
frequent and severe storm events, the ability
of natural vegetation cover and forest litter to
hold soils in place; to allow water inltration
and to pr ovide stability to steep moun tain slopes
is critical. Good (natural) vegetation cover can
lessen the energy of down-mountain water ows
which is critical for catchment conservation;
for minimising the frequency of catastrophic
high energy ood events; for increasing the
safety of humans in th e Alps and for protecting
infrastructure such as impound ment s and
hydroelectric power generation sites.
Shade-cloth use for wetland restoration, Cottercatchment, ACT, 2005. The shade-cloth helps protect theregenerating Sphagnum and other wetland species rom
the damaging eects o UV radiation.(Source: Roger Good collection)
2.10 Climate change impacts onnatural condition
Predicted changes in climate and weather factors
in th e Alps include tem peratur e increases and
precipitation regime changes (less snow); less
total precipitation; changed seasonality of
precipitation and more extreme precipitation
events (Hennessy et al, 2003; Pickering et al,
2004; Dunlop and Brown 2008; Hennessy et al,
2007; Garnaut 2008; Green and Pickering 2009;
PV 2009a (Table 2.1). The predictions presented
are for a ra nge of higher CO2 emission levels from
1990 levels for periods extending to 2030, 2050and 2100 . Climate chan ge has been happen ing
for many years and t his has been measured
(Table 2.2). Factors associated with the changing
environment include more cloud free days, lower
humidity and increased total solar radiation (UV)
(Howden et al, 2003).
Climate change is predicted to inuence the
natu ral condition of the catchm ents and this in
turn will inuence the nature of water quality,
The Cotter Dam in the ACT overowing during the La Ninainspired heavy rains that affected eastern Australiancatchments in the spring and summer of 2010. The Cotter
Dam on the Cotter River is downstream o the Corin Damand includes catchments outside o Namadgi National Parkwhich are aected by human disturbance
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments14
ow regime and water yield. Active management
interventions will be needed to ma intain natu ral
condition. Given th is it was impor tant to knowin 2010 the actual condition of the 1.64 million
hectares of the Alps parks catchments. Were
the catchments in sufciently natural (good)
condition to be resilient to climate change
effects? Or, were they vulnerab le to thr eats which
could impact th e catchm ents an d th e yield of
high quality water? Such a baseline conditionassessment of the Australian Alps catchments was
conducted. It was th e second such evaluation in
the history of the Alps catchments, the rst being
completed by the Austra lian Academ y of Science
in 1957 (AAS 1957).
Table 2.1 Climate change predictions
Australia(Hennessy et al, 2007;
Garnaut 2008; Allison et al,2009; Steen et al, 2009; Vic
DSE 2009)
Victoria(Vic DSE 2009)
Alps Catchments(Green, 2003; Hennessy et
al, 2003; Pickering et al,2004; Dunlop and Brown
2008; Hennessy et al, 2007;Garnaut 2008; Green and
Pickering 2009; PV 2009a;Williams et al, 2009)
Average TemperatureIncreases
[For 2030]
2008 emission levels leadto a 25% chance o a 2Crise in temperature
[Best estimates or 2100]
1.6C increase (450 ppmCO2)
2.0C increase (550 ppmCO2)
5.1C increase (nomitigation)
The north-west isexpected to warm morequickly than the rest oAustralia
Projections or 2050 areor an increase between(low emissions scenario)0.6C and (high emissionsscenario) 2.9C
Heatwaves Increase in the number oheatwaves
More days above 35C
Bushres Fire seasons will startearlier
They will nish later
They will be more intense More requent very
extreme and catastrophicre conditions arepredicted
More days with veryhigh and extreme rebehaviour
Changes will occur to reintensity and requency
(High risk) By 2030 morerequent hot res reduceregeneration o Alpineecosystems
Frequent re: possibleconversion o woodlandsto shrublands andgrasslands
Precipitation Likely decreasedprecipitation in temperatelands
Less annual rainall, butmore extreme rainallevents
For 2050
Possible reduction by24% (rom 1990) or highemission scenario
Snow Retreat o the snowline.No snow in 2100 or the nomitigation scenario
Fewer rosts For 2050
Possible reductions (orhigh emission scenario) to96% in the area sustaining
snow cover or more than60 days or 2100
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 15
Australia(Contd)
Victoria(Contd)
Alps Catchments(Contd)
For 450 ppm CO2:Sucient snow orResorts
For 550 ppm CO2: Somesnow
No-mitigation: No snow
Pattern of precipitation Changes to seasonalityand patterns o rainallintensity
For 2050
Precipitation is expectedto decrease by up to 24%
Runoff More foods
Changes to water fowregimes in rivers andwetlands are predicted
Reduced spread o streamfows due to loss o snow,bogs and ens
(Medium risk) By 2040
there is reduced snowdepth and rainall andincreased evaporationleads to lower yield andlower water quality
Drought Increased risk o drought More droughts The alpine area is highlysensitive to more requentdroughts
