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Caning Grammar Book

Authors:

David Abbi Alfira Timothy Kuku Kafi Hassan Kuwa Kaki Ali Alaliim Hasan Anjo Kuku Anjo Dayan Kuku Jas

Sadik Kafi Sarukh

Trial Edition Sudan Workshop Program

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This book is used to teach how certain words correctly fit together in phrases, clauses, and sentences. © 2017, Caning Language Committee and Sudan Workshop Program Trial Edition June 2014 First Edition June 2016 Second Edition Nov 2017 Publisher: Sudan Workshop Program, Development and Literacy Partners International Place of Publication: Yida

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Introduction In the Caning language there are different types of words: nouns, verbs, prepositions, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and connectors. We will learn about these in this book. We will also learn about how the words go together into groups of words called phrases, clauses, and sentences. The words and how they go together are called grammar. Learning about the words and groups of words in Caning can help you become a better reader and writer. It is especially important for those writing books and translating Scripture to understand the lessons of this book. The lessons of the Caning Consonant & Vowel Book should be learned before learning from this book. Most examples sentences in this book come from the stories at the end of this book. Some words such as ‘consonant’ and ‘vowel’ are used in this book without being explained. These words are explained in the Caning Consonant & Vowel Book. If you forget their meaning, you can look them up in the glossary at the back of this book. There are many new words in this book which are used to explain the grammar of Caning. Each new word is underlined and explained when it is first used. If you later see the word and forget what it means, you can also find it explained in the glossary at the back of this book. This book can be taught to participants in a workshop. A person can also use this book to teach himself/herself without a workshop or instructor. You should read each lesson and then immediately do the exercise following the lesson. The exercise will help you test your understanding of the lesson. The answers to the exercises are in the back of the book. After completing an exercise, immediately check your answers to see how well you have understood. For each of your incorrect answers, try to understand the correct answer. Ask other Caning if you need help.

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Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 3

Contents ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Spelling Rules................................................................................................................................................................ 6

Types of words ............................................................................................................................................................ 11

Nouns ........................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Nouns with plural suffixes .......................................................................................................................................... 16

Verbs ........................................................................................................................................................................... 28

Prepositions ................................................................................................................................................................. 30

Locations ..................................................................................................................................................................... 33

How Nouns are Used .................................................................................................................................................. 35

Pronouns ...................................................................................................................................................................... 36

Possessive, reflexive, emphasis and other pronouns................................................................................................... 40

Prepositions and locations introducing pronouns ....................................................................................................... 42

Possessed family nouns and body part nouns (inalienable) ........................................................................................ 45

Noun forms .................................................................................................................................................................. 48

Pointing near suffixes (Proximal demonstratives) ...................................................................................................... 55

Pointing far suffixes .................................................................................................................................................... 60

Pointing known suffixes .............................................................................................................................................. 64

Modifier connector suffixes (Adjectival) .................................................................................................................... 67

Possessor connector suffixes (Genitive) ..................................................................................................................... 71

Possessor pronoun suffixes ......................................................................................................................................... 76

Possessor known (logophoric) .................................................................................................................................... 85

Asking specific ............................................................................................................................................................ 88

Identifying suffixes ...................................................................................................................................................... 90

Locating near suffixes ................................................................................................................................................. 96

Locating far suffixes.................................................................................................................................................. 101

Existing suffixes ........................................................................................................................................................ 104

Asking location.......................................................................................................................................................... 108

Review of pronouns and suffixes on pronouns ......................................................................................................... 111

Adjectives .................................................................................................................................................................. 118

Quantities ................................................................................................................................................................... 120

Numbers .................................................................................................................................................................... 121

Specific relative clauses (definite) ............................................................................................................................ 124

General relative clauses ............................................................................................................................................. 126

Adverbs ..................................................................................................................................................................... 128

Compound phrases .................................................................................................................................................... 132

Verb Forms ................................................................................................................................................................ 135

Two types of verbs .................................................................................................................................................... 135

Complete (Perfective) and incomplete (Imperfective) verbs .................................................................................... 144

Common irregular verbs ........................................................................................................................................... 156

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Command (Imperative) verbs .................................................................................................................................... 161

Object pronouns ........................................................................................................................................................ 165

Continuous verbs ....................................................................................................................................................... 169

Future (irrealis) .......................................................................................................................................................... 172

Repeating (pluralactional) verbs ............................................................................................................................... 174

Reflexive verbs .......................................................................................................................................................... 178

Verbal nouns ............................................................................................................................................................. 181

Passive ....................................................................................................................................................................... 185

Applicative ................................................................................................................................................................ 186

Unmentioned object suffixes (Antipassive, detransitive).......................................................................................... 189

Reciprocal suffixes .................................................................................................................................................... 191

Away verbs (Abitive) ................................................................................................................................................ 193

Towards suffixes (Ventive) ....................................................................................................................................... 195

Identifying and locating near suffixes on verbs ........................................................................................................ 199

Clauses with only the verb ꞌbe, wasꞌ ......................................................................................................................... 203

Main Clauses and Dependent Clauses ...................................................................................................................... 203

Connectors (Conjunctions) ........................................................................................................................................ 203

Question Words (Interrogatives) ............................................................................................................................... 203

Caning Stories ........................................................................................................................................................... 208

Osox na Atorndori (O&A) .............................................................................................................................. 209

Batakä Nyoxolow (Nyax) ............................................................................................................................ 214

Atorndori na Nyoxolow (A&N) ....................................................................................................................... 224

Tumos na Atorndori (T&A) ............................................................................................................................ 233

Legedäniccä Alkadis na Apoco (A & A) .............................................................................................................. 239

Legedäniccä Wawa Pedi (Pedi) ........................................................................................................................... 242

Legedäniccä Nyoxolow na Apoco (N&A) ........................................................................................................... 246

Legedäniccä Atorndori, Kamalä na Tumos (AKT) ................................................................................................ 249

Glossary ..................................................................................................................................................................... 252

Answers to Exercises ................................................................................................................................................ 256

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Spelling Rules In the Caning Consonant & Vowel Book (CCVB) there are six spelling rules that help reading and writing. These are listed below along with the page number in CCVB where they are further explained. Spelling Rule 1-4 (CCVB page12,14,16,18): Write p, c, t, k and b, j, d, ꞌd at the beginning of words and between vowels. Write p, c and b, j at the end of words. Beginning of words p – b pa homestead bac upper arm c – j culudic charcoal juldäg darkness t – d - ꞌd taba tobacco dakabug groundnut ꞌdami fig tree k - g kal room gaw hawk Between vowels p – b apang man abad stupid person c – j wicid bruising kijis pounding stick t – d - ꞌd atapige spear type badan palm of hand kaꞌda fishing net k - g dakabug groundnut bagagi snake type End of words p – b rap bird type rab diverting c – j bac upper arm raj trick, deception After m, ny, n, ng , only write p, c, d, g, and not b, j, t, k. After m, ny, n, ng Correct Wrong p kompa komba axe c manycal manyjal grass cutter, sickle d mandur mantur widow g tänggäxsic tängkäxsic louse, insect At the end of words, only write d, g, and not t, k. End of words Correct Wrong d ed et wood, tree g ꞌdog ꞌdok thing Spelling Rule 5 (CCVB page 24): Only the consonants pp and cc are doubled. Do not double any other consonants. Doubled pp and cc

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pp – p tappa rock xapa spear appa father apang man cc – c (weg) apoccu good (things) apocu hare racca necklace acaya branch baccong this upper arm bacu upper arms Spelling Rule 6 (CCVB page 29): Never write 2 vowels together. Instead, write y and w next to vowels, and not i or u. Correct Wrong ayda in-law aida in-law käꞌdayge all, whole käꞌdaige all, whole owda weather ouda weather In this Caning Grammar Book, there are six more rules discussed on the pages shown. Spelling Rule 7 (page 18): Suffixes that begin with -d attach to roots with a final vowel or the final consonants l, ny, m, y, w. Suffixes that begin with –t attach to roots with final c, s, x, r, d, g. Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural -da -di -dic a mafara mafarada cassava e ngome ngomeda weed o oso osoda season i ceri ceridi basket u luku lukudi pool kayudic kayu rubbish l kal kalda room bul buldi drum gäldic gäl egg ny marany maranyda scar m kom komda chair y oxay oxayda animal w nyaw nyawda udder -ta -ti -tic c toc tocta forehead s mas masta fire x dox doxta mud zäx zäxti food apaxtic apax hair r cabär cabärta mountain nyipär nyipärti tongue säpärtic säpär husk d ligid ligiti spirit g kaläg kaläta amulet kubutic kubug wing Spelling Rule 8 (page 31, 33, 42, 121): Write the prepositions ta, tä ‘in, at, on, from, to, for’ and na ‘with, by’ separate from following nouns. However, write them connected to following pronouns, location words and adverbs. Correct Wrong Kig käꞌdoc ta buguning. Kig käꞌdoc tabuguning. Person went to chief. Nouns

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ta ux. tux. to woman. ta op. top. to young man. Kig käꞌdoc tagä Kig käꞌdoc ta agä Person went to me. Pronouns tägi tä gi to you (sg). täma tä ma to him. täce tä ce to her. tänya, täng tä nya to it. täwas tä was to us (not you). tägog tä kog to us (and you). tanggo ta anggo to you (pl). täsa tä sa to them. Apang käꞌdoc na kig. Apang käꞌdoc nakig. Man went with person Nouns na ux. nux. with woman. na op. nop. with young man. Apang käꞌdoc nagä Apang käꞌdoc na agä Man went with me. Pronouns nagi na gi with you (sg). nama na ma with him. nace na ce with her. nanya na nya with it. nawas na was with us (not you). nagog na gog with us (and you). nanggo na anggo with you (pl). nasa na sa with them. Noun Location Coxo tä agä kig. She sees to person’s face. Coxo tagä kig. She sees in front of person. Coxo tä zä kig. She sees to person’s head. Coxo täzä kig. She sees above person. Coxo tä caxsä kig. She sees to person’s anus. Coxo täcaxsä kig. She sees below person. Coxo tä cengiccä kig. She sees to person’s side. Coxo täcengiccä kig. She sees next to person. Coxo tä ongä kig. She sees to person’s back. Coxo tongä kig. She sees behind person. Coxo tä kaxsä kig. She sees to person’s innerd. Coxo tägaxsä kig. She sees inside person. Noun Location Coxo tä agäma. She sees to his face. Coxo tagäma. She sees in front of him. Coxo tä zäma. She sees to his head. Coxo täzäma. She sees above him. Coxo tä caxsäma. She sees to his anus. Coxo täcaxsäma. She sees below him. Coxo tä cengiccäma. She sees to his side. Coxo täcengiccäma. She sees next to him. Coxo tä onguma. She sees to his back. Coxo tonguma. She sees behind him. Coxo tä kaxsäma. She sees to his innerd. Coxo tägaxsäma. She sees inside him. Noun Adverb Cäwung tä agäwan. She comes to eyes. Cäwung tage. She comes ahead. Cäwung tä cengiccäwan. She comes to side. Cäwung täcengic. She comes beside. Cäwung tä onguwan. She comes to back. Cäwung tonge. She comes behind. Cäwung tä kaxse. She comes to innerd. Cäwung tägaxse. She comes inside . Cäwung tä zäg. She comes to ground. Cäwung täzäg. She comes down.

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Spelling Rule 9 (page 37, 158): Write object pronouns separate from the verb they follow. Correct Wrong Ma mäsaxe agä. Ma mäsaxegä. He refused me. mäsaxe gi. mäsaxegi. He refused you (sg). mäsaxe ma. mäsaxema. He refused him. mäsaxe ce. mäsaxece. He refused her. mäsaxe nya. mäsaxenya. He refused it. mäsaxe was. mäsaxewas. He refused us (not you). mäsaxe kog. mäsaxegog. He refused us (and you). mäsaxe anggo. mäsaxenggo. He refused you (pl). mäsaxe sa. mäsaxesa. He refused them. Spelling Rule 10 : When consonants are joined together in the same word, the first of the two consonants can remain or change, or disappear. First consonant g + k = gk tug ebony tree tugkani there is ebony tree remains, changes d + s = ts amkadad chisel amkadatsong this chisel First consonant d + t = t sad bowl satong this bowl disappears s + z = z ayis goat ayizong this goat g + t = t morog grave morota graves d + k = k saxad divorce saxakong this divorce Spelling Rule 11 (page 7): When vowels are joined together in the same word, the first of the two vowels dissappears. -u First vowel o + u = u apoco hare, rabbit apocu hares disappears e + u = u zure horn instrument zuru instruments i + u = u poꞌdi loincloth poꞌdu loinclothes a + u = u daraga shield daragu shields ä + u = u salä sword salu swords -ic a + i = i asaydic hail, ice asayda hail (pl) e + i = i modic peace mode peace (pl) ka- First vowel a + o = o Kig oxo Person sees Kig kox Person saw disappears a + e = e Kig enge Person skins Kig kendä Person skinned a + ä = ä Kig äxse Person dies Kig käxsä Person died a + u = u Kig ucu Person stays Kig kucu Person stayed Spelling Rule 12 (page ): When a suffix beginning with –ä is joined to a word with last vowel o or u, the suffix vowel changes to –u. Noun suffix

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/-däg ya meat yadäg meats bugun kingdom bugundug kingdoms /-äwan penäwan son penggäwan sons bonuwan mother bongguwan mothers -ä ax hut axä op hut of dol snake dolu op snake of -andäng ax hut axandäng hut exists luku pond lukundung pond exists

Possessor suffixes ax hut ux wife -ägi axägi your (sg) hut uxugi your (sg) wife -äma axäma his hut uxuma his wife -äce axäce her hut uxuce her wife -änya axänya its hut uxunya its wife -äsko axäsko our (not your) hut uxusko our (not your) wife -ägo axägo your (pl) hut uxugo your (pl) wife -äsa axäsa their hut uxusa their wife

Verb suffix -dä, ꞌdaye wash ꞌdaydä wash (rep) bolo make boldu make (rep) -tä, pese talk pestä talk (rep) copo look at coptu look at (rep) -ädä meske protect meskädä protect (rep) poko carry pokudu carry (rep) -äs pese talk pesäs talk for copo look at copus look at for -äng pese talk pesäng talk towards copo look at copäng look towards Exercise 1 Carefully read and say each test word below. Each test word may or may not be written correctly. Write the word correctly in the space given. The first one is done as an example. Test Word Write correctly Test Word Write correctly baxedic diarrhea paxedic manyjal grass cutter _____________________ nyaxijaru reed _____________________ kabasic tatto, marking _____________________ apa father _____________________ kacä donkey _____________________ bocca usually _____________________ gurwej millet _____________________ kojogoric hoof _____________________ käꞌday all _____________________ oxsontug pregnancy _____________________ kaxsäpa town _____________________ tambilig forever _____________________ diyada forget _____________________ tandä shirt _____________________ cermegic bird trap _____________________ karꞌdek scraper _____________________ exengkukalä sweet potato _____________________ mekken orphan _____________________ doxajul clay _____________________ ob young man _____________________ jen year _____________________ atorndori fox _____________________ apuꞌdonyo crocodile type _____________________ batat marriage _____________________ pugusic buttock _____________________ sundwan knee _____________________ asaydic hail, ice _____________________ keskow dawn _____________________ waxat dowry _____________________ turuk armies _____________________ guguric fish type _____________________ akaꞌdogo insect type _____________________ aguan face _____________________ xainya why? _____________________ mexxes crippled person _____________________

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Exercise 2 In the following sentences, some words are not written correctly. Underline any words that are wrong and write the correction in the blank to the left. The first one is done as an example. (O&A 13-14) ta buguning Na nyägäꞌdoc tabuguning, . . . And went to the king, kangawe nya na Osox kasax kangawenya, and the Lion caught him, (Nyax 5) ___________________ Na säläpeda tä nya ka sagaleneni. And they said to him that she is a girl. (Nyax 39-40) ___________________ Kala kodogas ce täkä sog Then they escorted her on the way ___________________ ndä säpäse lang täce kätos napäxä weg. and they filled bags for her with things. (Nyax 47) Na kala nyägäpätäng And then he waited and ___________________ nyäwede täbängäce. continued for calling of her. (Nyax 87) ___________________ Lilingäzi nazägi, ndä wacolodunig Bend over with your head, we will ___________________ mid taxä caxsä gi. pour oil to inside your anus. (Nyax 96) ___________________ Kanggo luwing nyimec tandäma. Oh, you cut out liver for his hand. (Nyax 110) ___________________ Wesi zagi tägaxsed tänyam.” Now you gather in forest for checking. ___________________ (A&N 22) ___________________ Bonog bendagä. Friend, wait for me. (A&N 36-37) ___________________ Bonog, masani nuxu kig ꞌdoc bota tä kog. We need person to go bring fire to us. (A&N 61) ___________________ Ndä sägäbä miye nipe. They took skin with tail. (T&A 21) ___________________ Sogoyinganggo tä siyakä tä kaxsed? They brought you to see the forest? (T&A 26) ___________________ I oda wede ndä kadarjangegi. Will the storm come and attack you? (A&A 19) Apoco nyawung nyägäcca Hare came and sat ___________________ tä caxsä ed nanya under the tree with it (food) (Pedi 28) Na sägäcogä waccid na axsic When evening arrived, there was one ___________________ tä gaxsä lang nuxung. fish in the basket.

Types of words In this book, we learn about many types of Caning words. These words are in bold in the

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sentences below. The names of the words are underlined on the left. Types of Caning words Noun Kig kasiy ya. Person ate meat. Verb Kig kasiy ya. Person ate meat. Preposition Kig kasiy ya tä pumpung. Person ate meat in bush. Location Kig kasiy ya tagä pa. Person ate meat in front of house. Pronoun Ma masiy ya. He ate meat. Adjective Kig kasiy yana apo. Person ate good meat. Quantity Kig kasiy ya käꞌday. Person ate all the meat. Number Kig kasiy aska kodos. Person ate three fishes. Adverb Kig kasiy ya tetex. Person ate meat quickly. Question word Xänang kasiy ya? Who ate meat? Connector Ndä kig kasiy ya. Then person ate meat. We will learn more about each of these words in the following lessons.

Nouns A noun can be a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. For example in the story Osox na Atorndori line 40-41 (O&A 39-40), nycoki ‘people’ ya ‘meat’, zä ‘head’, Kaccä ‘Donkey’ and nyimecce ‘liver’ are all nouns. (O&A 39-40) Ndä nyämel nyawung na nyaꞌdoxung nycoki And he returned and came and found people kasiy ya i kawang zä Kaccä na nyimecce. had eaten meat and left head of Donkey and liver.

The following are other examples of nouns:

Caning Nouns Singular Plural Person op opiny young man bonäwan bonggäwan mother buguning buguninginy king, chief Animal nyang nyanginy crocodile dän dänu scorpion dol dolu snake Place pumpung pumpunginy bush, forest kaxsäpa kaxsäpadäg town, city gol golda water hole Thing asaydic asayda hail, ice asmex asminy month, moon exenäwan exenggäwan leg Idea bolic bol agreement

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jen jende year legedänic legedäniny story

Usually a noun has two forms. For example, op ‘young man’ is the singular form used for one person, and opiny ‘young men’ is the plural form used for more than one person. There are three ways that nouns have singular and plural forms. They can add suffixes (ending letters of the word) to the singular form as in uxic ‘worm’. They can add suffixes to the plural form as in axiny ‘hut’. They can also add suffixes in both singular and plural forms as in winic, wininy ‘vulture, vultures’. Three ways of forming singular and plural nouns Singular suffix Root Plural suffix -ic/ uxic ux ux worm /-iny ax ax axiny hut -ic/-iny winic win- wininy vulture, bird type A noun without a suffix is called a noun root. The plural noun ux ‘worms’ and the singular noun ax ‘hut’ are noun roots. The following are the most common singular suffixes. Singular Suffixes Singular Plural -ic/ uxic ux worm -c/ bebec bebe gourd -dic, -tic/ gäldic gäl egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu foundation The following are the most common plural suffixes. Plural Suffixes Singular Plural /-iny ax axiny hut /-u ux uxu woman /-da, -ta oxay oxayda animal /-di, -ti bul buldi drum /-de, -te jen jende year /-diny, -tiny ngas ngastiny neck /-ciny jenic jenicciny season /-däg ya yadäg meat /-tudi sud sutudi mound, hump /-nag ngole ngolenag mother’s brother The following are the most common singular and plural suffix pairs.

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Singular and Plural Suffixes Singular Plural -ic/-iny winic wininy vulture, bird type -ic/-u banyic banyu light -wan/-wan penäwan penggäwan son -x/-ny osox osony lion -d/-nu ꞌdawud ꞌdawunu fish type The m/m is for the words me, menggä and the p/e is for the words päxä, enggä. These make noun phrases from simpler nouns. The X/X is for nouns that have the same form for both the singular and the plural. Other Singular and Plural Abbreviations Singular Plural m/m me pelow menggä pelow farmer, person of the field p/e päxä deny enggä däg calf, young cow X/X ayis ayis goat Nouns with singular suffixes Nouns can be put into groups according to their singular or plural suffixes. For example, all the nouns below have the suffix –ic in the singular form. -ic/- Singular Plural yexic yex meaning angäsic angäs flying termite dudulusic dudulus flower bolic bol agreement pappaꞌdasic pappaꞌdas earring turugic turug army magic mag sap of tree kodokodosic kodokodos ankle kupuppusic kupuppus lung kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong stem, stalk walangic walang journey pängic päng upper cheek near ear gulugulusic gulugulus bubble, foam, air in water tusic tus testicle kocogoric kocogor hoof (of cow, horse) uxic ux worm, tear of eye ceremegic ceremeg bird trap kabasic kabas tattoo, facial marking mäxic mäx root, bulb, muscle abogic abog lower cheek near mouth

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ngongoxosic ngongoxos gill of fish palangasic palangas guest, visitor pugusic pugus buttock totoꞌdosic totoꞌdos crop of rooster, under beak dulubusic dulubus tumor, cancer kacalubugic kacalubug intestine ꞌduwaꞌduwasic ꞌduwaꞌduwas worm type nyenyewesic nyenyewes star yugic yug seed of plant wulegic wuleg weopon asaydic asayda hail, ice malezic maleza guinea fowl käbadic käbada shoe, sandal modic mode peace rejic reje command When the vowels a, e are the last letter in plural nouns, they disappear before the suffix –ic (asaydic, asayda ‘hail, hails’). The nouns below have the suffix –c in the singular form. -c/- Singular Plural bebec bebe gourd moxsoc moxso vine nimic nimi vision, dream while awake kiꞌdic kiꞌdi breast ndukurudic ndukurudi dust nyäpäxkic nyäpäxki flame, flicker The singular suffix –dic attaches to plural nouns with final vowel or the final consonant l. The suffix –tic attaches to plural nouns with final x, r, g. -dic, -tic/- Singular Plural kayudic kayu rubbish culudic culu charcoal gäldic gäl egg, fetus kogoldic kogol shell (of nut, turtle), skin of fruit apaxtic apax hair säpärtic säpär husk of maize kubutic kubug wing When –tic attaches to roots with final g such as kubug ‘wing’, the g disappears (kubutic ‘wings’).

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The singular suffix –wec only attaches to plural nouns with final vowel u. -wec/- Singular Plural ngaluwec ngalu bell apärgenuwec apärgenu bat timinggaruwec timinggaru cloud kanyaguwec kanyagu fin of fish celuwec celu side of body, handle of body fat apäränduwec apärändu intestinal worm The singular suffix –wic only attaches to plural nouns with final vowel u or o.1 -wic/- Singular Plural kadasuwic kadasu foundation kädataxowic kädataxo cricket, insect type kubunduwic kubundu peel of fruit piduwic pidu twin ganggoxuwic ganggoxu gravel anadaruwic anadaru spectacles, glasses wejuwic weju hip luguwic lugu premolar tooth

Nouns with plural suffixes The nouns below have the suffix –iny in the plural form. Nearly all of these nouns end in a consonant in the singular form. If the singular form has a vowel, it disappears when –iny is added (tisi, tisiny ‘ladder, ladders’). -/-iny Singular Plural tas tasiny danger turkas turkasiny quiver, bag of arrows azaf azafiny palm tree päx päxiny python, snake type ciläx ciläxiny slave ꞌdax ꞌdaxiny stork, bird type ax axiny hut amkadad amkadadiny chisel for carving wood säxäd säxädiny yolk of egg 1 Some may wonder why the plural nouns below are not written with a final /w/ (such as *kadasuw ‘foundations’

so that they can then be included with those having singular suffix –ic. It is because there is no w when the pointing

near suffix –g-ong is attached, as in kadasugong ‘this foundation’.

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abad abadiny stupid person ongäd ongädiny night pisow pisowiny spider web oxtic oxticiny fish trap dälwec dälweciny sand ngäc ngäciny dung kulic kuliciny sesame seed mandur manduriny widow rap rapiny small bird type op opiny young man budurug buduruginy sow, female pig tug tuginy ebony tree eg eginy giraffe kindarag kindaraginy winnow, rake for cut grass kacikey kacikeyiny rattle, instrument type manycal manycaliny sickle, grass cutter faranycal faranycaliny tomato moxkol moxkoliny kitchen ngondow ngondowiny elder, old person nyoxolow nyaxolowiny hyena nyamusow nyamusowiny army ant, safari ant atogonow atogonowiny jackal, wild dog kolar, kolare kolariny throat, voice box tisi tisiny ladder sicci sicciny stick drill for planting odudi odudiny morning ꞌderem ꞌdereminy tree type suxulum suxuluminy lizard mäxem mäxeminy antelope maränyang maränyanginy dance type gulonggulong gulonggulonginy dung beetle ngunyangunyang ngunyangunyanginy hedgehog bung bunginy deaf person nyang nyanginy crocodile gulumun gulumuniny millipede meyin meyininy ant gisin gisininy anteater The nouns below have the suffix –u in the plural form. -/-u Singular Plural bac bacu upper arm sagic sagicu headpad for carrying tondoc tondocu termite banyag banyagu warthog

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bädäg bädägu spear type mexes mexesu crippled person tumos tumosu elephant is isu dog ux uxu woman dol dolu snake kuny kunyu thorn keyenggen keyenggenu bush, small tree tasan tasanu young female goat dän dänu scorpion megen megenu orphan lorto lortu grasshopper, insect type atoro atoru giant, very tall person apudonyo apudonyu small crocodile apoco apocu hare, rabbit kelegele kelegelu monkey käpägäne käpägänu beach, sand near water atapige atapigu spear type diniye diniyu storm nycamiye nycamiyu meeting zure zuru horn, instrument atorndori atorndoru fox bagagi bagagu snake type poꞌdi poꞌdu loincloth filindi filindu spear type akalandi akalandu gecko, lizard type tappa tappu large rock säläka säläku handle daraga daragu shield racca raccu necklace tandä tandu shirt, clothing item kaccä kaccu donkey meldä meldu bellow for pumping air on fire kudutuꞌdä kudutuꞌdu bird type salä salu sword wuladä wuladu needle for sewing ciꞌdä ciꞌdu eagle, bird type maꞌdaga maꞌdagu glue for trapping birds warawara warawaru spider kompa kompu axe axka axku large bird type kuppa kuppu hoe, digging tool When the vowels o, a, ä, i, e are the last letter in singular nouns, they disappear before the suffix –u.

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The plural suffix –da attaches to singular nouns with a final vowel or the final consonants l, m, ny, ng, c, y, w. The suffix –ta attaches to singular nouns with final j, c, s, x, r, w, g. -/-da, -ta Singular Plural mafara mafarada cassava, manioc tanyara tanyarada celebration, festival tuluba tulubada tax kudura kudurada strength acaya acayada branch of tree kaꞌda kaꞌdada fishing net meza mezada creator päla pälada baldness ngome ngomeda weed male maleda domestic, farm animal colonggo colonggoda lake, dried place of water ngotorobo ngotoroboda chief abisolo abisolobda sweet sorghum bisko biskoda friend oso osoda rainy season omo omoda leprosy kal kalda room, hut gol golda water well, hole panggol panggolda homestead, home kom komda chair marany maranyda scar, mark from injury lang langda basket xong xongda day, time asac asayda tamarind tree soc soyda fruit oxay oxayda animal nyaw nyawda udder of cow raj rajta trick, deception toc tocta forehead mas masta fire dox doxta mud cabär cabärta mountain, hill, world ow ota place koꞌdog koꞌdota valley morog morota grave, cemetery kaläg kaläta charm, amulet, idol yog yota fish trap log lota sauce sog sota road, path The plural suffix –di attaches to singular nouns with a final vowel or final y, l. The suffix –ti

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attaches to singular nouns with final x, r, d. -/-di, -ti Singular Plural luku lukudi pool of water lu ludi local hockey game aru arudi marsh wet land curu curudi granary, grain storage place soru sorudi book kuku kukudi first born male child amusu amusudi debt to repay telegu telegudi shelter from rain and sun nyaxiccaru nyaxiccarudi reed kumagi kumagidi wall ceri ceridi basket to carry grain adi adidi tradition, culture, taboo miy miydi skin, hide of animal bul buldi big drum mil mildi song zäx zäxti food tux tuxti porcupine nyipär nyipärti tongue ligid ligiti shadow, spirit of dead person The plural suffix –de attaches to singular nouns with a final vowel or final n. The suffix –te attaches to singular nouns with a final d. -/-de, -te Singular Plural tene tenede dry season mege megede wind storm, wind, air meyge meygede winter season jen jende year kred krete boundary marker The plural suffix –diny attaches to singular nouns with the final consonant ny. The suffix –tiny attaches to singular nouns with final s, p. -/-diny, -tiny Singular Plural pidiny pidinydiny heel of foot ngas ngastiny neck mes mestiny penis ip iptiny tail The plural suffix –ciny only attaches to singular nouns with final c.

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-/-ciny Singular Plural duric duricciny gathering of traders, merchants jenic jenicciny season mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny container, mould for shaping metal or clay ndakabuc ndakabucciny groundnut, peanut cic cicciny vagina The nouns below have the suffix –däg in the plural form. -/-däg Singular Plural pa padäg homestead resident, inhabitant ya yadäg meat kaxsäpa kaxsäpadäg town, city menggäpa menggäpadäg family bugun bugundug kingdom When this suffix is joined to the noun bugun ‘kingdom’ with vowel u, it becomes –dug, as stated by spelling rule 12. Spelling Rule 12 (page ): When a suffix beginning with –ä is joined to a word with last vowel o or u, the suffix vowel changes to –u. Noun suffix /-däg ya meat yadäg meats bugun kingdom bugundug kingdoms The nouns below have the suffix –tudi in the plural form. -/-tudi Singular Plural sud sutudi mound (of termites), hump (of cow) mus mustudi bowl, pot for pounding into The nouns below have the suffix –nag in the plural form. -/-nag Singular Plural ngole ngolenag motherꞌs brother wawa wawanag ancestor, grandparent Nouns with singular and plural suffixes The nouns below have the singular suffix –ic and the plural suffix –iny.

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-ic/-iny Singular Plural jesic jesiny soldier apadic apadiny duck, bird type pologic pologiny beam, rafter of house winic wininy vulture, bird type legedänic legedäniny story kokomic kokominy umbilical cord tebezic tebeziny letter ndendengic ndendenginy feather anapalic anapaliny arrow mataꞌdawic mataꞌdawiny fish type geldwic geldwiny wildcat The nouns below have the singular suffix –ic and the plural suffix -u. -ic/-u Singular Plural kulubic kulubu mushroom asarängadic asarängadu rainbow kubundic kubundu bark of tree kaboxtonic kaboxtonu frog banyic banyu light lunguric lunguru bird like duck guguric guguru fish type kuburic kuburu bench for sitting kuric kuru dove aroppolic aroppolu zebra anapalic anapalu bow The nouns below are body parts or family members. The singular and plural forms are different, but both have the suffix –äwan. -äwan/-äwan Singular Plural paxatäwan paxatagäwan waist ikäwan ikinggäwan mouth, language zäwan zänggäwan head wunduwan wungguwan ear andäwan asänggäwan hand cengiccäwan cendegäwan side baccäwan bacuguwan shoulder ongguwan ondungguwan back wanäwan wadägkäwan body awunuwan agäwan eye exenäwan exenggäwan leg

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alaxtäwan alanyäwan leg munuwan mudugkuwan nose penäwan penggäwan son bonuwan bongguwan mother menäwan menggäwan father penäwan penggäwan child nganäwan nganakäwan sister caxsäwan caxsänggäwan tribe, ethnic group As stated in spelling rule 12, the suffix –äwan becomes –uwan after the vowels o or u. Spelling Rule 12 (page ): When a suffix beginning with –ä is joined to a word with last vowel o or u, the suffix vowel changes to –u. Noun suffix /-äwan penäwan son penggäwan sons bonuwan mother bongguwan mothers The nouns below have the singular suffix –x and the plural suffix -ny. -x/-ny Singular Plural mägax mägany buffalo mägax mägany heart amax amany dwarf, short person tabax tabany prostitute gax gany cane, walking stick alax alany shin of leg osox osony lion kobox kobony gourd tumox tumony bee nggux ngguny tortoise, hunchback person The nouns below have the singular suffix –d and the plural suffix -nu. -d/-nu Singular Plural ꞌdawud ꞌdawunu fish type ꞌdämäd ꞌdämänu heifer, young cow The nouns below are made from simpler nouns by adding the word me ‘person’ before the singular noun and the word menggä ‘people’ before the plural noun. m/m Singular Plural me cagad menggä cagad sorcerer me celdug menggä celdug liar, lying person

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me pelow menggä pelow farmer me tekäbetu menggä tekäbetu potter me kudura menggä kudura strong person me sed menggä sed weaver me ded menggä ded blacksmith, iron worker me dabi menggä dabi poor person me dany menggä dany brave person me dolic menggä dolic guide me bärä menggä bärata thief me kaxsed menggä kaxsed bush dweller me golong menggä golong merchant, seller me menekas menggä menekas fisherman me marog menggä marota ghost me nganyad menggä nganyad trader, buyer me nyäxay menggä nyäxay beggar me nyugatug menggä nyugatug coward me lag menngä lag hunter me wanag menggä wanag father me walang menggä walang wanderer, walking from place to place me wedäg menggä wedäg traveler me isid menggä isid jealous person me yaxis menggä yaxis messenger me enged menggä enged butcher me ewe menggä ewe medicine man, traditional healer The nouns below are made from simpler nouns by adding the word päxä ‘child’ before the singular noun and the word enggä ‘children’ before the plural noun. p/e Singular Plural päxä pipi enggä pipu child päxä ponäwan enggä ponggäwan brother päxä canic enggä caning human being päxä cic enggä cicciny clitoris päxä kuxug enggä kuxuwiny chick, young chicken päxä oxay enggä oxayta insect päxä xong enggä xong dragonfly päxä sad enggä satu plate päxä sagun enggä sagunu lamb, young sheep päxä bälec enggä bäleg nephew, son of brother or sister päxä budurug enggä buduruginy piglet, young pig päxä bonu andäwan enggä bonggu asänggäwan thumb of hand päxä bonu exenäwan enggä bonggu exenggäwan toe of foot päxä deny enggä däg calf, young cow päxä mäxic enggä mäx vein of blood päxä ed enggä ewe shoot, young plant sprouting

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päxä ux enggä uxu girl päxä uxic enggä ux maggot, small worm päxä alkadis enggä alkadisu kitten, young cat päxä axä ꞌdog enggä axänggä ꞌdota ditch, trench päxä ayis enggä ayis kid, young goat päxä atu enggä atu grandchild päxä is enggä isu pup, young dog The nouns below are both singular and plural. Both a singular and plural demonstrative suffix such as –ong ‘this’ and –gong, -kong ‘these’ can attach to these nouns. X/X Singular Plural purupuru purupuru butterfly, moth macudid macudid co-wife, second wife tumsagu tumsagu unfermented asida oranyca oranyca orange ayis ayis goat Singular nouns However, some nouns are only singular or only plural. The nouns below are singular. They have no plural form. A singular demonstrative suffix such as –ong ‘this’ attaches to these nouns and not a plural demonstrative suffix such as –gong, -kong ‘these’. noun/- Singular Plural kunun —- locust, insect type mudic — nasal mucus xong — sun asmati — dry food for journey läg dust, smoke xas hunger koxa — rain doxajul — clay poxoja — okra zugoxa — sky meldic — argument cäpari thread, string tarupus mat Plural nouns The nouns below are plural. They have no singular form. A plural demonstrative suffix such as –gong, -kong ‘these’ attaches to these nouns and not a singular demonstrative suffix such as –ong ‘this’.

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-/noun Singular Plural Singular Plural — sed knot in rope — nyaxay request — sug urine, pee — juldäg darkness — zäkadasiny barren land, bad soil — agwang name — segu fresh milk — awiny flock of birds — ꞌdugog puss of skin infection — wayag clan, group in tribe — olug saliva — xocad mud, plaster — turay thunder of storm — wuxid alcohol — wedäg journey, trip — mem milk — xäs death — ma water — wanyig game — nyigidi dew, water on ground — oxsondug pregnancy — ay life — bus silk, maize hair — säpär cob of maize — agäwan face — tastäg problem, trouble — bux wine, beer — nung breath — tarlostäg ceremony for boy

becoming a man — nyadada chaff, ramins after

dura is harvested — sagaldäg cermony for girl

becoming a woman — pax miscarriage, pregnancy

ends in death of child — kapaldäg virgin, woman not

yet given birth — zäg dirt, soil, ground, land

ngeyig funeral, mourning ngeyitede funeral, mourning pelow field pelowde field butug kingdom sang downness Other nouns with changes between singular and plural Some nouns have other suffixes or are completely different in singular and plural form. Singular Plural zid zi rope angäxäsic angäx fly, insect type awagic awa chest tonggoloxosic tonggolox bed bug axsic as fish windiwic windu cooking stone, place of fire yox yu husband tänggäxsic tänggäx louse, lice, insect type nyixtäwan nyix tooth täzäg zäg floor nyingäs nyingäsä rat owanaskux owanaskuxo mother-in-law led letede joy, happiness ze zängge head, top of something

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odalenge odalengecä open place, clearing pen pendu wound, sore sad satu bowl, calabash ayda aydag in-law, relative by marriage kaxse kaxsingge stone, pit of fruit mandarna mandarnanginy snake type cax caxsiny anus pogud pogutada war baleg balegäwan belly, stomach ngga nganggonag mother wucic uwiciny reed, strong grass type jengic jengäcu pencil, pen kemis kemusu leopard mid midi fat, oil guzun guzini owl, bird type mäsa mästa fist of hand awad awiny bird ned newe rafter Kaläg kalta God, god bonog boniginy friend, person anggerepene anggerepunu bed bedic bedidäg pain kuc kuny sorghum ngasacca ngasaciny abscess, infection with puss ngasacca ngasayda goiter, growth on face kaxsed kaxsinggewe forest lede letuge owner guldäwan guliny navel, belly button tawage tawaga bottom of something mese mestiny stinger of insect kedenwec kedenewiny virgin, bride tongge tondungge back of something lemic lemanyu root (edible) sagal saliny girl Canic Caning Caning person korongic korongo pasture, grassy area for cows ꞌdawic ꞌdawucu broom gurumaꞌdig gurumaꞌdiny wasp, insect type badanäwan badada foot ngojox ngojeny blind person cobos cäbony chin, jaw wayäwan wayag relative by blood ꞌdanyäwan ꞌdanyda palate, roof of mouth majäwan majudi polygamy, marriage of more than one wife caxsäwan caxsiny descendant sepextic sepeny piece of something

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yaxtic yaw horn of animal, antenna of insect cigiyene cigidi mane, hair on neck of horse, lion ngayic nganyu small stone deny däg cow ꞌdoxti nycoki person Exercise 3 In the following sentences, underline all nouns. Do not underline any words that are not nouns. Underline a word once if it is a singular noun. Underline a word twice if it is a plural noun. (O&A 1) Osox kabandä oxayda kawuno käꞌday Lion called the animals to all dänge ngakänya täng. come hear his message there. (O&A 36) ꞌDärägsä ze adakä sasiy, ka sawang tänya. Brains of head they should not eat, but leave (O&A 39-40) for him. Ndä nyämel nyawung na nyaꞌdoxung He returned and came and found nycoki kasiy ya people had eaten meat i kawang zä Kaccä na nyimecce. and left head of Donkey and liver. (Nyax 1-2) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila Long ago, was a girl who refused to marry ka paye yoxa caxse kabatwa. unless she found a handsome husband. (A&N 5-6) Annoci edekeny oloxti odudi tä keskow, Early tomorrow morning at dawn, annoci tä lag tä pumpung ndey ꞌdoxig let us go hunting in bush so that we find oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig ta penggog. big animal and kill and bring to our home, (A&N 72) Yanä ike tägining, miye tagä, The meat of mouth is for you, skin is for ipe ta Apoco. me, and tail is for Hare. (T&A 44) Kamalä buguningzä odu nycamiye ganang “Camel is now chairman of meeting place, i Osox me bokosänakä ganang. and Lion is now the usher.”

