carbohydrates
DESCRIPTION
BIOLOGYTRANSCRIPT
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”
“ CARBOHYDRATES
201139189CANDICE PIENAAR
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REFERENCES
1) http://www.slideshare.net/kleppingerb/catrbohydrates?qid=674cbdcc-2c94-43fa-8f43-ffdb057f65aa&v=qf1&b=&from_search=5
2) http://www.slideshare.net/obanbrahma/carbohydrates-30770508?qid=674cbdcc-2c94-43fa-8f43-ffdb057f65aa&v=qf1&b=&from_search=6
3) http://www.slideshare.net/mazz4/carbohydrates-28729095?qid=674cbdcc-2c94-43fa-8f43-ffdb057f65aa&v=qf1&b=&from_search=9
4) http://www.slideshare.net/syed_ismail/carbohydrates-28872311?qid=674cbdcc-2c94-43fa-8f43-ffdb057f65aa&v=qf1&b=&from_search=8
5) http://www.slideshare.net/gangadharchatterjee/carbohydrate-chemistry-27717759
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CARBOHYDRATESIs an organic compound
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σακχαρωνGreek “sakcharon” = sugar
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LETS LEARN SOME GREEK!!!!The name glucose comes from the Greek word glykys (γλυκύς), meaning "sweet", plus the suffix "-ose" which denotes a sugar
4 chiral centers give 24 = the 16 stereoisomer s of hexose sugars. Chirality, or "handedness", Greek, (χειρ), kheir: "hand” chiral carbons are enantiomers
Alpha α and Beta β are letters in the Greek alphabet
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Carbohydrates • Carbohydrates, or saccharides (saccharo is Greek for ―sugar) are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis.
• Carbohydrates include not only sugar, but also the starches that we find in foods, such as bread, pasta, and rice.
• The term ―carbohydrate comes from the observation that when you heat sugars, you get carbon and water (hence, hydrate of carbon).
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Carbohydrates and Biochemistry•Carbohydrates are compounds of tremendous biological importance:–they provide energy through oxidation–they supply carbon for the synthesis of cell components–they serve as a form of stored chemical energy–they form part of the structures of some cells and tissues•Carbohydrates, along with lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and other compounds are known as biomolecules because they are closely associated with living organisms.
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glucose
is the building blockof carbohydrates
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Importance of carbohydrates:
CHIEF SOURCE OF ENERGY
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Types of Carbohydrates:
monosaccharide
disaccharide
polysaccharide
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monosaccharide
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MONOSACCHARIDES
CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES
1- According to the number of carbon atoms: .Trioses, contain 3 carbon atoms.• Tetroses, contain 4 carbon atoms.• Pentoses, contain 5 carbon atoms.• Hexoses, contain 6 carbon atoms.• Heptoses, contain 7 carbon atoms.• Octoses. contain 8 carbon atoms.
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Glucose (a monosaccharide)
Plants:
photosynthesis chlorophyll
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2 sunlight (+)-glucose
(+)-glucose starch or cellulose
respiration
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
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monosaccharide
C6H12O6
Simple sugars that consist s only one (1) sugar molecule
Under monosaccharide:1. Glucose2. Fructose3. Galactose
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monosaccharide
1. Glucose
Blood sugar; most important sugar in the bodies of both vertebrates and invertebrates
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monosaccharide
2. Fructose
Corn sugar; sweetest form of sugar commonly found in fruits
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monosaccharide
3. Galactose
Simplest sugar found in milk
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Animals
plant starch (+)-glucose
(+)-glucose glycogen
glycogen (+)-glucose
(+)-glucose fats or aminoacids
respiration
(+)-glucose + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
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2. MONOSACCHARIDES
• Examples
20
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2. MONOSACCHARIDES
• Once a monosaccharide has been named as an aldose or a ketose, and the number of carbons has been designated, there are still several different isomeric forms for each.
• Each specific monosaccharide has a unique name.
• A prefix (D- or L-) is added to designate which of two possible isomeric forms is being referred to.
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disaccharide
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disaccharide
C12H22O11
Pair of monosaccharide unitsGlucose + monosaccharide unit = disaccharide
Under disaccharide:1. Sucrose2. Lactose3. Maltose
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OOHOH
FORMING DISACCHARIDES
C C
C
C O
C
H
OH
OHOH
OH
HH
CH2OH
H
H
CH2OH
C C
C
C O
C
H
OH
OHOH
OH
HH
CH2OH
H
H
C C
C
C O
C
H
OH
OH
OH
HH
CH2OH
H
H
C C
C
C O
C
H
OH
OH
OH
HH
CH2OH
H
H O
H H
GlycosidicBond This is a CONDENSATION
reaction, where a water molecule is lost.
Glucose
Maltose
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disaccharide
1. Sucrose
Table sugar; glucose + fructose
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disaccharide
2. Lactose
Milk sugar; glucose + galactose
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disaccharide
3. Maltose
Malt sugar; glucose + glucose
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polysaccharide
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polysaccharide
Consists of chains of monosaccharide and disaccharide
Under polysaccharide:1. Starch2. Glycogen3. Cellulose
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polysaccharide
1. Starch
Storage of glucose for plants
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polysaccharide
2. Glycogen
Storage of excess sugar in animals; stored in liver and muscles
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polysaccharide
3. Cellulose
Structural support of plants; known as “fiber”
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Additional info:
monomer: a molecule that may react chemically to another molecule to form polymer; the simplest unit; repeating unit of polymer
polymer: a compound made up of several repeating units (monomer)
enzyme: speeds up chemical reaction
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CLASSIFICATION:
1- Monosaccharides (simple sugars): They can not be hydrolyzed into simpler units. E.g. glucose, galactose,ribose
2- Oligosaccharides (oligo = few): contain from two to ten monosaccharide units joined in glycosidic bonds. e.g.
• disaccharides (2 units) e.g. maltose and sucrose,• trisaccharides (3 units).....etc.
3-Polysaccharides (poly = many): Also known as glycans. They are composed of more than ten monosaccharide units e.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose.....etc.
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2- According to the characteristic carbonyl group (aldehyde or ketone group):
- Aldo sugars: aldoses:
Contain aldehyde group e.g. glucose, ribose, erythrose and glyceraldehydes.
- Keto sugars: ketoses:
Contain ketone group e.g. fructose, ribulose and dihydroxy acetone.
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GLUCOSE FORMS A RING STRUCTURE
Note: functional group is on carbon one
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TWO TYPES OF RING STRUCTURES FOR GLUCOSE
OH on carbon one:
BELOW the ring ABOVE the ring
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The existence of - and -isomers:- leads to greater chemical variety is of importance in for example in
forming starch and cellulose
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NOTE DIFFERENCE:
The main difference between glucose and galactose is that glucose is much sweeter than galactose.
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13.4. REACTIONS--ADDITION
• Addition of an alcohol to an aldehyde:
• The product is called a hemiacetal (-OH and –OR attached to the same carbon).
• Hemiacetals are very reactive.
• They react with an additional alcohol molecule, losing –OH and adding another –OR.
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H+
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13.4. REACTIONS--ADDITION
• The final product is an acetal (2 –OR groups attached to one carbon).
41
hemiacetal acetal
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13.4. REACTIONS--ADDITION
• Ketones undergo analogous addition reactions with alcohols.
• The initial product is a reactive hemiketal (two –R groups, one –OH, and one –OR).
• An additional –OR group is added to the hemiketal to produce a ketal.
42hemiketal ketal
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13.4. REACTIONS--ADDITION