Weeds and pests Changes will occurto weed and pestdistribution
Less snow, invasion o thealpine area by introducedherbivores and carnivores
(High risk) By 2070,increased competitionrom invasive summerweeds
Habitats and Ecosystems For alpine/montane lands
Potential loss o speciesdependent on adequatesnow cover
Increased establishmento plant species at higheraltitudes
Potential displacement ospecies, changes to snowpatch species
Potential extinctions osummit restricted species;
Changes in hydrology andimpacts to ens and bogs
Changes in phenologywith earlier spring thaw
Decrease in Sphagnumbogs
Vegetation thickening dueto CO2
Rising treeline, upwardmigration o species andecosystems
Loss o snow coverinsulation and habitat orspecies
Landuse Increase in snowmaking
Increase in summertourism and recreation
Loss o snow insulation orsoils and greater needleice impacts
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments16
Table 2.2 Measured climate change trends (1900-2009)
Australia(Hennessy et al, 2007;
Garnaut 2008; Steen et
al, 2009; Vic DSE 2009)
Victoria(Vic DSE 2009)
Alps Catchments(Hennessy et al, 2003;
Pickering et al, 2004;
Dunlop and Brown 2008;
Hennessy et al, 2007;
Garnaut 2008; Green
and Pickering 2009; PV
2009a)
Measured trends 1900-2009 1910-2007: averagetemperature increase0.9 C (Figure 2.1)
Rainall is higher in thenorth and west, dryingin southern and south-eastern Australia(Figure 2.2)
There have been lowstream fows over theperiod 2000-09
2009 CO2 emissions aretracking at the upperbounds o the mostpessimistic IPCC scenarios
The alpine region haswarmed over the past 35years at 0.2C per decade
Warming trends at alpinesites over 35 years havebeen greater than at loweraltitudes
There has been astatistically signicantdecrease in snow over thepast 54 years
Spring thaw has beenoccurring 2 days earliereach decade
The requency o bigdumps o snow hasdecreased
The decline o theShort Alpine Herbeldplant community dueto warming has beenrecorded
Burnt areas on the western face of the Main Range and alpine area, KosciuszkoNational Park following the 2003 Australian Alps res
(Source: Dane Wimbush collection)
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 17
Treeline Snow-gum, Charlotte Pass Kosciuszko National Park
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments18
3. 2010 Catchment Condition Status
A whole-of-Alps assessment of the natural
condition and threats to the catchment s was
needed. It would h elp identify if the catchmen ts
were, in 2010, either r esilient or vulnerable to th e
effects of clima te change. It would also iden tify if
any managemen t interventions were needed.
It could be assumed th at th e Alps catchmen ts
were essentially in a nat ural state given th eir
protected area status for up to 66 years. Thanks
to considerable conservation work, this is the
case for many areas. However there are also
man y other p arts of the catchm ents which
were substantially modied during their pre-
protected area history and these have required
extensive restoration and maintenance work.
This work is on-going and unnished. It takes
man y years to restore disturbed high moun tain
lands, mainten ance work is constantly needed
and n ew threats and pressures impact the natural
condition in th is dynamic landscape.
Natural (good) condition is important for the
Alps catchmen ts. It is the role of prot ected area
man agers to help achieve and m aintain this
natural condition and consequently it is their
respon sibility to know the condition of the
catchm ents and to respond to any threats. In
2010 an assessment of the natur al condition was
completed and was guided by three questions:
1. What was the overall nat ura l condition of the
Alps catchments?
2. What was the trend in the natur al condition of
these catchm ents? and,
3. What were the principal threats to the Alps
catchments?
Figure 3.1 The 235 Australian Alps sub-catchments assessed for their natural condition and trend in condition(Source NSW DECCW 2010)
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 19
3.1 The assessment method
The 2010 survey method selected used the
expert opinion of rangers and area managers
to systemat ically assess the condition of the
Alps catchmen ts. This approach was used given
the absence of a stand ardised, GIS based and
quantied baseline natural condition data for
the catchmen ts from which to an alyse condition.
The 1.64 million hectares of catchments were
divided for analysis into 235 sub-catchments in
the order of 10000 hectares in area (Figure 3.1).
Only signicant sub-catchment condition issues
were targeted and expert management staff wereasked to analyse many condition variables prior
to providing a summative judgement of condition.
Supporting information, triangulation of input
advice and immediate peer review of judgements
made were used prior to each sub-catchment
condition an d tren d in condition assessment being
nalised. The qualitative assessment completed
was indicative and not prescriptive though it has
credibility given the reliability of the expert inputs
and triangulation methods used.