Verbs A verb describes an action, motion, state, change, or can be used as an equal sign between words. In (O&A 19-20), kasäx ‘jumped’, kamen ‘caught’, nyägoy ‘ran’ and käluw ‘cut’ are all verbs. (O&A 19-20) Na sax Osox kasäx kamen nya, Again Lion jumped and caught him nyägoy, i käluw wundänya. and he ran, but he cut his ear.

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The following are other examples of verbs:

Caning Verbs Actions siye eat gele peel, shell (hard things) laley look, see Motions wange leave ꞌdoco go, move, separate from pete run Changes äxse die iye give birth oxsongada become pregnant States wingidi be fat bate be stupid moladaswa be silent Equal sign layis be, become näs be, is, was

Most verbs can take the place of saxe ‘refuse’ in (1) or kasiy ‘ate’ in (2). The word ꞌdog ‘something’ follows some verbs but not others. The parentheses ( ) are used to show ꞌdog is optional, depending on the verb. (1) Päxäginang saxe (ꞌdog) ganang. Your child refuses (something) now. (2) Kig kasiy (ꞌdog). Person ate (something). Exercise 4 Underline all verbs in the sentences below. Do not underline any words that are not verbs. (O&A 40) Nycoki kasiy ya i kawang zä Kaccä na People had eaten meat and left head of nyimecce. Donkey and the liver. (Nyax 1-2) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila ka paye Long ago, there was a girl who refused marriage yoxa caxse kabatwa. unless she found a husband that is handsome, (Nyax 7-8) looking nice. Na nyägäräng ka enggä aminugunyatäng. And he remembers his young friends. Ndey nyägäꞌdoc täng toga wegkä del tänya. So he goes there to give him decorations. (Nyax 58) Na mabag päxä pipi kala säwedeccä sawuno And he took the babysitter and they walked and tä ikä colonggo. came to mouth of river. (Nyax 89-90) Na nyalilingäsi na cabag mida täpäye cocola And he bent over and she took hot oil and taxä caxsänya. Na Nyoxolow käxsä poured (it) into the anus. And Hyena died na cabag päxäsa, na nya päxä Nyaxolowzi. and she took child and it is child of the Hyena.

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(Nyax 112-113) I nya nyägäꞌdoc nyägäcca toboxu koxiccandäng. But he went and sat under of coconut tree there. Na nyoxo ligitigä weg pirtidining. And he saw shadows of things shaking. (T&A 1) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed. an important king in the forest. (T&A 29-30) Agänang, ngakang layis ngakä uxong. I am the one, my word remains word of wife.

Prepositions Prepositions introduce words that describe (tell about) a previous action. The preposition and the words following the preposition are called a prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase may have a noun, verbal noun or pronoun. The preposition ta, tä ‘at, in, on, to, from, for’ begins a phrase that tells the location, goal, source, time or purpose of the action. Ta comes before a person or animal and tä comes before other nouns. The preposition na ‘with, by’ begins a phrase that tells the accompaniment or instrument of an action. Preposition ta, tä ‘at, in, on, to, from, for’ In (T&A 1), ta, tä ‘at, in’ is a preposition that introduces the prepositional phrase tä kaxsed ‘at forest’. (T&A 1) (Location) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed. an important king in the forest. The phrase tä kaxsed tells the location of nyäs buguningza ‘was king’. In (O&A 6), the preposition ta, tä ‘to’ introduces the prepositional phrase ta oxayda ‘to animals’. (O&A 6) (Goal) Na Atorndori ngade ta oxayda ka, . . . And Fox said to the animals, The phrase ta oxayda tells the goal or target of the action ngade ‘said’. In (Nyax 82), the preposition ta, tä ‘from’ introduces the prepositional phrase ta agäsa ‘from their eyes’. (Nyax 82) (Source) Na wäx ta agäsa kacu cucu cu. And tears from their eyes came pouring out. This prepositional phrase shows the source (beginning location) of agäsa kacu cucu cu ‘tears pouring out’.

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In (A&N 5), the preposition ta, tä ‘at’ introduces the prepositional phrase tä keskow ‘at dawn’. (A&N 5-6) (Time) Anocci edekeny oloxti odudi tä keskow, “Early tomorrow morning at dawn, anocci tä lag tä pumpung. let us go hunting in bush. The phrase shows the time of the following action anocci ‘let us go’. In (O&A 2), the preposition ta, tä ‘for’ introduces the prepositional phrases tä dänggä ꞌdogi nyäpaye nyägatang ‘for listening of the thing that it wanted them to hear’. (O&A 2) (Purpose) Na oxayda kawuno tä dänggä ꞌdogi nyäpaye And the animals came for listening of the thing nyägatang. that it wanted them to hear. This phrase shows the purpose of the action kawuno ‘came’. The preposition ta, tä has the vowel a before a person or animal such as nganäsa ‘elder sister’, but has the vowel ä before nouns that are not alive such as pa ‘house’. (Nyax 74) Na semen akä sog sägäꞌdocco tä pa ta nganäsa. They began and went to house to elder sister. Preposition na ‘with, by, and’ In (T&A 4-5), the preposition na ‘with, by, and’ introduces the prepositional phrase na uxunya ‘with wife’. (T&A 4-5) (Accompaniment) Na xongonendäng nyabag penggänya And there was a time when he took his na uxunya. children with his wife. This phrase shows who accompanies (goes along with) the doer of the action nyabag ‘took’. In (T&A 32), the preposition na ‘with, by’ introduces the prepositional phrase na exengge pätaxakang ‘with two legs’. (T&A 32) (Instrument, tool) Uxong wede na exengge pätaxakang This woman will go with two legs nyang sogoka ameskewang. and I protect (her). This phrase shows the instrument (tool, thing) that helps to do the action wede ‘go’. The prepositions ta, tä ‘in, at, on, from, to, for’ and na ‘with, by’ are written separate from following nouns. (See spelling rule 8)

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Correct Wrong Kig käꞌdoc ta buguning. tabuguning. Person went to chief. ta ux. tux. to woman. ta op. top. to young man. Apang käꞌdoc na kig. nagig. Man went with person na ux. nux. with woman. na op. nop. with young man. In summary, the prepositions and their use are listed below. Prepositions Use Nouns alive Nouns not alive ta tä at, in, on Location to Goal from Source at Time for Purpose na na with Accompaniment with, by Instrument, tool Exercise 5 Underline all prepositions in the sentences below. Do not underline any words that are not prepositions. (O&A 13) Na nyägäꞌdoc ta buguning, . . . And went to the king, (O&A 25) Noco na nycata tä butug apoyiyo winy. you will go and sit comfortably in kingdom. (O&A 29) Na nyägäꞌdoc nyapäcca ta buguning, . . . And he went and called to king, (O&A 34) Kala Osox kasiy nya ndä wang bange So Lion ate him and left the remainder ta oxaydagi. for the other animals. (O&A 40) I kawang zä Kaccä na nyimecce And left the head of Donkey with the liver. (Nyax 17) Nyabag kalanyä wedede sägäpase na me He took it and they met with a person agäwan, with eyes, (Nyax 30) Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko wala wi?” Listen, have you come to our home or what? (Nyax 37) Neng zaxeng adelgede tä masäginani.” Well if like that, I will fall down into your fire. (Nyax 39-40) Kala kodogas ce tä akä sog Then she escorted (them) on the way

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ndä säpäse lang täce kätos na päxä weg. and they filled bags for her there with things. (Nyax 52) Kala tä pa sägucco kala cägoxsonga. Then she stayed at home and became pregnant. (Nyax 54) Na memen akä sog mägäꞌdoc tä pa He began journey and went to house ta menggäsa. of fathers. (Nyax 70) Kala sax cayaxsä ma kala cadästä ma So she sent him and advised him tä buxani biyeyang. for a little wine. (Nyax 87) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig Bend over with your head (down) and we will mid täxä caxsägi. pour oil inside your anus. (Nyax 91) Kala semen akä sog säwedeccä mänang So, they began walking on the way kala säpaseccä na me kaläg. until they met with a witchdoctor. (Nyax 96) Kanggo luwing nyimec ta andäma. Oh, you cut out liver for his hand. (Nyax 110) Wesi zagi tä kaxsed tä nyam. You go gather in forest for checking. (A&N 1) Legedäniccä Atorndorindäng na Nyoxolow. There is a story of Fox with Hyena. (A&N 28) Accang, wasaki kawunig tä lag na buguning. We gathered and came for hunting with king. (A&N 61) Ndä sägäba miye na ipe, i ze kalay tunyu. They took skin with tail but left head behind. (A&N 78) “ ‘Edekeny, mägoying anggo tä codad’ “ ‘Tomorrow, he brings you for wrestling’ na xetego ka kangad mänang.” with your brothers speak like this.” (T&A 12) Kampätäng tä koyinakä nycokong I come for escorting these people tä siyakä ota for eating places. (T&A 26) I oda wede ndä kadarjange gi na pipuwang? Will storm come and attack you with children?

Locations A location word introduces a word that tells the location of an action. A location word is made from the preposition tä ‘to’ and a body part noun. In (Pedi 25), the location word tägaxsä ‘into’ introduces the word lang ‘basket’. The phrase tägaxsä lang ‘into basket’ tells the resulting location or goal of the action gawa axsic ‘will throw’. (Pedi 25)

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Käxi kädolezang gawa axsic tägaxsä lang. Person who leads will throw fish into basket. The location words in bold below come from the nouns below on the left. Noun Location agäwan face, eyes Coxo tagä pa. She sees in front of house. ze head Coxo täzä pa. She sees above house. cax anus Coxo täcaxsä pa. She sees below house. cengiccäwan side Coxo täcengiccä pa. She sees next to house. ongäwan back Coxo tongä pa. She sees behind house. kaxsä inner part Coxo tägaxsä pa. She sees inside house. Sometimes location words sound the same as nouns introduced by the preposition tä ‘to’. For example, in (1), the noun zä ‘head of’ is introduced by the preposition tä ‘to’. It sounds the same as the location word täzä ‘over, above’ in (2). Noun (1) Coxo tä zä kig. She sees to person’s head. Location (2) Coxo täzä kig. She sees above person. However, we always write nouns separate from the preposition tä ‘to’, and location words are always connected to the preposition tä. Other location words and nouns following the preposition tä are compared below. (See spelling rule 8) Noun Location Coxo tä agä kig. She sees to person’s face. Coxo tagä kig. She sees in front of person. Coxo tä zä kig. She sees to person’s head. Coxo täzä kig. She sees above person. Coxo tä caxsä kig. She sees to person’s anus. Coxo täcaxsä kig. She sees below person. Coxo tä cengiccä kig. She sees to person’s side. Coxo täcengiccä kig. She sees next to person. Coxo tä ongä kig. She sees to person’s back. Coxo tongä kig. She sees behind person. Coxo tä kaxsä kig. She sees to person’s innerd. Coxo tägaxsä kig. She sees inside person. Exercise 6 In the following sentences, underline all location words. (Nyax 104) Na mägäpokä sa madoga sa And he carried them and put them tägaxsä bo meldänäny. in the blatter. (T&A 24) Accang go pipu tägaxsä camanong. Surely the children are in danger. (A&A 19-21) Alkadis ꞌdoc todong nyäꞌdoc tä bange Cat went and he (Hare) followed calling kala Alkadis kawizä ngakänya, so that Cat beame fed-up of him (Hare), kaꞌdeg täzä ed nanya, and climbed up in tree with it food). Apoco nyawung nyägäcca Hare came and sat

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täcaxsä ed nanya under the tree with it (food) (A&A 28) Apoco kaꞌdeg täzä ed na ngede tänya. Hare climbed up in the tree and said to him. (Pedi 28) Na sägäcogä waccid na axsic When evening arrived, there was only one fish tägaxsä lang nuxung. in the basket. (Pedi 48-49) Na kala todi kig äxse säpoko säꞌdocco Then a person died and they carried (him) sädogada täzä telegu and went and put (it) over shelter. (AKT 25) Na nyäzacca kädeg na nyäkoy nyägäꞌdoc And he looked carefully and ran and went tägaxsä pumpung. inside the forest.

How Nouns are Used In a previous lesson, we learned a noun is a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. In this lesson we learn how nouns are used. Nouns can be subject, objects, introduced by prepositions, or possessors. Subjects do the action of the verb. In (1), the noun kig ‘person’ is a subject that does the action kasiy ‘eat’. (1) Kig kasiy ya. Person ate meat. Objects receive the action. The action is done to an object. In (2), the action kasiy ‘eat’ is done to the object ya ‘meat’. (2) Kig kasiy ya. Person ate meat. Nouns can also be introduced by prepositions. In (3), the preposition tä ‘in’ introduces the noun pumpung ‘bush’. (3) Kig kasiy ya tä pumpung. Person ate meat in bush. Prepositions and the nouns they introduce describe (tell about) the action. In (3), tä pumpung tells where the action kasiy is done. Nouns can also be possessors or owners of other nouns. In (4), kig ‘person’ owns or possesses atorndori ‘fox’. (4) Atorndorinä kig käꞌdoc tä pumpung. Fox of person went to the bush. We learn more about possessor nouns in the lesson Possessor connector suffixes.

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Exercise 7 In the following sentences, underline each subject noun, circle each object noun, draw a box around each possessor noun, and underline twice each noun introduced by a preposition. The first one is done as an example (O&A 1) Osox kabandä oxayda kawuno käꞌday Lion called the animals to all dänge ngakänya täng. come hear his message. (O&A 39-40) Nycoki kasiy ya People had eaten meat i kawang zä Kaccä na nyimecce. and left head of Donkey with liver. (A&N 5-6) Anocci edekeny oloxti odudi tä keskow, Early tomorrow morning at dawn, anocci tä lag tä pumpung ndey ꞌdoxig let us go hunting in bush so that we find oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig ta penggog. big animal and kill and bring to our home. (A&N 86) Na penggä Nyoxolow käꞌdocco kaläpe ta mena. Children of Hyena went and told to father.

Pronouns A pronoun is used instead of a noun. In this lesson, we learn the main, most common pronouns. In the next lesson, we learn other less common pronouns. In (A&N 4), the prefix nyä- ‘he’ on nyängade ‘he said’ is a pronoun. It takes the place of the noun Atorndori ‘Fox’ in the sentence before. (A&N 2-4) Sälege mägaccäng wane ka Atorndori It is said that a long time ago Fox na Nyoxolow ka säs enggä bony. and Hyena were friends. Na kala xongonendäng, And there was a time when nyängade ta amindänya ka, . . . he (Fox) said to his friend (friend of Fox), . . . Rather than saying Atorndori every time we talk about this animal, we can instead say nya- in place of Atorndori. The suffix –nya on amindänya ‘his friend’ is another pronoun that takes the place of Atorndori. Pronouns can be used as subjects, objects, be introduced by prepositions, or be possessors. In (1), kig ‘person’ is a subject noun that does the action kasax ‘refused’. (1) Kig kasax op. Person refused young man. The following pronouns can take the place of the subject noun kig ‘person’ in (1). The verb

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prefix (beginning of words) or suffix changes from one subject pronoun to the next. Pronouns as subjects (Agä) kasax op. I refused young man. (Gi) käsax op. You (sg) refused young man. (Ma) masax op. He refused young man. (Ce) casax op. She refused young man. (Nya) nyasax op. It refused young man. (Was) kasaxig op. We (not you) refused young man. (Kog) käsaxig op. We (and you) refused young man. (Anggo) käsaxang op. You (pl) refused young man. (Sa) sasax op. They refused young man. In (2), op ‘young man’ is an object noun that receives the action kasax ‘refused’. (2) Kig kasax op. Person refused the young man. The following pronouns can take the place of the object noun op ‘young man’ in (2). Object pronouns are written as separate words from the verb they follow. (See spelling rule 9). Pronouns as objects Kig kasax agä. Person refused me. Kig kasax gi. Person refused you (sg). Kig kasax ma. Person refused him. Kig kasax ce. Person refused her. Kig kasax nya. Person refused it. Kig kasax was. Person refused us (not you). Kig kasax kog. Person refused us (and you). Kig kasax anggo. Person refused you (pl). Kig kasax sa. Person refused them. In (3), the preposition ta, tä ‘for’ introduces the noun buguning ‘chief’. (3) Säwang ꞌdärägse ta buguning. They leave that brain for the chief. The following pronouns connected to tä can take the place of the prepositional phrase tä buguning ‘for chief’ in (3). Pronouns following the preposition tä ꞌforꞌ Säwang ꞌdärägse tagä. They leave that brain for me. Säwang ꞌdärägse tägi. They leave that brain for you (sg). Säwang ꞌdärägse täma. They leave that brain for him. Säwang ꞌdärägse täce. They leave that brain for her. Säwang ꞌdärägse tänya/täng. They leave that brain for it. Säwang ꞌdärägse täwas. They leave that brain for us (not you).

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Säwang ꞌdärägse tägog. They leave that brain for us (and you). Säwang ꞌdärägse tanggo. They leave that brain for you (pl). Säwang ꞌdärägse täsa. They leave that brain for them. We learn more about prouns introduced by prepositions in the lesson Prepositions and locations introduducing pronouns. In (4), apang ‘man’ is the owner (possessor) of the singular noun ax ‘hut’. Singular noun (4) Kig kasax axä apang. Person refused hut of man. Pronoun (5) Kig kasax axang. Person refused my hut. In (5), the singular possessor pronoun suffix –ang ‘my’ takes the place of apang ‘man’ in (4). Similarly, in (6), apang ‘man’ is the owner of the plural noun axinygä ‘huts’. In (7), the plural possessor pronoun suffix –gang ‘my’ takes the place of apang in (6). Plural noun (6) Kig kasax axinygä apang. Person refused huts of man. Pronoun (7) Kig kasax axinygang. Person refused my huts. The other possessor pronouns below can take the place of the possessor noun apang ‘man’ in (4) and (6). Possessor pronouns Singular Plural Possessor ‘my’ axang axinygang my hut Possessor ‘your (sg)’ axägi axinygägi your (sg) hut Possessor ‘his’ axäma axinygäma his hut Possessor ‘her’ axäce axinygäce her hut Possessor ‘its’ axänya axinygänya its hut Possessor ‘our (not your)’ axäsko axinygäsko our (not your) hut Possessor ‘our (and your)’ axog axinygog our (and your) hut Possessor ‘your (pl)’ axägo axinygägo your (pl) hut Possessor ‘their’ axäsa axinygäsa their hut We learn more about possessor pronouns in the lesson Possessed family nouns and body part nouns and in Possessor pronoun suffixes. All prouns are listed together in the lesson Review of pronouns and suffixes on pronouns. In summary, the main pronouns are listed below. Pronouns Subject, object After prepositions Possessor agä I, me -agä me -ang my mine gi you (sg) -gi you (sg) -ägi your (sg) yours (sg)

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ma he, him -ma him -äma his his ce she, her -ce her -äce her hers nya it -nya it -änya its its was we, us (not you) -was us (not you) -äsko our (not your) ours (not yours) kog we, us (and you) -kog us (and you) -og our (and your) ours (and yours) anggo you (pl) -anggo you (pl) -ägo your (pl) yours (pl) sa they, them -sa them -äsa their theirs Exercise 8 In the following sentences, underline each subject pronoun, circle each object pronoun, draw a box around each possessor pronoun, and underline twice each pronoun introduced by a preposition. The first one is done as an example. (O&A 14) Na Osox kasäx kängaw nya, And the Lion jumpe caught it, nyägoy nyangaw ipänya. and he ran and caught its tail. (Nyax 5) Na säläpeda tänya ka sagaleneni, And they said to him she is a girl that paye yoxa caxse kabatwa. wants a handsome husband. (Nyax 28) Na ce cägox ma. And she saw him. (Nyax 44) Uxog, uxog, kädugig? Our wife, our wife, the one we are sharing? (Nyax 49) Ama gisani me panangani todi Hey, there is a guy, the father of my house, läpi täma ka mawang. speak to him to come. (Nyax 53) Wede tä pa koying nuxu päxäsko tagä ndey Go to house and bring our only menecce tagä. child to me so that he may care for me. (Nyax 76) Gi nycu ka käxogkandäng? Do you still (see) our person? (Nyax 112) I nya nyägäꞌdoc nyägäcca toboxu koxiccandäng. But he went and sat under a coconut tree. (A&N 36-37) ‘Bonog, masani nuxu kig ꞌdoc bota tägog’, ‘Friend, there is fire, one person will bring it ndä dängig ꞌdoga mängade tägog. to us, and you will see thing he tells us. (A&N 60) I sa salaye sosokuta ya käꞌday But they remained and transfered all meat tä pang Atorndori. home to house of Fox. (A&N 84) Appanang degeje menggo. And my father is stronger than your father. (T&A 21) Sagoying anggo tä siyakä ota tä kaxsed? They brought you to see the forest?

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Possessive, reflexive, emphasis and other pronouns In this lesson we learn other pronouns that can take the place of nouns. A possessive pronoun takes the place of a possessed noun and its possessor. In (1), apang ‘man’ is a possessor noun owning the possessed noun ax ‘hut’. Possessed noun, possessor noun (1) Kig kasax axä apang. Person refused hut of man. Possessive (2) Kig kasax nämanggo. (?) Person refused his. In (2), the possessive pronoun nämanggo ‘his’ takes the place of axä apang ‘hut of man’ in (1). The other possessive pronouns below can also take the place of the possessed noun axä apang in (1). Possessive pronouns nanggä mine nänggi yours (sg) nämanggo his näcengga hers nänyanggo its näskonga ours (us, not you) nänokanga ours (us and you) nänggonga yours (pl) näsanga theirs Emphasis pronouns make it clear that only the subject does the action and no one else. The same possessor pronouns as for common nouns attach to watäke ‘alone’ to make emphasis pronouns. Emphasis pronouns Kig kabag ya watäke. Person took meat alone Agä kabag ya watäkang. I took meat myself. Gi käbag ya watäkägi You (sg) took meat yourself. Ma mabag ya watäkäma. He took meat himself. Ce cabag ya watäkäce She took meat herself. Nya nyabag ya watäkänya. It took meat itself. Was kabagig ya watäkäsko. We (not you) took meat ourselves. Kog käbagig ya watäkog. we (and you) took meat ourselves. Anggo käbagang ya watäkägo. You (pl) took meat yourselves. Sa sabag ya watäkäsa. They took meat themselves. Reflexive pronouns show the same person doing the action also receives the action. The same possessor pronouns as for common nouns attach to ngas ‘neck’ to make singular reflexive pronouns and to ngastäng (similar to ngastiny ‘necks’) to make plural reflexive pronouns.

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Reflexive pronouns [check all] Kig axsetasa ngasäma. Person ties himself. Agä naxsetasa ngasang. I tie myself. Gi axsetasa ngasägi. You (sg) tie yourself. Ma maxsetasa ngasäma. He ties himself. Ce caxsetasa ngasäce. She ties herself. Nya nyaxsetasa ngasänya. It ties itself. Was waxsetasänig ngastänggäsko. We (not you) tie ourselves. Kog axsetasänig ngastänggog. We (and you) tie ourselves. Anggo axsetasänang ngastänggägo. You (pl) tie yourselves. Sa saxsetasa ngastänggäsa. They tie themselves. Certainty pronouns make it clear that it was really the person that did the action and that it was not another person. There are only the following certainty pronouns. Agänangang kapax denyeng. I am really the one (that) killed the cow. Gininganang käpax denyeng. You (sg) are really the one (that) killed the cow. Mangang mapax denyeng. He is really the one (that) killed the cow. Ceangang capax denyeng. She is really the one (that) killed the cow. Nyangang nyapax denyeng. It is really the one (that) killed the cow. Collective pronouns make it clear that more than one person did or received the action. There are only the following collective pronouns. Collective pronouns Sägäyawesäning nanggäsko. They gathered all of us (not you). Sägäyawesäning nanggog. They gathered all of us (and you) Sägäyawesäning nanggägo. They gathered all of you (pl). Sägäyawesäning nanggäsa. They gathered all of them. Exercise 9 In the sentences below, underline all possessive, emphasis, reflexive, certainty, and collective pronouns. (A&N 19-20) I tari nya Atorndori ngakänya täng täzäg But Fox himself surely had goal of

indirectly nyäpaye nyäbag ya watäkänya, taking the meat for himself, (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you yourself go hunting and kill a

cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang, and you have no fire, what do you do then, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw?

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(A&N 64-65) Nyoxolow käpätäng na pecäg na kamen zä Hyena came and ran and caught the head

of deny, kaꞌdiꞌdi nanggäsa, the cow, and pulled all of them, säs kodos na sanyasäng tunyu. those three, and they pulled (it) out. (A&N 92-93) Ndakä paxang agä, Do not kill me, xa agänangang kapax denyang song. for I am really not the one that killed the

cow. (T&A 15-16) “Anggotäng watäkägo apoccu?” Buguning, ngade ka,

“Are you yourselves all fine?” King (said),

“E wasatäng watäkäsko apoccu winy.” “Yes, we oursleves are all just fine.” (T&A 43) Na sägäyawesäning nanggäsa. And they gathered all of them. (A&A 23) Yex key megedetäng You know, there are storms coming udosäno na koxa basa waxsetasänig with rain and we need to tie ngastänggog tawagä ewe. ourselves to the bottom of the trees.

Prepositions and locations introducing pronouns In the lesson Pronouns, we learned that pronouns can be used in the place of nouns. In this lesson, we learn how pronouns can take the place of nouns following prepositions and locations. In (1) and (2), the prepositions ta ‘to’ and na ‘with’ introduce the noun kig ‘person’. Goal (1) Apang käꞌdoc ta kig. Man went to person. Accompaniment (2) Apang käꞌdoc na kig. Man went with person. Below, the pronouns connected to ta, tä can take the place of ta kig ‘to person’ in (1). The pronouns connected to na can take the place of na kig ‘with person’ in (2). Preposition

goal Preposition accompaniment

to, for . . . with . . . agä tagä nagä I gi tägi nagi you (sg) ma täma nama he ce täce nace she nya tänya, täng nanya, nang it was täwas nawas us (not you) kog tägog nagog us (and you)

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anggo tänggo nanggo you (pl) sa täsa nasa they In (3), the location word täzä ‘above’ introduces the noun kig ‘person’. In (4) the location word and pronoun täzäma ‘above him’ can take the place of täzä kig ‘above peron’ in (3). Location noun (3) Coxo täzä kig. She sees above person. Location pronoun (4) Coxo täzäma. She sees above him. Location words introducing pronouns sound the same as prepositions introducing possessed body parts. In (5), the possessed noun zä ‘his head’ is introduced by the preposition tä ‘to’. It sounds the same as the location word and pronoun täzäma ‘above him’ in (6). Preposition, possessed noun (5) Coxo tä zäma. She sees to his head. Location, pronoun (6) Coxo täzäma. She sees above him. However, we always write nouns separate from the preposition tä ‘to’, and location words are always made of a noun connected to the preposition tä. (See spelling rule 8). Below, other location words introducing pronouns are compared with possessed nouns following the preposition tä. Preposition, possessed noun Location, pronoun Coxo tä agäma. She sees to his face. Coxo tagäma. She sees in front of him. Coxo tä zäma. She sees to his head. Coxo täzäma. She sees above him. Coxo tä caxsäma. She sees to his anus. Coxo täcaxsäma. She sees below him. Coxo tä cengiccäma. She sees to his side. Coxo täcengiccäma. She sees next to him. Coxo tä onguma. She sees to his back. Coxo tonguma. She sees behind him. Coxo tä kaxsäma. She sees to his innerd. Coxo tägaxsäma. She sees inside him. Below, the pronouns introduced by locations can take the place of tagä kig in (7). (7) Coxo tagä kig. She sees in front of person. Locations introducing pronouns before . . above . . below . . beside . . . behind . . inside . . agä tagang täzang täcaxsang täcengiccang tongang tägaxsang me gi tagägi täzägi täcaxsägi täcengiccägi tongugi tägaxsägi you (sg) ma tagäma täzäma täcaxsäma täcengiccäma tonguma tägaxsäma him ce tagäce täzäce täcaxsäce täcengiccäce tonguce tägaxsäce her nya tagänya täzänya täcaxsänya täcengiccänya tongunya tägaxsänya it was tagäsko täzäsko täcaxsäsko täcengiccäsko tongusko tägaxsäsko us (not you) kog tagog täzog täcaxsog täcengiccog tongog tägaxsog us (and you) anggo tagägo täzägo täcaxsägo täcengiccägo tongugo tägaxsägo you (pl) sa tagäsa täzäsa täcaxsäsa täcengiccäsa tongusa tägaxsäsa them

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The prepositions ta, tä ‘in, at, on, from, to, for’ and na ‘with, by’ and loction word täzä ‘above’ are written separate from following nouns. However, they are written connected to pronouns. (See spelling rule 8). Correct Wrong Apang käꞌdoc ta kig. tagig. Man went to person. tagä ta agä to me. tägi tä gi to you (sg). täma tä ma to him. täce tä ce to her. tänya, täng tä nya, tä ang to it. täwas tä was to us (not you). tägog tä kog to us (and you). tanggo ta anggo to you (pl). täsa tä sa to them. Apang käꞌdoc na kig. nakig. Man went with person nagä na agä with me. nagi na gi with you (sg). nama na ma with him. nace na ce with her. nanya na nya with it. nawas na was with us (not you). nagog na gog with us (and you). nanggo na anggo with you (pl). nasa na sa with them. Apang coxo täzä kig. täzägig. Man sees above person. täzang täzä ang above me. täzägi täzä gi above you (sg). täzäma täzä ma above him. täzäce täzä ce above her. täzänya täzä nya above it. täzäsko täzä sko above us (not you). täzog täzä og above us (and you). täzägo tazä go above you (pl). täzäsa täzä sa above them. Exercise 10 In the following sentences, underline all prepositions and location words with attached pronouns. (O&A 21-22) Sax mände Atorndori käꞌdoc tä bangänya, Again Fox went to call him, again he mände käꞌdoc kaꞌdoxasa nya na ngade tänya. went and found him and said to him (donkey) (O&A 29) Na nyägäꞌdoc nyapäcca ta buguning, And he went and called the king

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ngade täng ka, and said to him, (O&A 45) Ziya ꞌdog winy, i gom buguning You just eat the thing, after the king comes, kawungang wanga tagä. leave it for me. (O&A 49) Gi ndey bäle ka gining tä zägi, You were supposed to collect all the meat, ninggi wundung. but with you absent. (Nyax 11) Bo tong zäginong anoc abagäs Speak truthfully, I want to marry uxandäng tägog. a woman for us. (Nyax 16) Na me anadaru ngade ka, “Neng, nang bi.” Person with glasses said, “Ok, with it then.” (Nyax 42) Na nyängade täce ka, And he (husband) asked to her, (Nyax 49) Ama gisani me panangani todi, Hey, there is a guy, the father of my children, läpi täma ka mawung. tell to him to come. (Nyax 107) Päxä yanang kaꞌdox tanggo, wining lala. This is a lot of meat for you. Come and see. (Nyax 110) Na nyäläpede täsa ka, He told to them, (A&N 85) Ka zäg kabag ya, That soil surely took the meat, i cong mabag ya magoying täwas. so bring the meat to us. (A&N 97-98) Nycugo anoyi, awanga Atorndori watäke Let us run! Leave Fox alone xa nya mänang Atorndori, because Fox he is the one, and he will hear mägädäng nycoki tägog. Nycugo anoyi! people coming to us. Let us run! (A&A 19-21) Alkadis ꞌdoc todong nyäꞌdoc tä bange Cat went and he (Hare) followed calling kala Alkadis kawizä ngakänya, so that Cat beame fed-up of him (Hare), kaꞌdeg täzä ed nanya. and climbed up in tree with it (food).

Possessed family nouns and body part nouns (inalienable) In the lesson called Pronouns, we learned that possessor pronouns can take the place of possessor nouns. In this lesson we learn how family nouns and body part nouns are possessed. The following possessor pronouns in bold are attached to common nouns (alienable). Possessor pronouns for common nouns (alienable) Singular Plural Possessor ‘my’ axang axinygang my hut Possessor ‘your (sg)’ axägi axinygägi your (sg) hut

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Possessor ‘his’ axäma axinygäma his hut Possessor ‘her’ axäce axinygäce her hut Possessor ‘its’ axänya axinygänya its hut Possessor ‘our (not your)’ axäsko axinygäsko our (not your) hut Possessor ‘our (and your)’ axog axinygog our (and your) hut Possessor ‘your (pl)’ axägo axinygägo your (pl) hut Possessor ‘their’ axäsa axinygäsa their hut Some nouns for relatives or family members have special possession (inalienable). The nouns appa and menäwan are both used for ‘father’. Appa is used when possessed by ‘my’ and ‘our’, whereas menäwan is used for other possessors. Similarly, ngga and bonäwan are both used for ‘mother’. Ngga is used when possessed by ‘my’ and ‘our’, whereas bonäwan is used for other possessors. Possessed family nouns (inalienable) Singular Plural Singular Plural appa appanag father ngga nganggonag mother menäwan menggäwan father bonäwan bonggäwan mother appanang appanangag my ngganang ngganangag my menggo menggägo your (sg), (pl) bonggo bonggägo your (sg), (pl) mesa menggäsa his, her, their bosa bonggäsa his, her, their mena mengga its bona bongga its appanäsko menggäsko our (not your) ngganäsko bonggäsko our (not your) appanog appanag, menggog our (and your) ngganog ngganag, bonggog our (and your) For family nouns, there is no difference between ‘your (sg)’ and ‘your (pl)’ or between ‘his, her and their’. For example, menggo can be either ‘your (sg) father’ or ‘your (pl) father’. Mesa can be ‘his father’, ‘her father’ or ‘their father’. The same is true for the possession of ngga, bonäwan ‘mother’, päxä ‘younger sibling’, and ngan ‘older sibling’. Possessed family nouns (inalienable) Singular Plural Singular Plural päxä enggä younger sibling

(sister or brother) ngan nganag older sibling

(sister or brother) päxäsko enggenggäsko my nganäsko nganakäsko my päxägo enggenggägo your (sg), (pl) nganägo nganakägo your (sg), (pl) päxäsa enggenggäsa his, her, their nganäsa nganakäsa his, her, their päxä enggenggä its nganä nganakä its päxäsko enggenggäsko our (not your) nganäsko nganakäsko our (not your) päxog enggenggog our (and your) nganog nganakog our (and your) Body parts have the same possessor pronouns as for common nouns. However, the body part suffix –wan disappears when the possessor pronouns are attached. And possessor pronouns of plural body parts do not begin with –g- or –k- as do possessor pronouns of plural common nouns. Instead, both singular and plural possessor pronouns of body parts are the same.

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Possessed body part nouns (inalienable) Singular Plural [check all] Singular Plural [check all] awunuwan agäwan eye zäwan zänggäwan head awunang agang my zang zänggang my awunugi agägi your (sg) zägi zänggägi your (sg) awunuma agäma his zäma zänggäma his awunuce agäce her zäce zänggäce her awununya agänya its zänya zänggänya its awunusko agäsko our (not your) zäsko zänggäsko our (not your) awunog agog our (and your) zog zänggog our (and your) awunugo agägo your (pl) zägo zänggägo your (pl) awunusa agäsa their zäsa zänggäsa their Exercise 11 In the following sentences, underline all nouns with possessor pronouns. (O&A 1) Aniyandäng, Osox kabandä oxayda In former times, Lion called the animals to kawuno käꞌday dänge ngakänya täng. all come hear his message. (O&A 19-20) Na sax Osox kasäx kamen nya nyägoy And again Lion jumped and caught him i käluw wundänya. and he ran, and he cut his ear. (O&A 47) I ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogang giyandi? Where is the brain of the head of my thing? (Nyax 30) Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko wala wi?” Listen, have you come to our home or what? (Nyax 31) E, agänang kawung tä panägo xongondong. Yes, I have come to your house today. (Nyax 33) Na kala cägäꞌdoc ta mesa cängade täng ka, And then she went to her father and said to him, (Nyax 39) Cägäduru wayagkäsa käꞌday. She gathered all their relatives. (Nyax 44-45) Na nyängade ka, “Uxog, uxog, kädugig? He said, “Our wife, the one we are sharing? Neng tong zang.” Ok, bring my head.” (Nyax 54) Na mamen akä sog mägäꞌdoc tä pa And he began the journey and went ta menggäsa, to house of her fathers, (Nyax 56) Kala maläpe ta menggäsa ka, Then he told her fathers, “Päxägo paye medenow.” “Your daughter needs a babysitter.” (Nyax 61) Cong boxu gisongang käbag nganäskong? Are you this guy that married this our sister? (Nyax 74)

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Na samen akä sog sägäꞌdocco And they began on the way and they went tä pa ta nganäsa. to the house of their elder sister. (Nyax 76) Na kala ce cäläpede ta nganäsa ka, And then she told her elder sister, “Gi nycu ka käxogkandäng? “Do you still (see) our person? (Nyax 77) ꞌDoxtong kasiy nganakog käꞌday song? Didn‘t this guy eat all our elder sisters?” (Nyax 82) Na wäx ta agäsa kacu cucu cu. And tears from their eyes came pouring out. (Nyax 87-88) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig mid Bend over with your head and we will pour oil taxä caxsägi na kala käwing.” into your anus so that you will be fat. (Nyax 93-94) Na päxä Nyoxolow käluw ngade ka, And the child of the Hyena responded saying, “Ngganang kapax appanang.” “My mother killed my father.” (Nyax 96) Kanggo luwing nyimec ta andäma. You cut out the liver for his hand. (Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi? You are saying there is a problem in his anus? (A&N 41-42) Nyoxolow ngade ta Apoco ka, Hyena said to Hare, “Gindäng wanägi apo?” Apoco ngade ka, “You are your body is good?” Hare said, “E, agänang wanang apo winy.” “Yes, I am my body is good.” (A&N 75) Wanyeccä na penggänya They were playing and his children na nyäwede nyäꞌdoxong towa. and he came and found (them) inside. (A&N 78) ‘Edekeny, mägoying anggo tä codad’ ‘Tomorrow, he brings you to wrestling’ na xetego ka kangad mänang. and (to) your brothers speak like this. (A&N 84) Appanang degeje menggo, My father is stronger than your father. (A&N 86) Na penggä Nyoxolow käꞌdocco kaläpe And the children of Hyena went and ta mena. told their father. (T&A 10) Bo buguning i kämpätäng ti? You are an important king, where have Go penggägi käꞌdayang. you come from? You have all your children. (T&A 31) Kax amäso agang ndä awede? Am I supposed to close my eyes and go? (A&A 15) Xay bonggondi? Where is your mother?

Noun forms Nouns can have other forms by attaching modifier suffixes or complement suffixes (enclitics).

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Modifier suffixes Nouns are described by modifier suffixes and sometimes by the words following these suffixes. In the table below, there are different ways of describing the noun op, opiny ‘young man, young men’ with modifier suffixes. Ways of describing op ‘young man’ with modifier suffixes Singular Plural noun op opiny young man Pointing near (demonst. proximal) opong opinygong this young man Pointing far (demonstrative distal) opi opinygi that young man Pointing known (definite) openeni opinygeneni that known young man Specific relative connector (same as Pointing far)

opi kagoyingang nyang

opinygi kagoyingang sag

young man which I brought

General relative connector, Modifier connector (adjectival)

opa apo opinyga apoccu young man that good

Possessive connector (genitive) opu buguning opinygä buguninginy king’s young man Possessor ‘my’ opang opinygang my young man Possessor ‘your (sg)’ opugi opinygägi your(sg) young man Possessor ‘his’ opuma opinygäma his young man Possessor ‘her’ opuce opinygäce her young man Possessor ‘its’ opunya opinygänya its young man Possessor ‘our (not your)’ opusko opinygäsko our(ex) young man Possessor ‘our (and your)’ opog opinygog our(in) young man Possessor ‘your (pl)’ opugo opinygägo your(pl) young man Possessor ‘their’ opusa opinygäsa their young man Possessor of singular known (logophoric)

ope opinyge his/her known young man

Possessor of plural known (logophoric)

opa opinyga their known young man

Asking specific opadi opinygadi which young man? Many nouns have modifier suffixes with a beginning consonant. Below, the modifier suffixes of the singular noun nyang ‘crocodile’ all begin with –z. Otherwise, the modifier suffixes are the same as for op ‘young man’ above. Ways of describing nyang, nyanginy ‘crocodile, crocodiles’ 2 with modifier suffixes Singular Plural 2 Boyeldieu, Pascal (2009) in Afrika und Übersee, 90:9-84 speaks of the noun unmodified form such as nyang

‘crocodile’ and the noun modified form such as nyangz- which includes the consonant z in this noun, but would

include other consonants for other nouns. In this way, the morphology is simplified a great deal. However, it

remains to be seen if Caning speakers think of the noun in this way since the ‘modified form’ of the noun is never

without a suffix. That is, it is not possible to say nyangz without adding additional segments. Thus, this book does

not compare modified with unmodified forms of nouns, and instead presents the morphology in a way that is

perhaps closer to the mind of the speaker.

