carbohydrate disposal this version is quite “information dense” to save paper
TRANSCRIPT
Sources of Dietary Carbs
• Starch – polymer of glucose – Amylose
• linear, forms helices, difficult to digest, flatulence
– Amylopectin• branched, easy to digest
Sources of Dietary Carbs
• Disaccharides– Lactose
• galactose and glucose• consequences of lactase deficiency = lactose intolerance
– Sucrose• fructose and glucose
– Maltose• glucose and glucose
• Monosaccharides– Glucose– Fructose
• especially these days with high fructose corn syrup
Glucose responses
BloodGlucose(mM)
5
10
Time (h)
0 1 2
Intolerant
Tolerant
Results of consuming a standard 50 g glucose load
Consequences of Intolerance
• Post-prandial hyperglycemia is a problem– If occurs after each meal and persists for several
hours then there will be problems• The person will rarely be euglycemic!• Leads to complications of hyperglycemia• Protein glycosylation
– Root cause may be insulin resistance• Impaired ability of tissues to respond to insulin• Underlies Type II Diabetes
• Control of glucose intolerance– Consumption of slowly absorbed starches
Starch Digestion
BloodGlucose(mM)
5
10
Time (h)
0 1 2
Amylose
AmylopectinDifferent Glycemic Responses
The Glycemic Index
• Describes the post-prandial glucose response– Area under the ‘test’ food glucose curve divided by– Area under a ‘reference’ food glucose curve
• Reference food is normally 50 g gluocse• Test food given in an amount that will give 50 g digestible
carbohydrate
– Expressed as a %– GI of modern, processed, amylopectin foods >80– GI of legumes < 30
The Glycemic Index
• Useful knowledge for controlling blood glucose – Especial relevance to diabetes– QUALITY of carbohydrate (GI) as important
as total amount of carbohydrate
GI critics say..• Area under slowly absorbed may be the
same as quickly absorbed– Look closely at previous figure
• The GI should not apply to foods other than starches– Sugary foods are low GI
• Because half the carbohydrate is fructose• Similarly, fructose containing foods are low GI
– Dairy foods are low GI• Because half the carbohydrate is galactose• And protein elicits insulin secretion lipogenesis
GI critics say..
• Some Low GI values – Due to inaccurate estimation of digestible
carbohydrate portion
• Claims of “slow burning energy” ??– What regulates energy expenditure and
‘supply’ of substrates?– Even if supply was important, the classic
“persistently but subtly” raised post-prandial glucose response is hardly ever seen
glucose
glucose G6P
GLUTs GLYCOGENESIS
GLYCOLYSIS
glucose
insulin
Translocation
Vesicles in Golgi
PFK – phosphofructokinase
GS – glycogen synthase
Muscle & WAT Glucose Uptake
Hexose MetabolismP
glucoseUsing ATP
hexokinase
glucose 6-phosphate
P
glucose 1-phosphate
P
P P
fructose6-phosphate
fructose1,6-bisphosphate
PP
U
PFK
UDP glucose
Using UTPReleases PPPP hydrolysis pulls reaction to completion
Pyrophosphate hydrolyses to two phosphatesPulls UDP-glucose conversion over
“Activated Glucose”
Glycogen Synthesis
PP
U
UDP glucose
PP
U
UDP
Glycogen
Glycogen with one more glucose
Note synthesis is C1 C4C1 end of glycogen attached to glycogenin
UDP needs to be made back into UTPUse ATP for thisUDP + ATP UTP + ADP
Glycogen Synthase
• Catalyses the addition of ‘activated’ glucose onto an existing glycogen molecule– UDP-glucose + glycogenn UDP + glycogenn+1
• Regulated by reversible phosphorylation (covalent modification)– Active when dephosphorylated, inactive when phosphorylated
• Phosphorylation happens on a serine residue– Dephosphorylation catalysed by phosphatases (specifically
protein phosphatase I, PPI)– Phosphorylation catalysed by kinases (specifically glycogen
synthase kinase)• Insulin stimulates PPI
– And so causes GS to be dephosphorylated and active– So insulin effectively stimulates GS
Phosphofructokinase
• Catalyses the second ‘energy investment’ stage of glycolysis– F6P + ATP fructose 1,6 bisphosphate + ADP
• Regulated allosterically– Simulated by low energy charge
• Energy charge is balance of ATP, ADP & AMP• An increase in ADP/AMP and a decrease in ATP• These molecules bind at a site away from the active site –
the allosteric binding sites.• Small change in ATP/ADP causes large change in AMP via
adenylate kinase reaction
– Many other molecules affect PFK allosterically but all are effectively indicators of ‘energy charge’
Coupling (again!)