Basis or the method used
The catchment condition assessment m ethod was
determ ined during thr ee workshops condu cted for
the Alps Catchments Project. It was reviewed and
then conrmed by an Alps Catchments Project
Steering Committ ee. Simp licity of method was
sought and a trafc light approach to classifyingthe ind ividual catchm ent condition was taken
(Figure 3.2). The assessment categories of good,
moderate and poor were used for the 235 sub-
catchments.
Figure 3.2 Catchment condition assessment codingand trend in condition criteria
Catchment condition
Good identies that the sub-catchment area
was well vegetated with a st able na tive species
groun dcover and was little imp acted by factors
such as feral anima ls. Good cond ition does not
necessarily infer near prist ine which is the
optimum natu ral condition for protected area
catchments.
Moderate identies that a sub-catchment was
essentially stable but h ad incomplete vegetation
cover with m inor soil instability. This may be the
result of (for example) vegetation destruction and
soil disturbance by feral hor ses and feral pigs.
Poor identies that the sub-catchment had
been signicantly disturbed and degraded, there
was a low percen tage of groun dcover and soil
erosion was evident. It m ay have had a h istory of
pre-protected area landuse impacts. There was
likely to be the pr esence of weeds and int roduced
animal populations.
Trend in condition
One of three categories were recognised for tren d
in condition for each sub-catchment which were
declining; no trend change and improving
(Figure 3.2).
Improving identies that the vegetation cover
and species complexity, in combination with
a reduction in th e area of disturbance and soil
loss, had improved in r esponse to conservation
man agement and natu ral healing. In most
sub-catchments this status recognises that
introduced animal control and weed management
programmes (at the time of the assessment) were
achieving their objectives.
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments20
No-trend-change identies that the area overall
was neither im proving nor d eclining. The ar ea
may be improving in parts (such as an ar eathat was being restored) and may be declining
elsewhere (such as impacts from weeds). It
recognises that thr eat mitigation pr ogrammes
were in place but were only just keeping up with
the level of impacts (it was not getting worse).
Declining identies that irrespective of
feral animal and weed control program mes
being un dert aken by the Alps Agencies, native
vegetation cover and species populations
were declining and soil instability and erosion
were evident. Management actions were n ot
keeping pace with impacts caused by historical
landuse impacts; increasing introduced animal
populations and weed invasions and there was
catchm ent dam age and degradation resulting
from these impacts.
3.2 Catchment condition decisionmaking process and criteria
used
Rangers and area m anagers were asked to make
judgements on condition and trend in condition
relative to a number of key criteria (Table 3.1).
These criteria were determined at workshops
conducted as part of the Alps catchments project.
Each interviewed expert reviewed a number of
criteria that could inuence their assessment
for a sub-catchment before reaching a condition
decision for each sub-catchment.
3.3 Advantages of the method
In t he absence of a standar dised GIS based
data-base for the Alps parks, this method of
interviewing sub-catchment management experts
provided a number of benets for the project.
Australian Alps protected area management staff contributing to the catchment condition survey January 2010
(Clockwise rom top let) NSW National Parks and Wildlie Service; Parks Victoria; NSW GIS expert Doug Mills; ACT Parksand Conservation
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection).
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 21
The method was simple, cost-effective and was
focused on major issues. It provided an indicative
assessment of the natu ral condition and tr end incondition of the catchments at a whole-of-Alps
scale.
3.4 Limitations to the method
The assessment was based on judgments from
individuals and not by quantitative data and
systematic survey and t his was an importan t
limitation. In addition, no eld survey or ground
trut hing was completed. Though the informat ion
generated was sourced from the best available
knowledge and highly qualied and experienced
professional staff, the ndings must be consideredindicative.
Some other limitations for the assessment
included the general lack of readily accessible
quantied data for some sub-catchments;
the n eed to average the condition assessment
information across sub-catchments; differences
in the relative knowledge and experience of
personnel completing the assessment; and,
the general degree of difculty in assessing
Table 3.1 Criteria used to guide interviewee assessment of catchment condition
Management issues (concerns) Guidance for assessing condition status
Vegetation status Stability o the vegetation and percentage o natural
cover. Exposure o bare (unvegetated) soil or more
than 15% o an area provides a guide or poor
condition.
Introduced animal presence
(Deer, horses, pigs, oxes, rabbits)
The abundance and distribution (and percentage
area) o the particular catchment utilised by thepest animal is assessed. The dominant pest animals
were identied. Other introduced animals may be
recognised where there were serious issues with
species such as cats, hares, goats and wild cattle.