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noun nyang nyanginy crocodile Pointing near (demonst. proximal) nyangzong nyanginygong this crocodile Pointing far (demonstrative distal) nyangzi nyanginygi that crocodile Pointing known (definite) nyangzeneni nyanginygeneni that known crocodile Specific relative connector (same as Pointing far)

nyangzi kagoyingang nyang

nyanginygi kagoyingang sag

crocodile which I brought

General relative connector, Modifier connector (adjectival)

nyangza opo nyanginyga opoccu crocodile that good

Possessive connector (genitive) nyangzä op nyanginygä op man’s crocodile Possessor ‘my’ nyangzang nyanginygang my crocodile Possessor ‘your (sg)’ nyangzägi nyanginygägi your(sg) crocodile Possessor ‘his’ nyangzäma nyanginygäma his crocodile Possessor ‘her’ nyangzäce nyanginygäce her crocodile Possessor ‘its’ nyangzänya nyanginygänya its crocodile Possessor ‘our (not your)’ nyangzäsko nyanginygäsko our(ex) crocodile Possessor ‘our (and your)’ nyangzog nyanginygog our(in) crocodile Possessor ‘your (pl)’ nyangzägo nyanginygägo your(pl) crocodile Possessor ‘their’ nyangzäsa nyanginygäsa their crocodile Possessor of singular known (logophoric)

nyangze nyanginyge his/her known crocodile

Possessor of plural known (logophoric)

nyangza nyanginyga their known crocodile

Asking specific nyangzadi nyanginygadi which crocodile? It is most common for singular modifier suffixes to begin with a vowel. However, singular modifier suffixes can instead begin with the consonants –t-, -d-, -s-, -c-, -z-, or -n- . Suffixes with the same beginning letter (such as –t-) can attach to roots with different final letters (such as d, f, s). Nouns with each of the final root letters attaching each suffix are shown at the end of this lesson. Singular modifier suffixes Final root letter Beginning Noun Pointing near suffix letter Singular Singular Most consonants Ø led joy ledong this joy d, f, s . . . -t- sad bowl satong this bowl n, l, w . . . -d- marany scar maranydong this scar p, d, g, x, r, j . . . -s- amkadad chisel amkadatsong this chisel c -c- bac upper arm baccong this upper arm m, n, ny, ng, w, y, i . . . -z- nyang crocodile nyangzong this crocodile All vowels -n- nyara cousin nyaranong this cousin It is most common for plural modifier suffixes to beggin with the letter –g-. However, plural modifiers suffixes can instead begin with –k-. Plural modifier suffixes Final root letter Beginning Noun Pointing near

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suffix letter Plural Plural m, n, ny, ng, l, y, . . . any vowel

-g- abadiny stupid people

abadinygong these stupid people

d, g, s, x, r, b . . . -k- yadäg meats yadägkong these meats Complement suffixes (enclitics) Nouns are talked about in the sentence when they have complement suffixes. In the table below, there are different ways of talking about the noun nyang, nyanginy ‘crocodile, crocodiles’. Each way of talking about this now uses a different complement suffix. Ways of talking about nyang, nyanginy ‘crocodile, crocodiles’ with complement suffixes Singular Plural Noun nyang nyanginy crocodile Identifying Nyangang. Nyanginyag. It is a crocodile. Locating near Nyanganang. Nyanginyakang. Here is a crocodile. Locating far Nyangani. Nyanginyaki. There is a crocodile. Existing Nyangandäng. Nyanginyatäng. A crocodile exists. Asking location Nyangandi Nyanginyati Where is the crocodile? Some nouns have a complement suffix with a beginning consonant. Below, the complement suffixes of the singular noun op ‘young man’ all begin with –p. Otherwise, the suffixes are the same as for nyang ‘crocodile’ above. Ways of talking about op, opiny ‘young man, young men’ 3 with complement suffixes Singular Plural noun op opiny young man Identifying Oppang. Opinyag. It is a young man. Locating near Oppanang. Opinyakang. Here is a young man. Locating far Oppani. Opinyaki. There is a young man. Existing Oppandäng. Opinyatäng. A young man exists. Asking location Oppandi Opinyati Where is the young man? It is most common for singular complement suffixes to begin with –a-. However, singular complement suffixes can instead begin with –pa- when the final root letter is p, -ca- when the final root letter is c, -ta- when the final root letter is d, and -ka- when the final root letter is g. Singular complement suffixes can be without a beginning consonant and a when the final root letter is a vowel (shown by Ø below). Singular complement suffixes Final Beginning Noun Identifying 3 Boyeldieu, Pascal (2009) in Afrika und Übersee, 90:9-84 considers all these noun forms to be unmodified and

without suffixes. That is, the various copulas are all separate words. However, since speakers do not think of these

copulas as separate words, and because there is some morpholophonology to support them as being bound to nouns,

this book presents them as bound (probably they are enclitics similar to the enclitic copulas of Gaahmg, another

Eastern Sudanic language.).

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root letter suffix letter Singular Singular Most consonants -a nyang crocodile nyangang It is a crocodile. p -pa op young man oppang It is a young man. c -ca kuc sorghum kuccang It is sorghum. d -ta sad bowl satang It is a bowl. g -ka tug ebony tree tugkang It is an ebony tree. All vowels Ø luku pool lukung It is a pool. It is most common for plural complement suffixes to begin with –a-. However, plural complement suffixes can instead begin with –ta- when the final root letter is d, -ka- when the final root letter is g, -wa- when the final root letter is u or o, and -ya- when the final root letter is i or e. Plural complement suffixes can be without a beginning consonant and a when the final root letter is a vowel (shown by Ø below). Plural complement suffixes Final Beginning Noun Identifying root letter suffix letter Plural Plural Most consonants -a- mem milks memag These are milks. d -ta- saxad divorses saxatag These are divorses. g -ka- mag tree saps magkag These are tree saps. u, o -wa- culu charcoals culuwag These are charcoals. i, e -ya- kiꞌdi breasts kiꞌdiyag These are breasts. most vowels Ø maleza guinea fowls malezag These are guinea fowls. Comparison of modifier and complement suffixes The table below compares singular modifier and complement suffixes for singular nouns with all final root letters. Nouns with the same final letter in the root (such as d) sometimes attach singular modifier suffixes with different beginning letter (such as Ø, -s-, -t-, where Ø means without a beginning consonant) (See abad, abadong ‘stupid person, this stupid person’; kred, kretsong ‘marker, this marker’; sad, satong ‘bowl, this bowl’). However, nouns with the same final letter in the root (such as d) always attach a complement suffix with the same beginning letters (such as ta). (See abad, abatang ‘stupid person, it is a stupid person’; kred, kretang ‘marker, it is a marker’; sad, satang ‘bowl, it is a bowl’). Singular modifier and complement suffixes compared Final Noun Beg this . . . Beg It is a . . . root Singular Suf Modifier singular Suf Complement singular p op Ø opong -pa- oppang young man rap -s- rapsong rappang bird type c kuc -c- kuccong -ca- kuccang sorghum bac -c- baccong baccang upper arm d abad Ø abadong -ta- abatang stupid person kred -s- kretsong kretang boundary marker sad -t- satong satang bowl, calabash g kaläg Ø kalägong -ka- kalägkang amulet

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eg -s- egsong egkang giraffe f azaf -t- azaftong -a- azafang palm tree s mas Ø masong masang fire mus -t- mustong musang mortar x ax Ø axong axang hut kädäbäx -s- kädäbäxsong kädäbäxang trap m ꞌderem -z- ꞌderemzong ꞌderemäng tree type n jen Ø jenong jenang year pen -d- pendong penang wound gisin -z- gisinzong gisinang anteater ny marany -z- maranyzong maranyang scar ng xong Ø xongong xongang day nyang -z- nyangzong nyangang crocodile l dol Ø dolong dolang snake bul -d- buldong bulang big drum r nyipär Ø nyipärong nyipärang tongue kolar -s- kolarsong kolarang throat w nyaw Ø nyawong nyawang udder ow -d- owdong owang place gaw -z- gawzong gawang hawk y kacikey -z- kacikeyzong kacikeyang rattle j raj -s- rajsong rajang deception a nyara -n- nyaranong Ø nyarang cousin ä salä -n- salänong saläng sword o lorto -n- lortonong lortong grasshopper u luku -n- lukunong lukung pool e mege -n- megenong megeng wind, air i poꞌdi -n- poꞌdinong poꞌding loincloth tisi -z- tisizong tising ladder The table below compares singular modifier and complement suffixes when attached to singular suffixes. Singular modifier and complement suffixes compared Singular Noun Noun Beg this . . . Beg It is a . . . Suffix Singular Plural Suf Modifier singular Suf Complement singualar -ic/ uxic ux -c- uxiccong -ca- uxiccang worm -c/ bebec bebe bebeccang bebeccang gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldiccong gäldiccang egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluweccong ngaluweccang bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwiccong kadasuwiccang foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan Ø awunäwanong ? -a- awunäwanang eye -x/ gax gany -s- gaxsong -a- gaxang stick -d/ zid zi -t- zitong -ta- zitang rope The table below compares plural modifier and complement suffixes for plural nouns with all

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final root letters. Plural modifier and complement suffixes compared Final Noun Beg these . . . Beg They are . . . root Plural Suf Modifier plural Suf Complement plural d saxad -k- saxakong -ta- saxatag divorce (VN) g mag -k- makong -ka- makag tree.sap u culu -g- culugong -wa- culuwag charcoal o kädataxo -g- kädataxogong kädataxowag cricket i kiꞌdi -g- kiꞌdigong -ya- kiꞌdiyag breast e mode -g- modegong modeyag peace m mem -g- memgong -a- memag milk n agäwan -g- agäwangong agäwanag eyes ny opiny -g- opinygong opinyag young man ng kuꞌdong -g- kuꞌdonggong kuꞌdongag stem l bol -g- bolgong bolag agreement y ay -g- aygong ayag life s as -k- askong asag fish x apax -k- apaxkong apaxag hair r säpär -k- säpärkong säpärag husk b zäb -k- zäbkong zäbag cultivation a maleza -g- malezagong Ø malezag guinea.fowl o moxso -g- moxsogong moxsog vine e bebe -g- bebegong bebeg gourd i ndukurudi -g- ndukurudigong ndukurudig dust The table below compares plural modifier and complement suffixes when attached to plural suffixes. Plural modifier and complement suffixes compared Plural Noun Noun Beg these . . . Beg They are . . . Suffix Singular Plural Suf Modifier plural Suf Complement plural /-iny ax axiny -g- axinygong -a- axinyag hut /-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinygong mäꞌdaccinyag container /-diny ngas ngastiny ngastingygong ngastingyag neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwangong agäwanag eye /-u ux uxu uxugong -wa- uxuwag woman /-da oxay oxayda oxaydagong Ø oxaydag animal /-di bul buldi buldigong buldig drum /-de jen jende jendegong jendeg year /-tudi sud sutudi sutudigong sutudig hump /-tede led letede letedegong letedeg joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -k- ngolenagkong -ka- ngolenagkag uncle /-däg ya yadäg yadägkong yadägkag meat In the following lessons, we will talk about each of these noun forms.

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Pointing near suffixes (Proximal demonstratives) A pointing suffix describes a noun by pointing to which noun it is. There are three different pointing suffixes: one for a noun near the speaker, one for a noun away from the speaker, and one for a noun that is known by the hearers. Singular Plural Noun nyang nyanginy crocodile Pointing near (demonstrative proximal) nyangzong nyanginygong this crocodile Pointing far (demonstrative distal) nyangzi nyanginygi that crocodile Pointing known (definite) nyangzeneni nyanginygeneni that known crocodile In this lesson we learn about pointing near suffixes. We learn about other pointing suffixes in following lessons. Pointing near suffixes point to a noun near the speaker. In stories, the pointing near suffix is nearly always used in speeches. In (Nyax 81-84) the pointing near suffix –ong ‘this’ is on the noun läg ‘smoke’ to show it is near the one speaking. (Nyax 81-84) Ndä kala läge lägo ndä sängeccä. Then there was smoke and they cried. Na wäx ta agäsa kacu cucu cu. And tears from their eyes came pouring out. Na nyawung nyämaŋe ce ka, And he (hyena) came and asked her (girl), “Oxadi wadi ngedenang?” “Why are you crying?” Na cängade ka, “I noxo lägong song?” And she said, “Donꞌt you see this smoke?” The girl and her sister made a fire with smoke. The girl later asks the hyena if he sees lägong ‘this smoke’ which is all around them. In (1), the suffix –ong is on the noun op ‘young man’. The suffix –ong shows which op is talked about. It is a singular noun that is near the speaker. Maybe the speaker is even pointing at op while talking. Singular (1) Opong kadeläng. This young man fell. Plural (2) Opinygong kadelesäng. These young men fell. In (2), the suffix –gong shows opiny ‘young men’ is a plural noun near the speaker. The suffix –ong with beginning vowel is the most common pointing near suffix on singular nouns. However, other singular nouns have pointing near suffixes with a beginning consonant, such as –t-, -d-, -s-, -c-, -z-, -n-. Nouns with the same final letter in the root (such as d)

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sometimes attach suffixes with different beginning consonant (such as Ø, -t-, -s-, where Ø means without a beginning consonant). Singular Noun Suffix Pointing near abad -ong stupid person Abadong kadeläng. This stupid person fell. sad -tong bowl Satong kadeläng. This bowl fell. bul -dong drum Buldong kadeläng. This drum fell. amkadad -song chisel Amkadatsong kadeläng. This chisel fell. bac -cong upper arm Baccong kadeläng. This upper arm fell. nyang -zong crocodile Nyangzong kadeläng. This crocodile fell. ya -nong meat Yanong kadeläng. This meat fell. The suffix –gong is the most common pointing near suffix on plural nouns. However, other plural nouns have the pointing near suffix –kong with beginning letter –k. Plural Noun Suffix Pointing near abadiny -gong stupid persons Abadinygong kadeläng. These stupid persons fell. saxad -kong divorce (VN, N.PL) Saxakong kadeläng. These divorces fell. The singular and plural nouns below have pointing near suffixes. They can take the place of opong or opinygong in sentences (1) and (2) above. The nouns are organized by the final letter of the root and by the beginning letter of the suffix. Suffixes with the same beginning letter (such as –t-) can attach to roots with different final letters (such as d, f, s). Pointing near (demonstrative proximal) singular suffixes –ong, -tong, -dong, -song, -zong, -cong, -nong; plural suffixes –kong, -gong Final Noun Noun Beg. this . . . these . . . root Singular Plural suf. Singular Plural p op opiny Ø opong young man d abad abadiny abadong stupid person g kaläg kaläta kalägong amulet, idol s mas masta masong fire x ax axiny axong hut n jen jende jenong year ng xong xongda xongong day l dol dolu dolong snake r nyipär nyipärti nyipärong tongue w nyaw nyawda nyawong udder d sad satu -t- satong bowl, calabash f azaf azafiny azaftong palm tree s mus mustudi mustong mortar n pen pendu -d- pendong wound, sore l bul buldi buldong big drum w ow ota owdong place p rap rapiny -s- rapsong bird type

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d kred krete kretsong boundary marker g eg eginy egsong giraffe x kädäbäx kädäbäxiny kädäbäxsong trap r kolar kolariny kolarsong throat j raj rajta rajsong deception c bac bacu -c- baccong upper arm c kuc kuny kuccong sorghum m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy -z- ꞌderemzong tree type n gisin gisininy gisinzong anteater ny marany maranyda maranyzong scar ng nyang nyanginy nyangzong crocodile w gaw gawiny gawzong hawk y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyzong rattle i tisi tisiny tisizong ladder a nyara nyaru -n- nyaranong cousin ä salä salu salänong sword o lorto lortu lortonong grasshopper u luku lukudi lukunong pool of water e mege megede megenong wind, air, storm i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌdinong loincloth -ic/ uxic ux -c- uxiccong worm -c/ bebec bebe bebeccong gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldiccong egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluweccong bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwiccong foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan Ø awunäwanong eye -x/ gax gany -s- gaxsong walking stick -d/ zid zi -t- zitong rope d — saxad -k- saxakong divorce (VN) g magic mag magkong tree sap s axsic as askong fish x apaxtic apax apaxkong hair r — säpär säpärkong cob of maize b — zäb zäbkong cultivation (VN) m — mem -g- memgong milk n käx kän känggong person ny — awiny awinygong flock of birds ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdonggong stem l bolic bol bolgong agreement y — ay aygong life a malezic maleza malezagong guinea fowl o moxsoc moxso moxsogong vine u culudic culu culugong charcoal e bebec bebe bepegong gourd i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi kiꞌdigong breast /-iny ax axiny -g- axinygong hut

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/-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinygong container, mould /-diny, -tiny ngas ngastiny ngastingygong neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwanggong eye /-u ux uxu uxugong woman /-da, -ta oxay oxayda oxaydagong animal /-di, -ti bul buldi buldigong drum /-de, -te jen jende jendegong year /-tudi sud sutudi sutudigong hump /-tede led letede letedegong joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -k- ngolenagkong mother’s brother /-däg ya yadäg yadägkong meat In the singular noun sad ‘bowl’, the final d disappears when the suffix –tong is added (satong ‘this bowl’). In the singular noun kred ‘boundary marker’, the final d becomes t when the suffix –song is added (kretsong ‘this boundary marker’). In the plural noun saxad ‘divorce’, the final d disappears when the suffix –kong is added (saxakong ‘this divorce’). In the plural noun agäwan ‘eyes’, the final n becomes ng when the suffix –gong is added (agäwanggong ‘these eyes’). In the plural noun yadäg ‘meats’, the final g disappears when the suffix –kong is added (yadägkong ‘these meats’). Below in summary, the pointing near singular suffixes are organized by final letter of the root. The most common singular suffix is –ong. But nouns with the same final letter in the root (such as d) sometimes attach suffixes with different beginning letter (such as Ø, -t-, -s-). And suffixes with the same beginning letter (such as –t-) can attach to roots with different final letters (such as d, f, s). However, the suffix with beginning –c- is only on roots with final c, and the suffix with beginning –n- is only on roots with final vowels. Pointing near singular noun suffixes Final root letter Beginning Noun this _ suffix letter Singular Singular Most consonants Ø led ledong joy, happiness d, f, s . . . -t- sad satong bowl, calabash n, l, w . . . -d- marany maranydong scar p, d, g, x, r, j . . . -s- amkadad amkadatsong chisel for carving c -c- bac baccong upper arm m, n, ny, ng, w, y, i . . . -z- nyang nyangzong crocodile All vowels -n- nyara nyaranong cousin The pointing near plural suffixes are organized by root final letter below. The most common plural suffix is –gong, but plural nouns with the final letters d, g, s, x, r, b attach the suffix -kong with beginning –k-. Pointing near plural noun suffixes Final root letter Beginning Noun these _ suffix letter Plural Plural m, n, ny, ng, l, y, . . . any vowel -g- abadiny abadinygong stupid person

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d, g, s, x, r, b . . . -k- yadäg yadägkong meat Pointing near suffixes can also connect to pronouns such as in the following sentences. The pointing near suffixes on singular pronouns begin with –z. Pointing near suffixes on pronouns [check all]. Agäzong kawung. This me came. Gizong käwung. This you (sg) came. Mazong mawung. This he came. Cezong cawung. This she came. Nyazong nyawung. This it came. Waskong kawunig. These we (not you) came. Kogkong käwunig. These we (and you) came. Anggogong käwunang. These you (pl) came. Sagong sawuno. These they came. Exercise 12 In the following sentences, underline all pointing near suffixes on nouns. (O&A 41) I zaxadang siyakä ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogong anya? You refuse to eat brain of head of this thing? (O&A 54) Peszängga ngakong tireneng. This speach is really true. (Nyax 3-4) “Ila anoc abag sagalong.” “I really must marry this girl.” Na nyämänecee ka, sagalong paye yoxa key. He asked this girl what husband she wanted. (Nyax 15) Bonog, tong anadarugugigong anoc abagäs Friend, bring these glasses, I am going to marry uxandäng tägog. a certain woman for us. (Nyax 18-19) Bonog, tong boxänggä agägigong anoc abagäs Friend, bring these your old eyes, I am going to uxandäng tägog. marry a certain woman for us. (Nyax 22) Bonog tong ngasäginong anoc abagäs Friend, bring this your neck, I am going to uxandäng tägog. marry a certain woman for us. (Nyax 61) Cong boxu gisongang käbag nganäskong? (Are you) bad guy that married this our sister? (Nyax 77) ꞌDoxtong kasiy nganakog käꞌday song? Didn‘t this guy completely ate our elder sister? (Nyax 84-86) “I noxo lägong song?” “Donꞌt you see this smoke?” “I oxadi kasokwa xongong mänang?” “What happened this day so that it is like this?” Na cängade ka, “I mindong.” And she said, “This oil.” (Nyax 92)

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ꞌDogong käꞌdoxang ti? Where have you found this thing? (A&N 67) Kax zägkong kasiy yanong käꞌday song mo. This soil was not suppoed to eat all the meat. (T&A 12) Kampätäng tä koyinakä nycokong I am escorting these people tä siyakä ota. to eating places. (T&A 21) Anggotäng käwunang xongong, You have come this day, sagoying anggo tä siyakä ota tä kaxsed? they brought you to eat in places of the forest? (T&A 24) Accang go pipu tägaxsä camanong. Surely you have children in this strange forest. (T&A 29-32) Agänang, ngakang layis I am the one, my word remains ngakä uxong wede na exengge pätax songang, the word of this wife, not walking kax amäso agang ndä awede? am I supposed to close my eyes? Mänang ngakä uxong wede na exengge Like this, this wife will walk with pätaxakang nyang sogoka ameskewang. them two legs and be kept safe. (A&A1) Alkasis na apoco käxong na bona Cat and Hare this person with his mother, na käxong na bona. and this person with his mother.

Pointing far suffixes Pointing far suffixes point to a noun away from the speaker and the hearer. When telling stories, it shows the noun was previously mentioned. In (Pedi 39), the pointing far suffix –i ‘that’ on ꞌdog ‘thing’ shows it is away from the speaker. (Pedi 39) (Away from speaker, near hearer) Na camän päxä atänäce ka, Then she asked her grandchild, “ꞌDogi kawung tiyati?” “Did that thing come up?” The grandmother is asking her grandchild about the sorghum stock that she threw into the water and is now away from her. In (Nyax 89-90), the pointing far suffix –zi on Nyoxolow ‘Hyena’ shows the Hyena has already been mentioned in the story. (Nyax 89-90) (Previously mentioned) Na Nyoxolow käxsä na cabag päxäsa, And Hyena died and she took child, na nya päxä Nyaxolowzi. and it is child of that Hyena. Before this we heard about how Hyena died from oil. The pointing far suffix shows the Hyena that is the father of the child is the same hyena that died.

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A pointing far suffix on a noun can also be used to introduce a specific relative clause (a group of words with a verb that is used to show a particular noun we are talking about). In (O&A 2), the pointing far suffix –i on ꞌdogi ‘thing that’ introduces the relative clause nyäpaye nyängetang ‘he wanted them to hear’. (O&A 2) (Introduces a known relative clause) Na oxayda kawuno tä dänggä And the animals came to listen to ꞌdogi nyäpaye nyängetang. the thing which he wanted them to hear. The words nyäpaye nyängetang show we are talking about a particular ꞌdog and not just any ꞌdog. We learn more about these relative clauses in the lesson Specific relative clauses. In (1), the suffix –i is on the noun op ‘young man’. The suffix –i shows which op is talked about. It is a singular noun away from the speaker. Singular (1) Opi kadeläng. That young man fell. Plural (2) Opinygi kadelasäng. Those young men fell. In (2), the suffix –gi shows opiny ‘young men’ is a plural noun away from the speaker. The singular and plural nouns below have pointing far suffixes. They can take the place of opi or opinygi in sentences (1) and (2). The nouns are organized by the final letter of the root and by the beginning letter of the suffix. Pointing far (demonstrative distal) singular suffixes –i, -ti, -di, -si, -zi, -ci, -ni; plural suffixes –ki, -gi Final Noun Noun Beg. that . . . those . . . root Singular Plural suf. Singular Plural p op opiny Ø opi young man d abad abadiny abadi stupid person g kaläg kaläta kalägi amulet, idol s mas masta masi fire x ax axiny axi hut n jen jende jeni year ng xong xongda xongi day l dol dolu doli snake r nyipär nyipärti nyipäri tongue w nyaw nyawda nyawi udder d sad satu -t- sati bowl, calabash f azaf azafiny azafti palm tree s mus mustudi musti mortar n pen pendu -d- pendi wound, sore l bul buldi buldi big drum w ow ota owdi place

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p rap rapiny -s- rapsi bird type d kred krete kretsi boundary marker g eg eginy egsi giraffe x kädäbäx kädäbäxiny kädäbäxsi trap r kolar kolariny kolarsi throat j raj rajta rajsi deception c bac bacu -c- bacci upper arm c kuc kuny kucci sorghum m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy -z- ꞌderemzi tree type n gisin gisininy gisinzi anteater ny marany maranyda maranyzi scar ng nyang nyanginy nyangzi crocodile w gaw gawiny gawzi hawk y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyzi rattle i tisi tisiny tisizi ladder a nyara nyaru -n- nyarani cousin ä salä salu saläni sword o lorto lortu lortoni grasshopper u luku lukudi lukuni pool of water e mege megede megeni wind, air, storm i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌdini loincloth -ic/ uxic ux -c- uxicci worm -c/ bebec bebe bebecci gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldicci egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluwecci bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwicci foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan Ø awunäwani eye -x/ gax gany -s- gaxsi walking stick -d/ zid zi -t- ziti rope d — saxad -k- saxaki divorce (VN) g magic mag magki tree sap s axsic as aski fish x apaxtic apax apaxki hair r — säpär säpärki cob of maize b — zäb zäbki cultivation (VN) m — mem -g- memgi milk n käx kän känggi person ny — awiny awinygi flock of birds ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdonggi stem l bolic bol bolgi agreement y — ay aygi life a malezic maleza malezagi guinea fowl o moxsoc moxso moxsogi vine u culudic culu culugi charcoal e bebec bebe bepegi gourd i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi kiꞌdigi breast

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/-iny ax axiny -g- axinygi hut /-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinygi container, mould /-diny, -tiny ngas ngastiny ngastingygi neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwanggi eye /-u ux uxu uxugi woman /-da, -ta oxay oxayda oxaydagi animal /-di, -ti bul buldi buldigi drum /-de, -te jen jende jendegi year /-tudi sud sutudi sutudigi hump /-tede led letede letedegi joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -k- ngolenagki mother’s brother /-däg ya yadäg yadägki meat Pointing far suffixes can also connect to pronouns such as in the following sentences. The pointing far suffixes on singular pronouns begin with –z. Pointing farsuffixes on pronouns [check all]. Agäzi kawung. That me came. Gizi käwung. That you (sg) came. Mazi mawung. That he came. Cezi cawung. That she came. Nyazi nyawung. That it came. Waski kawunig. Those we (not you) came. Kogki käwunig. Those we (and you) came. Anggogi käwunang. Those you (pl) came. Sagi sawuno. Those they came. Exercise 13 In the following sentences, underline all pointing far suffixes on nouns. (Nyax 44) Bonog, nya uxogkiyanani? Friend, is that our wife there? (Nyax 65) E käxiyandi? Hey, where is that person? (Nyax 66) Käxi kalayis sagal saxe mened. That person became girl and refused babysitting. (Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi? That saying there is a problem in his anus? (A&N 73) Na kala sägälaräsang na sägäꞌdocco, Then they divided them and they left, käxi käꞌdoc tä pane. that person went home. (T&A 37) Buguningziyang ngonde tagäng? That king is bigger than me? (T&A49) I nya käxi ngadaccang ka, So, that person says, ‘(There is someone)

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‘Ngonde tagäng’ nyandi? bigger than me’ where is he? (T&A 56) Nyämänecce ka, “ꞌdogu cigiyeneni?” He asked, “Something like that mane?” (Pedi 25-26) Käxi kädolezang gawa axsic tägaxsä lang, Person who leads will throw fish into basket, mände känggi täbanganang bate and the people who follow will nya axsicci ndä melede täng. take that fish itself and return it. (Pedi 37) Na kala atänäce kagoying sa wegki täce. Grandchild brought together those things to her. (N&A 6) Kala xongondi Nyoxolow kox denyä Then that day, Hyena saw the cow Apoco päxe siye tängang. of Hare in labor pains there. (N&A 20) ꞌDogi kosog Atorndori wundungang. That thing made Fox absent. (N&A 22) I oxaydagi bene ma tä pang buguning Osox. Those animals waited at house chief Lion. (N&A 24) Nyoxolow käcoxäwa ka sälege ngaki, Hyena was in a hurry to discuss that issue, ndä Osox leyewa. but Lion refused (to listen).

Pointing known suffixes The pointing known suffix –eneni ‘that (known)’ points to a noun known by the hearers [check this]. In (Nyax 1-3), the hearers first learn that a certain girl wants a handsome husband. Next they are told the Nyoxolow kädäng ꞌdogkeneni ‘Hyena heard that matter’. (Nyax 1-3) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila ka paye Long ago, there was girl who refused to marry yoxa caxse kabatwa. unless she found husband that handsome. Xongenadäng Nyoxolow kädäng ꞌdogkeneni, There was that time that Hyena heard that na nyängade ka, “Ila anoc abag sagalong.” matter and said, “I really must marry this girl.” The suffix –eneni ‘that’ shows the ꞌdog ‘matter’ is the same as the one mentioned in the first sentence of the story. In (1), the suffix –eneni is on the noun op ‘young man’. The suffix –eneni shows which op is talked about. It is a singular noun that is known by the hearers. Maybe the speaker has meantioned the op before, or maybe the op is known by everyone to stand out in a certain way. Singular (1) Openeni kadeläng. That known young man fell. Plural (2) Opinygeneni kadelasäng. Those known young men fell.

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In (2), the suffix –geneni shows opiny ‘young men’ is a plural noun known to the hearers. The singular and plural nouns below have pointing known suffixes. They can take the place of openeni or opinygeneni in sentences (1) and (2). Pointing known singular suffixes –e, -te, -de, -se, -ze, -ce, -neng; plural suffixes –key, -ge Final Noun Noun Beg. that known . . those known . . root Singular Plural suf. Singular Plural p op opiny Ø openeni young man d abad abadiny abadeneni stupid person g kaläg kaläta kalägeneni amulet, idol s mas masta maseneni fire x ax axiny axeneni hut n jen jende jeneneni year ng xong xongda xongeneni day l dol dolu doleneni snake r nyipär nyipärti nyipäreneni tongue w nyaw nyawda nyaweneni udder d sad satu -t- sateneni bowl, calabash f azaf azafiny azafteneni palm tree s mus mustudi musteneni mortar n pen pendu -d- pendeneni wound, sore l bul buldi buldeneni big drum w ow ota owdeneni place p rap rapiny -s- rapseneni bird type d kred krete kretseneni boundary marker g eg eginy egseneni giraffe x kädäbäx kädäbäxiny kädäbäxseneni trap r kolar kolariny kolarseneni throat j raj rajta rajseneni deception c bac bacu -c- bacceneni upper arm m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy -z- ꞌderemzeneni tree type n gisin gisininy gisinzeneni anteater ny marany maranyda maranyzeneni scar ng nyang nyanginy nyangzeneni crocodile w gaw gawiny gawzeneni hawk y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyzeneni rattle i tisi tisiny tisizeneni ladder a nyara nyaru -n- nyaraneneni cousin ä salä salu saläneneni sword o lorto lortu lortoneneni grasshopper u luku lukudi lukuneneni pool of water e mege megede megeneneni wind, air, storm i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌdineneni loincloth

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-ic/ uxic ux -c- uxicceneni worm -c/ bebec bebe bebecceneni gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldicceneni egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluwecceneni bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwicceneni foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan Ø awunäwaneneni eye -x/ gax gany -s- gaxseneni walking stick -d/ zid zi -t- ziteneni rope d — saxad -k- saxakeneni divorce (VN) g magic mag magkeneni tree sap s axsic as askeneni fish x apaxtic apax apaxkeneni hair r — säpär säpärkeneni cob of maize b — zäb zäbkeneni cultivation (VN) m — mem -g- memgeneni milk n käx kän känggeneni person ny — awiny awinygeneni flock of birds ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdonggeneni stem l bolic bol bolgeneni agreement y — ay aygeneni life a malezic maleza malezageneni guinea fowl o moxsoc moxso moxsogeneni vine u culudic culu culugeneni charcoal e bebec bebe bepegeneni gourd i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi kiꞌdigeneni breast /-iny ax axiny -g- axinygeneni hut /-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinygeneni container, mould /-diny, -tiny ngas ngastiny ngastingygeneni neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwanggeneni eye /-u ux uxu uxugeneni woman /-da, -ta oxay oxayda oxaydageneni animal /-di, -ti bul buldi buldigeneni drum /-de, -te jen jende jendegeneni year /-tudi sud sutudi sutudigeneni hump /-tede led letede letedegeneni joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -k- ngolenagkeneni mother’s brother /-däg ya yadäg yadägkeneni meat Exercise 14 In the following sentences, underline all known suffixes. (Nyax 5) Na säläpeda tä nya ka sagaleneni, And they said to him that she is that girl, paye yoxa caxse kabatwa. who wants a handsome husband. (T&A 56)

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Nyämänecce ka, “ꞌdogu cigiyeneni?” He asked, “Something like that mane?” (Pedi 2) Tanda tawiny tä cabärä Caning boxuxeneni To the West of the mountain of Caning, that nyadoga ligid täng kala Kaläg grandmother it gave a spirit like God mänang noxsada kän tä xäs. so as to raise people from the dead. (Pedi 4-5) Boxuxeneni nyandäng tänya cabäri watäke That grandmother lived in the mountain alone na päxä atäne ndä wacca tidi song with her grandchild, and cultivated sweet crops wegke iyeccä pacce tidi song. that produced many sweet (crops). (Pedi 21-22) Tä sängga kodosang, Caning kasog For three days, the Caning did the same täsa mänang, na tespedeneni, to them, and on that fourth, Caning kälaxesäng käꞌdocco tä colonggo. the Caning passed by going to the river.

Modifier connector suffixes (Adjectival) A connector suffix shows a noun is grouped together with the following word or group of words. It is identified, described or possessed by these words. There are three different connector suffixes: one for introducing a specific relative clause that identifies or describes a particular noun, one for an adjective or general relative clause that describes or identifies an unmentioned noun, and one for a possessor of the noun. Singular Plural Noun nyang nyanginy crocodile Relative connector nyangzi kagoyingang nyang nyanginygi kagoyingang sag crocodile which

I brought Modifier connector nyangza opo nyanginyga opoccu good crocodile Possessor connector nyangzä op nyanginygä op manꞌs crocodile In the lesson Pointing far suffixes, we saw that pointing far suffixes can be used to introduce a specific relative clause. In this way it is used as a connector suffix. We learn more about this use of the pointing far suffix in the lesson Specific relative clauses. In this lesson, we learn how the modifier connector suffix introduces words that describe or identify an unmentioned noun. In the next lesson, we learn how the possessor connector suffix introduces a noun that owns the noun. Modifier connector suffixes show a noun is described or identified by the following word or clause (a group of words with a verb). The following word(s) can be an adjective, a quantity, or a general relative clause (a clause describing or identifying the previous unmentioned noun). All these words give more information about the noun. In (T&A 1), the suffix –za on buguningza ‘king that’ shows the following adjective ngonde ‘important’ gives more information about buguning. Ngonde tells us what kind of buguning we are talking about.

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(T&A 1) (Connects an adjective) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was a buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed. king that important of the forest. Below other adjectives are underlined, and these describe other nouns. Each adjective has a singular form for describing singular nouns, and a plural form for describing plural nouns. We learn more about adjectives in the lesson Adjectives. Adjectives Singular Plural opa apo opinyga apoccu good man opa tas opinyga tasiny bad, brave man opa ngonde opinyga ngoniny big, important man opa bede opinyga bedeccä difficult, tough, intelligent man faranycalda tec faranycalinyga teciny green tomatoe zäxa balax zäxtiga balaxiny shallow, flat asida zäxa mange zäxtiga mangeccä more, much asida In (Nyax 46), the suffix –ka on wegka ‘things that’ shows the following quantifier käꞌday ‘all’ gives more information about weg. Käꞌday tells us how many of weg we are talking about. (Nyax 46) (Connects a quantity) Nycoki kabag wegka käꞌday. People got everything (thing that all) (for him). In (A&N 22-23), the suffix –a on ꞌdoga ‘thing that’ shows the following relative clause gives more information about ꞌdog, which is mentioned here for the first time. The general relative clause nyäsog ndey nyäbag ya watäkänya ‘he could do inorder to take meat for himself’ tells specific information about the ꞌdog we are talking about. (A&N 22-23) (Connects a general relative clause) Nyägäꞌdoc tä kärekä ngakä ꞌdoga nyäsog ndey He went to think about a thing that he could do nyäbag ya watäkänya. inorder to take meat for himself. In (1), the suffix –a is on the noun op ‘young man’ and shows the op is described by the adjective apo ‘good’. The modifier word apo tells more information about the singular noun op. Singular Opa apo kadeläng. Good young man fell. Plural Opinyga apoccu kadelasäng. Good young men fell. In (2), the suffix –ga shows opiny ‘young men’ is a plural noun and described by the adjective apoccu ‘good’. The singular and plural nouns below have modifier connector suffixes. They can take the place

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of opa or opinyga in sentences (1) and (2). Modifier connect (adjectival) singular suffixes –a, -ta, -da, -sa, -za, -ca, -na; plural suffixes –ka, -ga Final Noun Noun Beg. that . . . that . . . root Singular Plural suf. Singular Plural p op opiny Ø opa young man d abad abadiny abada stupid person g kaläg kaläta kaläga amulet, idol s mas masta masa fire x ax axiny axa hut n jen jende jena year ng xong xongda xonga day l dol dolu dola snake r nyipär nyipärti nyipära tongue w nyaw nyawda nyawa udder d sad satu -t- sata bowl, calabash f azaf azafiny azafta palm tree s mus mustudi musta mortar n pen pendu -d- penda wound, sore l bul buldi bulda big drum w ow ota owda place p rap rapiny -s- rapsa bird type d kred krete kretsa boundary marker g eg eginy egsa giraffe x kädäbäx kädäbäxiny kädäbäxsa trap r kolar kolariny kolarsa throat j raj rajta rajsa deception c bac bacu -c- bacca upper arm m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy -z- ꞌderemza tree type n gisin gisininy gisinza anteater ny marany maranyda maranyza scar ng nyang nyanginy nyangza crocodile w gaw gawiny gawza hawk y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyza rattle i tisi tisiny tisiza ladder a nyara nyaru -n- nyarana cousin ä salä salu saläna sword o lorto lortu lortona grasshopper u luku lukudi lukuna pool of water e mege megede megena wind, air, storm i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌdina loincloth -ic/ uxic ux -c- uxicca worm -c/ bebec bebe bebecca gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldicca egg

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-wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluwecca bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwicca foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan Ø awunäwana eye -x/ gax gany -s- gaxsa walking stick -d/ zid zi -t- zita rope d — saxad -k- saxaka divorce (VN) g magic mag magka tree sap s axsic as aska fish x apaxtic apax apaxka hair r — säpär säpärka cob of maize b — zäb zäbka cultivation (VN) m — mem -g- memga milk n käx kän kängga person ny — awiny awinyga flock of birds ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdongga stem l bolic bol bolga agreement y — ay ayga life a malezic maleza malezaga guinea fowl o moxsoc moxso moxsoga vine u culudic culu culuga charcoal e bebec bebe bepega gourd i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi kiꞌdiga breast /-iny ax axiny -g- axinyga hut /-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinyga container, mould /-diny, -tiny ngas ngastiny ngastingyga neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwanggo eye /-u ux uxu uxuga woman /-da, -ta oxay oxayda oxaydaga animal /-di, -ti bul buldi buldiga drum /-de, -te jen jende jendega year /-tudi sud sutudi sutudiga hump /-tede led letede letedega joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -k- ngolenagka mother’s brother /-däg ya yadäg yadägka meat Modifier connector suffixes can also connect to pronouns such as in the following sentences. The modifier connector suffixes on singular pronouns begin with –z. Modifier connector suffixes on pronouns [check all]. Agäza wede ta apang. It is I who went for the man. Giza wede eta apang. It is you (sg) who went for the man. Maza wede eta apang. It is he who went for the man. Ceza wede eta apang. It is she who went for the man. Nyaza wede eta apang. It is it who went for the man. Waska wede eta apang. It is we (not you) who went for the man. Kogka wede eta apang. It is we (and you) who went for the man.