• The stimulation of glycogen synthesis by insulin creates an ‘energy demand’– Glycogenesis is anabolic– The activation of glucose requires ATP – This drops the cellular [ATP] and increases the [ADP]
& [AMP]
• Drop in ‘energy charge’ is stimulates PFK– Anabolic pathway requires catabolic pathway– Insulin has ‘indirectly’ stimulated PFK and glucose
oxidation– So signals to store fuels also cause fuels to be burnt
Liver Glucose Uptake
• GLUT-2 used to take up glucose from bloodstream– Very high activity and very abundant– [Glucose] blood = [Glucose] liver
• Glucokinase– Rapidly converts GG6P– Not inhibited by build up of G6P– High Km (10 mM) for glucose – not saturated by high levels of
liver glucose– So [G6P] rapidly increases as blood [glucose] rises
• G6P can stimulate inactive GS – Even phosphorylated GS– Glucose itself also stimulates the dephosphorylation of GS
• Via a slightly complex process that involves other kinases and phosphatases which we needn’t go into right now
Glycogenesis
• In liver– The “push” mechanism
• Glycogenesis responds to blood glucose without the need of insulin
• Although insulin WILL stimulate glycogenesis further
• In muscle– [G6P] never gets high enough to stimulate GS
• “Push” method doesn’t happen in muscle• More of a “pull’ as insulin stimulates GS
Glycogenesis
• In both liver and muscle– 2 ATPs required for the incorporation of a glucose
into glycogen chain• GG6P and UDPUTP
– Branching enzyme needed to introduce a16 branch points
– Transfers a segment from one chain to another– Limit to the size of glycogen molecule
• Branches become too crowded, even if they become progressively shorter
• Glycogen synthase may need to interact with glycogenin to be fully active
Hexokinases
• Glucokinase (GK)– Only works on glucose– High Km for glucose (~10mM)– Not inhibited by G6P– Only presents in liver, beta-cells– Responsive to changes in [glucose] blood
• Hexokinase (HK)– Works on any 6C sugar– Km for glucose ~0.1mM– Strongly inhibited by its product G6P– Present in all other tissues– If G6P is not used immediately, its build up and inhibits
hexokinase– Easily saturated with glucose
Lipogenesis Overviewglucose
glucose G6P
pyruvate
acetyl-CoA
acetyl-CoA
pyruvate
LIPOGENESIS
Fat
PDH
GLYCOLYSIS
GLUT-4 No GS
KREBS CYCLE
CO2
fatty acids
ESTERIFICATION
X
Produces reductant
PPPConsumes reductant and ATP
NADH release ultimately produces ATP
Key steps (eg, GLUT-4, PDH, lipogenesis) are stimulated when insulin binds to its receptor on the cell surface
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
Pyruvate + CoA + NAD acetyl-CoA + NADH + CO2
• Irreversible in vivo• No pathways in humans to make acetate into
‘gluconeogenic’ precursors– Can’t make glucose from acetyl-CoA– No way of going back once the PDH reaction has
happened– Key watershed between carbohydrate and fat
metabolism
PDH Control
• Regulated by reversible phosphorylation– Active when dephosphorylated
• Inactivated by PDH kinase• Activated by PDH phosphatase
– Insulin stimulates PDH phosphatase• Insulin thus stimulates dephosphorylation and
activation of PDH
Fate of Acetyl-CoA• Burnt in the Krebs Cycle
– Carbon atoms fully oxidised to CO2
– Lots of NADH produced to generate ATP
• Lipogenesis – Moved out into the cytoplasm – Activated for fat synthesis
• In both cases the first step is citrate formation– Condensation of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate
• Regenerates Coenzyme A
– Transport or Oxidation• The ‘fate’ will depend on the need for energy (ATP/energy
charge) and the stimulus driving lipogenesis
ATP-Citrate Lyase
• Once in the cytoplasm, the citrate is cleaved– By ATP-Citrate Lyase (ACL)– Using CoA to generate acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate
• Reaction requires ATP ADP + phosphate
• ACL is inhibited by hydroxy-citrate (OHCit)– OHCit is found in the Brindleberry
• Sold as a fat synthesis inhibitor
– Would we expect it to prevent the formation of fatty acids
• And, if so, would that actually help us lose weight?
The Carrier
• Oxaloacetate produced by ACL needs to return to the matrix– Otherwise the mitochondrial oxaloacetate pool
becomes depleted– Remember, oxaloacetate is really just a ‘carrier’ of
acetates• Both in the Krebs's cycle and in the transport of acetyl-CoAs
into the cytoplasm
– Oxaloacetate cannot cross the inner mitochondrial membrane
• Some interesting inter-conversions occur to get it back in!
Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase
• Activates acetyl-CoA and ‘primes’ it for lipogenesis
• Unusual in that it ‘fixes’ carbon dioxide– In the form of bicarbonate– A carboxylation reaction
Acetyl-CoA + CO2 malonyl-CoA– Reaction requires ATP ADP + phosphate– Participation of the cofactor, biotin
• Biotin is involved in other carboxylation reactions
ACC Control
• ACC is stimulated by insulin– Malonyl-CoA is committed to lipogenesis
• Reversible Phosphorlyation
• Stimulated allosterically by citrate (polymerisation)
• Inhibited allosterically by long-chain fatty acyl-CoAs
Malonyl-CoA
• Activated acetyl-CoA– Tagged and primed for lipogenesis– But also a key regulator of fatty acid oxidation– ACC is not only present in lipogenic tissues– Also present in tissues that need to produce malonyl-
CoA in ‘regulatory’ amounts
• Malonyl-CoA inhibits carnitine acyl transferase I– An essential step in fatty acid oxidation– Only way of getting long chain fatty acyl-CoAs into the
mitochondria
Malonyl-CoA
• So when ACC is active in, say, muscle– Malonyl-CoA concentration rises– CPT-1 is inhibited– Fatty acid oxidation stops– Cell must use carbohydrate instead– Therefore insulin, by stimulating acetyl-CoA
carboxylase, encourages carbohydrate oxidation and inhibits fatty acid oxidation
FAS
• Fatty acyl synthase (FAS) is multi-functional– Lots of different enzyme activities in the complex– Can you count them all?
• Bringing in acetyl and malonyl groups, catalysing the reaction between the decarboxylated malonyl and the growing fatty acid chain, the reduction/dehydration/reduction steps, moving the fatty acid to the right site and finally releasing it as FA-CoA
• Two free -SH groups on an ‘acyl-carring protein’– Keeps the intermediates in exactly the right position for
interaction with the right active sites– Each new 2C unit is added onto the carboxy-end
Addition Sequence
• Each round of 2C addition requires– 2 molecules of NADPH … but No ATP (!!)– The release of the carbon dioxide that went on
during the production of malonyl-CoA• Thus the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA does not result
in ‘fixing’ CO2
• FAs start getting ‘released’ as FA-CoA when chain length is C14– Desaturation is done AFTER FAS
Pentose Phosphate Pathway• Provides NADPH for lipogenesis
– NADPH - A form of NADH involved in anabolic reactions
– Rate of NADPH production by PPP is proportional to demand for NADPH
• Key regulatory enzyme is G6PDH– Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase
G6P + NADP 6-phosphogluconolactone + NADPH– The gluconolactone is further oxidised to give more
NADPH• Decarboxylation to give a 5-carbon sugar phosphate (ribulose
5-phosphate)
Pentose Phosphate Pathway• Need to put the 5-C sugar back into glycolysis
– Accomplished by rearranging and exchanging carbon atoms between 5C molecules
– Catalysed by enzymes called transaldolases and transketolases• So, 5C + 5C C7 + C3 by a transketolase (2C unit transferred)• Then C7 + C3 C6 + C4 by a transaldolase (3C unit transferred)• Then C4 + C5 C6 + C3 by a transketolase (2C unit transferred)
– The C6 and C3 sugars can go back into glycolysis
• Alternatively, PPP used to make ribose 5-phosphate– Important in nucleotide pathways
• Or generate NADPH as an anti-oxidant– Red blood cells - deficiency in G6PDH can cause anemia
Esterification
• Formation of Fat• Glycerol needs to be glycerol 3-phosphate
– From reduction of glycolytic glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate – Glycolysis important both for production of acetyl-CoA and
glycerol!
• Esterification enzyme uses FA-CoA– Not just FAs– FAs added one at a time
• Both esterification enzyme and FAS are unregulated by insulin– Gene expression and protein synthesis
• FAS is downregulated when lots of fat around– As in a Western diet!!
Regulatory Overviewglucose
glucose G6P
pyruvate
acetyl-CoA
acetyl-CoA
pyruvate
LIPOGENESIS
Fat
PDH
GLYCOLYSIS
GLUT-4 No GS
KREBS CYCLE
CO2
fatty acids
ESTERIFICATION
X
G6PDH
G6PDH stimulated by demand for NADP
Insulin stimulates GLUT-4. PDH and ACC. Also switches on the genes for FAS and esterification enzyme.
Krebs cycle will be stimulated by demand for ATP
ACC
FASglycerol 3-P
Acetyl-CoA transport stimulated by increased production of citrate
citrate