Introduced plants (weeds)
(Blackberry, willows, broom, hawkweed)
The abundance and distribution (and percentage
area) o the particular catchment utilised by the
introduced plants were assessed. The dominant
introduced plants were identied. Other introduced
plants may be recognised where they present serious
issues
Wildre and prescribed re The requency, distribution and accumulated number
o res were assessed. Fire was treated as a natural
phenomena except where there was an increased
re requency that was non-natural and there were
cumulative impacts
Infrastructure developments The location and area covered by developments
where they lead to threats which include introduced
plants and animals, soil erosion and pollution.
Soils and soil erosion This includes active erosion which may be localised,
in many locations or it may occur as extensive and
severe areas o erosion.
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments22
the degree and extent of impacts across sub-
catchments. Wherever possible, these limitations
were minimised by supplementar y support inginform ation an d t riangulation of evidence.
3.5 An insight: The 1957 catchmentcondition assessment
The 1957 catchment condition assessment method
used by the Austra lian Academ y of Science
was similar to th e 2010 assessment . It used a
combination of written inp uts from catchment
authorities, interviews, expert advice and a
literatur e review and was based on th e author sexperience and knowledge of the condition of
the catchments (AAS 1957). It differed from the
2010 detailed assessment of 235 sub-catchments
in tha t it generated a single overview assessment
of the condition for the NSW and Victorian Alps
catchments.
The 1957 assessment involved a four person
Committee led by Professor J.S. Turner and which
included Professor R.L. Crocker; Dr J.W. Evans
and Mr A.B. Costin. The (abbreviated) 1957 terms
of reference, method and ndings were.
Terms of Reference: The Key questions were:
1. Is there any deter ioration of the water
catchments? Is it of national importance?
2. What are the major causes of the
deterioration?
3. What procedures should be adopted to arrest
the decline and to impr ove the position?
Method: The method included:
1. Corresponden ce to 20 organisations with the
three questions: Is there serious deterioration?
What policy should be adopted in response
to the d eterioration? and What evidence is
available to support the views above?
2. A literature review;
3. Interviews of key personnel; and
4. A special inspection of the catchments of the
Snowy Mountains area and the Victorian Alps.
Results: The 1957 catchment condition
assessment identied that:
1. There was serious deteriorat ion in thevegetative cover; a decline in catchment
efciency and widespread surface soil erosion;
2. The watershed value of the regions was the
paramount consideration;
3. Catchment s were in danger if there was a
loss in the inltration capacity due to the
deter ioration of vegetative cover an d were in
great danger if this deteriorat ion was likely to
lead to accelerated soil erosion which could, in
time, reach devastating proportions.
3.6 The 2010 catchment conditionassessment
The natural condition status was assessed for 235
sub-catchments. The map generated (Figure 3.3)
is indicative, but identies some major concerns
for catchment managers. Many sub-catchments
were either in a mod erate or poor condition. The
trend in condition assessment map also identied
many sub-catchments where the condition wasnot changing or was declining (Figure 3.4).
The subalpine treeline at the Snowy River, near Charlotte
Pass, Kosciuszko National Park, in good condition inJanuary 2011 after 67 years of conservation management
(Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)
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Summary Report for Policy Makers 23
Figure 3.3 Catchment condition status depicted by colour(Source: NSW DECCW 2010)
Figure 3.4 Catchment trend in condition status depicted by colour(Source: NSW DECCW 2010)
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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments24
3.7 Catchment condition status
The overall cond ition sta tus of the Alps
catchments was of concern with more than 60% of
catchm ents either in poor or m oderate condition
(Figure 3.5). The management aim of all park
managers is to achieve at least good condition an d
if possible, near pristine status. For downstream
managers of water, this high quality catchment
status is what would generally be expected for
a protected area. However, many protected
areas were established over lands which h ad a
legacy of landu se impacts. The task of restor ing
these historically disturbed areas is formidable,it takes time and active man agement work is
constantly needed. Restoration and repair work
in the m ountains is seasonal, and it takes longer
to be successful given colder growing conditions.
The condition assessment identied that much
more work was needed to restore catchmen ts to
a natural condition and to maximise resilience to
climate change.
Figure 3.5 Assessed natural condition of theAlps sub-catchments(Source: NSW DECCW 2010)
3.8 Trend in condition status
The trend in condition of more than 70% of sub-
catchm ents was assessed as no tren d change
or even worse, declining (Figure 3.6). Rangers
and area managers who identied no change
were often accounting for sub-catchments where
importan t conservation gains had been m ade, butwhere there were also new or enhanced thr eats
and where management inputs were just holding
ground. A declining catchm ent condition stat us
was a serious assessment.
Figure 3.6 Assessed trend in condition of theAlps sub-catchments(Source: NSW DECCW 2010)
3.9 Soil erosion threats
Soil erosion had been identied as a specic
threat impacting the natural condition of sub-
catchments in many locations (Figure 3.7).
This was unacceptable in a climate chan ge
environm e