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Anggoga wede eta apang. It is you (pl) who went for the man. Saga wede eta apang. It is they who went for the man. Exercise 15 In the following sentences, underline all modifier connector suffixes on nouns. (Nyax 1-2) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila ka paye Long ago, there was girl who refused to marry yoxa caxse kabatwa. unless she found husband that handsome. (Nyax 4) Na nyämänece ka sagalong paye yoxa key. He asked girl, she wanted husband that how. (Nyax 89) Na nyalilingäzi na cabag mida täpeye cocola And he bent over and she took oil that hot and täxä caxsänya. poured (it) into (his) anus. (A&N 6) Ndey ꞌdoxig oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig So that we can find a animal that big and kill ta penggog. and bring (it) to our children. (A&N 25-26) Agänanganang ngakä käꞌdang todong And I (was thinking on) the matter that is here agäre nga pacce ndä aꞌdiy ꞌdoga asog? and do I know the thing that I do? (A&N 70-71) Gi baga ze buguning, ndey noccang ziyang You take head king, so that you will come eat ꞌdärägse, xa siyakä kängga ngoninyag. brain, it is eating of people that important. (T&A 25) Yex diniyena wede? Do you know the storm that is coming? (T&A 34) I buguningza ngonde wundung? But is the king that is big absent? (T&A 42) Käxa layis ngode tänyandäng song. There is no person that is bigger than him. (T&A 59-60) I käxäginani kawungang läpi ka, But your person that comes, mänang mäs käxa ngondeyang, . . say to that person that big, . .

Possessor connector suffixes (Genitive) Possessor connector suffixes show a noun is owned by or closely related to the following noun. In (A&N 86), penggä ‘children’ has the possessor connector suffix –gä to show they are owned by Nyoxolow ‘Hyena’. (A&N 86) (Owned by) Na penggä Nyoxolow käꞌdocco Children of Hyena went kaläpe ta mena. and told (their) father.

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In (O&A 24), the possessor connector suffix –kä on lag ‘wearing’ shows it has a close relationship with tarupus ‘mat’. (O&A 24) (Closely related to) ꞌDoga zeke gi tä lagkä tarupus wundung. The covering thing for wearing of mat is absent. In (1), the suffix –ä on the noun op ‘young man’ shows the singular noun op is possessed by buguning ‘king’. In (2), the same suffix –ä shows the singular noun op is possessed by buguninginy ‘kings’. Singular, singular (1) Opu buguning kadeläng. Young man of king fell. Singular, plural (2) Opu buguninginy kadeläng. Young man of kings fell. Plural, singular (3) Opinygä buguning kadelasäng. Young men of king fell. Plural, plural (4) Opinygä buguninginy kadelasäng. Young men of kings fell. The suffix –gä shows the plural noun opiny ‘young men’ is possessed by buguning ‘king’ in (3) and by buguninginy ‘kings’ in (4). Possessor connectors look similar to modifier connectors. However, there is a difference in the vowel of the suffixes and in how the suffixes are used. Possessor connectors with the vowel ä show a following noun owns or possesses the noun. Below, the possessor suffixes –ä, -gä show nyingäsä/ nyingäsägä ‘rat/rats’ are owned by kig/kän ‘person/people’. Possessor connectors Modifier connectors Singular noun nyingäsä kig rat of person nyingäsa jul mouse (lit. black rat) Plural noun nyingäsägä kän rats of people nyingäsäga juliny mice (lit. black rats) Modifier connectors with the vowel a show the following words describe the noun. The modifier suffixes –a, -ga show nyingäsa/ nyingäsäga are described by jul/juliny. The singular and plural nouns below have possessor connector suffixes. They can take the place of opu or opinygä in sentences (1) and (3). Possessor connector (genitive) singular suffixes –ä, -tä, -dä, -sä, -zä, -cä, -nä; plural suffixes –kä, -gä Final Noun Noun Beg. of . . . of . . . root Singular Plural suf. Singular Plural p op opiny Ø opu young man d abad abadiny abadä stupid person g kaläg kaläta kalägä amulet, idol s mas masta masä fire x ax axiny axä hut n jen jende jenä year ng xong xongda xongu day l dol dolu dolu snake

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r nyipär nyipärti nyipärä tongue w nyaw nyawda nyawä udder d sad satu -t- satä bowl, calabash f azaf azafiny azaftä palm tree s mus mustudi mustu mortar n pen pendu -d- pendä wound, sore l bul buldi buldu big drum w ow ota owdu place p rap rapiny -s- rapsä bird type d kred krete kretsä boundary marker g eg eginy egsä giraffe x kädäbäx kädäbäxiny kädäbäxsä trap r kolar kolariny kolarsä throat j raj rajta rajsä deception c bac bacu -c- baccä upper arm m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy -z- ꞌderemzä tree type n gisin gisininy gisinzä anteater ny marany maranyda maranyzä scar ng nyang nyanginy nyangzä crocodile w gaw gawiny gawzä hawk y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyzä rattle i tisi tisiny tisizä ladder a nyara nyaru -n- nyaranä cousin ä salä salu salänä sword o lorto lortu lortonu grasshopper u luku lukudi lukunu pool of water e mege megede megenä wind, air, storm i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌdinä loincloth -ic/ uxic ux -c- uxiccä worm -c/ bebec bebe bebeccä gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldiccä egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluweccä bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwiccä foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan Ø awunäwanä eye -x/ gax gany -s- gaxsä walking stick -d/ zid zi -t- zitä rope d — saxad -k- saxakä divorce (VN) g magic mag magkä tree sap s axsic as askä fish x apaxtic apax apaxkä hair r — säpär säpärkä cob of maize b — zäb zäbkä cultivation (VN) m — mem -g- memgä milk n käx kän känggä person ny — awiny awinygä flock of birds

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ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdonggu stem l bolic bol bolgu agreement y — ay aygä life a malezic maleza malezagä guinea fowl o moxsoc moxso moxsogu vine u culudic culu culugu charcoal e bebec bebe bepegä gourd i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi kiꞌdigä breast /-iny ax axiny -g- axinygä hut /-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinygä container, mould /-diny, -tiny ngas ngastiny ngastingygä neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwanggä eye /-u ux uxu uxugu woman /-da, -ta oxay oxayda oxaydagä animal /-di, -ti bul buldi buldigä drum /-de, -te jen jende jendegä year /-tudi sud sutudi sutudigä hump /-tede led letede letedegä joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -k- ngolenagkä mother’s brother /-däg ya yadäg yadägkä meat As stated in spelling rule 12, the suffix -ä becomes –u following the vowels o or u. Spelling Rule 12 (page ): When a suffix beginning with –ä is joined to a word with last vowel o or u, the suffix vowel changes to –u. Noun suffix -ä ax hut axä op hut of dol snake dolu op snake of Exercise 16 In the following sentences, underline all possessor connector suffixes on nouns. (O&A 2) Na oxayda kawuno And animals came for tä dänggä ꞌdogi nyäpaye nyägatang. listening of thing that he wanted them to hear. (O&A 7) Nycugo awasesining tä koyinakä Let us disperse for bringing of meat ya ta buguning. to the king. (O&A 13) Na samen akä sog sawuno . . . They set out on way of journey . . . (O&A 16) Gi nycu abad, ꞌdogu nycakä buguningzi You are stupid. Here is thing of sitting of king ginang. which is you. (O&A 36) ꞌDärägsä ze adakä sisiy, ka sawang tänya. Brains of head they not eat, leave for him.

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(O&A 41) I zaxadang siyakä ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogong anya? Why you refuse to eat brains of head of thing? (Nyax 7-8) Na nyägäräng ka enggä aminugunyatäng, And he remembers young friends of him, ndey nyägäꞌdoc täng toga wegkä del tänya. as he goes, to give things of decorations to him. (Nyax 58) Na mabag päxä pipi kala säwedeccä sawuno And he took the babysitter and walked and tä ikä colonggo. came to mouth of river. (Nyax 90) Na Nyoxolow käxsä na cabag päxäsa, And Hyena died and she took their child na nya päxä Nyaxolowzi. and it is the child of Hyena. (Nyax 98) Na soꞌdoxa apangä buguningzä za. And they will find man of king of head. (Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi? Oh there is problem mouth of his anus, you say? (Nyax 112-113) I nya nyägäꞌdoc nyägäcca toboxu But he went and sat under of coconut koxiccandäng. Na nyoxo tree there. And he saw ligitigä weg pirtidining. shadows of things shaking. (Nyax 116) Na calanga mildä isugusatäng And she sang a song about dogs na isu kädang mildäce. and dogs heard her song. (A&N 1) Legedäniccä Atorndorindäng na Nyoxolow. There is a story of Fox and Hyena. (A&N 16-17) Ndey pokusig ndakä letugu deny So that we can carry it so that owners of cow wuno ꞌdoxung kog todongang. will not arrive and find us here. (A&N 22-23) Nyägäꞌdoc tä kärekä ngakä ꞌdoga nyäsog He went for thinking of matter of thing that he ndey nyäbag ya watäkänya. could do inorder to take the meat for himself. (A&N 55-56) Nyäꞌdoco nyämese nyäꞌdoxo odu mas song. He will go get lost and not find place of fire. (A&N 71-72) Xa siyakä kängga ngoninyag. Because eating of for important people. Meat Yanä ike tägining, miye tagä, ipe ta Apoco. of mouth for you, skin for me, tail for Hare. (T&A 12) Kampätäng tä koyinakä nycokong tä I come for the escorting of these people for siyakä ota tä pumpung. eating of places in bush. (T&A 18) Mände nyangad ta uxu buguning ka, Again, he (Fox) said to the wife of king, (T&A 43-44) Kamalä buguningzä odu nycamiye ganang, Camel is now chairman of place of meeting, i Osox me bokosänakä ganang. and Lion is usher of now. (T&A 51) I no ꞌdogu wuxikä tabanänyanani. There seems to be thing of smoking of tobacco.

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Possessor pronoun suffixes In the lesson Pronouns, we learned that a possessor pronoun can take the place of a possessor noun. In (2), the possessor pronoun suffix –gang ‘my’ takes the place of apang ‘man’ in (1). Noun (1) Kig kasax axinygä apang. Person refused huts of man. Pronoun (2) Kig kasax axinygang. Person refused my huts. In this lesson, we learn how possessor pronouns change with the final root letters of the noun. A possessor pronoun suffix shows a noun is owned (possessed) by someone. There are nine different singular possessor pronoun suffixes as shown below. These show who owns a singular noun. There are also nine plural suffixes that show who owns a plural noun. Possessor pronouns suffixes Singular Plural Possessor ‘my’ nyangzang nyanginygang my crocodile Possessor ‘your(sg)’ nyangzägi nyanginygägi your(sg) crocodile Possessor ‘his’ nyangzäma nyanginygäma his crocodile Possessor ‘her’ nyangzice nyanginygice her crocodile Possessor ‘its’ nyangzinya nyanginyginya its crocodile Possessor ‘our (us, not you)’ nyangzäsko nyanginygäsko our(ex) crocodile Possessor ‘our (us and you)’ nyangzog nyanginygog our(in) crocodile Possessor ‘your(pl)’ nyangzägo nyanginygägo your(pl) crocodile Possessor ‘their’ nyangzäsa nyanginygäsa their crocodile As stated in spelling rule 12, all possessor suffixes which begin with –ä become –u after a final o or u. Spelling Rule 12 (page ): When a suffix beginning with –ä is joined to a word with last vowel o or u, the suffix vowel changes to –u.

Possessor suffixes ax hut ux wife -ägi axägi your (sg) hut uxugi your (sg) wife -äma axäma his hut uxuma his wife -äce axäce her hut uxuce her wife -änya axänya its hut uxunya its wife -äsko axäsko our (not your) hut uxusko our (not your) wife -ägo axägo your (pl) hut uxugo your (pl) wife -äsa axäsa their hut uxusa their wife In (3), the suffix –ang on op ‘young man’ shows the singular noun op belongs to the speaker.

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Singular (3) Opang kadeläng. My young man fell. The singular nouns below have possessor pronouns ‘my’, ‘your (sg)’, or ‘his’ suffixes. They can take the place of opang in sentence (3). Singular possessor suffixes Final Noun Beg my . . . your (sg) . . . his . . . root Singular suf Singular Singular Singular p op Ø opang opugi opuma young man d abad abadang abadägi abadäma stupid per. g kaläg kalägang kalägägi kalägäma amulet, idol s mas masang masägi masäma fire x ax axang axägi axäma hut n jen jenang jenägi jenäma year ng xong xongang xongugi xonguma day l dol dolang dolugi doluma snake r nyipär nyipärang nyipärägi nyipäräma tongue w nyaw nyawang nyawägi nyawäma udder d sad -t- satang satägi satäma bowl f azaf azaftang azaftägi azaftäma palm tree s mus mustang mustugi mustuma mortar n pen -d- pendang pendägi pendäma wound l bul buldang buldugi bulduma big drum w ow owdang owdugi owduma place p rap -s- rapsang rapsägi rapsäma bird type d kred kretsang kretsägi kretsäma marker g eg egsang egsägi egsäma giraffe x kädäbäx kädäbäxsang kädäbäxsägi kädäbäxsäma trap r kolar kolarsang kolarsägi kolarsäma throat j raj rajsang rajsägi rajsäma deception c bac -c- baccang baccägi baccäma upper arm m ꞌderem -z- ꞌderemzang ꞌderemzägi ꞌderemzäma tree type n gisin gisinzang gisinzägi gisinzäma anteater ny marany maranyzang maranyzägi maranyzäma scar ng nyang nyangzang nyangzägi nyangzäma crocodile w gaw gawzang gawzägi gawzäma hawk y kacikey kacikeyzang kacikeyzägi kacikeyzäma rattle i tisi tisizang tisizägi tisizäma ladder a nyara -n- nyaranang nyaranägi nyaranäma cousin ä salä salänang salänägi salänäma sword o lorto lortonang lortonugi lortonuma grasshopper u luku lukunang lukunugi lukunuma pool e mege megenang megenägi megenäma wind, air i poꞌdi poꞌdinang poꞌdinägi poꞌdinäma loincloth -ic/ uxic -c- uxiccang uxiccägi uxiccäma worm -c/ bebec bebeccang bebeccägi bebeccäma gourd

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-dic/ gäldic gäldiccang gäldiccägi gäldiccäma egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngaluweccang ngaluweccägi ngaluweccäma bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasuwiccang kadasuwiccägi kadasuwiccäma foundation -wan/ awunäwan Ø awunang awunugi awunuma eye -x/ gax -s- gaxsang gaxsägi gaxsäma stick -d/ zid -t- zitang zitägi zitäma rope The singular nouns below have possessor pronouns ‘her’, ‘its’, or ‘our (not your)’ suffixes. Singular possessor suffixes Final Noun Beg her . . . its . . . our (not your) root Singular suf Singular Singular Singular p op Ø opuce opunya opusko young man d abad abadäce abadänya abadäsko stupid per. g kaläg kalägäce kalägänya kalägäsko amulet, idol s mas masäce masänya masäsko fire x ax axäce axänya axäsko hut n jen jenäce jenänya jenäsko year ng xong xonguce xongunya xongusko day l dol doluce dolunya dolusko snake r nyipär nyipäräce nyipäränya nyipäräsko tongue w nyaw nyawäce nyawänya nyawäsko udder d sad -t- satäce satänya satäsko bowl f azaf azaftäce azaftänya azaftäsko palm tree s mus mustuce mustunya mustusko mortar n pen -d- pendäce pendänya pendäsko wound l bul bulduce buldunya buldusko big drum w ow owduce owdunya owdusko place p rap -s- rapsäce rapsänya rapsäsko bird type d kred kretsäce kretsänya kretsäsko marker g eg egsäce egsänya egsäsko giraffe x kädäbäx kädäbäxsäce kädäbäxsänya kädäbäxsäsko trap r kolar kolarsäce kolarsänya kolarsäsko throat j raj rajsäce rajsänya rajsäsko deception c bac -c- baccäce baccänya baccäsko upper arm m ꞌderem -z- ꞌderemzäce ꞌderemzänya ꞌderemzäsko tree type n gisin gisinzäce gisinzänya gisinzäsko anteater ny marany maranyzäce maranyzänya maranyzäsko scar ng nyang nyangzäce nyänyazänya nyangzäsko crocodile w gaw gawzäce gawzänya gawzäsko hawk y kacikey kacikeyzäce kacikeyzänya kacikeyzäsko rattle i tisi tisizäce tisizänya tisizäsko ladder a nyara -n- nyaranäce nyaranänya nyaranäsko cousin ä salä salänäce salänänya salänäsko sword o lorto lortonuce lortonunya lortonusko grasshopper u luku lukunuce lukununya lukunusko pool

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e mege megenäce megenänya megenäsko wind, air i poꞌdi poꞌdinäce poꞌdinänya poꞌdinäsko loincloth -ic/ uxic -c- uxiccäce uxiccänya uxiccäsko worm -c/ bebec bebeccäce bebeccänya bebeccäsko gourd -dic/ gäldic gäldiccäce gäldiccänya gäldiccäsko egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngaluweccäce ngaluweccänya ngaluweccäsko bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasuwiccäce kadasuwiccänya kadasuwiccäsko foundation -wan/ awunäwan Ø awunuce awununya awunusko eye -x/ gax -s- gaxsäce gaxsänya gaxsäsko stick -d/ zid -t- zitäce zitänya zitäsko rope The singular nouns below have possessor pronouns ‘our (and your)’, ‘your (pl)’, or ‘their’ suffixes. Singular possessor suffixes Final Noun Beg our (and your) your (pl) . . . their root Singular suf Singular Singular Singular p op Ø opok opugo opusa young man d abad abadok abadägo abadäsa stupid per. g kaläg kalägok kalägägo kalägäsa amulet, idol s mas masok masägo masäsa fire x ax axok axägo axäsa hut n jen jenok jenägo jenäsa year ng xong xongok xongugo xongusa day l dol dolok dolugo dolusa snake r nyipär nyipärok nyipärägo nyipäräsa tongue w nyaw nyawok nyawägo nyawäsa udder d sad -t- satok satägo satäsa bowl f azaf azaftok azaftägo azaftäsa palm tree s mus mustok mustugo mustusa mortar n pen -d- pendok pendägo pendäsa wound l bul buldok buldugo buldusa big drum w ow owdok owdugo owdusa place p rap -s- rapsok rapsägo rapsäsa bird type d kred kretsok kretsägo kretsäsa marker g eg egsok egsägo egsäsa giraffe x kädäbäx kädäbäxsok kädäbäxsägo kädäbäxsäsa trap r kolar kolarsok kolarsägo kolarsäsa throat j raj rajsok rajsägo rajsäsa deception c bac -c- baccok baccägo baccäsa upper arm m ꞌderem -z- ꞌderemzok ꞌderemzägo ꞌderemzäsa tree type n gisin gisinzok gisinzägo gisinzäsa anteater ny marany maranyzok maranyzägo maranyzäsa scar ng nyang nyangzok nyägozägo nyangzäsa crocodile w gaw gawzok gawzägo gawzäsa hawk y kacikey kacikeyzok kacikeyzägo kacikeyzäsa rattle

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i tisi tisizok tisizägo tisizäsa ladder a nyara -n- nyaranok nyaranägo nyaranäsa cousin ä salä salänok salänägo salänäsa sword o lorto lortonok lortonugo lortonusa grasshopper u luku lukunok lukunugo lukunusa pool e mege megenok megenägo megenäsa wind, air i poꞌdi poꞌdinok poꞌdinägo poꞌdinäsa loincloth -ic/ uxic -c- uxiccok uxiccägo uxiccäsa worm -c/ bebec bebeccok bebeccägo bebeccäsa gourd -dic/ gäldic gäldiccok gäldiccägo gäldiccäsa egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngaluweccok ngaluweccägo ngaluweccäsa bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasuwiccok kadasuwiccägo kadasuwiccäsa foundation -wan/ awunäwan Ø awunok awunugo awunusa eye -x/ gax -s- gaxsok gaxsägo gaxsäsa stick -d/ zid -t- zitok zitägo zitäsa rope In (4), the suffix –gang shows the plural noun opiny ‘young men’ belongs to the speaker. Plural (4) Opinygang kadelasäng. My young men fell. The plural nouns below have possessor pronouns ‘my’, ‘your (sg)’, or ‘his’ suffixes. They can take the place of opinygang in sentence (4). Plural possessor suffixes Final Noun Beg my . . . your (sg) . . . his . . . root Plural suf Plural Plural Plural d saxad -k- saxakang saxakägi saxakäma divorces g mag magkang magkägi magkäma tree saps s as askang askägi askäma fishes x apax apaxkang apaxkägi apaxkäma hairs r säpär säpärkang säpärkägi säpärkäma cobs of maize b zäb zäbkang zäbkägi zäbkäma cultivations m mem -g- memgang memgägi memgäma milks n kän känggang känggägi känggäma persons ny awiny awinygang awinygägi awinygäma flocks ng kuꞌdong kuꞌdonggang kuꞌdonggugi kuꞌdongguma stems l bol bolgang bolgugi bolguma agreements y ay aygang aygägi aygäma lives a maleza malezagang malezagägi malezagäma guinea fowls o moxso moxsogang moxsogugi moxsoguma vines u culu culugang culugugi culuguma charcoals e bebe bepegang bepegägi bepegäma gourds i kiꞌdi kiꞌdigang kiꞌdigägi kiꞌdigäma breasts /-iny axiny -g- axinygang axinygägi axinygäma huts /-ciny mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinygang mäꞌdaccinygägi mäꞌdaccinygäma containers /-diny ngastiny ngastingygang ngastingygägi ngastingygäma necks

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/-wan agäwan agang agägi agäma eyes /-u uxu uxugang uxugugi uxuguma womans /-da oxayda oxaydagang oxaydagägi oxaydagäma animals /-di buldi buldigang buldigägi buldigäma drums /-de jende jendegang jendegägi jendegäma years /-tudi sutudi sutudigang sutudigägi sutudigäma humps /-tede letede letedegang letedegägi letedegäma joys /-nag ngolenag -k- ngolenagkang ngolenagkägi ngolenagkäma uncles /-däg yadäg yadägkang yadägkägi yadägkäma meats The plural nouns below have possessor pronouns ‘her’, ‘its’, or ‘our (not your)’ suffixes. Plural possessor suffixes Final Noun Beg her . . . its . . . our (not your) . root Plural suf Plural Plural Plural d saxad -k- saxakäce saxakänya saxakäsko divorces g mag magkäce magkänya magkäsko tree saps s as askäce askänya askäsko fishes x apax apaxkäce apaxkänya apaxkäsko hairs r säpär säpärkäce säpärkänya säpärkäsko cobs b zäb zäbkäce zäbkänya zäbkäsko cultivations m mem -g- memgäce memgänya memgäsko milks n kän känggäce känggänya känggäsko persons ny awiny awinygäce awinygänya awinygäsko flocks ng kuꞌdong kuꞌdongguce kuꞌdonggunya kuꞌdonggusko stems l bol bolguce bolgunya bolgusko agreements y ay aygäce aygänya aygäsko lives a maleza malezagäce malezagänya malezagäsko guinea fowls o moxso moxsoguce moxsogunya moxsogusko vines u culu culuguce culugunya culugusko charcoals e bebe bepegäce bepegänya bepegäsko gourds i kiꞌdi kiꞌdigäce kiꞌdigänya kiꞌdigäsko breasts /-iny axiny -g- axinygäce axinygänya axinygäsko huts /-ciny mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinygäce mäꞌdaccinygänya mäꞌdaccinygäsko containers /-diny ngastiny ngastingygäce ngastingygänya ngastingygäsko necks /-wan agäwan agäce agänya agäsko eyes /-u uxu uxuguce uxugunya uxugusko womans /-da oxayda oxaydagäce oxaydagänya oxaydagäsko animals /-di buldi buldigäce buldigänya buldigäsko drums /-de jende jendegäce jendegänya jendegäsko years /-tudi sutudi sutudigäce sutudigänya sutudigäsko humps /-tede letede letedegäce letedegänya letedegäsko joys /-nag ngolenag -k- ngolenagkäce ngolenagkänya ngolenagkäsko uncles /-däg yadäg yadägkäce yadägkänya yadägkäsko meats The plural nouns below have possessor pronouns ‘our (and your)’, ‘your (pl)’, or ‘their’

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suffixes. Plural possessor suffixes Final Noun Beg our (and your) your (pl) . . . their . . . root Plural suf Plural Plural Plural d saxad -k- saxakog saxakägo saxakäsa divorces g mag magkog magkägo magkäsa tree saps s as askog askägo askäsa fishes x apax apaxkog apaxkägo apaxkäsa hairs r säpär säpärkog säpärkägo säpärkäsa cobs of maize b zäb zäbkog zäbkägo zäbkäsa cultivations m mem -g- memgog memgägo memgäsa milks n kän känggog känggägo känggäsa persons ny awiny awinygog awinygägo awinygäsa flocks ng kuꞌdong kuꞌdonggog kuꞌdonggugo kuꞌdonggusa stems l bol bolgog bolgugo bolgusa agreements y ay aygog aygägo aygäsa lives a maleza malezagog malezagägo malezagäsa guinea fowls o moxso moxsogog moxsogugo moxsogusa vines u culu culugog culugugo culugusa charcoals e bebe bepegog bepegägo bepegäsa gourds i kiꞌdi kiꞌdigog kiꞌdigägo kiꞌdigäsa breasts /-iny axiny -g- axinygog axinygägo axinygäsa huts /-ciny mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinygog mäꞌdaccinygägo mäꞌdaccinygäsa containers /-diny ngastiny ngastingygog ngastingygägo ngastingygäsa necks /-wan agäwan agog agägo agäsa eyes /-u uxu uxugog uxugugo uxugusa womans /-da oxayda oxaydagog oxaydagägo oxaydagäsa animals /-di buldi buldigog buldigägo buldigäsa drums /-de jende jendegog jendegägo jendegäsa years /-tudi sutudi sutudigog sutudigägo sutudigäsa humps /-tede letede letedegog letedegägo letedegäsa joys /-nag ngolenag -k- ngolenagkog ngolenagkägo ngolenagkäsa uncles /-däg yadäg yadägkog yadägkägo yadägkäsa meats Exercise 17 In the following sentences, underline all possessor pronoun suffixes on nouns. (O&A 1) Aniyandäng, Osox kabandä oxayda In former times, Lion called the animals to kawuno käꞌday dänge ngakänya täng. all come hear his message. (O&A 14) Na Osox kasäx kängaw nya, And the Lion jumped and caught him, nyägoy nyangaw ipänya. and he ran and caught his tail. (O&A 17)

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Na ipäginani nycata täng keke And how can you sit on your tail ial ganang kala nycata apoyiyo winy?” unless the sitting is good like that? (O&A 47) I ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogang giyandi? Where is the brain of the head of my thing? (Nyax 11) Bo tong zäginong, Come bring this your head, anoc abagäs uxandäng tägog. I want to marry a woman for us. (Nyax 15) Bonog, tong anadarugugigong, Friend, bring these your glasses, anoc abagäs uxandäng tägog. I am going to marry a certain woman for us. (Nyax 18) Bonog, tong boxänggä agägigong . Friend, bring these your eyes. (Nyax 22) Bonog tong ngasäginong Friend, bring this your neck. (Nyax 26) Kala seley nyägädimi delgänya käꞌday. So as to complete all its decorating. (Nyax 30) Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko wala wi?” Listen, have you come to our home or what? (Nyax 31) E, agänang kawung tä panägo xongondong. Yes, I have come to your house today. (Nyax 33-34) “Appa, nya yoxanggi ampayeng “Father, my potential husband that I like nyanang kawung xongondong.” has come today.” (Nyax 37) Neng zaxeng adelgede tä masäginani. Well, if like that, I will fall down in your fire . (Nyax 39) Cägäduru wayagkäsa käꞌday. She gathered all their relatives. (Nyax 44-45) “Bonog, nya uxogkiyanani?” “Friend, is that our wife which is there?” Na nyängade ka, “Uxog, uxog, kädugig? He said, “Our wife, the one we are sharing? Neng tong zang.” Ok, bring my head.” (Nyax 49) Ama gisani me panangani todi Hey, there is a guy, father of my children läpi täma ka mawang. (lit. house), tell him to come. (Nyax 53) Wede tä pa koying nuxu päxäsko Go to house and bring our only child tagä ndey menecce tagä. to me so that he may care for me. (Nyax 76) “Gi nycu ka käxogkandäng? “Do you still (see) our person? (Nyax 82) Na wäx ta agäsa kacu cucu cu. And tears from their eyes came pouring out. (Nyax 87-88) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig mid Bend over with your head, we will pour oil taxä caxsägi na kala käwing.” into your anus so that you will be fat. (Nyax 90) Na Nyoxolow käxsä na cabag päxäsa. And Hyena died and she took their child.

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(Nyax 96) Kanggo luwing nyimec ta andäma. You cut out the liver for his hand. (Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi You are saying there is a problem in his anus? (Nyax 116) Na calanga mildä isugusatäng And she (wife) sang a song about their dogs na isu kädäng mildäce and dogs heard her song, (A&N 4) Na kala xongonendäng, And there was a time nyängade ta amindänya ka, . . . when it said to its friend, (A&N 6-7) Ndey ꞌdoxig oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig So that we find big animal and kill and bring ta penggog, xa xas kapax kog nano. (it) to our children, we are very hungry (A&N 19-20) I tari nya Atorndori ngakänya täng täzäg Fox himself surely had his goal (A&N 44-45) Gininganang käpax deny When you go hunting and kill a cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang? and before your fire arrives, what do you do? (A&N 84) Noxadang päxä yanäsko song, You see, there is not a lot of our meat, (A&N 94) Nyaxolowang na Apoco, “I mpayadangang, Hyena and Hare said, “If you want, owgadas anggo tä panäma.” I will escort you to his home.” (A&N 95) Kala Nyoxolow kädäng ngekänya, Then Hyena hear its crying, na ngade ta pengge ka, . . . and said to (its) children, (T&A 4-5) Na xongonendäng nyabag penggänya There was a time when he took its children na uxunya säꞌdocco tä walang tä siyakä and its wife and they went on a trip to the ota tä pumpung. Eating places in the bush. (T&A 10) Bo buguning i kämpätäng ti? You are an important king, where have Go penggägi käꞌdayang. you come from? You have all your children. (T&A 29-31) Agänang, ngakang layis I am the one, my word remains ngakä uxong wede na exengge pätax songang, the word of this wife, not walking kax amäso agang ndä awede? am I supposed to close my eyes and go? (T&A 59) I käxägini kawungang, läpi ka, But your person that comes, say to mänang mäs käxa ngondeyang, . . . that person who is big, . . . (N&A 15) Tanganiccägi kiye key? How has your bull given birth?

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Possessor known (logophoric)

A possessor known suffix –e, -a takes the place of a possessor noun if the noun has been recently mentioned, such as in the same sentence or previous sentence. The suffix –e shows the possessor nouns singular. The suffix –a shows the possessor noun is plural. In (O&A 33-34), the suffix –e on bange ‘the remainder’ shows that this noun belongs to a recently mentioned noun–Kaccä ‘Donkey’. (O&A33-34) Na Kaccä käpätäng käcca, And Donkey came and sat, na Osox kasäx todi kamen nya. and Lion jumped there and caught him. Kala Osox kasiy nya ndä wang bange So Lion ate him and left its remainder ta oxaydagi kalungang. for the other animals. In (1), the suffix –e ‘his/her/its’ on op ‘young man’ shows this noun belongs to a singular noun recently mentioned. Singular (1) Ope kadeläng. His young man fell. (2) Opa kadeläng. Their young man fell. In (2), the suffix –a ‘their’ on op ‘young man’ shows this noun belongs to plural noun recently mentioned. The singular nouns below belong to a recently mentioned singular or plural noun. They can take the place of ope or opa in sentences (1) and (2). Possessor known singular suffixes Final Noun Noun Beg. his/her known . their known . root Singular Plural suf. Singular Singular p op opiny Ø ope opa young man d abad abadiny abade abada stupid person g kaläg kaläta kaläge kaläga amulet, idol s mas masta mase masa fire x ax axiny axe axa hut n jen jende jene jena year ng xong xongda xonge xonga day l dol dolu dole dola snake r nyipär nyipärti nyipäre nyipära tongue w nyaw nyawda nyawe nyawa udder d sad satu -t- sate sata bowl, calabash f azaf azafiny azafte azafta palm tree s mus mustudi muste musta mortar n pen pendu -d- pende penda wound, sore l bul buldi bulde bulda big drum w ow ota owde owda place

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p rap rapiny -s- rapse rapsa bird type d kred krete kretse kretsa boundary marker g eg eginy egse egsa giraffe x kädäbäx kädäbäxiny kädäbäxse kädäbäxsa trap r kolar kolariny kolarse kolarsa throat j raj rajta rajse rajsa deception c bac bacu -c- bacce bacca upper arm m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy -z- ꞌderemze ꞌderemza tree type n gisin gisininy gisinze gisinza anteater ny marany maranyda maranyze maranyza scar ng nyang nyanginy nyangze nyangza crocodile w gaw gawiny gawze gawza hawk y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyze kacikeyza rattle i tisi tisiny tisize tisiza ladder a nyara nyaru -n- nyarane nyarana cousin ä salä salu saläne saläna sword o lorto lortu lortone lortona grasshopper u luku lukudi lukune lukuna pool of water e mege megede megene megena wind, air, storm i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌdine poꞌdina loincloth -ic/ uxic ux -c- uxicce uxicca worm -c/ bebec bebe bebecce bebecca gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldicce gäldicca egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluwecce ngaluwecca bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwicce kadasuwicca foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan Ø awunäwane awunäwana eye -x/ gax gany -s- gaxse gaxsa walking stick -d/ zid zi -t- zite zita rope

In (3), the suffix –ge ‘his/her/it’ on opiny ‘young men’ shows this noun belongs to a singular noun recently mentioned.

Plural (3) Opinyge kadelasäng. His young men fell. (4) Opinyga kadelasäng. Their young men fell.

In (4), the suffix –ga ‘their’ on opiny ‘young men’ shows this noun belongs to plural noun recently mentioned. The plural nouns below belong to a recently mentioned singular or plural noun. They can take the place of opinyge or opinyga in sentences (3) and (4).

Possessor known plural suffixes Final Noun Noun Beg. his/her known . their known . root Singular Plural suf. Plural Plural d — saxad -k- saxake saxaka divorces (VN) g magic mag magke magka tree saps

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s axsic as aske aska fishes x apaxtic apax apaxke apaxka hairs r — säpär säpärke säpärka cobs of maize b — zäb zäbke zäbka cultivations (VN) m — mem -g- memge memga milks n käx kän kängge kängga persons ny — awiny awinyge awinyga flocks of birds ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdongge kuꞌdongga stems l bolic bol bolge bolga agreements y — ay ayge ayga lives a malezic maleza malezage malezaga guinea fowls o moxsoc moxso moxsoge moxsoga vines u culudic culu culuge culuga charcoals e bebec bebe bepege bepega gourds i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi kiꞌdige kiꞌdiga breasts /-iny ax axiny -g- axinyge axinyga huts /-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinyge mäꞌdaccinyga containers /-diny, -tiny ngas ngastiny ngastingyge ngastingyga necks /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwangge agäwangga eyes /-u ux uxu uxuge uxuga women /-da, -ta oxay oxayda oxaydage oxaydaga animals /-di, -ti bul buldi buldige buldiga drums /-de, -te jen jende jendege jendega years /-tudi sud sutudi sutudige sutudiga humps /-tede led letede letedege letedega joys /-nag ngole ngolenag -k- ngolenagke ngolenagka mother’s brothers /-däg ya yadäg yadägke yadägka meats Note that the possessor known plural suffix –a in (5, 7) is a different suffix than the general relative connector –a in (6, 8). Although both sound the same, they have a different meaning and are used differently. Singular Plural Possessor of plural known (logophoric)

(5) nyangza (7) nyanginyga their known crocodile

General relative connector, Modifier connector (adjectival)

(6) nyangza opo (8) nyanginyga opoccu crocodile that good

Exercise 18 In the following sentences, underline all possessor known suffixes on nouns. (O&A 40) Nycoki kasiy ya i kawang zä Kaccä na People had eaten meat and left head of nyimecce. Donkey and the liver. (O&A 43)

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I no käꞌdang buguning ngade ka, Because a little while ago king said sawang ꞌdärägse tänya. to leave the brain to him. (O&A 50) ꞌDog kabandä käluw ipe, kawang, Thing called the tail you cut, and I left (it), käluw wungge, kawang, you cut the ears, and I left, käwang käpax käsiy käꞌday. you left and you killed and ate everything. (Nyax 2-3) Xongenadäng Nyoxolow kädäng ꞌdogkeneni, There was that time that Hyena possessed the na nyängade ka, “Ila anoc abag sagalong.” thing and said, “I really must marry this girl.” (Nyax 78) Kala säpaye saxake So, they wanted the divorce ndä sänyägate Nyoxolow. and they were afriad of Hyena. (Nyax 81) Ndä kala läge lägo ndä sängeccä. And then there was the smoke and they cried. (A&N 62) Ndä sägäbäg miye na ipe, i ze kalay tunyu, They took the skin and the tail, left head behind. ndä saduguning tä wungge säꞌdätädä. and they shared the ears which were cut. (A&N 70-71) Nycugo alara, gi baga ze, buguning Let us divide (things). You take head, king ndey noccang ziyang ꞌdärägse, so that you will come and eat the brain, xa siyakä kängga ngoninyag. because it is the eating of important people. (A&N 72-73) Yanä ike tägining, miye tagä, ipe ta Apoco. Meat of the mouth is for you, the skin is for me, Na kala sägälaräsang na sägäꞌdocco, and the tail is for Hare. Then they divided them käxi käꞌdoc tä pane. and they left–every person went to the home. (T&A 29-32) Agänang, ngakang layis I am the one, my word remains ngakä uxong wede na exengge pätax songang, word of this wife, not walking with the two legs kax amäso agang ndä ewede? am I supposed to close my eyes? Mänang ngakä uxong wede na exengge Like this, the wife will walk with pätaxakang nyang sogoka ameskewang. the two legs and be kept safe.

Asking specific

The asking specific suffix –adi asks about and takes the place of an adjective or general relative clause giving information about a noun. In (2), –adi on op ‘young man’ ask about an adjective such as apo ‘good’ that describes this noun. It can take the place of apo in (1). (1) Opa apo kadeläng. Good young man fell. Singular (2) Opadi kadeläng. Which young man fell? In (4), –gadi on opiny ‘young men’ ask about an adjective such as apoccu ‘good’ that describes this noun. It can take the place of apoccu in (3).

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(3) Opinyga apoccu kadelasäng. Good young men fell. Plural (4) Opinygadi kadelasäng. Which young men fell? The singular and plural nouns below have asking specific suffixes. They can take the place of opadi or opinygadi in sentences (2) and (4). Asking specific singular suffixes –a, -ta, -da, -sa, -za, -ca, -na; plural suffixes –ka, -ga Final Noun Noun Beg. that . . . that . . . root Singular Plural suf. Singular Plural p op opiny Ø opa young man d abad abadiny abada stupid person g kaläg kaläta kaläga amulet, idol s mas masta masa fire x ax axiny axa hut n jen jende jena year ng xong xongda xonga day l dol dolu dola snake r nyipär nyipärti nyipära tongue w nyaw nyawda nyawa udder d sad satu -t- sata bowl, calabash f azaf azafiny azafta palm tree s mus mustudi musta mortar n pen pendu -d- penda wound, sore l bul buldi bulda big drum w ow ota owda place p rap rapiny -s- rapsa bird type d kred krete kretsa boundary marker g eg eginy egsa giraffe x kädäbäx kädäbäxiny kädäbäxsa trap r kolar kolariny kolarsa throat j raj rajta rajsa deception c bac bacu -c- bacca upper arm m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy -z- ꞌderemza tree type n gisin gisininy gisinza anteater ny marany maranyda maranyza scar ng nyang nyanginy nyangza crocodile w gaw gawiny gawza hawk y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyza rattle i tisi tisiny tisiza ladder a nyara nyaru -n- nyarana cousin ä salä salu saläna sword o lorto lortu lortona grasshopper u luku lukudi lukuna pool of water

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e mege megede megena wind, air, storm i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌdina loincloth -ic/ uxic ux -c- uxicca worm -c/ bebec bebe bebecca gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldicca egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluwecca bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwicca foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan Ø awunäwana eye -x/ gax gany -s- gaxsa walking stick -d/ zid zi -t- zita rope d — saxad -k- saxaka divorce (VN) g magic mag magka tree sap s axsic as aska fish x apaxtic apax apaxka hair r — säpär säpärka cob of maize b — zäb zäbka cultivation (VN) m — mem -g- memga milk n käx kän kängga person ny — awiny awinyga flock of birds ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdongga stem l bolic bol bolga agreement y — ay ayga life a malezic maleza malezaga guinea fowl o moxsoc moxso moxsoga vine u culudic culu culuga charcoal e bebec bebe bepega gourd i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi kiꞌdiga breast /-iny ax axiny -g- axinyga hut /-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinyga container, mould /-diny, -tiny ngas ngastiny ngastingyga neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwanggo eye /-u ux uxu uxuga woman /-da, -ta oxay oxayda oxaydaga animal /-di, -ti bul buldi buldiga drum /-de, -te jen jende jendega year /-tudi sud sutudi sutudiga hump /-tede led letede letedega joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -k- ngolenagka mother’s brother /-däg ya yadäg yadägka meat

Identifying suffixes In the table below, there are five ways of talking about the noun nyang, nyanginy ‘crocodile, crocodiles’ with complement suffixes (enclitics). Each of the complement suffixes make a

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comment about the noun. A complement suffix with the noun can be a sentence by itself, or can be part of a sentence. Ways of talking about nyang, nyanginy ‘crocodile, crocodiles’ with complement suffixes Singular Plural noun nyang nyanginy crocodile Identifying Nyangang. Nyanginyag. It is a crocodile. Locating far Nyangani. Nyanginyaki. There is a crocodile. Locating near Nyanganang. Nyanginyakang. Here is a crocodile. Existing Nyangandäng. Nyanginyatäng. A crocodile exists. Asking location Nyangandi? Nyanginyati? Where is the crocodile? Complement connectors can be attached to other kinds of words besides nouns, as shown below. Identifying suffixes attached to different kinds of words possessed noun A&N 60 pang Atorndori house of Fox possessor noun N&A 2 denyänya uxang cow of woman (female) pronoun A&N 51 tägogkang to us adjective A&N 71 kängga ngoninyag people that are important quantity O&A 35 oxaydagi kalungang animals which are others number A&N 11 awadi nuxungang bird which is one adverb A&N 17 todongang here it is question word T&A 10 Xänanang who is it verb Nyax 34 yoxanggi ampeyeng husband which I want In this lesson we learn about the identifying suffixes. We learn about other complement suffixes in following lessons. Identifying suffixes4 can be an equal sign in a sentence without a verb. In this way they help identify or tell information about certain nouns. They can show the end of a specific relative clause (a group of words with a verb that tells which noun we are talking about). They can also show a clause depends on another clause to make a complete sentence. They can also show the end of a phrase (group of words without a verb) that is in focus, the most important words of the sentence. In (N&A 1), the identifying suffix –g on aminug ‘are friends’ is like an equal sign that shows Nyoxolow na Apoco ‘Hyena and Hare’ are the same as aminu ‘friends’. It identifies or tells more information about these particular nouns. (N&A 1) (Equal sign) Nyoxolow na Apoco aminug. Hyena and Hare were friends. 4 Boyeldieu, Pascal (2009) in Afrika und Übersee, 90:9-84 calls this morpheme a ‘definite marker’ and says that it

comes at the end of relative clauses..

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In (O&A 34), the identifying suffix –ang shows the word kalung ‘others’ is in an specific relative clause which shows which oxayda ‘animals’ we are talking about. It is the particular animals that were mentioned at the beginning of the story. (O&A 34) (End of specific relative clause) Kala Osox kasiy nya ndä wang bange So Lion ate him and left the remainder ta oxaydagi kalungang. for the animals which are others. We learn more about this use of the identifying suffix in the lesson Specific relative clauses and Identifying suffixes on verbs. In (A&A 12), the identity suffix –kang on asug ‘market’ shows the words käꞌdoccig tä wang asugkang ‘we go to market’ depend on the following words to make a complete sentence. These words cannot be a finished sentence by themselves. (A&A 12) (Dependent clause) Gom käꞌdoccig tä wang asugkang. Later, when we go to the market, ndä aꞌdakasa gi noy. I will untie you and you can escape. In (O&A 52), the suffix –ang shows the group of words ꞌdärägsä ze tängang ‘brain of head’ are the most important in the sentence. It is what the question asks about. (O&A52) (Focus) ꞌDärägsä ze tängang, The brain of the head, kax kämel tagä mänang? were you suppose to return to me? In (1), the suffix –ang shows we are talking about op. This sentence can be an answer to the question ‘What is it?’ Singular (1) Opang. It is a young man. Plural (2) Opinyag. They are young men. In (2), the suffix –ag shows we are talking about opiny ‘young men’. The singular and plural nouns below have identifying suffixes, and can take the place of opang or opinyag in sentences (1) and (2). Identifying singular –pang, -cang, -tang, -kang, -ang, -ng; plural –tag, -kag, -wag, -yag, -ag, -g Noun Noun Beg. It is a . . . These are . . . Singular Plural Suf. Singular Plural p op opiny -pa- oppang young man c kuc kuny -ca- kuccang sorghum d abad abadiny -ta- abatang stupid person g kaläg kaläta -ka- kalägkang amulet f azaf azafiny -a- azafang palm tree

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s mas masta masang fire x ax axiny axang hut m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy ꞌderemang tree type n jen jende jenang year ny marany maranyda maranyang scar ng xong xongda xongang day l dol dolu dolang snake r nyipär nyipärti nyipärang tongue w nyaw nyawda nyawang udder y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyang rattle j raj rajta rajang deception a nyara nyaru Ø nyarang cousin ä salä salu saläng sword o lorto lortu lortong grasshopper u luku lukudi lukung pool e mege megede megeng wind, air i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌding loincloth -ic/ uxic ux -ca- uxiccang worm -c/ bebec bebe bebeccang gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldiccang egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluweccang bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwiccang foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan -a- awunäwanang eye -x/ gax gany gaxang walking stick -d/ zid zi -ta- zitang rope d — saxad -ta- saxatag divorce (VN) g magic mag -ka- magkag tree sap u culudic culu -wa- culuwag charcoal o kädataxowic kädataxo kädataxowag cricket i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi -ya- kiꞌdiyag breast e modic mode modeyag peace m — mem -a- memag milk n käx kän känag person ny — awiny awinyag flock ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdongag stem l bolic bol bolag agreement y — ay ayag life s axsic as asag fish x apaxtic apax apaxag hair r — säpär säpärag husk b — zäb zäbag cultivation a malezic maleza Ø malezag guinea.fowl o moxsoc moxso moxsog vine e bebec bebe bebeg gourd i ndukurudic ndukurudi ndukurudig dust /-iny ax axiny -a- axinyag hut

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/-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinyag containe /-diny ngas ngastiny ngastingyag neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwanag eye /-u ux uxu -wa- uxuwag woman /-da oxay oxayda Ø oxaydag animal /-di bul buldi buldig drum /-de jen jende jendeg year /-tudi sud sutudi sutudig hump /-tede led letede letedeg joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -ka- ngolenagkag uncle /-däg ya yadäg yadägkag meat In the singular noun abad ‘stupid person’, the final d disappears when the suffix –tang is added (abatang ‘It is a stupid person’). In the singular noun kaläg ‘amulet’, the final g disappears when the suffix –kang is added (kalägkang ‘It is an amulet’). In the plural noun saxad ‘divorce’, the final d disappears when the suffix –tag is added (saxatag ‘These are divorces’). In the plural noun mag ‘tree sap’, the final g remains when the suffix –kag is added (magkag ‘these are tree saps’). Below in summary, the identifying singular suffixes are organized by final letter of the root. The most common singular suffix is –ang. However, singular complement suffixes can instead be –pang when the final root letter is p, -cang when the final root letter is c, -tang when the final root letter is d, and -kang when the final root letter is g. Singular complement suffixes can be -ng when the final root letter is a vowel. Singular complement suffixes Final Beginning Noun Identifying root letter suffix letter Singular Singular Most consonants -a nyang crocodile nyangang It is a crocodile. p -pa op young man oppang It is a young man. c -ca kuc sorghum kuccang It is sorghum. d -ta sad bowl satang It is a bowl. g -ka tug ebony tree tugkang It is an ebony tree. All vowels Ø luku pool lukung It is a pool. The identifying plural suffixes are organized by root final letter below. The most common plural suffix is –ag. However, plural complement suffixes can instead be –tag when the final root letter is d, -kag when the final root letter is g, -wag when the final root letter is u or o, and -yag when the final root letter is i or e. Plural complement suffixes can be -g when the final root letter is a vowel. Plural complement suffixes Final Beginning Noun Identifying root letter suffix letter Plural Plural Most consonants -a- mem milks memag These are milks. d -ta- saxad divorses saxatag These are divorses.

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g -ka- mag tree saps magkag These are tree saps. u, o -wa- culu charcoals culuwag These are charcoals. i, e -ya- kiꞌdi breasts kiꞌdiyag These are breasts. most vowels Ø maleza guinea fowls malezag These are guinea fowls. Identifying suffixes can also connect to pronouns to make the following complete sentences. Identifying suffixes on pronouns Agäng. It is me. I am it. Ging. It is you (sg). You are it. Mang. It is him. He is it. Ceng. It is her. She is it. Nyang. It is it. It is it.. Wasag. It is us (not you). We are it. Kogkag. It is us (and you). We are it. Anggog. It is you (pl). You are it. Sag. It is them. They are it. Exercise 19 In the following sentences, underline all identifying suffixes on nouns and pronouns and other words. (O&A 34-35) Kala Osox kasiy nya ndä wang bange So Lion ate him and left the remainder ta oxaydagi kalungang. for the other animals, (Nyax 97) Kala säꞌdox kanggong mänang So, they will find you are like this, säꞌdox kanggong mänang. they will find you are like this. (A&N 10-11) Na kala edekeny tä keskow sägädayino Then the next day at dawn, they went to a bird ta awadi nuxungang. of which there is only one. (A&N 16-17) Ndey pokusig ndakä letugu deny So that we can carry it so that owners of cow wuno ꞌdoxung kog todongang. will not arrive and find us here. (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you go hunting and kill a cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang, and you have no fire, what do you do then, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw? (A&N 47) ꞌDoxo mas ti ganangang? Where will you find fire now? (A&N 51) Neng xänang ꞌdocco bokada tägogkang? Ok, who will go and bring (it) to us? (A&N 60) I sa salaye sosokuda ya käꞌday But they remained and transfered all meat home

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tä pang Atorndori. to the house of Fox. (A&N 70-71) Nycugo alara, gi baga ze, buguning Let us divide (things). You take head, king ndey noccang ziyang ꞌdärägse, so that you will come and eat the brain, xa siyakä kängga ngoninyag. because it is the eating of important people. (A&N 74) Kala xongonendäng, enggä penggä Nyoxolow Then there was a time when the children of käꞌdocco tä pang Atorndori. Hyena went to the house of Fox. (A&N 92-93) Ndakä paxang agä, Do not kill me, xa agänangang kapax denyang song. for I am not the one that killed the cow. (A&N 94) Nyaxolowang na Apoco, “I mpayadangang, Hyena and Hare said, “If you want, owgadas anggo tä panäma.” I will escort you to his home.” (T&A 1-2) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was an buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed, important king of the forest, ndä nyang nyäs me kudurang mände, and he was a powerful creature– (T&A 10) Bo buguning i kämpätäng ti? Go (You) are important king, where have penggägi käꞌdayang. you come from? You have all these children. (T&A 25-26) Buguning ngade ka, “Oxadiyang sogowang?” The king said, “What is happening?” Na Atorndori ngade ka, “I oda wede ndä And Fox said, “Will the storm come and attack kadarjange gi na pipuwang?” you and the children?” (T&A 29-32) Agänang, ngakang layis I am the one, my word remains ngakä uxong wede na exengge pätax songang, the word of this wife, not walking kax amäso agang ndä awede? am I supposed to close my eyes? Mänang ngakä uxong wede na exengge Like this, the wife will walk with pätaxakang nyang sogoka ameskewang. them two legs and be kept safe. (T&A 37) Buguningziyang ngonde tagäng. That king is bigger than me? (N&A 1) Nyoxolow na Apoco aminug. Hyena and Hare were friends.

Locating near suffixes Locating near suffixes can be used as an equal sign to compare one noun with another. They can also identify a nearby or recently mentioned noun that we are talking about (topic). They often show which pronoun we are talking about (topic) and can give emphasis to it. They can also show the end of an specific relative clauses.

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In (T&A 37), the locating near suffix –yang on buguning ‘king’ is like an equal sign that compares the king with someone ngonde tagäng ‘bigger than me’. (T&A 37) (Equal sign) Buguningziyang ngonde tagäng. That king is bigger than me? In (Nyax 107), the suffix –nang shows the noun ya ‘meat’ is what the sentence is about. It is nearby—in front of one hyena as he calls other hyenas to come and eat. (Nyax 107) (Topic) Päxä yanang kaꞌdox tanggo, wining lala. Here is meat given to you. Come and see. In (T&A 11), the locating near suffix –akang shows the pronoun was ‘we (not you)’ is what the sentence is about. (T&A 11) (Topic) Accang wasakang wawedeccig. Surely we are just going. Elephant says (T&A 11) in response to Fox when he meets Elephant and his family on a journey in the bush and asked who they are. Elephant ignores the question of Fox, and the locating near suffix puts emphasis on was ‘we’ and what they going to do. In (Nyax 71), the suffix –kanang shows the words nyämändäs nganag ‘he asked elder sisters’ tell which mäned ‘asking’ we are talking about. This locating near suffix comes at the end of this specific relative clause. (Nyax 71) (End of specific relative clause) Na sawuno tä colonggo, na nyamän, And they came to the river, and he asked, kala mäneki nyämändäs nganakanang. and the asking that he asked was to elder sisters. In (1), the suffix –anang shows the speaker is talking about op ‘young man’ who is nearby. This sentence can be an answer to the question “Where is this?” Singular (1) Opanang. Here is a young man. Plural (2) Opinyakang. Here are young men. In (2), the suffix –akang shows the speaker is talking about opiny ‘young men’ who are nearby. The singular and plural nouns below have locating near suffixes, and can take the place of opanang or opinyakang in sentences (1) and (2). Locating near singular –panang, -canang, -tanang, -kanang, -anang, -nang; plural –takang, -kakang, -wakang, -yakang, -akang, -kang Noun Noun Beg. Here is a . . . Here are . . . Singular Plural Suf. Singular Plural

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p op opiny -pa- oppanang young man c kuc kuny -ca- kuccanang sorghum d abad abadiny -ta- abatanang stupid person g kaläg kaläta -ka- kalägkanang amulet f azaf azafiny -a- azafanang palm tree s mas masta masanang fire x ax axiny axanang hut m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy ꞌderemänang tree type n jen jende jenanang year ny marany maranyda maranyanang scar ng xong xongda xonganang day l dol dolu dolanang snake r nyipär nyipärti nyipäranang tongue w nyaw nyawda nyawanang udder y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyanang rattle j raj rajta rajanang deception a nyara nyaru Ø nyaranang cousin ä salä salu salänang sword o lorto lortu lortonang grasshopper u luku lukudi lukunang pool e mege megede megenang wind, air i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌdinang loincloth -ic/ uxic ux -ca- uxiccanang worm -c/ bebec bebe bebeccanang gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldiccanang egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluweccanang bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwiccanang foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan -a- awunäwananang eye -x/ gax gany -a- gaxanang walking stick -d/ zid zi -ta- zitanang rope d — saxad -ta- saxatakang divorce (VN) g magic mag -ka- magkakang tree sap u culudic culu -wa- culuwakang charcoal o kädataxowic kädataxo kädataxowakang cricket i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi -ya- kiꞌdiyakang breast e modic mode modeyakang peace m — mem -a- memakang milk n käx kän känakang person ny — awiny awinyakang flock ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdongakang stem l bolic bol bolakang agreement y — ay ayakang life s axsic as asakang fish x apaxtic apax apaxakang hair r — säpär säpärakang husk b — zäb zäbakang cultivation

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a malezic maleza Ø malezakang guinea.fowl o moxsoc moxso moxsokang vine e bebec bebe bebekang gourd i ndukurudic ndukurudi ndukurudikang dust /-iny ax axiny -a- axinyakang hut /-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinyakang containe /-diny ngas ngastiny ngastingyakang neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwanakang eye /-u ux uxu -wa- uxuwakang woman /-da oxay oxayda Ø oxaydakang animal /-di bul buldi buldikang drum /-de jen jende jendekang year /-tudi sud sutudi sutudikang hump /-tede led letede letedekang joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -ka- ngolenagkakang uncle /-däg ya yadäg yadägkakang meat Locating near suffixes can also connect to pronouns to make the following complete sentences. Locating near suffixes on pronouns Agänang. This is me. I am here. Ginang. This is you (sg). You are here. Mänang. This is him. He is here. Cenang. This is her. She is here. Nyanang. This is it. It is here.. Wasakang. This is us (not you). We are here. Kogakang. This is us (and you). We are here. Anggokang. This is you (pl). You are here. Sakang. This is them. They are here. Exercise 20 In the following sentences, underline all locating near suffixes on nouns and pronouns. (O&A 10) Agänang buguning, kayaxsä agä tägi ka I am the king, I sent myself to gi wung. you to come. (O&A 16) Gi nycu abad, ꞌdogu nycakä buguningzi You are stupid. Here is thing of sitting of king ginang. which is you. (O&A 30) Gining wede ꞌdanyawa ndey Kaccä wung, You go hide yourself so that you pretend to icca ndä kala men. catch Fox, but instead you will catch Donkey. (O&A 49) Gi ndey bäle ka gining tä zägi, You were supposed to collect all the meat, ninggi wundung. but you were not there.

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(Nyax 31) E, agänang kawung tä panägo xongondong. Yes, I have come to your house today. (Nyax 34) Appa, nya yoxanggi ampayeng, Father, my potential husband that I like, nyanang kawung xongondong. he has come today. (Nyax 50) Na maluw mängade täce ka, “Cong agänang.” He responded saying to her, “I am the one.” (Nyax 70) Kala sax cayaxsä ma kala cadästä ma So she sent him and advised him tä buxani biyeyang. to have a little wine. (Nyax 71) Sawuno tä colonggo, na nyamän kala mäneki They came to the river, and he asked and began nyämandäs nganakanang. to ask the elder sister. (Nyax 114) Ama kän zagi xa sakang. You people, come because they are here. (A&N 25-26) Agänanganang ngakä käꞌdang And I was really thinking about you todong agäre nga pacce ndä aꞌdiy ꞌdoga asog? here and do I know what to do (implied ꞌnoꞌ)? (A&N 41-42) Nyoxolow ngade ta Apoco ka, Hyena said to Hare, “Gindäng wanägi apo?” Apoco ngade ka, “You are your body is good?” Hare said, “E, agänang wanang apo winy.” “Yes, I am my body is good.” (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you go hunting and kill a cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang, and you have no fire, what do you do then, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw? (A&N 58) Giza wede tägog xa gining loy. It is you that walks for us because you are tall. (A&N 72) Yanä ike tägining, miye tagä, ipe ta Apoco. Meat of the mouth is for you, skin is for me, (A&N 92-93) Ndakä paxang agä, Do not kill me, xa agänangang kapax denyang song. for I am not the one that killed the cow. (T&A 19-20) “Bo nycokong anggokang.” Na uxu buguning “Mother of those people, are you fine?” And ngade ka, “E wasakang.” the wife of the king said, “Yes, we are fine.” (T&A 29-32) Na buguning ngade ka, “Agänang, And the king said, “I am the one, ngakang layis ngakä uxong my word remains the word of this wife, wede na exengge pätax songang, not walking kax amäso agang ndä awede? am I supposed to close my eyes and go? Mänang ngakä uxong wede na exengge Like this, the wife will walk with pätaxakang nyang sogoka ameskewang.” two legs and be kept safe.

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Locating far suffixes Locating far suffixes show we are talking about a noun away from the speaker. In stories, locating far suffixes are almost always used in speeches. Sometimes they are used for the first mention of a noun. In (A&N 49), the locating far suffix –kani on ꞌdog ‘thing’ shows Hare is talking about something away from him. It is far enough away that someone will have to go get it and bring it back. (A&N 49) is the first mention of this thing like fire. (A&N 49) Ama buguning, ꞌdogkani kaꞌdas mas. You oh king, there is a thing like fire. In (1), the suffix –ani shows the speaker is talking about op ‘young man’ who is away. Singular (1) Opani. There is a young man. Plural (2) Opinyaki. There are young men. In (2), the suffix –aki shows the speaker is talking about opiny ‘young men’ who are away. The singular and plural nouns below have locating far suffixes. They can take the place of opani or opinyaki in sentences (1) and (2). Locating far singular –pani, -cani, -tani, -kanang, -ani, -ni; plural –taki, -kaki, -waki, -yaki, -aki, -ki Noun Noun Beg. There is a . . . There are . . . Singular Plural Suf. Singular Plural p op opiny -pa- oppani young man c kuc kuny -ca- kuccani sorghum d abad abadiny -ta- abatani stupid person g kaläg kaläta -ka- kalägkani amulet f azaf azafiny -a- azafani palm tree s mas masta masani fire x ax axiny axani hut m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy ꞌderemäni tree type n jen jende jenani year ny marany maranyda maranyani scar ng xong xongda xongani day l dol dolu dolani snake r nyipär nyipärti nyipärani tongue w nyaw nyawda nyawani udder y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyani rattle j raj rajta rajani deception a nyara nyaru Ø nyarani cousin

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ä salä salu saläni sword o lorto lortu lortoni grasshopper u luku lukudi lukuni pool e mege megede megeni wind, air i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌdini loincloth -ic/ uxic ux -ca- uxiccani worm -c/ bebec bebe bebeccani gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldiccani egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluweccani bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwiccani foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan -a- awunäwanani eye -x/ gax gany -a- gaxani walking stick -d/ zid zi -ta- zitani rope d — saxad -ta- saxataki divorce (VN) g magic mag -ka- magkaki tree sap u culudic culu -wa- culuwaki charcoal o kädataxowic kädataxo kädataxowaki cricket i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi -ya- kiꞌdiyaki breast e modic mode modeyaki peace m — mem -a- memaki milk n käx kän känaki person ny — awiny awinyaki flock ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdongaki stem l bolic bol bolaki agreement y — ay ayaki life s axsic as asaki fish x apaxtic apax apaxaki hair r — säpär säpäraki husk b — zäb zäbaki cultivation a malezic maleza Ø malezaki guinea.fowl o moxsoc moxso moxsoki vine e bebec bebe bebeki gourd i ndukurudic ndukurudi ndukurudiki dust /-iny ax axiny -a- axinyaki hut /-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinyaki containe /-diny ngas ngastiny ngastingyaki neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwanaki eye /-u ux uxu -wa- uxuwaki woman /-da oxay oxayda Ø oxaydagi animal /-di bul buldi buldiki drum /-de jen jende jendeki year /-tudi sud sutudi sutudiki hump /-tede led letede letedeki joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -ka- ngolenagkaki uncle /-däg ya yadäg yadägkaki meat

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Locating far suffixes can also connect to pronouns to make the following complete sentences. Locating far suffixes on pronouns Agäni. That is me. I am there. Gini. That is you (sg). You are there. Mani. That is him. He is there. Ceni. That is her. She is there. Nyani. That is it. It is there.. Wasaki. That is us (not you). We are there. Kogkaki. That is us (and you). We are there. Anggoki. That is you (pl). You are there. Saki. That is them. They are there. Exercise 21 In the following sentences, underline all locating far suffixes on nouns. (O&A 17-18) Na ipäginani nycata täng keke ila ganang kala How can you sit on your tail unless sitting is nycata apoyiyo winy? good like that? (Nyax 37) Neng zaxeng adelgede tä masäginani. Well, if like that, I will fall down into your fire. (Nyax 44) Bonog, nya uxogkiyanani? Friend, is that our wife? (Nyax 49) Ama gisani me panangani todi Hey, there is a guy, the father of my children, läpi täma ka mawung. tell him to come. (A&N 36-37) Bonog, masani nuxu kig ꞌdoc bota tägog. Friend, there is fire one person will bring to us. (A&N 96) Xoyi nycuko anoyi xa letugu denyaki kawuno Let us run because owners of cow are coming. (T&A 51-52) Ata bende nya xa nyäwunodung i no ꞌdogu Just wait for him, he is coming and there is his wuxikä tabanänyanani. Na Tumos ngade ka, tobacco pipe smoking there. Elephant said, “Ganang ꞌdogu wuxikä tabanänyanani? “Now there is his pipe smoking there?” (T&A 54) Na Tumos mänecce ngade ka, “I wiyani?” And Elephant asked and said, “What is there?” (Pedi 47) Päxä Caning äxse laya kala ngayiccani. A young person dies like that stone there. (AKT 23) Gang alkodos tä Kamalänani, Now the pipe for Camel is there, i gang Kamalä key? and now how can Camel?

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Existing suffixes Existing suffixes introduce or remention a noun. The nouns introduced for the first time are not known to the hearers (indefinite). Sometimes noun introduced or reintroduced by existing suffixes are important in the story (salient marker). In (Nyax 1-2), the suffix –andäng introduces sagal ‘girl’ who is an important person in the story. She is in many scenes and does many important actions. She is introduced for the first time in this sentence. (Nyax 1-2) (Introduces) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila ka paye Long ago, there was a girl who refused to yoxa caxse kabatwa. marry unless she found a handsome husband. Atorndori ‘Fox’ is introduced at the beginning of the story and does many actions throughout the story. But in (A&N 48), the suffix –andäng reintroduces Atorndori and shows he does an important action in this sentence by tricking Nyoxolow ‘Hyena’ out of the meat. (A&N 48) (Reintroduces) Yä Atorndorindäng zacca na raj. The fox sees meat and tricks (hides). In (T&A 21), Atorndori ‘Fox’ speaks to Tumos ‘Elephant’ and his family. The suffix –atäng on anngo ‘you all’ may show that Atorndori is respecting them as being important. (T&A 21) (Shows respect?) Anggotäng käwunang xongong, You have come this day, sagoying anggo tä siyakä ota tä kaxsed? they brought you to see the forest? In (A&N 11-12), the suffix –kandäng on kig ‘person’ shows the person is mentioned for the first time. It is unknown in the mind of the hearers. (A&N 11-12) (Not known, indefinite) Na kala saꞌdoxa danyä nuxu kigkandäng kämes Then they found one cow a certain person lost kasängga täpox tä kaxsed tä pumpung. sleeeping far away in the forest in the bush. In (1), the suffix –andäng introduces op ‘young man’. Singular (1) Opandäng. A young man exists. Plural (2) Opinyatäng. Young men exist. In (2), the suffix –atäng introduces opiny young men’. The singular and plural nouns below have existing suffixes, and can take the place of opandäng or opinyatäng in sentences (1) and (2). Exisiting

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singular –pandäng, -candäng, -tandäng, -kandäng, -andäng, -ndäng; plural –tatäng, -katäng, -watäng, -yatäng, -atäng, -täng Noun Noun Beg. . . . exists. . . . exist. Singular Plural Suf. Singular Plural p op opiny -pa- oppandäng young man c kuc kuny -ca- kuccandäng sorghum d abad abadiny -ta- abatandäng stupid person g kaläg kaläta -ka- kalägkandäng amulet f azaf azafiny -a- azafandäng palm tree s mas masta masandäng fire x ax axiny axandäng hut m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy ꞌderemändäng tree type n jen jende jenandäng year ny marany maranyda maranyandäng scar ng xong xongda xongandäng day l dol dolu dolandäng snake r nyipär nyipärti nyipärandäng tongue w nyaw nyawda nyawandäng udder y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyandäng rattle j raj rajta rajandäng deception a nyara nyaru Ø nyarandäng cousin ä salä salu saländäng sword o lorto lortu lortondung grasshopper u luku lukudi lukundung pool e mege megede megendäng wind, air i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌdindäng loincloth -ic/ uxic ux -ca- uxiccandäng worm -c/ bebec bebe bebeccandäng gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldiccandäng egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluweccandäng bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwiccandäng foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan -a- awunäwanandäng eye -x/ gax gany -a- gaxandäng walking stick -d/ zid zi -ta- zitandäng rope d — saxad -ta- saxatatäng divorce (VN) g magic mag -ka- magkatäng tree sap u culudic culu -wa- culuwatäng charcoal o kädataxowic kädataxo kädataxowatäng cricket i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi -ya- kiꞌdiyatäng breast e modic mode modeyatäng peace m — mem -a- mematäng milk n käx kän känatäng person ny — awiny awinyatäng flock ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdongatäng stem l bolic bol bolatäng agreement y — ay ayatäng life

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s axsic as asatäng fish x apaxtic apax apaxatäng hair r — säpär säpäratäng husk b — zäb zäbatäng cultivation a malezic maleza Ø malezatäng guinea.fowl o moxsoc moxso moxsotäng vine e bebec bebe bebetäng gourd i ndukurudic ndukurudi ndukuruditäng dust /-iny ax axiny -a- axinyatäng hut /-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinyatäng containe /-diny ngas ngastiny ngastingyatäng neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwanatäng eye /-u ux uxu -wa- uxuwatäng woman /-da oxay oxayda Ø oxaydatäng animal /-di bul buldi bulditäng drum /-de jen jende jendetäng year /-tudi sud sutudi sutuditäng hump /-tede led letede letedetäng joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -ka- ngolenagkatäng uncle /-däg ya yadäg yadägkatäng meat Existing suffixes can also connect to pronouns to make the following complete sentences. Existing suffixes on pronouns Agändäng. I exist/am present. Gindäng. You (sg) exist/are present. Mandäng. He exists/is present. Cendäng. She exists/is present. Nyandäng. It exists/is present. Wasatäng. We (not you) exist/are present. Kogkatäng. We (and you) exist/are present. Anggotäng. You (pl) exist/are present. Satäng. They exist/are present. Exercise 22 In the following sentences, underline all existing suffixes on nouns, pronouns and other words. (O&A 1) Aniyandäng, Osox kabandä oxayda There was a time when Lion called the animals kawuno käꞌday dänge ngakänya täng. to all come hear his message. (Nyax 2) Xongenandäng Nyoxolow kädäng ꞌdogkeneni, There was a time that Hyena heard this matter, (Nyax 7) Na nyägäräng ka enggä aminugunyatäng, And he remembered his young friends, (Nyax 11)

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Bo tong zäginong, anoc abagäs Speak truthfully, I want to uxandäng tägog. marry a woman for us. (Nyax 15) Bonog, tong anadarugugigong anoc abagäs Friend, bring these glasses, I am going to uxandäng tägog. marry a certain woman for us. (Nyax 18-19) Bonog, tong boxänggä agägigong anoco Friend, bring these old eyes, I am going to abagäs uxandäng tägog. marry a certain woman for us. (Nyax 30) Key gi? Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko wala wi? Listen, have you come to our home or what? (Nyax 76) Gi nycu ka käxogkandäng? Do you still see our person? (Nyax 112) I nya nyägäꞌdoc nyägäcca But he went and sat under toboxu koxiccandäng. a coconut tree. (Nyax 116) Calanga mildä isugusatäng She sang song about dogs na isu kädäng mildäce. and dogs heard her song. (A&N 1) Legedäniccä Atorndorindäng na Nyoxolow. There is a story about Fox and Hyena. (A&N 4-5) Na kala xongonendäng, nyängade ta And there was a time, when he said to amindinya ka, “Bonog, anocci edekeny his friend, “Friend, early tomorrow morning oloxti odudi tä keskow anocci tä lag.” at dawn, let us go hunting.” (A&N 9) Bonog, nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song, ꞌdocig winy. Friend, there is nothing. Let us just move on. (A&N 28-29) Accang, wasaki kawunig tä lag na buguning We gathered and came for hunting with king, ndä kapaxig denyä nuxu kigkandäng. and we killed one cow of a person. (A&N 34) Nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song, sotagä raj mangeccä. There is nothing, there are many ways to trick. (A&N 40-41) “Bonog, yex ka kaꞌdoxa Apocondung “Friend, do you know that hare was found sängo?” Nyoxolow ngade ta sleeping?” Hyena said Apoco ka, “Gindäng wanägi opo?” to Hare, “How are you?” (A&N 101) I cong letugu denyatäng song, But the fact is, the owners of the cow were not nyägänanange Nyoxolow winy. there–he (Fox) just tricked Hyena. (T&A 2-3) Ndä nyang nyäs me kudurang mände, nuxu And he was a powerful creature– kigkandäng layis me kudura kaꞌdas nya song. there was no person more powerful than him. (T&A 6) Na säwedeccä na penggänya And they went with his children nyäꞌdingidi ewetäng siye. and he cut down trees to eat. (T&A 15-16) “Anggotäng watäkägo apoccu?” Buguning, “Are you all fine?” King (answered),

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ngade ka, “E wasatäng watäkäsko apoccu winy.” “Yes, we are all just fine.” (T&A 33-34) Neng gang käxa wede näs Ok, now is a person that walks a person me kudura ka ꞌdaskandang säxong? not strong enough to pull (someone)? (T&A 40-42) Na nyäꞌdoc ta Kamälä na nyängade ta Kamalä He (Fox) went to Camel and said to Camel, ka, “Ama, gi nycu key käccäg ndey Hey, you seem to overthrow (the king) so that ka Tumosandäng ngade ka, Elephant says that there is no person bigger käxa layis ngonde tänyandäng song.” than him.”

Asking location The asking location suffix –ndi ‘where is’ asks the location of a noun or pronoun it is attached to, and makes the word be a complete question without other words. The question word ti ‘where’ asks the location of an action. It is not attached to any word, and needs other words to make a complete question. In (AKT 18), the asking location suffix –ndi asks the location of the noun Kamalä ‘Camel’. (AKT 18) (Asking location suffix; for noun) Na Tumos kawung mänecce ka, And Elephant came and was asking, “Kamaländi?” “Where is Camel?” In (A&N 47), the question word ti ‘where’ asks the location of the action ꞌdox mas ‘you find fire’. (A&N 47) (Question word; for action) ꞌDoxo mas ti ganangang? Where will you find fire now? In (2), the asking location suffix –andi asks the location of op ‘young man’. It can take the place of the equal sign verb and location näs tä pa ‘is in house’ in (1). (1) Op näs tä pa. Young man is in house. Singular (2) Opandi? Where is the young man?

In (4), the asking location suffix –ati asks the location of opiny ‘young men’. It can take the place of the equal sign verb and location säs tä pa ‘are in house’ in (3).

(3) Opiny säs tä pa. Young men are in house. Plural (4) Opinyati? Where are the young men? The singular and plural nouns below have asking location suffixes, and can take the place of opandi or opinyati in sentences (2) and (4).

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Asking location singular –pandi, -candi, -tandi, -kandi, -andi, -ndi; plural –tati, -kati, -wati, -yati, -ati, -ti Noun Noun Beg. Where is the . . . Where are . . . Singular Plural Suf. Singular Plural p op opiny -pa- oppandi young man c kuc kuny -ca- kuccandi sorghum d abad abadiny -ta- abatandi stupid person g kaläg kaläta -ka- kalägkandi amulet f azaf azafiny -a- azafandi palm tree s mas masta masandi fire x ax axiny axandi hut m ꞌderem ꞌdereminy ꞌderemändi tree type n jen jende jenandi year ny marany maranyda maranyandi scar ng xong xongda xongandi day l dol dolu dolandi snake r nyipär nyipärti nyipärandi tongue w nyaw nyawda nyawandi udder y kacikey kacikeyiny kacikeyandi rattle j raj rajta rajandi deception a nyara nyaru Ø nyarandi cousin ä salä salu saländi sword o lorto lortu lortondi grasshopper u luku lukudi lukundi pool e mege megede megendi wind, air i poꞌdi poꞌdu poꞌdindi loincloth -ic/ uxic ux -ca- uxiccandi worm -c/ bebec bebe bebeccandi gourd -dic/ gäldic gäl gäldiccandi egg -wec/ ngaluwec ngalu ngaluweccandi bell -wic/ kadasuwic kadasu kadasuwiccandi foundation -wan/ awunäwan agäwan -a- awunäwanandi eye -x/ gax gany -a- gaxandi walking stick -d/ zid zi -ta- zitandi rope d — saxad -ta- saxatati divorce (VN) g magic mag -ka- magkati tree sap u culudic culu -wa- culuwati charcoal o kädataxowic kädataxo kädataxowati cricket i kiꞌdic kiꞌdi -ya- kiꞌdiyati breast e modic mode modeyati peace m — mem -a- memati milk n käx kän känati person ny — awiny awinyati flock ng kuꞌdongic kuꞌdong kuꞌdongati stem

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l bolic bol bolati agreement y — ay ayati life s axsic as asati fish x apaxtic apax apaxati hair r — säpär säpärati husk b — zäb zäbati cultivation a malezic maleza Ø malezati guinea.fowl o moxsoc moxso moxsoti vine e bebec bebe bebeti gourd i ndukurudic ndukurudi ndukuruditi dust /-iny ax axiny -a- axinyati hut /-ciny mäꞌdac mäꞌdacciny mäꞌdaccinyati containe /-diny ngas ngastiny ngastingyati neck /-wan awunäwan agäwan agäwanati eye /-u ux uxu -wa- uxuwati woman /-da oxay oxayda Ø oxaydati animal /-di bul buldi bulditi drum /-de jen jende jendeti year /-tudi sud sutudi sutuditi hump /-tede led letede letedeti joy /-nag ngole ngolenag -ka- ngolenagkati uncle /-däg ya yadäg yadägkati meat Asking location suffixes can also connect to pronouns to make the following complete sentences. Asking location suffixes on pronouns Agändi? Where am I? Gindi? Where are you (sg)? Mandi? Where is he? Cendi? Where is she? Nyandi? Where is it? Wasati? Where are we (not you)? Kogkati? Where are we (and you)? Anggoti? Where are you (pl)? Sati? Where are they? Exercise 23 In the following sentences, underline all asking location suffixes and the location word ti ‘where’. (O&A 47) I ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogang giyandi? The brain of the head of my thing, where are you? (Nyax 92) ꞌDogong käꞌdoxang ti? Where have you found this thing?

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(Nyax 99) Lägong lägo ti? Where is this smoke smoking from? (A&N 15) Bonog, kala kendäsig ndä ꞌdoxodig Friend, when we finish skinning, mas ti? where will we find fire? (A&N 47) ꞌDoxo mas ti ganangang? Where will you find fire now? (T&A 10) Xänanang? Bo buguning, Who are you? An important king, i kämpätäng ti? you came from where? (T&A 49) I nya käxi ngadaccang ka, So, that person says, ‘Ngonde tagäng’ nyandi? ‘(Someone) is bigger than me’ where is he? (A&A 15) Na kala Alkadis kasay onge Then Cat looked back oxada bo Apoconag pete na nyängade ka, and saw the mother of Hare running and said, “Xay bonggondi?” “Oh, where is your mother?” (N&A 27) Ama no ti wati? Hey where (are you going) so fast? Känakang bene gi ka gi wung! People are waiting for you to come! (AKT 18) Na Tumos kawung mänecce ka, And Elephant came and was asking, “Kamaländi?” “Where is Camel?”

Review of pronouns and suffixes on pronouns In this lesson we review pronouns and the many suffixes which can attach to them. Subject, object and possessor pronouns of common nouns are listed below and can take the place of the underlined words of (1-3) or in similar sentences. Subject (1) Agä kanox kig. I saw a person. Object (2) Kig kox agä. Person saw me. Possessor common (3) Kig kox axang. Person saw my hut. Subject, Object Possessor pronouns of common nouns (alienable) Singular Plural agä I, me axang axinygang my hut gi you (sg) axägi axinygägi your (sg) hut ma he, him axäma axinygäma his hut ce she, her axäce axinygäce her hut nya it axänya axinygänya its hut was we, us (not you) axäsko axinygäsko our (not your) hut

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kog we, us (and you) axog axinygog our (and your) hut anggo you (pl) axägo axinygägo your (pl) hut sa they, them axäsa axinygäsa their hut Possessor pronouns of the body part ‘eye’ and the family noun ‘father’ are listed below and can take the place of the underlined words of (4) and (5). Possessor body part (4) Kig kox awunang. Person saw my eye. Possessor family (5) Kig kox appanang. Person saw my father. Possessor pronouns of body part nouns Possessor pronouns of family nouns (inalienable) Singular Plural Singular Plural Noun Noun appa appanag father awunäwan agäwan eye menäwan menggäwan father awunang agang my eye appanang appanangag my father awunugi agägi your (sg) eye menggo menggägo your (sg), (pl) father awunuma agäma his eye mesa menggäsa his, her, their father awunuce agäce her eye awununya agänya its eye mena mengga its father awunusko agäsko our (not your) eye appanäsko menggäsko our (not your) father awunog agog our (and your) eye appanog appanag, menggog our (and your) father awunugo agägo your (pl) eye awunusa agäsa their eye Possessive, emphasis and reflexive pronouns are listed below and can take the place of the underlined words in (6-8) or in similar sentences. Possessive (6) Kig kox nanggä Person saw mine. Emphasis (7) Agä kabag ya watäkang. I took meat myself. Reflexive (8) Agä naxsetasa ngasang. I tie myself. Possessive Emphasis Reflexive nanggä mine watäkang. myself. ngasang. myself. nänggi yours (sg) watäkägi yourself. ngasägi. yourself. nämanggo his watäkäma. himself. ngasäma. himself. näcengga hers watäkäce herself. ngasäce. herself. nänyanggo its watäkänya. itself. ngasänya. itself. näskonga ours (not yours) watäkäsko. ourselves. ngastänggäsko. ourselves. nänokanga ours (and yours) watäkog. ourselves. ngastänggog. ourselves. nänggonga yours (pl) watäkägo. yourselves. ngastänggägo. yourselves. näsanga theirs watäkäsa. themselves. ngastänggäsa. themselves. Certainty and collective pronouns are listed below and can take the place the underlined words in (9-10).

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Certainty (9) Agänangang kapax denyeng. I am really the one (that ) killed the cow. Collective (10) Sägäyawesäning nanggäsa. They gathered all of them. Certainty Collective It is really . . . all of . . . agä Agänanganang. me gi Gininganang. you (sg) ma Mangang. him ce Cengang. her nya Nyangang. it was nanggäsko us (not you) kog nanggog us (and you) anggo nanggägo you (pl) sa nanggäsa them Complement suffixes are attached to pronouns below. Each is a complete sentence by itself like the sentences of (11-15). Identifying (11) Agäng. It is me. Locating near (12) Agänang. I am here. Locating far (13) Agäni. I am there. Existing (14) Agändäng. I exist. Asking location (15) Agändi? Where am I? Identifying Locating near Locating far Existing Asking loc. It is . . . . . . is here. . . . is there. . . . exists. Where is . ? Singular -(Ca)ng -(Ca)nang -(Ca)ni -(Ca)ndäng -(Ca)ndi Plural -(Ca)g -(Ca)kang -(Ca)ki -(Ca)täng -(Ca)ti Kig Kigkang. Kigkanang. Kigkani. Kigkandäng. Kigkandi? person . . . agä Agäng. Agänang. Agäni. Agändäng. Agändi? I . . . gi Ging. Ginang /Gining. Gini. Gindäng. Gindi? you (sg) . . ma Mang. Mänang. Mani. Mandäng. Mandi? he . . . ce Ceng. Cenang . Ceni. Cendäng. Cendi? she . . nya Nyang. Nyanang. Nyani. Nyandäng. Nyandi? it . . . was Wasag. Wasakang. Wasaki. Wasatäng. Wasati? us (not you) kog Kogkag. Kogkakang. Kogkaki. Kogkatäng. Kogkati? us (and you) anggo Anggog. Anggokang. Anggoki. Anggotung. Anggoti? you (pl) . . . sa Sag. Sakang. Saki. Satäng. Sati? they . . . Modifier and complement suffixes can be combined on the same nouns and pronouns. Below, the singular location far suffix –nani attaches to possessor pronouns on singular nouns, and the plural location far suffix –naki attaches to possessor pronouns on plural nouns. [check this]. Location far possessor on singular noun

Location far possessor on plural noun

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There is . . . . tobacco. There are . . . tobaccos. Tabanä kigkanani. (?) Tabugä känanaki. (?) person’s Tabananganani 5 (?) Tabuganganaki. (?) my Tabanäginani 6 (?) Tabugäginaki. (?) you (sg) Tabanämanani. Tabugämanaki. he Tabanäcenani. Tabugäcenaki. she Tabanänyanani. Tabugänyanaki. it Tabanäskonani. Tabugäskonaki. us (not you) Tabanänokanani Tabugänokanaki us (and you) Tabanänggonani Tabugänggonaki you (pl) Tabanäsanani. Tabugäsanaki. they Below, the goal preposition ta, tä ‘to, for, at’, accompaniment preposition na ‘with’, and the complement connector ka ‘that’ are attached to the beginning of pronouns, as in (16-20). In addition, the identifying suffix –ng can attach to the end of pronouns, as (17, 20). Preposition goal (16) Apang käꞌdoc tagä. Man went to me. Preposition goal identifying (17) Apanganang ngonde tagäng. That man is bigger than me. Preposition accompaniment (18) Apang käꞌdoc nagä. Man went with me. Complement connector (19) Kagä aluw nyimec ta andäma. Oh that I cut liver for him. Complement connect identifying (20) Säꞌdox kagäng mänang. They find that I am like this. The pronouns and attached letters below can take the place of the underlined words in (16-20). Preposition

goal Preposition goal identifying

Preposition accomp.

Compl. connector

Compl. connector identifying

to, for . . . is than . . with . . . that . . . it is that . . . Singular ta ta . .(Ca)ng na ka ka . .(Ca)ng Plural ta ta . .(Ca)ng na ka ka . .(Ca)g Kig ta kig ta kigkang. na kig ka kig ka kigkang person agä tagä tagäng nagä kagä kagäng I gi tägi täging nagi kagi kaging you (sg) ma täma tämang nama kama kamang he ce täce täceng nace kace kaceng she nya tänya, täng tänyang nanya kanya kanyang it was täwas täwasang nawas kawas kawasag us (not you) kog tägog tägogang nagog kagog kagogkag us (and you) anggo tänggo tänggong nanggo kanggo kanggog you (pl) sa täsa täsang nasa kasa kasag they Locations are attached to the beginning of pronouns below and can take the place of the underlined word in (23). 5 Or possibly tabananggänani ‘my tobacco there’

6 Or possibly tabanängginani ‘your (sg) tobacco there’

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(23) Apang kox tagang. Man saw in front of me. Locations introducing pronouns before . . above . . below . . beside . . . behind . . inside . . agä tagang täzang täcaxsang täcengiccang tongang tägaxsang me gi tagägi täzägi täcaxsägi täcengiccägi tongugi tägaxsägi you (sg) ma tagäma täzäma täcaxsäma täcengiccäma tonguma tägaxsäma him ce tagäce täzäce täcaxsäce täcengiccäce tonguce tägaxsäce her nya tagänya täzänya täcaxsänya täcengiccänya tongunya tägaxsänya it was tagäsko täzäsko täcaxsäsko täcengiccäsko tongusko tägaxsäsko us (not you) kog tagog täzog täcaxsog täcengiccog tongog tägaxsog us (and you) anggo tagägo täzägo täcaxsägo täcengiccägo tongugo tägaxsägo you (pl) sa tagäsa täzäsa täcaxsäsa täcengiccäsa tongusa tägaxsäsa them Below, the pointing suffixes –zong ‘this’, -zi ‘that’ and the modifier connector suffix –za ‘who, that’ are attached to pronouns. The adverb gang ‘now’ is not attached to the pronouns in the time now sentences. The time past word näs ‘was, be’ is a verb with incomplete verb prefixes. All words can take the place of the underlined words in the sentences of (24-28). Pointing near (24) Agäzong kawung. (?) This me came. Pointing far (25) Agäzi kawung. (?). That me came. Modifier connector (26) Agäza wede ta apang. It is I who went for the man. Time now (27) Agä gang. I am now. Time past (28) Anäs. I used to be. Pointing

near Pointing far

Modifier connector

Time now

Time past

This . . . That . . . It is . . . that . . . is now. . . used to be. Singular -(z)ong -(z)i -(z)a gang näs (verb) Plural -(k)ong -(k)i -(k)a gang Kig Käxong . . . Käxi . . . Käxa . . . Kig gang. Kig näs. person . . . agä Agäzong . . Agäzi . . . Agäza . . . Agä gang. Anäs. I . . . gi Gizong . . Gizi . . . Giza . . . Gi gang. Näs. you (sg) . . . ma Mazong . . . Mazi . . . Maza . . . Ma gang. Mäs. he . . . ce Cezong . . . Cezi . . . Ceza . . . Ce gang. Cäs. she . . nya Nyazong . . Nyazi . . . Nyaza . . . Nya gang. Nyäs. it . . . was Waskong . . Waski . . . Waska . . . Was gang. Wanäsig. us (not you) kog Kogkong . . Kogki . . . Kogka . . . Kog gang. Näsig. us (and you) anggo Anggogong. Anggogi . Anggoga . . Anggo gang. Näsang. you (pl) . . . sa Sagong . . Sagi . . . Saga . . . Sa gang. Säs. they . . . Exercise 24 In the following sentences, underline all pronouns, and suffixes or words attached to pronouns.

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(O&A 10) Agänang buguning, kayaxsä agä tägi ka I am the king, I sent myself to you gi wung. to come. (O&A 47) I ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogang giyandi? The brain of head of my thing, where are

you? (Nyax 15) Bonog, tong anadarugugigong, Friend, bring these your glasses, (Nyax 22) Bonog tong ngasäginong. Friend, bring this your neck. (Nyax 30) Key gi? Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko How are you, have you come to our home wala wi? or what? (Nyax 33) Na kala cägäꞌdoc ta mesa cängade täng ka, Then she went to her father and said to

him, (Nyax 44-45) Na nyängade ka, “Uxog, uxog, kädugig? He said, “Our wife, the one we are

sharing? Neng tong zang.” Ok, bring my head.” (Nyax 97) Kala säꞌdox kanggong mänang, So, they will find that you are like this, säꞌdox kanggong mänang. they will find that you are like this. (Nyax 101) Kagi luw nyimec ta andäma. Oh that you cut out the liver for his hand. (Nyax 116) Na calanga mildä isugusatäng And she (wife) sang a song about their

dogs na isu kädäng mildäce. and dogs heard her song. (A&N 41) Nyoxolow ngade ta Apoco ka, Hyena said to Hare, “Gindäng wanägi apo?” “You exist, your body is good?” (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you yourself go hunting and kill a

cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang, and you have no fire, what do you do then, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw? (A&N 51) Neng xänang ꞌdocco bokada tägogkang? Ok, who will go and bring (it) to us? (A&N 58) Giza wede tägog xa gining loy. It is you that walks for us because you are

tall. (A&N 64-65) Nyoxolow käpätäng na pecäg na kamen zä Hyena came and ran and caught the head of deny, kaꞌdiꞌdi nanggäsa, the cow, and pulled all of them,

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säs kodos na sanyasäng tunyu. those three, and they pulled (it) out. (A&N 72) Yanä ike tägining, miye tagä, Meat of the mouth is for you, skin is for

me, (A&N 92-93) Ndakä paxang agä, Do not kill me, xa agänangang kapax denyang song. for I am really not the one that killed the

cow. (A&N 97) Nycugo anoyi, awanga Atorndori watäke Let us run! Leave Fox alone because Fox xa nya mänang Atorndori, mägädäng nycoki tägog.

he is the one and will hear people coming to us.

(T&A 15-16) “Anggotäng watäkägo apoccu?” Buguning, ngade ka,

“Are you yourselves all fine?” King (said),

“E wasatäng watäkäsko apoccu winy.” “Yes, we oursleves are all just fine.” (T&A 19-20) “Bo nycokong anggokang.” Na uxu buguning “Mother of those people, are you fine?”

And ngade ka, “E wasakang.” the wife of the king said, “Yes, we are

fine.” (T&A 37) Buguningziyang ngonde tagäng? That king is bigger than me (to me)? (T&A 42) Tumosandäng ngade ka, Elephant says that there is no person bigger käxa layis ngonde tänyandäng song. than him. (T&A 43) Na sägäyawesäning nanggäsa. And they gathered all of them. (T&A 49) I nya käxi ngadaccang ka, So, that person says, ‘Ngonde tagäng’ nyandi? ‘(Someone) is bigger than me’ where is he? (T&A 51) I no ꞌdogu wuxikä tabanänyanani. There is the thing of smoking of his

tobacco. (A&A 19-21) Alkadis ꞌdoc todong nyäꞌdoc tä bange Cat went and he (Hare) followed calling kala Alkadis kawizä ngakänya, so that Cat beame fed-up of his matter

(Hare), kaꞌdeg täzä ed nanya. and climbed up in tree with it (food). (A&A 23) Yex key megedetäng You know, there are storms coming udosäno na koxa basa waxsetasänig with rain and we need to tie ngastänggog tawagä ewe. ourselves to the bottom of the trees.

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Adjectives Adjectives describe (tell about) a noun. Adjectives have singular and plural forms. Singular adjectives follow singular nouns and plural adjectives follow plural nouns. The nouns they follow often have a modifier connector suffix or a location near suffix. Adjectives can occur without a noun if the noun is known from the previous sentences. In (T&A 34), the adjective ngonde ‘big’ follows the noun buguningza ‘king that’ with the modifier suffix –za ‘that’. (T&A 34) (Following noun with modifier connector suffix) I buguningza ngonde wundung? But is the big king absent? In (T&A 37), the adjective ngonde ‘big’ follows the noun buguningziyang ‘The king here is’ with the location near suffix –ziyang ‘here is’. (T&A 37) (Following noun with complement suffix) Buguningziyang ngonde tagäng? That king is bigger than me? In (T&A 49), the adjective ngonde ‘big’ describes the noun buguning ‘king’ which is not mentioned in this sentence, but known from the previous sentences of the story. (T&A49) (Implied noun) I nya käxi ngadaccang ka, So, that person says, ‘Ngonde tagäng’ nyandi? ‘a bigger (somone) than me’ where is he? Below, other adjectives are underlined, and these describe other nouns. Each adjective has a singular form for describing singular nouns, and a plural form for describing plural nouns. Adjectives Singular Plural opa apo opinyga apoccu good man oda tädäx ? otaga tädäxiny important place jena caka ? jendega cakuwiny different, other year opa tas opinyga tasiny bad, brave man pipina biyi ? pipuga biyeng small, young man opa ngonde opinyga ngoniny big, important man ꞌdoga catid ? wegka catidiny new thing opa bede opinyga bedeccä difficult, tough, intelligent man faranycalda tec faranycalinyga teciny green tomatoe ꞌdoga bu ? wegka bawiny white thing oda jul ? otaga juliny black place wanang tidi ? wadägkog tidiny my/our happy, tasty body zäxa bälax zäxtiga bälaxiny shallow, flat asida zäxa mange zäxtiga mangeccä more, much asida

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As shown below, some adjectives such as apo, apoccu ‘good’ can also be used as verbs. Adjective used as verb Agänang ampo. I am good. Ginang mpo. You (sg) are good. Ma mäpo. He is good. Ce cäpo. She is good. Nya nyäpo. It is good. Was wampoccig. We (not you) are good. Kog poccig. We (and you) are good. Anggo mpoccang. You (pl) are good. Sa säpoccu. They are good. Exercise 25 In the sentences below, underline all adjectives. (A&N 5-6) Annoci edekeny oloxti odudi tä keskow, “Early tomorrow morning at dawn, annoci tä lag tä pumpung ndey ꞌdoxig let us go hunting in bush so that we find oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig ta penggog. big animal and kill and bring to our home, (A&N 34) Nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song, sotagä raj mangeccä. There is nothing, the ways to trick are many. (A&N 41-42) Nyoxolow ngade ta Apoco ka, Hyena said to Hare, “Gindäng wanägi apo?” Apoco ngade ka, “You are your body is good?” Hare said, “E, agänang wanang apo winy.” “Yes, I am my body is good.” (T&A 1) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed. an important king in the forest. (T&A 15-16) “Anggotäng watäkägo apoccu?” Buguning, ngade ka,

“Are you yourselves good?” King (said),

“E wasatäng watäkäsko apoccu winy.” “Yes, we oursleves are very good.” (T&A 59-60) I käxäginani kawungang läpi ka, But your person that comes, mänang mäs käxa ngondeyang, . . say to that person that is big, . . . (Pedi 4-5) Boxuxeneni nyandäng tänya cabäri watäke That grandmother lived in the mountain alone na päxä atäne ndä wacca tidi song with her grandchild, and cultivated sweet crops wegke iyeccä pacce tidi song. that produced many sweet (crops). (Pedi 11-12) Jenenendäng koxa kawung pacce In that year, there was much rain na as kawuno tä colonggo mangeccä. and there were many fish in the river.

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Quantities A quantity tells the approximant number or amount of a noun that it follows. A quantity has the same form when following either a singular or plural noun. A quantity can directly follow a noun, be separate from the noun it follows by another word, or occur without a noun if the noun is known from the previous sentences. In (O&A 37), the quantity käꞌday ‘all’ follows the noun ya ‘meat’ and tells its approximate number (nearly all the meat). (O&A 37) (Following noun) Na oxayda kasiy ya käꞌday i kawang ze, Then the animals ate all the meat but left head. In (A&N 60), the quantity käꞌday ‘all’ follows the noun ya ‘meat’ but is separated from it by the words tä pa ‘to the house’. (A&N 60) (Separated from noun) I sa salaye sasokuda ya käꞌday But they remained and transfered all meat home tä pang Atorndori. to house of Fox, In (Nyax 117-118), the quantity käꞌday ‘all’ describes the noun Nyaxolowiny ‘Hyenas’ which is not mentioned in the last clause of (Nyax 118), but known from the previous clause. (Nyax 117-118) (Implied noun) Na koyo pacce kawuno kaꞌdox sa na And they ran fast and came and found them kaꞌdoxung Nyaxolowiny, and found hyenas with them, and jumped na sasandasatäng sacotädä kapax käꞌday. on and overturned and killed all (of them). Quantities have the same form when they follow a singular or plural noun. Quantities [check] Singular nouns Plural nouns ya käꞌday all meat yadäg käꞌday all meats ya kulung some meat yadäg kulung some meats ya bälax few meat yadäg bälax few meats Exercise 26 In the sentences below, underline all quantities. (O&A 1) Osox kabandä oxayda kawuno käꞌday Lion called the animals to all dänge ngakänya täng. come hear his message there. (Nyax 25-26)

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Na nyabag kala nyägädelwa seley kala And in this way he took and became dressed up nyägäduru nycoki käꞌday and gathered all the people for comparison so kala seley nyägädimi delgänya käꞌday. as to complete all his adornment (Nyax 39) Cägäduru wayagkäsa käꞌday. She gathered all their relatives. (Nyax 46) Nycoki kabag wegka käꞌday. People got everything (for him). (Nyax 77) ꞌDoxtong kasiy nganakog käꞌday song?” Didnꞌt this guy completely eat all our elder sisters (A&N 67) Kax zägkong kasiy yanong käꞌday song mo. This soil was not suppoed to eat all this meat. (T&A 10) Bo buguning i kämpätäng ti? You are an important king, where have Go penggägi käꞌdayang. you come from? You have all your children. (N&A 21-22) Na mägäyawudu satu na kobony, And he collected calabashes and gourds and masol kulung tä onguma na tä agäma, carried some on his back and some on his front

Numbers A cardinal number tells the exact amount of a noun. An ordinal number tells the order a noun comes in a list of nouns. Most numbers follow a noun with a modifier suffix. However, the number nuxu ‘one’ can come before a noun when it is used as an adverb to mean ‘only’. And the number nuxu can be used as an indefinite to show which particular noun is not known. Numbers can also be used alone without a noun, if the noun is known from previous sentences. In (A&A 2), the number nuxu ‘one’ shows the exact number of houses the animals lived in. The noun pana ‘house that’ has the modifier suffix –na ‘that’. (A&A 2) (After noun) Säguccu tä pana nuxu käꞌdaygäsa na They lived in one house and xas kawung kapax sa. they were very hungry. In (Nyax 53), nuxu ‘only’ is used as the adverb ‘only’ and comes before the noun päxäsko ‘our child’. (Nyax 53) (Before noun) Wede tä pa koying nuxu päxäsko tagä Go to (my family’s) house and bring our ndey menecce tagä. only child to me so that he may care for me. In (A&N 30), the first nuxu ‘certain’ is used as an indefinete for the following noun kigkandäng ‘person’. Nuxu shows listeners it is not known which particular person owned the cow. (A&N 29-30) (Indefinite, implied noun)

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Nda kapaxig denyä nuxu kigkandäng We killed a cow of certain person (someone) ndä nya mänang mäle mämeske. and like this he remained back to protect (it) Seley ka wabuxig nuxu wasiyig. Surely, we roasted one (cow) and ate (it). The second nuxu ‘one, some’ tells the amount of the deny ‘cow’ they roasted and ate. The number nuxu is used alone without the noun deny since the listeners understand from the sentence before that we are talking about the deny. In (Pedi 34), first the cardinal number kodos ‘three’ tells the exact number of sängga ‘days’ that the people came. Then the ordinal number kodoseneng ‘third’ tells the order of one day in a list of days—it is the day after two and before four. (Pedi 34) (Cardinal, ordinal number) Edekeny sawuno sasog täsa mänang tä For the next three days, they came and sängga kodos, na xongondi näs kodoseneng, did the same, and on the third day cäläpede ta atänäce ka, , she said to her grandchild, Other cardinal numbers are listed in the table below. Cardinal numbers . . house pana nuxu 1 udiny pädax wang asiny 50 padäga pädax 2 udiny kodos 60 padäga kodos 3 udiny kudos wang asiny 70 padäga tesped 4 udiny tesped 80 padäga mädäg 5 udiny tesped wang asiny 90 padäga aran 6 udiny mädäg 100 padäga paxtänding 7 udiny mädäg wang asiny 110 padäga tespetespe 8 udiny mädäg wang ud 120 padäga paye nuxu 9 udiny mädäg wang ud wang asiny 130 padäga asiny 10 udiny mädäg wang udiny pädax 140 padäga asiny wang nuxu 11 udiny mädäg wang udiny pädax 150 padäga asiny wang pädax 12 wang asiny padäga asiny wang kodos 13 udiny mädäginy pädax 200 padäga asiny wang tesped 14 udiny mädäginy kudos 300 padäga asiny wang mädäg 15 udiny mädäginy tesped 400 padäga asiny wang aran 16 udiny mädäginy mädäg 500 padäga asiny wang paxtänding 17 udiny mädäginy aran 600 padäga asiny wang tespetespe 18 udiny mädäginy paxtänding 700 padäga asiny wang paye nuxu 19 udiny mädäginy tespetespe 800 padäga ud 20 udiny mädäginy paye nuxu 900 padäga ud wang nuxu 21 päsic nuxu 1000 padäga ud wang pädax 22 padäga ud wang asiny 30 udiny mädäginy tesped wang udiny pädax 453 padäga ud wang asiny wang nuxu 31 wang asiny wang kodos padäga ud wang asiny wang pädax 32 padäga udiny pädax 40

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padäga udiny pädax wang nuxu 41 padäga udiny pädax wang pädax 42 Other ordinal numbers are listed below. Ordinal numbers xongi näs nuxuzeneng first day xongondi näs pätaxeneng second day xongondi näs kodoseneng third day xongondi näs tespedeneng fourth day xongondi näs mädägkeneng fifth day xongondi näs arandeneng sixth day xongondi näs paxtändingzeneng seventh day xongondi näs tespetespedeneng eighth day xongondi näs paye nuxuzeneng nineth day xongondi näs asinygeneng tenth day xongondi näs asiny wang nuxuzeneng eleventh day xongondi näs asiny wang pätaxeneng twelfth day Exercise 27 In the following sentences, underline all numbers. (Nyax 67) Na sadoga nuxu mände täma. And they gave another one (babysitter) to him. (A&N 9) Bonog, nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song ꞌdoccig winy. Friend, there is not one thing. (A&N 10-11) Na kala edekeny tä keskow sägädayino Then the next day at dawn, they went ta awadi nuxungang. to a bird for which is one. (A&N 12-13) Na kala saꞌdoxa danyä nuxu kigkandäng kämes

Then they found cow one person lost sleeping

kasängga täpox tä kaxsed tä pumpung. far away in the forest in the bush. (A&N 15-16) Bonog, kala kendäsig, ndä ꞌdoxodig mas ti ndey

When we finish skinning, where we find fire

buxusig nuxu ya siyig? so we can roast one of the meat and eat (it)? (A&N 34) Nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song, There is not one problem, sotagä raj mangeccä. there are many ways to trick. (A&N 37) Bonog, masani, nuxu kig ꞌdoc bota tägog’ There is fire, one person will go bring to us. (A&N 64-65) Nyoxolow käpätäng na pecäg na kamen zä Hyena came and ran and caught the head of deny, kaꞌdiꞌdi nanggäsa, the cow, and pulled all of them,

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säs kodos na sanyasäng tunyu. they be three, and they pulled (it) out. (T&A 29-32) Agänang, ngakang layis I am the one, my word remains ngakä uxong wede na exengge pätax songang, the word of this wife, not walking with two kax amäso agang ndä awede? legs am I supposed to close my eyes? Mänang ngakä uxong wede na exengge Like this, this wife will walk with pätaxakang nyang sogoka ameskewang. them two legs and be kept safe. (Pedi 21-22) Tä sängga kodosang, Caning kasog For three days, the Caning did the same täsa mänang, na tespedeneni, to them, and on the fourth, Caning kälaxesäng käꞌdocco tä colonggo. the Caning passed by going to the river. (Pedi 28) Na sägäcogä waccid na axsic tägaxsä and when evening arrived, there was lang nuxung. one fish in the basket. (Pedi 34) Edekeny sawuno sasog täsa mänang tä The next three days, they came and sängga kodos, na xongondi näs kodoseneng, did the same, and on the third day cäläpede ta atänäce ka, , she said to her grandchild, (Pedi 48-49) Na kala todi kig äxse säpoko Then a person died and they carried (him) säꞌdocco sädogada and went and put (it) täzä telegu ndey ka sängo pätax na moso, on a shelter for two days and rots,

Specific relative clauses (definite) A relative clause is a group of words with a verb that tells about a previous noun. A specific relative clause (definite) is introduced by the pointing far suffix –i on a noun and identifies or describes a particular noun that is talking about. It is a specific noun in the mind of the speaker, often one that has been previously mentioned. A general relative clause (indefinite) is introduced by a modifier connector suffix –a on a noun and identifies or describes a general noun or one not previously mentioned. Specific ꞌDogi kagoyingang nyang kadelengang. (?) The thing that I brought fell. General Agäre ngakä ꞌdoga asogo. (?) I think about a thing that I will do. In this lesson, we learn about specific relative clauses. In the next lesson we learn about general relative clauses. The noun described or identified by a specific relative clause can take the place of the object or subject in that relative clause. The noun can also be the subject or complement in a specific relative clause without a verb. An identifying suffix –ng or locating near suffix –nang attaches to the verb or other words of a specific relative clause. In the lesson Pointing far suffixes, we learned that pointing far suffixes point to a noun away from the speaker, or show a noun was previously mentioned. In (Nyax 90), the pointing far suffix –zi on Nyaxolowzi ‘the Hyena’ shows Hyena has been mentioned before. It is the same

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Nyoxolow that dies in the first line of (Nyax 89). (Nyax 89-90) (Pointing far suffix) Na Nyoxolow käxsä, na cabag päxäsa, And Hyena died, and she (wife) took child, na nya päxä Nyaxolowzi. and it is the child of that Hyena. Pointing far suffixes are also used to introduce specific relative clauses. In (A&N 49-50), the suffix –i on masi ‘fire that’ introduces the clause kabotosang ndä awung nyang ‘I brought and came with it’. (A&N 49-50) (Specific relative clause; noun is object in relative clause) “Ama buguning, ꞌdogkani kaꞌdas mas.” “You oh king, there is a thing like fire.” Na Apoco ngade ka, And the Hare said, “Nya masi kabotosang ndä awung nyang.” It is fire that I brought and came with it.” This specific relative clause tells that the noun mas ‘fire’ is not just any mas, but the particular mas Hare brought that morning for Nyoxolow to use for cooking meat. The identifying suffix –ang attaches to the verbs kabotosang ‘I brought’ and awungang ‘I came’. The noun mas ‘fire’ is the object (receives the action) of the verb kabotosang ‘I brought’ in the relative clause. In (T&A 59), the suffix –ni on käxägini ‘your person that’ introduces the clause kawungang ‘he came’. (T&A 59) (Specific relative clause; noun is subject in relative clause) I käxägini kawungang, läpi ka But your person that comes, mänang mäs käxa ngondeyang, . . . say to that big person, . . . The specific suffix –ang attaches to the verb kawungang ‘he came’. The noun käxägi ‘your person’ is the subject (does the action) of the verb kawungang ‘He came’ in the relative clause. In (O&A 16), the suffix –zi on buguningzi ‘king who’ introduces the clause ginang ‘here is you’. (O&A 16) (Specific relative clause; noun is subject in relative clause) Gi nycu abad, ꞌdogu nycakä You are stupid. Here is the throne buguningzi ginang. of the king who here is you. The locating near suffix –nang attaches to the pronoun gi ‘you’. The noun buguning ‘king’ is the subject of the relative clause ginang ‘is you’. In (1), the suffix –i on the singular noun opi ‘young man which’ introduces the specific relative clause kagoyingang nyang ‘I brought it’. Singular (1) Opi kagoyingang nyang kadelengang. The young man which I brought fell. Plural (2) Opinygi kagoyingang sag kadelasängang. The young men which I brought fell.

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In (2), the suffix –gi on the plural noun opinygi ‘young men’ introduces the specific relative clause kagoyingang sag ‘which I brought’. The pointing far suffixes on a nouns introducing specific relative clauses are shown in the lesson Pointing far suffixes. Exercise 28 In the following sentences, underline all pointing far suffixes on nouns and the specific relative clauses they introduce. (O&A 2) Na oxayda kawuno tä dänggä ꞌdogi nyäpaye And the animals came to listen to the thing that nyängetang. it wanted them to hear. (O&A 34) Kala Osox kasiy nya ndä wang bange So Lion ate him and left the remainder ta oxaydagi kalungang. for the animals which are others. (Nyax 34) Appa, nya yoxanggi ampayeng nyanang Father, my potential husband that I like kawung xongondong. has come today. (Nyax 71) Na sawuno tä colonggo, na nyamän, And they came to the river, and he asked, kala mäneki nyämändäs nganakanang. and the asking that he asked was to elder sisters. (Nyax 108-109) Na Nyaxolowiny kasag kawuno na And Hyenas gathered together and nyägädukusa päxä wegki nyägong. he gave them the many things which he had. (A&N 10-11) Na kala edekeny tä keskow sägädayino Then the next day at dawn, they went to a bird ta awadi nuxungang. of which there is only one. (A&N 89) Na Atorndori kabäle ꞌdogi tängang. And Fox realized thing that was there. (Pedi 14-15) Säꞌdocco säcasäng tä nyäxtä colonggo They were going and sitting on the bank of river ta akä sogi Caning wunosäno on the path where Caning came and laxetäsäng tä ꞌdockusa täzäläg. quickly passed on their journey. (Pedi 25-26) Käxi kädolezang gawa axsic tägaxsä lang, Person who leads will throw fish into basket, mände känggi täbanganang bate and the people who follow will nya axsicci ndä melede täng. take that fish itself and return it.

General relative clauses

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A general relative clause is introduced by the modifier connector suffix –a on a noun and identifies or describes a general noun or one not previously mentioned. The noun described by the relative clause can take the place of the object or subject in the relative clause, or be the subject or complement in a relative clause without a verb. In the lesson Modifier connector suffixes, we learned that modifier connector suffixes show a noun is described by a following adjective, quantity or general relative clause. In (T&A 1), the suffix –za on buguningza ‘king that’ shows the following adjective ngonde ‘important’ gives more information about buguning. The buguning is not any particular king in the mind of the speaker, and is here mentioned for the first time. (T&A 1) (Connects an adjective) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was a buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed. king that important of the forest. In (A&N 22-23), the suffix –a on ꞌdoga ‘thing that’ shows the relative clause nyäsog ndey nyäbag ya watäkänya ‘he could do inorder to take meat for himself’ tells specific new information about the ꞌdog ‘thing’. The ꞌdog is not any particular thing in the mind of the speaker, and is here mentioned for the first time. (A&N 22-23) (Connects a general relative clause; noun is object in relative clause) Nyägäꞌdoc tä kärekä ngakä ꞌdoga nyäsog ndey He went to think about a thing that he could do nyäbag ya watäkänya. inorder to take meat for himself. The information of the relative clause is new. The listeners have not been told before this point in the story that Hare wants to take the meat. The noun ꞌdog ‘thing’ is the object (receives the action) of the verb nyäsogo ‘he does ’ in the relative clause. In (T&A 25), the suffix –na on diniyena ‘storm that’ shows the relative clause wede ‘is coming’ tells new information about the ꞌdog ‘thing’. (T&A 25) (Connects a general relative clause; noun is subject in relative clause) Yex diniyena wede? Do you know the storm that is coming? The noun diniye ‘storm’ is the subject (does the action) of the verb wede ‘is coming’ in the relative clause. General relative clauses do not have identifying or location near suffixes unless these suffixes are used for a larger part of the sentence than just the general relative clause. In (Pedi 9-10), the suffix –za on ceza ‘she that’ shows the relative clause cadogäng täging ‘she gives to you’ tells new information about the ce ‘she (grandmother)’. (Pedi 9-10) I gi känoc käpälang, kasiy täbag, If you stole (it), you would eat with bitterness,

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i näs ceza cadogäng täging, lilim. If she who gave (it) to you, then sweet. The identifying suffix –ng is on the preposition and pronoun täging ‘to you’ in the relative clause. However, it is used to show the larger clause i näs ceza cadogäng täging ‘if she who gave it to you’ depends on the following words inorder to be a complete sentence. Exercise 29 In the sentences below, underline all modifier suffixes on nouns and the general relative clauses they introduce. (O&A 23-25) Kala noxo ganang ꞌdoga zeke gi tä cad If you see now the thing of covering you for wundung, ꞌdoga zeke gi tä lagkä sitting is absent, the thing of covering you tarupus wundung, kala ganang noco as wearing a mat is absent, then na nycata tä butug apoyiyo winy. you will go and sit comfortably in kingdom. (O&A 54) Peszängga ngakong tireneng. Truths that this speach is really true. (Nyax 1-2) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila ka paye There was girl who refused to marry unless yoxa caxse kabatwa. she found husband that handsome looking. (Nyax 4) Na nyämänece ka sagalong paye yoxa key. He asked girl, she wanted husband that how. (A&N 25-26) Agänanganang ngakä käꞌdang todong And I (was thinking on) the matter that is here agäre nga pacce ndä aꞌdiy ꞌdoga asog? and do I know that much the thing that I do? (A&N 36-37) ‘Bonog, masani nuxu kig ꞌdoc bota tägog’, ‘Friend, we need one person to go bring fire ndä dängig ꞌdoga mängade tägog. to us’, and you will see thing that he tells us. (A&N 58) Giza wede tägog xa gining loy. It is you that walks for us because you are tall. (T&A 42) Käxa layis ngode tänyandäng song. There is no person that is bigger than him. (T&A 59-60) I käxäginani kawungang läpi ka, But your person that comes, mänang mäs käxa ngondeyang, i agänang anoco say to that person that is big, that I am going. (A&A 17) Anox oda ꞌdox siyad täng. I will see the place that she gets food from it. (AKT 11) Nyaꞌdox kaging ka ndä nox If it finds you, then ꞌdoga nyäsog tägi. you will see the thing that it does to you.

Adverbs

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An adverb describes (tells about) a verb. It often follows the verb but can also come before the verb. Adverbs can tell about the manner, place, or time of the action, or give other meaning in the sentence. Many adverbs that tell about a place are made of the preposition ta, tä ‘to, for, at’ connected to a noun. In (AKT 17), the adverb loy ‘flat’ tells how Kamalä ‘Camel’ did the action kasängga ‘slept’, and follows this verb. (AKT 17) (Manner adverb following verb) Na Tumos käleza na Kamalä And Elephant appeared and Camel kasängga loy tä zäg. slept flat on the ground. In (A&A 12), the adverb gom ‘later’ tells the time of the action käꞌdoccig ‘we went’, and comes before this verb. (A&A 12) (Time adverb before verb) Gom käꞌdoccig tä wang asugkang Later, when we go to the market, ndä aꞌdakasa gi noy. I will untie you and you can escape. Adverbs that tell about the place of action are often made from a prepositional phrase beginning with ta, tä ‘to, for, at’. The adverb tage ‘ahead, before’ is made from tä agäwan ‘to eyes’. The other adverbs below are made from the preposition ta, tä and other nouns. Noun Adverb Cäwung tä agäwan. She comes to eyes. Cäwung tage. She comes ahead. Cäwung tä cengiccäwan. She comes to side. Cäwung täcengic. She comes beside. Cäwung tä ongäwan. She comes to back. Cäwung tonge. She comes behind. Cäwung tä kaxse. She comes to innerd. Cäwung tägaxse. She comes inside . Cäwung tä zäg. She comes to ground. Cäwung täzäg. She comes down. In prepositional phrases, ta or tä is separate before the noun. However, in adverbs, ta, tä is connected to the noun (see spelling rule 8). Adverbs can tell about the manner, place, or time of the action or give other meaning in the sentence. Many can take the place of the underlined words in (1) or (2). (1) Apang kawung tägaxse. (?) Man came inside. (2) Kig kasog ꞌdog mänang. (?) Person made the thing like that. Manner [check all] Place pes raw, uncooked täcengic beside käteg firm tage ahead pezängga truely tagäwan before, forward tireneng really, truely tägaxse inside nästire truely taxä inside

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na zängänga truely towa inside na dabi poorly, without money tunyu outside apoyiyo well, good täyati up, over, above, north saw together täzäg down napäl quietly tawage below tetex quickly täboxe under, below kätäbäxäs limping caxse under xoyi carefully täware among semen captive tipidi half, between warandi in new way tonge behind loy flat täbange afterwards, following munodang coming täräpe following tädäxte importantly tongang back kätos full, completely dong backward pätäte strong tanda at wundung absent, not exist, finished täzag southward tände controlling tawiny westward axer better na andä nyagol leftward na andä banic rightward Time täxande far tampililig forever täxang far bacca usually, always täpox away moccagang always taxoti from there ꞌdoga sogowadäng song never täng from, at, there ganang now todi there wane past time, long ago todani there gom afterwards, later todong here de later sakang here kalaygädä earlier, formerly, old ngäte near, towards mägaccäng long ago tota käꞌday everywhere mände again, also sax also, again keskow dawn, before sunrise limiccä xong sunrise megetudi morning Other odalenge daytime nuxu only xong tibidi noonday nuxus maybe, perhaps cengekäxong afteroon song not ꞌdängakä xong sunset säxong not waccid dusk, twilight, after sunset ata may, can, just xongondong today mo just xongong today winy just, very kawung yesterday bi just kawuzi day before yesterday mänang like that edekeny tomorrow, next day oloxti early

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taxnuxu once, one time täzäläg fast, first, early täzäläg early/fast Some time adverbs such as keskow ‘dawn’ are also nouns. Exercise 30 In the sentences below, underline all averbs. (O&A 25) Noco na nycata tä butug apoyiyo winy. You will go and sit comfortably in kingdom. (Nyax 31) E, agänang kawung tä panägo xongondong. Yes, I have come to your house today. (Nyax 39-40) Kala kodogas ce tä akä sog Then she escorted (them) on the way, ndä säpäse lang täce kätos na päxä weg. they filled bags for her completely with things. (Nyax 87) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig Bend over with your head (down) and we will mid täxä caxsägi. pour oil inside your anus. (N&A 20) ꞌDogi kosog Atorndori wundungang. That thing made Fox absent. (A&N 25-26) Agänanganang ngakä käꞌdang todong And I (was thinking on) the matter that is here agäre nga pacce ndä aꞌdiy ꞌdoga osog? and do I know the thing that I do? (Nyax 41) Kala säwedeccä mänang, Then moving along like this, kala de sapara täxande. they later arrived far away. (A&N 5) Bonog, anocci edekeny oloxti odudi Friend, early tomorrow morning at dawn, tä keskow anocci tä lag. let us go hunting. (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you yourself go hunting and kill a cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi and you have no fire, what do you do now then, ganangang, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw? (A&N 61) Ndä sägäba miye na ipe, i ze kalay tunyu. They took skin with tail but left head behind. (T&A 1) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was a buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed. king that important of the forest. (T&A 33-34) Neng gang käxa wede näs Ok, now is a person that walks a person me kudura ka ꞌdaskandang säxong? not strong enough to pull (someone)? (T&A 58) I ganang lede uccu key xoyi, aꞌdägane anoco.

But now, owner carefully listens, and I hurry.

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(Pedi 2-3) Tanda tawiny tä cabärä Caning boxuxeneni To the West of the mountain of Caning, nyadoga ligid täng kala there that grandmother it gave a spirit Kaläg mänang noxsada kän tä xäs. like God so as to raise people from the dead. (Pedi 17-18) Käxi kapäcca kädolezang kabag axsic Person who calls and leads took a single fish nuxung gawa tä lang na kala and threw (it) into the basket, and then känggi kalasa tongang kasog mänang. people who came afterwards did like that. (AKT 25) Na nyäzacca kädeg na nyäkoy And he looked carefully and ran and nyägäꞌdoc tägaxsä pumpung. went inside the forest.

Compound phrases A compound phrase is more than one word used together to make a new meaning. There are compound phrase nouns, compound phrase adjectives and compound phrase adverbs. Compound phrase nouns are most often made from a noun possessing another noun, but can also be a noun followed by an adjective or adverb. The possessed noun has the possessor connector suffix –ä. Plural compound phrase nouns are most often made with the plural of both nouns. Noun Noun, adjective, adverb Compound phrase noun ax hut, room mas fire axä mas gun axiny huts masta fires axänggä masta guns ax hut, room zäg dirt (pl) axä zäg hole axiny huts axänggä zäg holes ze head buxic wine zä buxic kidney zängge heads bux wines zänggä bux kidneys ayda in-law ux woman aydanä ux sister-in-law aydag in-laws uxu women aydakä uxu sister-in-laws ayda in-law apang man aydanä apang brother-in-

law aydag in-laws apanginy men aydakä apanginy brother-in-

laws amin friend ux woman amindä ux girlfriend aminu friends uxu women aminugä uxu girlfriends amin friend apang man amindä apang boyfriend aminu friends apanginy men aminugä apanginy boyfriends ux woman apang man uxu apang wife uxu women apanginy men uxugä apanginy wives ux woman penang child.my uxu penang daughter-in-

law

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uxu women penggang children.my uxugä penggang daughter-in-laws

yox husband penang child.my yoxä penang son-in-law yu husbands penggang children.my yugä penggang son-in-laws wawanäsko our parent apang man wawanäsko apang father-in-law wawanakäsko our parents apanginy men wawanakäsko

apanginy father-in-laws

penäwan child mege wind penä mege bastard penggäwan children megede winds penggä mege bastards bonggo your mother cengiccäwan side bonggonä cengic step mother bonggägo your moths. cendegäwan sides bonggägogä cengic step mothers ow place kayudic rubbish odu kayu rubbish heap ota places kayu rubbishes otagä kayu rubbish

heaps kuric dove tabaldi Tabaldi tr. kuricä tabaldi dove type kuru doves kurugä tabaldi doves marany scar mas fire maranydä mas burn on body maranyda scars masta fires maranydagä mas burns dän scorpion ma water (pl) dändä ma leech, insect dänu scorpions dänugä ma leeches barug fence turugic army baruksä turug camp baruginy fences turug armies baruginygä turug camps deny cow ma water (pl) denyä ma hippo däg cows dägä ma hippos wundäwan ear ed tree wundä ed leaf wunggäwan ears ewe trees wunggä ewe leaves ngec bone awagic chest ngeccä awagic rib ngay bones awa chests ngaygä awa ribs ikäwan mouth sogal (?) door akä sogal doorway ikinggäwan mouths sogaliny(?) doors akänggä sogaliny doorways meza creator tas bad mezana tas demon mezada creators tasiny bad mezadaga tasiny demons ligid shadow apo good ligita apo soul, spirit ligiti shadow apoccu good (pl) ligitiga apoccu souls nyingäs rat jul black nyingäsa jul mouse nyingäsä rats juliny black (pl) nyingäsäga juliny mice siyad eating (vn) waccid twilight siyakä waccid evening meal apax hairs agäwan face apaxkä agäwan eyebrows ma water (pl) ya meat magä ya soup, broth mid oil tumox bee midä tumox honey kän persons käꞌday all kän käꞌday everyone kigkandäng person.exists song not nuxung kigkandäng

song nobody

nuxu one, only ꞌdogkandäng thing.exists nuxu ꞌdogkandäng soxong

nothing

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Compound phrase adjectives are made from the noun ze ‘head’ described by an adjective. The described plural noun has the modifier connector suffix –a. In compound phrases, adjectives, a singular adjective or verb describes both a singular and plural noun. Noun Adjective Compound phrase adjective ze head tas bad, brave ze tas crazy zängga heads tasiny bad (pl) zängga tas crazy (pl) ze head ꞌdiyada forget ze käꞌdiyasa senile zängge heads käꞌdiyadasa forgot (RE) zängga käꞌdiyasa senile (pl) Compound phrase adverbs are made from a noun, verb or preposition followed by a verb, adverb or noun. Noun, verb, preposition Verb, adverb, noun Compound adverb ꞌdog thing sogowa happen ꞌdoga sogowadäng song never xong sun tibidi (?) middle xong tibidi noonday ꞌdängad (?) going down xong sun ꞌdängakä xong sunset limic (?) rising xong sun limiccä xong sunrise na with zängänga(?) truth na zängänga truely na with dabi (?) poverty (?) na dabi poorly andäwan hand banic (?) right na andä banic rightward andäwan hand nyagol (?) left na andä nyagol leftward Exercise 31 Carefully read and say each test compound phrase below. Each test phrase is not written correctly. Write each compound phrase correctly in the space given. The first one is done as an example. Test compound phrase Write correctly ze buxic kidney zä buxic aydagä apanginy brother-in-laws ___________________________________ axänggä mas guns ___________________________________ wawanakusko apang father-in-law ___________________________________ wungga ed leaves ___________________________________ ngeca awagic rib ___________________________________ mezanä tas demon ___________________________________ zä tas crazy ___________________________________ limicäxong sunrise ___________________________________ nadabi poorly ___________________________________ nandä banic rightward ___________________________________

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Verb Forms In the lesson on verbs, we learned a verb describes an action, motion, state, change, or can be used as an equal sign between words. There are several different ways to use each verb. These can be called verb forms. Read each of the verb forms of ꞌdanye ‘hide’ below. Look for differences in meaning or in the way the verb is used. Incomplete -e Kig ꞌdanye ayis. Person hides the goat. complete ka-, kä- Kig käꞌdany ayis. Person hid the goat. Command Singular -a ꞌDanya ayis! (You sg) hide the goat! Command Plural -ining ꞌDanyining ayis! (You pl) hide the goat! Command Communal a- -ining Aꞌdanyining ayis! (Let us) hide the goat! Continuous -acca Mäꞌdanyacca. He is hiding (something). Repeating -dä, -tä Mäꞌdanydä ayis. He repeatedly hides the goat. Future -atä (?) Mäꞌdanyatä ayis. (?) He will hide the goat. Reflexive -wa Mäꞌdanyewa. He hides himself. Verbal noun -ad Mäwede tä ꞌdanyad. He comes for hiding. Applicative -äs Mäꞌdanyäs ayis. He uses something to hide goat. Unmentioned object -za, -sa Mäꞌdanyza. He hides (something). Reciprocal -ining Säꞌdanyining. They hide each other. Away -asa Mäꞌdanyasa ayis. He hides goat away. Towards -äng Mäꞌdanyäng ayis. He hides the goat coming. Identifying -ng, -ang Opi mäꞌdanyeng nyang,

kawung. (?) The person he hides came.

Beginning -ga Mäꞌdanyga ayis. (?) He begins to hide goat. Repeat, reflexive -dawa Mäꞌdanydawa. He repeatedly hides himself. Repeat, away -dasa Mäꞌdanydasa ayis. (Reported) he repeatedly hides goat. Repeat, away, fut -atäsa Mäꞌdanyatäsa ayis. (Reported) he will repeate hide goat. Repeat, applicative -däs Mäꞌdanydäs ayis. He repeatedly uses sm. to hide goat. Repeat, unment. obj. -dining Mäꞌdanydining. He repeatedly hides (something). ? Report, reflexive -asawa Mäꞌdanyasawa ayis. (Reported) he hides himself. Repeat, away, refl, fut -atasawa Mäꞌdanyatäsawa ayis. (Report) he will repeatedly hide self. In the following lessons, we will learn about each of these verb forms, one at a time.

Two types of verbs There are two types of verbs that differ in prefixes and the changes of the first root consonant. Each can also have the same vowel changes in the suffixes. Different prefixes

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Nearly all verbs have subject prefixes that change with the subject pronoun before the verb. The subject prefixes on incomplete verbs are different than on complete verbs. Verb type 1 Incomplete Complete give back, return Kig mele ꞌdog Kig kämeley ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä amele agä kameley I gi mele gi kämeley you (sg) ma mämele ma mägämeley he ce cämele ce cägämeley she nya nyämele nya nyägämeley it was wamelig ? was wagämeleyig we (not you) kog melig ? kog kämeleyig we (and you) anggo meleng ? anggo kämeleyeng you (pl) sa sämele sa sägämeley they All verbs have the same subject prefixes in incomplete forms, but not all verbs have the same subject prefixes in complete forms. There are two sets (groups) of subject prefixes in complete forms of verbs. Some verbs–type 1–have complete form subject prefixes like mele ‘give back’ above. These include mägä-, cägä-, nyägä-, wagä-, sägä-. Other verbs–type 2–have complete form subject prefixes like mene ‘take’ below. These include ma-, ca-, nya-, ka-, sa-. Verb type 2 Incomplete Complete take Kig mene ꞌdog Kig kamen ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä amene agä kamen I gi mene gi kämen you (sg) ma mämene ma mamen he ce cämene ce camen she nya nyämene nya nyamen it was wamenig ? was kamenig we (not you) kog menig ? kog kämenig we (and you) anggo meneng ? anggo kämeneng you (pl) sa sämene sa samen they In the dictionary, you can tell the difference between type 1 and type 2 verbs from the complete form. In the dictionary, complete forms are listed after the meaning in English and after the command form. mele1 v.tr give back mele, kämeley mene1 v.tr 1) take, catch, hold, trap 2) care for mene/nang, kamen The complete forms in the dictionary can be in the sentece Kig ____ (ꞌdog). ‘The person ____ (thing)’. Type 1 complete verbs in this sentence have the prefix kä- such as in kämeley ‘gave back’. Type 2 complete verbs in this sentence have the prefix ka- such as in kamen ‘took’.

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Consonant changes In some type 1 verbs, there are changes in the first consonant of the root. In the type 1 verb poko ‘carry’, the first consonant p changes to mp for the subject pronouns agä ‘I’, gi ‘you(sg)’ and anggo‘you(pl)’ in both incomplete and complete forms, and for was ‘we (not you)’ in the incomplete form. Verb type 1 Incomplete Complete carry Kig poko ꞌdog Kig käpokä ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä ampoko agä kampokä I gi mpoko gi kämpokä you (sg) ma mäpoko ma mägäpokä he ce cäpoko ce cägäpokä she nya nyäpoko nya nyägäpokä it was wampokig ? was wagäpokig we (not you) kog pokig ? kog käpokig we (and you) anggo mpokang ? anggo kämpokang you (pl) sa säpoko sa sägäpokä they However, type 2 verbs do not have changes in consonants like type 1 verbs. In the type 2 verb paxe ‘kill’, the first consonant p remains p with all subject prefixes. Verb type 2 Incomplete Complete kill Kig paxe ꞌdog Kig kapax ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä apaxe agä kapax I gi paxe gi käpax you (sg) ma mäpaxe ma mapax he ce cäpaxe ce capax she nya nyäpaxe nya nyapax it was wapaxig ? was kapaxig we (not you) kog paxig ? kog käpaxig we (and you) anggo paxang ? anggo käpaxang you (pl) sa säpaxe sa sapax they Instead, type 2 verbs have changes in other root consonants. In the type 2 verb saxe ‘refuse’, the first consonant s becomes z for the pronouns gi ‘you(sg)’ and anggo‘you(pl)’ in incomplete forms. Verb type 2 a Incomplete Complete refuse Kig saxe ꞌdog Kig kasax ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä asaxe agä kasax I gi zaxe gi käsax you (sg) ma mäsaxe ma masax he

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ce cäsaxe ce casax she nya nyäsaxe nya nyasax it was wasaxig ? was kasaxig we (not you) kog saxig ? kog käsaxig we (and you) anggo zaxang ? anggo käsaxang you (pl) sa säsaxe sa sasax they In type 1 verbs, there are other first root consonants that change, as shown below next to C1. There are also some first root consonants that do not change in type 1 verbs, as shown below next to Ø. The changes in consonant are in bold and can be seen by comparing one column to the next. Consonant changes in type 1 verbs Incomplete Complete person . . . I . . . you (sg) . . person . . . C1 p kig pase agä ampase gi mpase kig käpase meet c kig cogo agä anycogo gi nycogo kig käcogu arrive b kig bolo agä ambolo gi mbolo kig käbol make d kig dele agä andele gi ndele kig kädel decorate ꞌd kig ꞌdoco agä anꞌdoco gi nꞌdoco kig käꞌdoc go g kig gawe agä anggowe gi nggawe kig kägaw throw z kig zeke agä anzeke gi nzeke kig käzekä block, cover V kig oxo agä anoxo gi noxo kig kox see Ø m kig mesede agä amesede gi mesede kig kämes loose (sm) n kig nanange agä ananange gi nanange kig känanange trick ny kig nyame agä anyame gi nyame kig känyam check ng kig ngawe agä angawe gi ngawe kig kängaw catch l kig lage agä alage gi lage kig kälagä wear r kig rake agä arake gi rake kig kärakä surround w kig waye agä awaye gi waye kig käway cultivate In type 2 verbs, only the first root consonants t, k, s can change, as shown below next to C2. Other first root consonants do not change in type 2 verbs, as shown below next to Ø. Many of the same first root consonants can be in type 1 or type 2 verbs, but t, k, s can only be in type 2 verbs. Consonant changes in type 2 verbs Incomplete Complete person . . . I . . . you (sg) . . person . . . C2 t kig teye agä adeye gi deye kig kadey create k kig käre agä agäre gi gäre kig kagärtä think s kig saxe agä asaxe gi zaxe kig kasax refuse Ø p kig paxe agä apaxe gi paxe kig kapax kill b kig bate agä abate gi bate kig kabag take, get d kig däse agä adäse gi däse kig kadästä advise ꞌd kig ꞌdanye agä aꞌdanye gi ꞌdanye kig kaꞌdany hide

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c kig codo agä acodo gi codo kig kacod drop, fall y kig yaxse agä ayaxse gi yaxse kig kayaxsä send x kig xonyo agä axonyo gi xonyo kig kaxony rescue m kig mene agä amene gi mene kig kamen take n kig niye agä aniye gi niye kig kaniy help, deliever ny kig nyase agä anyase gi nyase kig kanyas rescue ng kig ngade agä angade gi ngade kig kangad speak l kig laley agä alaley gi laley kig kalaley look, see w kig wanye agä awanye gi wanye kig kawany play (instrument) Below, more verbs are organized by each of the first root consonants (the verbs in the above lists are included in the list below). There are type 1 verbs [V1] and type 2 [V1] verbs beginning with most of the consonants. The changes in consonants C1, C1 are shown in bold from one column to the next. Type 1 verbs [V1 ] and type 2 verbs [V1] listed by first root consonant and their changes C1, C1 Incomplete Complete person . . . I . . . you (sg) . . person . . . p V1 C1 kig pase agä ampase gi mpase kig käpase meet kig pasada agä ampasada gi mpasada kig käpasa be met by kig paye agä ampaye gi mpaye kig käpay want kig päse agä ampäse gi mpäse kig käpäsi fill (container) kig päri agä ampäri gi mpäri kig käpärä touch kig pälada agä ampälada gi mpälada kig käpäla be quiet kig päkädäng agä ampäkädäng gi mpäkädäng kig käpätäng come kig pigi agä ampigi gi mpigi kig käpigä defend kig pele agä ampele gi mpele kig käpel finish kig poko agä ampoko gi mpoko kig käpokä carry V2 Ø kig pale agä apale gi pale kig kapale pray kig paxe agä apaxe gi paxe kig kapax kill kig parada agä aparada gi parada kig kapara arrive kig päle agä apäle gi päle kig kapäl steal kig pete agä apete gi pete kig kapekädä run kig pese agä apese gi pese kig kapes talk kig piri agä apiri gi piri kig kapiri surprise kig pogo agä apogo gi pogo kig kapoge fight b V1 C1 kig bolo agä ambolo gi mbolo kig käbol make Ø kig bokada agä abokada gi bokada kig käbota bring kig buxu agä abuxu gi buxu kig käbux roast kig bene agä abene gi bene kig käbendä wait V2 Ø kig bate agä abate gi bate kig kabate make stupid kig bate agä abate gi bate kig kabag take, get kig bade agä abade gi bade kig kabad look smart kig bange agä abange gi bange kig kabandä call to come kig bälede agä abälede gi bälede kig kabäle know, realize kig bodo agä abodo gi bodo kig kabod agree

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kig bokung agä abokung gi bokung kig kabokung remove t V2 C2 kig teye agä adeye gi deye kig kadey create kig tege agä adege gi dege kig kadege defeat kig telgedäng agä adelgedäng gi delgedäng kig kadeläng fall (intr) kig toxo agä adoxo gi doxo kig kadox ? light, ignite kig togada agä adogada gi dogada kig kadoga give kig togada agä adogada gi dogada kig kadoga ? go with kig togodung agä adogodung gi dogodung kig kadogäng bring kig tabewa agä adabewa ? gi dabewa kig katabewa? suffer kig togo agä adogo ? gi dogo kig katog ? carve d V1 C1 kig dele agä andele gi ndele kig kädel decorate kig dolo agä andolo gi ndolo kig kädole ? line-up kig dokolo agä andokolo gi ndokolo kig kädokolo stand, stop kig duwu agä anduwu gi nduwu kig käduw soak kig duru agä anduru gi nduru kig käduri gather kig dukutäsa agä andukutäsa gi ndukutäsa kig kädukusa pour kig däxä agä andäxä gi ndäxä kig kädäxä treat kig dänge agä andänge gi ndänge kig kädäng listen to, hear kig dage agä andage gi ndage kig kädagä chop kig dimidi agä andimidi gi ndimidi kig kädimidi ? complete V2 Ø kig däse agä adäse gi däse kig kadästä advise ꞌd V1 C1 kig ꞌdoco agä anꞌdoco gi nꞌdoco kig käꞌdoc go kig ꞌdaki agä aꞌdaki gi ꞌdaki kig käꞌdaka release V2 Ø kig ꞌdanye agä aꞌdanye gi ꞌdanye kig kaꞌdany hide kig ꞌdaye agä aꞌdaye gi ꞌdaye kig kaꞌday wash kig ꞌdädo agä aꞌdädo gi ꞌdädo kig kaꞌdäd pull apart kig ꞌdägane agä aꞌdägane gi ꞌdägane kig kaꞌdägane hurry kig ꞌdoxo agä aꞌdoxo gi ꞌdoxo kig kaꞌdox get, find kig ꞌdosto agä aꞌdosto gi ꞌdosto kig kaꞌdoskädä pull kig ꞌdiyada agä aꞌdiyada gi ꞌdiyada kig kaꞌdiya forget kig ꞌdingi agä aꞌdingi gi ꞌdingi kig kaꞌding break c V1 C1 kig cogo agä anycogo gi nycogo kig käcogu arrive kig copo agä anycopo gi nycopo kig käcopo look at kig cata agä anycata gi nycata kig käcca sit kig cate agä anycate gi nycate kig käcakäda separate Ø kig cocolacca agä acocolacca gi cocolacca kig käcocaleza come down kig colada agä acolada gi colada kig käcola pour V2 Ø kig codo agä acodo gi codo kig kacod wrestle kig codo agä acodo gi codo kig kacod drop, fall k V2 C2 kig käre agä agäre gi gäre kig kagärtä think kig kixi agä agixi gi gixi kig kagixi answer kig koying agä agoying gi goying kig kagoying bring g V1 C1 kig gawe agä anggowe gi nggawe kig kägaw ? throw kig gele agä anggele gi nggele kig kägel peel kig gexte agä anggexte gi nggexte kig kägexkädu limp

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kig gäbo agä anggäbo gi nggäbo kig kägäbä bury kig giꞌdiki agä anggiꞌdiki gi nggiꞌdiki kig kägiꞌdiki shake s V2 C2 kig sage agä asage gi zage kig kasag attack kig sane agä asane gi zane kig kasan fly kig saxe agä asaxe gi zaxe kig kasax refuse kig sogo agä asogo gi zogo kig kasog do, make kig soto agä asoto gi zoto kig kasokudu transfer kig sänggata agä asänggata gi zänggata kig kasängga sleep kig siye agä asiye gi ziye kig kasiy eat z V1 C1 kig zeke agä anzeke gi nzeke kig käzekä ? block, cover kig zäbe agä anzäbe gi nzäbe kig käsäbä plant kig zane agä anzane gi nzane kig käsane make jump kig zaye agä anzaye gi nzaye kig käsay open eyes, see kig zi agä anzi gi nzi kig käsi tighten y V1 Ø kig yogo agä ayogo gi yogo kig käyoge collect V2 Ø kig iyex agä ayex gi yex kig kalayex know kig yaxse agä ayaxse gi yaxse kig kayaxsä send o V1 C1 kig oyo agä anoyo gi noyo kig koy run fast kig oxo agä anoxo gi noxo kig kox see kig oxsongada agä anoxsongada gi noxsongada kig koxsonga be pregnant u kig uccu agä anycu gi nycu kig kuccu stay a kig axse agä anaxse gi naxse kig kaxsä tie ä kig äxse agä anäxse gi näxse kig käxsä die e kig enge agä anenge gi nenge kig kendä skin i kig iye agä aniye gi niye kig kiye give birth kig iyäng agä aniyäng gi niyäng kig kiyäng produce x V2 Ø kig xonyo agä axonyo gi xonyo kig kaxony rescue kig xagare agä axagare gi xagare kig kaxagare be stronger m V1 Ø kig mesede agä amesede gi mesede kig kämes loose (sm) kig mele agä amele gi mele kig kämeley give back V2 Ø kig mene agä amene gi mene kig kamen take kig meske agä ameske gi meske kig kameskädä protect kig menetäsa agä amenetäsa gi menetäsa kig kamenesa use to trap kig mäne agä amäne gi mäne kig kamän ask kig mäxo agä amäxo gi mäxo kig kamäx sink, dunk kig mase agä amase gi mase kig kamasä dry (sm) kig moliwa agä amoliwa gi moliwa kig kamolaswa remain kig moladaswa agä amoladaswa gi moladaswa kig kamolaswa be silent n V1 Ø kig nanange agä ananange gi nanange kig känanange trick kig noxsada agä anoxsada gi noxsada kig känoxsa raise, resurrect V2 Ø kig niye agä aniye gi niye kig kaniy help, deliever ny V1 Ø kig nyame agä anyame gi nyame kig känyam check V2 Ø kig nyase agä anyase gi nyase kig kanyas rescue kig nyägate agä anyägate gi nyägate kig kanyägate fear ng V1 Ø kig ngawe agä angawe gi ngawe kig kängaw catch

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kig ngäsada agä angäsada gi ngäsada kig kängäse wake-up kig nge agä ange gi nge kig kängedä cry V2 Ø kig ngade agä angade gi ngade kig kangad speak kig nganye agä anganye gi nganye kig kangany sell kig ngäsata agä angäsata gi ngäsata kig kangäsa stand l V1 Ø kig lage agä alage gi lage kig kälagä wear, hunt kig lawe agä alawe gi lawe kig kälawza scream kig lare agä alare gi lare kig kälarä devide kig luw agä aluw gi luw kig käluw answer, cut kig lugo agä alugo gi lugo kig kälugoy smoke (sm) V2 Ø kig laley agä alaley gi laley kig kalaley look, see kig layis agä alayis Gi nycu kig kalayis become kig läpede agä aläpede gi läpede kig kaläpe tell kig lange agä alange gi lange kig kalanga sing kig leye agä aleye gi leye kig kaley refuse kig lege agä alege gi lege kig kalege speak kig lilingicci agä alilingicci gi lilingicci kig kalilingäzi bend over r V1 Ø kig rake agä arake gi rake kig kärakä surround w V1 Ø kig waye agä awaye gi waye kig käway cultivate V2 Ø kig wanye agä awanye gi wanye kig kawany play (instr) kig wange agä awange gi wange kig kawang leave, allow kig waye agä awaye gi waye kig kaway fail, disappear kig wanyäs agä awanyäs gi wanyäs kig kawanydäs destroy kig wuxi agä awuxi gi wuxi kig kawuxsi drink kig wunodung agä awunodung gi wunodung kig kawung come kig wizi agä awizi gi wizi kig kawizä be fed-up with kig wingi agä awingi gi wingi kig kawing be fat kig wele agä awele gi wele kig kaweley peel Vowel changes in suffixes In verbs, vowels do not change as often as consonants. Both types of verbs have the same vowel changes. Vowels change in the verb suffix for the subject pronoun anggo ‘you (pl)’ in both incomplete and complete forms, but not for other suffixes of subject pronouns. The suffix vowel changes according to the root vowel, as shown in bold in the verbs below. Root suffix Incomplete Complete vowel you (pl) person . . . you (pl) . . . o -ang kig poko anggo kämpokang carry kig sogo anggo käsogang do, make kig bolo anggo kämbolang make kig toga anggo kädogang give kig koying anggo kägoyinang bring kig ꞌdoco anggo känꞌdoccang go kig oxo anggo känoxang see kig oyo anggo känoyang run

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a -ang kig saxe anggo käsaxang refuse kig paxe anggo käpaxang kill kig paye anggo kämpayang want kig sage anggo käsagang attack kig bate anggo käbagang get, carry kig nganye anggo känganyang sell kig waye anggo käwayang fail kig lawe anggo kälawzang scream kig ꞌdanye anggo käꞌdanyang hide ä -ang kig päkädäng anggo kämpätänang come kig ꞌdosto anggo käꞌdoskädang pull kig nganyasa anggo känganyasänang sell kig iyäng anggo käniyänang produce kig iyedäng anggo käniyedänang produce kig wanyäs anggo käwanydäsang destroy -eng kig bälede anggo käbäleng know kig mäne anggo kämäneng ask kig dänge anggo kändängeng listen to kig ngäsada anggo kängäseyeng ? wake-up e -eng kig teye anggo kädeyeng create kig mene anggo kämeneng take kig mele anggo kämeleyeng give back i -ing kig pigi anggo kämpiging defend kig ꞌdiyada anggo käꞌdiying forget u -ing kig duwu anggo känduwing soak kig wuxi anggo käwuxsing drink kig buxu anggo käbuxing roast -ang kig wung anggo käwunang come kig wunodung anggo käwunang go kig uccu anggo känyucuccang stay The verb suffix for pronoun anggo ‘you (pl)’ is –ang for verbs with root vowels o and a, and for some verbs with root vowel ä and u. It is –eng for verbs with root vowel e and for some with root vowel ä. It is –ing for verbs with root vowel i and for some with root vowel u. In summary, the prefixes and suffixes for type 1 and type 2 verbs are shown below. The consonant changes represented by C1 and C2 and vowel changes represented by V are listed above. Verb type 1 Verb type 2 Incomplete Complete Incomplete Complete Kig ka- kä- ka- ka- Person agä a(C1)- ka(C1)- a- ka- I gi (C1)- kä(C1)- (C2)- kä- you (sg) ma mä- mägä- mä- ma- he ce cä- cägä- cä- ca- she

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nya nyä- nyägä- nyä- nya- it was wa(C1)- -ig wagä- -ig wa- -ig ka- -ig we (not you) kog -ig kä- -ig -ig kä- -ig we (and you) anggo (C1)- -Vng kä(C1)- -Vng (C2) -Vng kä- -Vng you (pl) sa sä- sägä- sä- sa- they Exercise 32 Carefully read and say each test verb below. Each may or may not be written correctly. Write each verb correctly in the space given. The first one is done as an example. Test verb Write correctly Test verb Write correctly gi cogo you arrive gi nycogo gi ngade you speak __________________ agä anggowe I throw __________________ agä apaxe I kill __________________ kig kaꞌdoc person went __________________ kig kädeläng person fell __________________ agä adokolo I stand __________________ gi koying you bring __________________ agä aziye I eat __________________ kig kagärtä person thought __________________ agä anoyo I run __________________ gi zäbe you plant __________________ agä anycodo I drop __________________ kig kox person saw __________________

Complete (Perfective) and incomplete (Imperfective) verbs Complete verbs (perfective) talk about an action as a whole, regardless of the time of the action. Incomplete verbs (imperfective) talk about the action as an ongoing process, such as if we are watching the action happen in a film. They also do not depend on the time of the action. In telling stories, complete verbs are often used for actions that move the story forward, and incomplete verbs are sometimes used to tell background information. In the Caning dictionary, verbs are found listed by the incomplete verb form with subject kig ‘person’. Incomplete verbs often have a vowel suffix that depends on the root vowel. Complete verbs have the prefix ka- or kä-. Complete verbs can be used for past, present or future actions that are talked about as a whole. In (O&A 50), the complete verb kabandä ‘called’ is used for a present action that still happens at the time of speaking. The name of the donkey’s tail is still ip ‘tail’ when Fox says this speech. (O&A 50) (Complete for present, past) ꞌDog kabandä käluw ipe, Thing called tail you cut, In (O&A 50), the complete verb käluw ‘cut’ is a past action the Lion did before the time when Fox says this speech.

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In (O&A 36), the complete verbs sasiy ‘ate’ and sawang ‘left’ are unreal (irrealis) actions that have not happened yet, but may happen in the future. The Lion says this speech to the other animals about eating the donkey he killed. (O&A 36) (Complete for future) ꞌDärägsä ze adakä sasiy, Brains of head they should not eat, ka sawang tänya. but leave for him. Incomplete verbs can be used for past, present or future actions that talk about the action as an ongoing process. In (Nyax 15), the incomplete verbs anoc ‘I go’ and abagäs ‘I marry’ are future actions that happen after the time when the hyena says this speech. (Nyax 15) (Incomplete for future) Anoc abagäs uxandäng tägog. I am going to marry a certain woman for us. In (T&A 11), the incomplete verb wawedeccig ‘we are going’ is happening at the time when Elephant says this speech to Fox about going to the eating places in the bush. (T&A 11) (Incomplete for present) Accang wasakang wawedeccig. Surely we are just going. In (O&A 43), the incomplete verb ngade ‘say’ is used for a past action–the Lion told the animals not to each the donkey’s brain. In (O&A 43), the animals remind Fox of this speech of Lion. (O&A 43) (Incomplete for past) I no käꞌdang buguning ngade ka, A little while ago the king said sawang ꞌdärägse tänya. they should leave the brain for him. In stories, complete verbs are often used to move the story one step forward by telling the main actions of the story. In (Nyax 27-28), there are 4 complete verbs that move the story forward. (Nyax 27-28) (Complete verbs move story forward) Na kala nyägäꞌdoc nyapara pa na nyägädokol He went and arrived to home and stood täxande na ce cägox ma. far away and she saw him. In stories, incomplete verbs are sometimes used to tell background information. In (T&A 6), there are 3 incomplete verbs that tell the situation of Elephantꞌs family at the beginning of the story, before the main actions start. (T&A 6) (Incomplete verbs give background information) Na säwedeccä na penggänya nyäꞌdingidi And they went with his children and he cut ewetäng siye. down trees to eat. How can we tell if a verb is incomplete or complete? An incomplete verb has no prefix when a

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noun subject such as kig ‘person’ does the action. A complete verb has the prefix kä- or ka- when a noun subject such as kig ‘person’ does the action. In the last lesson, we learned about two types of verbs. With noun subjects, type 1 complete verbs have the prefix kä-. When the first letter of the verb root is a vowel (such as oxo ‘see’), the vowel of the complete prefix disappears (as in koxo ‘saw’). Type 1 verbs First cons. Incomplete Complete p kig pase kig käpase meet c kig cogo kig käcogu arrive b kig bolo kig käbol make d kig dele kig kädel decorate ꞌd kig ꞌdoco kig käꞌdoc go g kig gawe kig kägaw throw z kig zeke kig käzekä block, cover V kig oxo kig kox see m kig mesede kig kämes loose (sm) n kig nanange kig känanange trick ny kig nyame kig känyam check ng kig ngawe kig kängaw catch l kig lage kig kälagä wear r kig rake kig kärakä surround w kig waye kig käway cultivate With noun subjects, type 2 complete verbs have the prefix ka-. When the consonants t and k are the first consonants of the root (such as in teye ‘create’ and käre ‘think’), they become d and g when the complete prefix ka- is added (kadey ‘created’, kagärtä ‘thought’). Type 2 verbs First cons. Incomplete Complete t kig teye kig kadey create k kig käre kig kagärtä think s kig saxe kig kasax refuse p kig paxe kig kapax kill b kig bate kig kabag take, get d kig däse kig kadästä advise ꞌd kig ꞌdanye kig kaꞌdany hide c kig codo kig kacod drop, fall y kig yaxse kig kayaxsä send x kig xonyo kig kaxony rescue m kig mene kig kamen take n kig niye kig kaniy help, deliever ny kig nyase kig kanyas rescue ng kig ngade kig kangad speak l kig laley kig kalaley look, see

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w kig wanye kig kawany play (instrument) Incomplete verbs often have a vowel suffix that is the same as the verb root vowel. However, incomplete verbs with root vowel a usually have the suffix -e. It is most common for complete verbs to have no suffix (shown by –Ø below). But they can also have a vowel suffix the same as in the incomplete form, or another suffix. Root Incomp. Compl. vowel sufx. Incomplete sufx. Complete o -o bolo -Ø käbol make togo katog carve codo kacod wrestle copo -o käcopo look at poko -ä käpokä carry xoꞌdo -e kaxoꞌde smear ꞌdosto -ädä kaꞌdoskädä pull soto -kädä kasokudu transfer a -e bate -Ø kabag get, take ꞌdaye kaꞌday wash gawe kägaw throw nyame känyam check yaxse -ä kayaxsä send lawe -za kälawza scream -a maya -a kamaya be satisfied ä -o ꞌdädo -Ø kaꞌdäd pull apart gäbo -ä kägäbä bury u -u buxu -Ø käbux roast duru -i käduri gather e -e pese -Ø kapes talk zeke -ä käzekä block bene -dä käbendä wait for meske -ädä kameskädä protect i -i ꞌdingi -Ø kaꞌding cut, break wizi -ä kawizä be fed-up pigi käpigä defend Incomplete and complete verbs have other prefixes and suffixes when they have pronoun subjects. Several prefixes have the same first consonant as the subject pronoun. Incomplete Complete hide Kig ꞌdanye ꞌdog Kig kaꞌdany ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä aꞌdanye agä kaꞌdany I gi ꞌdanye gi käꞌdany you (sg) ma mäꞌdanye ma maꞌdany he ce cäꞌdanye ce caꞌdany she nya nyäꞌdanye nya nyaꞌdany it

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was waꞌdanyig was kaꞌdanyig we (not you) kog ꞌdanyig kog käꞌdanyig we (and you) anggo ꞌdanyang anggo käꞌdanyang you (pl) sa säꞌdanye sa saꞌdany they In the previous lesson, we learned how the first consonant of verb roots can change for certain subject pronouns such as gi ‘you (sg)’. The first root consonants of type 1 verbs that change (C1) and do not change (Ø) are shown below. Consonant changes in type 1 incomplete verbs person . . . you (sg) . . C1 p kig pase gi mpase meet c kig cogo gi nycogo arrive b kig bolo gi mbolo make d kig dele gi ndele decorate ꞌd kig ꞌdoco gi nꞌdoco go g kig gawe gi nggawe throw z kig zeke gi nzeke block, cover V kig oxo gi noxo see Ø m kig mesede gi mesede loose (sm) n kig nanange gi nanange trick ny kig nyame gi nyame check ng kig ngawe gi ngawe catch l kig lage gi lage wear r kig rake gi rake surround w kig waye gi waye cultivate In type 2 verbs, only the first root consonants t, k, s can change, as shown below next to (C2). Consonant changes in type 2 incomplete verbs person . . . you (sg) . . C2 t kig teye gi deye create k kig käre gi gäre think s kig saxe gi zaxe refuse Ø p kig paxe gi paxe kill b kig bate gi bate take, get d kig däse gi däse advise ꞌd kig ꞌdanye gi ꞌdanye hide c kig codo gi codo drop, fall y kig yaxse gi yaxse send x kig xonyo gi xonyo rescue m kig mene gi mene take n kig niye gi niye help, deliever ny kig nyase gi nyase rescue ng kig ngade gi ngade speak l kig laley gi laley look, see

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w kig wanye gi wanye play (instrument) Below, there are incomplete and complete verbs with all subject pronoun. They are organized according to the verb root vowel and whether they are type 1 or 2. Verbs with pronoun subjects a Incomplete Complete want (Type 1) Kig paye ꞌdog Kig käpay ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä ampaye agä kampay I gi mpaye gi kämpay you (sg) ma mäpaye ma mägäpay he ce cäpaye ce cägäpay she nya nyäpaye nya nyägäpay it was wampayidig was wagäpayig we (not you) kog payidig kog käpayig we (and you) anggo mpayading anggo kämpayang you (pl) sa säpaye sa sägäpay they a Incomplete Complete refuse (Type 2) Kig saxe ꞌdog Kig kasax ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä asaxe agä kasax I gi zaxe gi käsax you (sg) ma mäsaxe ma masax he ce cäsaxe ce casax she nya nyäsaxe nya nyasax it was wasaxidig was kasaxig we (not you) kog saxidig kog käsaxig we (and you) anggo zaxading anggo käsaxang you (pl) sa säsaxe sa sasax they a Incomplete Complete kill (Type 2) Kig paxe ꞌdog Kig kapax ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä apaxe agä kapax I gi paxe gi käpax you (sg) ma mäpaxe ma mapax he ce cäpaxe ce capax she nya nyäpaxe nya nyapax it was wapaxidig was kapaxig we (not you) kog paxidig kog käpaxig we (and you) anggo paxading anggo käpaxang you (pl) sa säpaxe sa sapax they a Incomplete Complete fail (Type 2) Kig waye Kig kaway Person . . . agä awaye agä kaway I gi waye gi käway you (sg)

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ma mäwaye ma maway he ce cäwaye ce caway she nya nyäwaye nya nyaway it was wawayidig was kawayig we (not you) kog wayidig kog käwayig we (and you) anggo wayading anggo käwayang you (pl) sa säwaye sa saway they a Incomplete Complete attack, separate (Type 2) Kig sage Kig kasag Person . . . agä asage agä kasag I gi zage gi käsag you (sg) ma mäsage ma masag he ce cäsage ce casag she nya nyäsage nya nyasag it was wasagig was kasagig we (not you) kog sagig kog käsagig we (and you) anggo zagang anggo käsagang you (pl) sa säsage sa sasag they ä Incomplete Complete listen to, hear (Type 1) Kig dänge ꞌdog Kig kädäng ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä andänge agä kandäng I gi ndänge gi kändäng you (sg) ma mädänge ma mägädäng he ce cädänge ce cägädäng she nya nyädänge nya nyägädäng it was wandängidig was wagädängig we (not you) kog dängidig kog kädängig we (and you) anggo ndängeding anggo kändängeng you (pl) sa sädänge sa sägädäng they ä Incomplete Complete know (Type 2) Kig bälede ꞌdog Kig kabäle ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä abälede agä kabäle I gi bälede gi käbäle you (sg) ma mäbälede ma mabäle he ce cäbälede ce cabäle she nya nyäbälede nya nyabäle it was wabäledig was kabälig we (not you) kog bäledig kog käbälig we (and you) anggo bäledeng anggo käbäleng you (pl) sa säbälede sa sabäle they ä Incomplete Complete ask (Type 2) Kig mäne ꞌdog Kig kamän ꞌdog Person . . . thing.

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agä amäne agä kamän I gi mäne gi kämän you (sg) ma mämäne ma mamän he ce cämäne ce camän she nya nyämäne nya nyamän it was wamänidig was kamänig we (not you) kog mänidig kog kämänig we (and you) anggo mäneding anggo kämäneng you (pl) sa sämäne sa samän they ä Incomplete Complete come (Type 1) Kig päkädäng Kig käpätäng Person . . . agä ampäkädäng agä kampätäng I gi mpäkädäng gi kämpätäng you (sg) ma mäpäkädäng ma mägäpätäng he ce cäpäkädäng ce cägäpätäng she nya nyäpäkädäng nya nyägäpätäng it was wampäkädänig was wagäpätänig we (not you) kog päkädänig kog käpätänig we (and you) anggo mpäkädänang anggo kämpätänang you (pl) sa säpäkädäng sa sägäpätäng they o Incomplete Complete carry (Type 1) Kig poko ꞌdog Kig käpokä ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä ampoko agä kampokä I gi mpoko gi kämpokä you (sg) ma mäpoko ma mägäpokä he ce cäpoko ce cägäpokä she nya nyäpoko nya nyägäpokä it was wampokidig was wagäpokig we (not you) kog pokidig kog käpokig we (and you) anggo mpokading anggo kämpokang you (pl) sa säpoko sa sägäpokä they o Incomplete Complete make (Type 1) Kig bolo ꞌdog Kig käbol ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä ambolo agä kambol I gi mbolo gi kämbol you (sg) ma mäbolo ma mägäbol he ce cäbolo ce cägäbol she nya nyäbolo nya nyägäbol it was wambolidig was wagäbolig we (not you) kog bolidig kog käbolig we (and you) anggo mbolading anggo kämbolang you (pl) sa säbolo sa sägäbol they

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o Incomplete Complete do, make (Type 2) Kig sogo ꞌdog Kig kasog ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä asogo agä kasog I gi zogo gi käsog you (sg) ma mäsogo ma masog he ce cäsogo ce casog she nya nyäsogo nya nyasog it was wasogidig was kasogig we (not you) kog sogidig kog käsogig we (and you) anggo zogading anggo käsogang you (pl) sa säsogo sa sasog they o Incomplete Complete give (Type 2) Kig toga ꞌdog Kig kadoga ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä adoga agä kadoga I gi doga gi kädoga you (sg) ma mädoga ma madoga he ce cädoga ce cadoga she nya nyädoga nya nyadoga it was wadogig was kadogig we (not you) kog togig kog kädogig we (and you) anggo dogang anggo kädogang you (pl) sa sädoga sa sadoga they o Incomplete Complete bring (Type 2) Kig koying ꞌdog Kig kagoying ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä agoying agä kagoying I gi goying gi kägoying you (sg) ma mägoying ma magoying he ce cägoying ce cagoying she nya nyägoying nya nyagoying it was wagoyinig was kagoyinig we (not you) kog koyinig kog kägoyinig we (and you) anggo goyinang anggo kägoyinang you (pl) sa sägoying sa sagoying they u Incomplete Complete soak, make wet (Type 1) Kig duwu ꞌdog Kig käduw ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä anduwu agä kanduw I gi nduwu gi känduw you (sg) ma mäduwu ma mägäduw he ce cäduwu ce cägäduw she nya nyäduwu nya nyägäduw it was wanduwidig was wagäduwig we (not you) kog duwidig kog käduwig we (and you) anggo nduwiding anggo känduwing you (pl)

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sa säduwu sa sägäduw they u Incomplete Complete roast (Type 1) Kig buxu ꞌdog Kig käbux ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä abuxu agä kabux I gi buxu gi käbux you (sg) ma mäbuxu ma mägäbux he ce cäbuxu ce cägäbux she nya nyäbuxu nya nyägäbux it was wabuxidig was wagäbuxig we (not you) kog buxidig kog käbuxig we (and you) anggo buxiding anggo käbuxing you (pl) sa säbuxu sa sägäbux they u Incomplete Complete drink (Type 2) Kig wuxi ꞌdog Kig kawuxsi ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä awuxi agä kawuxsi I gi wuxi gi käwuxsi you (sg) ma mäwuxi ma mawuxsi he ce cäwuxi ce cawuxsi she nya nyäwuxi nya nyawuxsi it was wawuxidig was kawuxsig we (not you) kog wuxidig kog käwuxsig we (and you) anggo wuxiding anggo käwuxsing you (pl) sa säwuxi sa sawuxsi they e Incomplete Complete give back, return (Type 1) Kig mele ꞌdog Kig kämeley ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä amele agä kameley I gi mele gi kämeley you (sg) ma mämele ma mägämeley he ce cämele ce cägämeley she nya nyämele nya nyägämeley it was wamelidig was wagämeleyig we (not you) kog melidig kog kämeleyig we (and you) anggo meleding anggo kämeleyeng you (pl) sa sämele sa sägämeley they e Incomplete Complete forget (Type 2) Kig ꞌdiyada ꞌdog Kig kaꞌdiya ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä aꞌdiyada agä kaꞌdiya I gi ꞌdiyada gi käꞌdiya you (sg) ma mäꞌdiyada ma maꞌdiya he ce cäꞌdiyada ce caꞌdiya she nya nyäꞌdiyada nya nyaꞌdiya it was waꞌdiyadig was kaꞌdiyig we (not you)

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kog ꞌdiyadig kog käꞌdiyig we (and you) anggo ꞌdiyadang anggo käꞌdiying you (pl) sa säꞌdiyada sa saꞌdiya they e Incomplete Complete create (Type 2) Kig teye ꞌdog Kig kadey ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä adeye agä kadey I gi deye gi kädey you (sg) ma mädeye ma madey he ce cädeye ce cadey she nya nyädeye nya nyadey it was wadeyidig was kadeyig we (not you) kog teyidig kog kädeyig we (and you) anggo deyeding anggo kädeyeng you (pl) sa sädeye sa sadey they e Incomplete Complete take (Type 2) Kig mene ꞌdog Kig kamen ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä amene agä kamen I gi mene gi kämen you (sg) ma mämene ma mamen he ce cämene ce camen she nya nyämene nya nyamen it was wamenidig was kamenig we (not you) kog menidig kog kämenig we (and you) anggo meneding anggo kämeneng you (pl) sa sämene sa samen they i Incomplete Complete defend (Type 1) Kig pigi ꞌdog Kig käpigä ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä ampigi agä kampigä I gi mpigi gi kämpigä you (sg) ma mäpigi ma mägäpigä he ce cäpigi ce cägäpigä she nya nyäpigi nya nyägäpigä it was wampigidig was wagäpigig we (not you) kog pigidig kog käpigig we (and you) anggo mpigiding anggo kämpiging you (pl) sa säpigi sa sägäpigä they i Incomplete Complete drink (Type 2) Kig wuxi ꞌdog Kig kawuxsi ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä awuxi agä kawuxsi I gi wuxi gi käwuxsi you (sg) ma mäwuxi ma mawuxsi he ce cäwuxi ce cawuxsi she

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nya nyäwuxi nya nyawuxsi it was wawuxidig was kawuxsig we (not you) kog wuxidig kog käwuxsig we (and you) anggo wuxiding anggo käwuxsing you (pl) sa säwuxi sa sawuxsi they Exercise 33 In the following sentences, underline all incomplete verbs. Underline twice all complete verbs. (O&A 2-4) Na oxayda kawuno tä dänggä ꞌdogi And the animals came to listen to the thing nyäpaye nyägatang. that it wanted them to hear. Na nyängade ka, “Ampaye ya.” And he said, “I want meat.” Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Mpaye ya?” And Fox said, “You want meat?” (O&A 14) Na Osox kasäx kängaw nya, nyägoy And Lion caught him, that is he ran nyangaw ipänya. and caught his tail. (O&A 50-52) ꞌDog kabandä käluw ipe, Thing called tail you cut, kawang, käluw wungge, I left, you cut ears kawang, käwang käpax käsiy käꞌday, I left it, I left and you killed ate everything, ꞌdärägsä ze tängang kax kämel tagä mänang? brain of head were you suppose return to me? (Nyax 13) Na nyägäꞌdoc nyäwedede nyaꞌdox me anadaru. He went walked found a person with glasses. (Nyax 20) Na nyäwedede nyaꞌdoxo me ngasäwan He continued and found a person of na nyägade täng ka, . . . importance said to him, . . . (Nyax 34) Appa, nya yoxanggi ampayeng nyanang Father, my potential husband kawung xongondong. that I like has come today. (Nyax 47) Na kala nyägäpätäng nyäwede tä bängäce, Then he waited and continued to follow her, (Nyax 63) Nycoki leye pipi täma. People refused (to give) him a babysitter. (Nyax 66) Käxi kalayis sagal saxe mened, She became an older girl and refused to neng ganang, key? babysit (anylonger), so now what? (Nyax 76) Gi nycu ka käxogkandäng? Do you remain that (still see) our sisters? (Nyax 78) Kala säpaye saxake ndä sänyägate Nyoxolow. They wanted divorce, they afraid of Hyena. (Nyax 87-88) Ndä wacolodunig mid täxä caxsägi And we will pour oil into your anus na kala käwing so that you will become fat, (Nyax 98)

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Na säꞌdoxa apangä buguningzä za. And they will find an important king. (A&N 6-7) Ndey ꞌdoxig oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig So we can find big animal, kill, bring to our ta penggog, xa xas kapax kog nano. home, in order that we have a lot of meat. (A&N 30-31) Seley ka wabuxig nuxu wasiyig ndey We killed one (cow) and ate and wampokusig ndakä letugu deny ꞌdoxu was, we carried so that owner of cow mäsaxe. would not find us, and refuse (us the beef). (A&N 36-37) ‘Bonog, masani nuxu kig ꞌdoc ‘We need one person to go bring fire to us’, bota tägog, ndä dängig ꞌdoga mängade tägog. you will see the thing he tells us about.’ (A&N 73) Na kala sägälaräsang na sägäꞌdocco, Then they divided them and they left– käxi käꞌdoc tä pane. every person went home. (T&A 13) Neng kala kanyänggädig, wameleccig tä pa.” When we have checked, we will return home. (T&A 25) Yex diniyena wede? Do you know a storm is coming?

Common irregular verbs In this lesson, we learn about some of the common verbs that have irregular incomplete and complete forms–forms that are differ from those we have learned so far. Some verb roots begin with a vowel. All verb roots that begin with a vowel are type 1 verbs [check this]. They have the prefix n- for subject pronouns such as gi ‘you (sg)’, and the complete prefix is shortened to k- for noun subjects such as as kig ‘person’. o Incomplete Complete see (Type 1) Kig oxo ꞌdog Kig kox ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä anoxo agä kanox I gi noxo gi känox you (sg) ma moxo ma mägox he ce coxo ce cägox she nya nyoxo nya nyägox it was wanoxig was wagoxig we (not you) kog oxig kog koxig we (and you) anggo noxang anggo känoxang you (pl) sa soxo sa sägox they o Incomplete Complete run (Type 1) Kig oyo Kig koy Person . . . agä anoyo agä kanoy I gi noyo gi känoy you (sg)

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ma moyo ma mägoy he ce coyo ce cägoy she nya nyoyo nya nyägoy it was wanoyig ? was wagoyig we (not you) kog oyig ? kog koyig we (and you) anggo noyang ? anggo känoyang you (pl) sa soyo sa sägoy they o Incomplete Complete stay (Type 1) uccudi (com sg) nycucci (comd pl) anycucci (comd in) Kig uccu Kig kuccu Person . . . agä anycu agä kanycu I gi nycu gi känycu you (sg) ma muccu ma mäguccu he ce cuccu ce cäguccu she nya nyuccu nya nyäguccu it was wanycuccig was waguccig we (not you) kog cuccig kog käcuccig we (and you) anggo nycuccang anggo känycuccang you (pl) sa säcuccu sa säguccu they sägäcuccu i Incomplete Complete produce, give birth (Type 1) Kig iyäng ꞌdog Kig kiyäng ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä aniyäng agä kaniyäng I gi niyäng gi käniyäng you (sg) ma mäniyäng ma mägiyäng he ce cäniyäng ce cägiyäng she nya nyäniyäng nya nyägiyäng it was waniyänig was wagiyänig we (not you) kog iyänig kog kiyänig ? we (and you) anggo niyänang anggo käniyänang you (pl) sa säniyäng sa sägiyäng they A few verbs differ in the last root consonants between incomplete and complete forms. The verb ꞌdosto ‘pull’ has the last root consonants st in incomplete forms for plural subjects. It also has sk in all complete forms. o Incomplete Complete pull (Type 2) ꞌdosta (com sg) ꞌdostining (comd pl) aꞌdoskuduning (comd in) Kig ꞌdosto ꞌdog Kig kaꞌdoskudu ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä aꞌdosto agä kaꞌdoskudu I gi ꞌdosto gi käꞌdoskudu you (sg)

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ma mäꞌdosto ma maꞌdoskudu he ce cäꞌdosto ce caꞌdoskudu she nya nyäꞌdosto nya nyaꞌdoskudu it was waꞌdoskig ? was kaꞌdoskudig we (not you) kog ꞌdoskig ? kog käꞌdoskudig we (and you) anggo ꞌdoskang ? anggo käꞌdoskudang you (pl) sa säꞌdosto sa saꞌdoskudu they Other common verbs with irregular forms are shown below. u Incomplete Complete come (Type 2) bo (comd sg) wining (comd pl) awuning (comd in) Kig wung Kig kawung Person . . . agä awung agä kawung I gi wung gi käwung you (sg) ma mäwung ma mawung he ce cäwung ce cawung she nya nyäwung nya nyawung it was wawunig was kawunig we (not you) kog wunig kog käwunig we (and you) anggo wunang anggo käwunang you (pl) sa säwuno sa sawuno they u Incomplete Complete come (Type 2) bo (comd sg) wining (comd pl) awuning (comd in) Kig wunodung Kig kawung, kawuno Person . . . agä awunodung agä kawung I gi wunodung gi käwung you (sg) ma mäwunodung ma mawung he ce cäwunodung ce cawung she nya nyäwunodung nya nyawung it was wawunosunig was kawunig we (not you) kog wunosunig kog käwunig we (and you) anggo wunosunang anggo käwunang you (pl) sa säwunosuno sa sawuno they o Incomplete Complete go (Type 1) wede (comd sg) wesi (comd pl) anocci (comd in) Kig oco ? Kig koc ? Person . . . agä anoco agä kanoc ? I

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gi noco gi känoc you (sg) ma moco ? ma mägoc ? he ce coco ? ce cägoc ? she nya nyoco ? nya nyägoc ? it was wanoccig was wagoccig ? we (not you) kog occig ? kog koccig ? we (and you) anggo noccang anggo känoccang ? you (pl) sa socco ? sa sägocco ? they o Incomplete Complete go (Type 1) cugo, wede (comd sg) wesi (comd pl) nycugo (comd in) Kig ꞌdoco Kig käꞌdoc Person . . . agä anꞌdoco agä kanꞌdoc I gi nꞌdoco gi känꞌdoc you (sg) ma mäꞌdoco ma mägäꞌdoc he ce cäꞌdoco ce cägäꞌdoc she nya nyäꞌdoco nya nyägäꞌdoc it was waꞌdoccig was wagäꞌdoccig we (not you) kog ꞌdoccig kog käꞌdoccig we (and you) anggo nꞌdoccang, noccang anggo känꞌdoccang you (pl) sa säꞌdocco sa sägäꞌdocco they a Incomplete Complete take, carry (Type 2) baga (com sg) bagining (comd pl) abagining (comd in) Kig bate ꞌdog Kig kabag ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä abate agä kabag I gi bate gi käbag you (sg) ma mäbate ma mabag he ce cäbate ce cabag she nya nyäbate nya nyabag it was wabakig ? was kabagig we (not you) kog bakig ? kog käbagig we (and you) anggo bakang ? anggo käbagang you (pl) sa säbate sa sabag they a Incomplete Complete sell (Type 2) nganya (com sg) nganyining (comd pl) anganyining (comd in) Kig nganye ꞌdog Kig kangany ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä anganye agä kangany I gi nganye gi kängany you (sg)

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ma mänganye ma mangany he ce cänganye ce cangany she nya nyänganye nya nyangany it was wanganyig was kanganyig we (not you) kog nganyig kog känganyig we (and you) anggo nganyang anggo känganyang you (pl) sa sänganye sa sangany they a Incomplete Complete sell (reporting) (Type 2) nganyasa (com sg) nganyasaning (comd pl) anganyasaning (comd in) Kig nganyasa ꞌdog Kig kanganyasa ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä anganyasa agä kanganyasa I gi nganyasa gi känganyasa you (sg) ma mänganyasa ma manganyasa he ce cänganyasa ce canganyasa she nya nyänganyasa nya nyanganyasa it was wanganyasänig was kanganyasänig we (not you) kog nganyasänig kog känganyasänig we (and you) anggo nganyasänang anggo känganyasänang you (pl) sa sänganyasa sa sanganyasa they a Incomplete Complete wake-up (Type 1) Kig ngäsada ꞌdog Kig kängäse ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä angäsada agä kangäse I gi ngäsada gi kängäse you (sg) ma mängäsada ma mägängäse he ce cängäsada ce cägängäse she nya nyängäsada nya nyägängäse it was wangäsadig was wagängäseyig we (not you) kog ngäsadig kog kängäseyig we (and you) anggo ngäsadang anggo kängäseyang you (pl) sa sängäsada sa sägängäse they Exercise 34 Carefully read and say each test verb below. Each may or may not be written correctly. Write each verb correctly in the space given. The first one is done as an example. Test verb Write correctly Test verb Write correctly annoxo I see anoxo sogox they saw __________________ kig koyo person ran __________________ mägoy he ran __________________ nyuccu it stays __________________ konox you (sg) see __________________

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niyäng you (sg) produce __________________ cugucu she stayed __________________ cägäyäng she produced __________________ kig ꞌdoskädä person pulls __________________ kig käwung person came __________________ muwang he comes __________________ awundäng I come __________________ nocang you (pl) go __________________ anocco I go __________________ mäꞌdocco he goes __________________

Command (Imperative) verbs Command verbs order people to do an action. There are different command forms when ordering one person (command singular), more than one person (command plural), or ‘us (and you)’ (command communal). The most common command suffixes are –a and –i, but command plural and communal verbs can instead have the reciprocal suffix –inin. The plural command of some verbs has a change in the first consonant. (These are verbs in which the consonant also changes for ‘I’ and ‘you (sg)’ subject pronouns.) All communal verbs have the prefix a-. In (Nyax 53), the singular commands wede ‘Go!’ and koying ‘Bring!’ are said by the girl to her husband the Hyena after she became pregnant. (Nyax 53) (Singular commands) Wede tä pa koying nuxu päxäsko tagä Go to (my familyꞌs) house and bring our only ndey menecce tagä. child to me so that he may care for me. In (N&A 34), the plural command dogi ‘Give!’ comes from the verb togada ‘give’. It is said by the Lion to all the other animals. (N&A 34) (Plural commands) Na kala buguning Osox ngade, So the chief Lion said, “Neng dogi päxä denyä Apoco.” “Give the calf of Hare (to Hare).” In (A&N 18), the communal commands nycugo ‘let us (and you) go’ and azaya ‘let us (and you) see’ are said by Hyena to Fox. (A&N 18) (Communal commands) Nyoxolow ngade ka, “Cugo azaya.” Hyena said, “Let us go see (the meat).” The verb togada ‘give’ is a type 1 verb that has a change in the first consonant for ‘I’ and ‘you (sg)’ subject pronouns. In (1), this verb is togada after kig ‘person’, but in (2), the first consonant changes to d with the pronoun gi ‘you (sg)’ (dogada). Incomplete (1) Kig togada deny. Person gives a cow. Incomplete ‘you (sg)’ (2) Gi dogada deny. You (sg) give a cow. Command singular (3) Togi deny! Give a cow! (Said to one person)

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Command plural (4) Dogi deny! Give a cow! (Said to more than one person) Command communal (5) Adogi deny! Let us (and you) give a cow! This verb also has a change in the first consonant for plural and communal verbs. In (3), the singular command is togi, but the first consonant changes to d in the plural command of (4) (dogi) and in the communal command of (5) with the prefix a- (Adogi). The chart below has other verbs with changes in the first consonant when there are also changes with the pronoun gi ‘you (sg)’. Most of these verb forms can take the place of the underlined words in (1-5) above or in similar sentences. First Cons. Incomplete Incomplete Command Command Command cons. change you (sg) singular plural communal p mp päkädäng gi mpäkädäng pätäng mpätäsining ampätäsining come c nyc copo gi nycopo copa nycopining anycopining look at b mb bolo gi mbolo bola mbolining ? ambolining ? make d nd duru gi nduru duri ndurining ? andurining ? gather g ngg gawe gi nggawe gawa nggawining anggowining throw z nz zeke gi nzeke zeke nzekining ? anzekining ? block o no oxo gi noxo oxa noxa anoxa see t d togada gi dogada togi dogi adogi give k g koying gi goying koying goyining agoyining bring s z sage gi zage saga zagi asagi attack p pese gi pese pese pesining apesining talk c codo gi codo coda codining acodining wrestle b bate gi bate baga bagining abagining take, carry d däse gi däse däste däsining ? adäsining ? advise ꞌd ꞌdosto gi ꞌdosto ꞌdosta ꞌdostining aꞌdoskädäning pull x xoꞌdo gi xoꞌdo xoꞌda xoꞌdening axoꞌdening smear m meske gi meske meskide meskining ameskining protect n niye gi niye niye niyining ? aniying ? help ny nyame gi nyame nyama nyamining anyamining check ng nganye gi nganye nganya nganyining anganyining sell l lawe gi lawe lawzi lawining alawining scream r rake gi rake raka rakining ? arakining ? surround y yaxse gi yaxse yaxsa yaxsining ayaxsining send w wizi gi wizi wizi wizening awizining be fed-up The most common suffixes on commands are –a, –i or no change in suffix from the incomplete form. The reciprocal suffix –ining sometimes attaches to plural and communal commands instead of –a or –i. Command suffixes often depend on the verb root vowel. The command suffix is often -a for verbs with root vowel o, a or ä. The command suffix is often –i for verbs with root vowel u. There is usually no change in suffix for the command form from the incomplete form for verbs with root vowel e or i. Root Comd. Command Command Command

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vowel sing. suf. Incomplete singular plural communal o -a ꞌdosto ꞌdosta ꞌdostining aꞌdoskoduning ? pull bolo bola mbolining ambolining make togo toga dogining adogining carve poko poka mpokining ampokining carry xoꞌdo xoꞌda xoꞌdening axoꞌdening smear codo coda codining acodining wrestle copo copa nycopining anycopining look at -ädä soto sokudu zotining asokudining transfer a -a yaxse yaxsa yaxsining ayaxsining send ꞌdaye ꞌdaya ꞌdayining aꞌdayining wash gawe gawa nggawining anggowining throw nyame nyama nyamining anyamining check -zi lawe lawzi lawining alawining scream -ga bate baga bagining abagining get, take - maya may mayining amayining be satisfied ä -a gäbo gäba nggäbining anggäbining bury -ta ꞌdädo ꞌduta ꞌdädining aꞌdädining pull apart u -i duru duri ndurining andurining gather buxu buxi buxining abuxining roast e -e pese pese pesining apesining talk zeke zeke nzekining anzekining block -de bene bende benining abenining wait for -ide meske meskide meskining ameskining protect i -i ꞌdingi ꞌdingi ꞌdingining aꞌdingining cut, break wizi wizi wizining awizining be fed-up pigi pigi mpigining ampigining defend Singular, plural and communal commands in the stories are shown below. The changes from the incomplete form are shown in bold. Incomplete

Command suffix

Command

xonyo rescue -a Singular A&N 63 Xonya Rescue! sogo make, do T&A 38 Soga Make! wange leave O&A 45 Wanga Leave! bate take, get Nyax 23 Baga Take! wewede walk -i Nyax 42 Wededi Walk! läpede tell Nyax 49 Läpi Tell! koying bring no change Nyax 53 Koying Bring! wede go O&A 30 Wede Go! bokäng remove Pedi 40 Bokäng Remove! uccu stay O&A 28 Uccudi Stay! bene wait for O&A 28 Bende Wait! togodung bring Nyax 11 Tong Bring! lilingicci bend over Nyax 87 Lilingäzi Bend over!

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cata sit O&A 30 Icca Sit! zacca look, see Nyax 60 Za Look! wunodung come Nyax 11 Bo Come! siye eat -a Plural O&A 45 Ziya (You pl) Eat! togada give -i N&A 34 Dogi Give! wede go Nyax 38 Wesi (You pl) Go! wunodung come -ining Nyax 107 Wining (You pl) Come! daye ? go -a Communal A&N 9 Andaya Let us go! saye see A&N 18 Azaya Let us see! wange leave A&N 97 Awanga Let us leave! oyo run -i A&N 96 Anoyi Let us run! nganye sell A&A 6 Anganyi Let us sell! ꞌdoco go -ci A&N 5 Anocci Let us go! axse tie -asa A&A 26 Axsasa Let us tie! wasese ? separate -ining O&A 7 Awasesining Let us separate! ꞌdoco go O&A 7 Nycugo Let us go! Exercise 35 In the following sentences, underline all command verbs. (O&A 7) Nycugo awasesining tä koyinakä Let us disperse for bringing of meat ya ta buguning. to the king. (O&A 28) Uccudi todong bende agä ndä awung. Stay here and wait until I come. (O&A 30) Gining wede ꞌdanyawa ndey Kaccä wung, You go hide yourself so that you pretend to icca ndä kala men. catch Fox, but instead you will catch Donkey. (O&A 32) Nyägäꞌdoc nyaläpe ta Kaccä ka, “Bo icca.” He went and told Donkey, “Come sit.” (O&A 45) Ziya ꞌdog wing, I gom buguning You (pl) just eat the thing, kawungang wanga tagä. after the the king comes, leave (it) for me. (Nyax 11) Bo tong zäginong, anoc abagäs Come bring true speaking, I want to marry uxandäng tägog. a woman for us. (Nyax 23) Na me ngasäwan ngade ka, “Neng ata baga.” Important person said, “Ok, you can take it.” (Nyax 38) Na mesa ngade ka, “Neng wesi bi.” And (her) father said, “Ok, then go.” (Nyax 42) Na nyängade täce ka, And he (husband) asked her, “Wededi ndä awung.” “Continue (onwards), and I will come (later).” (Nyax 49) Ama gisani me panangani todi Hey, there is a guy, the father of my children,

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läpi täma ka mawung. tell him to come. (Nyax 57) Na menggäsa ngadeccä ka, “Baga medenow.” And the fathers said, “Take the babysitter.” (Nyax 60) Za agä, anycus key? Look at me. How do I look? (Nyax 87) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig mid Bend over with your head (down) and täxä caxsägi. we will pour oil into your anus. (Nyax 107) Päxä yanang kaꞌdox tanggo, wining lala. This is a lot of meat for you. Come and see. (A&N 22) Bonog bende agä, oꞌdo todani ndä awung. Friend, wait for me. I will go, then return. (A&N 77) Wesi läpi ta menggo ka kangad ka, Go tell your father, . . . (A&N 97) Nycugo anoyi, awanga Atorndori watäke. Let us run! Leave Fox alone.

Object pronouns In the lesson Pronouns, we learned that object pronouns can take the place of a noun receiving the action of the verb. The following object pronouns can take the place of the object noun op ‘young man’. Object pronouns Kig kasax op. Person refused the young man. Kig kasax agä. Person refused me. Kig kasax gi. Person refused you (sg). Kig kasax ma. Person refused him. Kig kasax ce. Person refused her. Kig kasax nya. Person refused it. Kig kasax was. Person refused us (not you). Kig kasax kog. Person refused us (and you). Kig kasax anggo. Person refused you (pl). Kig kasax sa. Person refused them. In stories, object nouns and pronouns are used to show clear meaning of who is receiving the action. If the meaning is clear without mentioning the object, a verb without either noun or pronoun object can be used. In (T&A 21), the object pronoun anggo ‘you (pl)’ is the family of elephants that Fox is talking with. This pronoun makes it clear this family receives the action of the verb kanox ‘saw’. (T&A 14-15) (Pronoun object)

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E nga mo kalaygädä kax Yes, it seems I am late and kanox anggo song. am not supposed to see you. However in (Pedi 48-49), the meaning is clear without mention of which object receives the actions säpoko ‘they carried (him)’ and sädogada ‘they put (him)’. The object of both of these verbs is the kig ‘person’ who died. (Pedi 48-49) (Object clear without mention) Na kala todi kig äxse säpoko säꞌdocco Then a person died and they carried (him) sädogada täzä telegu and went and put (him) over shelter. In (N&A 13) the same verb poko ‘carry’ as in (Pedi 48-49) has the noun object päxä deny ‘calf’ to make the meaning clear. (N&A 13) (object noun) Na kala apoco kox Nyoxolow poko päxä deny. Then Hare saw Hyena carrying the calf. Possessor pronouns of verbal nouns can be used as object pronouns. In (Nyax 47), the verbal noun bäng ‘calling’ has the possessor pronoun äce ‘her’. The possessed verbal noun bangäce ‘her calling’ has the meaning ‘called her’. (Nyax 47) (Possessor of verb noun used as object pronoun) Na kala nyägäpätäng And then he waited and nyäwede tä bängäce. continued for calling of her. Possessor pronouns are attached to nouns, but object pronouns are separate from verbs (see spelling rule 9). All possible object and subject pronouns are listed below on the incomplete and complete verb ‘refuse’. Object pronouns are separate from verbs ending either in a vowel or consonant. I Incomplete Complete refuse (Type

2) Agä asaxe ꞌdog. Agä kasax ꞌdog. something Agä asaxe gi. Agä kasax gi. you (sg) Agä asaxe ma. Agä kasax ma. him Agä asaxe ce. Agä kasax ce. her Agä asaxe nya. Agä kasax nya. it Agä asaxe anggo. Agä kasax anggo. you (pl) Agä asaxe sa. Agä kasax sa. them You (sg) Gi zaxe ꞌdog. Gi käsax ꞌdog. something Gi zaxe agä. Gi käsax agä. me Gi zaxe ma. Gi käsax ma. him Gi zaxe ce. Gi käsax ce. her Gi zaxe nya. Gi käsax nya. it

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Gi zaxe was. Gi käsax was. us (not you) Gi zaxe sa. Gi käsax sa. them He Ma mäsaxe ꞌdog. Ma masax ꞌdog. something Ma mäsaxe agä. Ma masax agä. me Ma mäsaxe gi. Ma masax gi. you (sg) Ma mäsaxe ma. Ma masax ma. him Ma mäsaxe ce. Ma masax ce. her Ma mäsaxe nya. Ma masax nya. it Ma mäsaxe was. Ma masax was. us (not you) Ma mäsaxe kog. Ma masax kog. us (and you) Ma mäsaxe anggo. Ma masax anggo. you (pl) Ma mäsaxe sa. Ma masax sa. them She Ce cisaxe ꞌdog. Ce casax ꞌdog. something Ce cisaxe agä. Ce casax agä. me Ce cisaxe gi. Ce casax gi. you (sg) Ce cisaxe ma. Ce casax ma. him Ce cisaxe ce. Ce casax ce. her Ce cisaxe nya. Ce casax nya. it Ce cisaxe was. Ce casax was. us (not you) Ce cisaxe kog. Ce casax kog. us (and you) Ce cisaxe anggo. Ce casax anggo. you (pl) Ce cisaxe sa. Ce casax sa. them It Nya nyisaxe ꞌdog. Nya nyasax ꞌdog. something Nya nyisaxe agä. Nya nyasax agä. me Nya nyisaxe gi. Nya nyasax gi. you (sg) Nya nyisaxe ma. Nya nyasax ma. him Nya nyisaxe ce. Nya nyasax ce. her Nya nyisaxe nya. Nya nyasax nya. it Nya nyisaxe was. Nya nyasax was. us (not you) Nya nyisaxe kog. Nya nyasax kog. us (and you) Nya nyisaxe anggo. Nya nyasax anggo. you (pl) Nya nyisaxe sa. Nya nyasax sa. them Us (not you) Was wasaxedig ꞌdog. Was kasaxig ꞌdog. something Was wasaxedig gi. Was kasaxig gi. you (sg) Was wasaxedig ma. Was kasaxig ma. him Was wasaxedig ce. Was kasaxig ce. her Was wasaxedig nya. Was kasaxig nya. it Was wasaxedig anggo. Was kasaxig anggo. you (pl) Was wasaxedig sa. Was kasaxig sa. them Us (and you) Kog saxedig ꞌdog. Kog käsaxig ꞌdog. something

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Kog saxedig ma. Kog käsaxig ma. him Kog saxedig ce. Kog käsaxig ce. her Kog saxedig nya. Kog käsaxig nya. it Kog saxedig sa. Kog käsaxig sa. them You (pl) Anggo zaxadang ꞌdog. Anggo käsaxang ꞌdog. something Anggo zaxadang agä. Anggo käsaxang agä. me Anggo zaxadang ma. Anggo käsaxang ma. him Anggo zaxadang ce. Anggo käsaxang ce. her Anggo zaxadang nya. Anggo käsaxang nya. it Anggo zaxadang was. Anggo käsaxang was. us (not you) Anggo zaxadang sa. Anggo käsaxang sa. them They Sa säsaxe ꞌdog. Sa sasax ꞌdog. something Sa säsaxe agä. Sa sasax agä. me Sa säsaxe gi. Sa sasax gi. you (sg) Sa säsaxe ma. Sa sasax ma. him Sa säsaxe ce. Sa sasax ce. her Sa säsaxe nya. Sa sasax nya. it Sa säsaxe was. Sa sasax was. us (not you) Sa säsaxe kog. Sa sasax kog. us (and you) Sa säsaxe anggo. Sa sasax anggo. you (pl) Sa säsaxe sa. Sa sasax sa. them Exercise 36 In the following sentences, underline all object pronouns. (O&A 13-14) Na Osox kasäx kängaw nya, And the Lion jumped and caught him, (Nyax 28) Na ce cägox ma. And she saw him. (Nyax 82-83) Na nyawung nyämaŋe ce ka, And he (hyena) came and asked her (girl), “Oxadi wadi ngedenang?” “Why are you crying?” (A&N 16-17) Ndey pokusig ndakä letugu deny So that we can carry it so that owners of cow wuno ꞌdoxung kog todongang. will not arrive and find us here. (A&N 22) Bonog bende agä. Friend, wait for me. (A&N 63) Waa waa waa buguning, xonya was Oh king, rescue us xa zäg kabag ya käꞌday kasiy. because the soil has taken all meat and eaten (it). (T&A 21) Sagoying anggo tä siyakä ota tä kaxsed? They brought you to see the forest? (T&A 26)

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I oda wede ndä kadarjange gi Will the storm come and attack you na pipuwang? and your children? (A&A 2) Säguccu tä pana nuxu käꞌdaygäsa na They lived in one house and xas kawung kapax sa. hunger went and killed them.

Continuous verbs A continuous verb shows the action happens through time. A continuous verb has the suffix –ccä, -cca, -cce, or some other suffix with –cc-. The continuous suffix only attaches to incomplete verbs and not to complete verbs. A continous suffix can attach to either transitive verbs (which can have an object) or intransitive verbs (which cannot have an object). However, when the continuous suffix is attached to a transitive verb, it cannot have an object. In (N&A 30), the continuous verb iyeccä ‘giving birth’ has the suffix –ccä. It shows the action happens regularly as if by habit. (N&A 30) (Habitual) Ama, anya apanginy iyeccä? Hey, how are men giving birth? In (T&A 18), the continuous verb wameleccig ‘we will be returning’ has the suffix –cc- and is used for a future action that will happen after the time of speaking. (T&A 18) (Future) Neng kala kanyänggädig, wameleccig tä pa. When we have checked (forest for food), we

will be returning home. In (Nyax 115), the continuous verb sädagacca ‘chopping’ has the suffix –cca and is used for an action that happened in the past before the telling of the story. (Nyax 115) (Past) Na kala sadelese tä dag sädagacca. They (tried to) make (tree) fall by chopping (it). The verb dag ‘chop’ often has an object receiving the action. But in (Nyax 115), the continuous suffix takes the place of the object koxic ‘coconut tree’ and no object is allowed. The continuous suffix is only on incomplete verbs. It does not attach to complete verbs. Below, the continous verb forms for all subject pronouns are shown on the verbs ꞌdanye ‘hide’ and lawe ‘scream’. Incomplete Incomplete hiding [check all] screaming Kig ꞌdanyeccä Kig lawacca Person agä aꞌdanyeccä agä alawacca I

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gi ꞌdanyeccä gi lawacca you (sg) ma mäꞌdanyeccä ma mälawacca he ce cäꞌdanyeccä ce cälawacca she nya nyäꞌdanyeccä nya nyälawacca it was waꞌdanyeccig was walaweccig we (not you) kog ꞌdanyeccig kog laweccig we (and you) anggo ꞌdanyeccang anggo lawaccang you (pl) sa säꞌdanyeccä sa sälawacca they Continuous verbs can have the suffix -acca, –ecca, –eccä, -ucci, or –icci. The continuous suffix depends on the verb root vowel. Continuous verbs Root Root Cont. Incomplete Continuous vowel consonant suff. o st -acca ꞌdosto ꞌdog ꞌdostacca pull l bolo ꞌdog bolacca make g togo ꞌdog togacca carve k poko ꞌdog pokacca carry ꞌd xoꞌdo ꞌdog xoꞌdacca smear d codo ꞌdog codacca wrestle t soto ꞌdog sotacca transfer p copo ꞌdog copacca look at a t -ecca bate ꞌdog batacca get, take y ꞌdaye ꞌdog ꞌdayacca wash xs -acca yaxse ꞌdog yaxsacca send w gawe ꞌdog gawacca throw m nyame ꞌdog nyamacca check ä d -acca ꞌdädo ꞌdog ꞌdädacca pull apart b gäbo ꞌdog gäbacca bury u r -ucci duru ꞌdog durucci gather x buxu ꞌdog buxucci roast e sk -ecce meske ꞌdog meskecce protect n bene ꞌdog benecce wait for s pese ꞌdog pesecce talk k zeke ꞌdog zekecce block i ng -icci ꞌdingi ꞌdog ꞌdingicci break z wizi ꞌdog wizicci be fed-up with g pigi ꞌdog pigicci defend Continuous verbs in stories are shown below. Continuous verbs Root Cont. Incomplete Vowel Suffix Continuous ngade say a -eccä O&A 42 ngadeccä saying

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pase meet Nyax 91 säpaseccä they meeting wanye play A&N 75 wanyeccä playing wede go e Nyax 41 säwedeccä they going nge cry Nyax 81 sängeccä they crying iye produce Pedi 5 iyeccä yielding, delievering bange call a -cca Nyax 48 cäbangacca she calling dage cut Nyax 114 sädagacca they cutting waye cultivate Pedi 5 wacca cultivating lawzi scream AKT 31 lawacca screaming nyame check a -cce Nyax 111 sänyamecce they checking mäne ask O&A 47 mänecce asking mene care e Nyax 53 menecce caring meske care for N&A 5 meskecce caring for Subject person suffixes such as –ig ‘we’ and the identify suffix -ng attach after the continuous suffix. Incomplete Continuous Other suffixes wede go T&A 11 wawedeccig we (not you) going legide ? remain A&N 8 Kälaygädiccig we (and you) remaining mele return T&A 13 wameleccig we (not you) returning ngade say T&A 49 ngadaccang who is saying identifying Exercise 37 In the following sentences, underline all continuous suffixes. (O&A 42) Kala oxayda ngadeccä ka, . . . So the animals were saying, (Nyax 4) Na nyämänecce ka He was asking sagalong paye yoxa key. this girl what kind of husband she wanted. (Nyax 41) Kala säwedeccä mänang, Then going along like this, kala de sapara täxande. they later arrived at a great distance. (Nyax 51) Na ce cägämolaswa napäl. And she prepared herself quietly. Then they Kala säwedeccä mänang kala sapara pa. were going like this until they reached home. (Nyax 53) Wede tä pa koying nuxu päxäsko tagä Go to (my family’s) house and bring our only ndey menecce tagä. child to me so that he may be caring for me. (Nyax 57-58) Na menggäsa ngadeccä ka, “Baga mededow.” And fathers were saying, “Take babysitter.” Na mabag päxä pipi kala säwedeccä And he took the babysitter and was continuing sawuno tä ikä colonggo. and came to a river bank. (Nyax 65)

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Kala mägämel tä pa maläpe So he returned to home and requested and na nycoki ngadeccä ka, “E käxiyandi?” people were saying, “Where is that person?” (Nyax 81) Ndä kala läge lägo ndä sängeccä. Then there was smoke and they were crying. (Nyax 91) Kala samen akä sog säwedeccä mänang So, they began walking on the way kala säpaseccä na me kaläg. until they were meeting a witchdoctor. (A&N 8) Kälaygädiccig kax käꞌdoxig ya käsiyig song. We were remaining, did not find meat to eat. (A&N 75) Wenyeccä na penggänya They were playing with his (Foxꞌs) children na nyäwede nyäꞌdoxong towa. and he came and found (them) inside. (T&A 6) Na säwedeccä na penggänya. And they were going with his children. (T&A 8) Ndä säꞌdayining na kala samen sog And they washed and then säwedeccä säꞌdocco tä pa. they began going and went home. (T&A 48) Na tumos käleza na kawung mänecce ka, Elephant appeared and came and was asking, (Pedi 4-5) Boxuxeneni nyandäng tänya cabäri watäke That grandmother lived in mountain alone na päxä atäne ndä wacca tidi song with grandchild, and were cultivating sweet wegke iyeccä pacce tidi song. crops that were producing sweet (crops). (N&A 5) Apocong meskecce tolang, Hare was caring for (her) everyday, i Nyoxolow meskecce song. Hyena was not caring for (her). (AKT 30-31) Na kala Atorndori kalay todi lawacca mänang then Fox remained there screaming like that.

Future (irrealis)

Future verbs show the action happens after the time of speaking or may happen at some time (irrealis). They are a special kind of incomplete verb. They can have the suffixes –ada, -udi, -ede, or -idi, depending on the last root consonant. In (Pedi 2-3), the future suffix –ada on noxsi ‘raise’ shows it is possible for this verb to happen. (Pedi 2-3) (Possible) Tanda tawiny tä cabärä Caning boxuxeneni To the West of the mountain of Caning, that nyadoga ligid täng kala grandmother there it gave a spirit Kaläg mänang noxsada kän tä xäs. like God so as to raise people from the dead. The future suffix is only on incomplete verbs and never on complete verbs. Below, the future verb forms for all subject pronouns are shown on the verbs ꞌdanye ‘hide’.

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Future hide Kig ꞌdanyada ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä aꞌdanyada I gi ꞌdanyada you (sg) ma mäꞌdanyada he ce cäꞌdanyada she nya nyäꞌdanyada it was waꞌdanyadig we (not you) kog ꞌdanyadig we (and you) anggo ꞌdanyadang you (pl) sa säꞌdanyada they Future verbs can have the suffix -ada, -udi, -ede, or -idi, depending on the last root consonant. Future verbs Root Root Future Incomplete Future vowel consonant suffix o st -ada ꞌdosto ꞌdoskada pull l bolo bolada make g togo togada carve k poko pokada carry ꞌd xoꞌdo xoꞌdada smear d codo codada wrestle t soto sotkada transfer p copo copada look at a t -ada bate bate get, take y ꞌdaye ꞌdayada wash xs yaxse yaxsada send w gawe gawada throw m nyame nyamada check ä d ꞌdädo ꞌdädada pull apart b gäbo gäbada bury u r -udi duru durudi gather x buxu buxudi roast e sk -ede meske meskede protect n bene benede wait for s pese pesede talk k zeke zekede block i ng -idi ꞌdingi ꞌdingidi break z wizi wizidi be fed-up with g pigi pigidi defend

The following are future verbs found in stories. Incomp. wede walk e -de Nyax 17 wedede walks mele return Pedi 26 melede return

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wutu ? tie u A&A 7 wawutäde we tie oxo see o -da A&A 15 oxada see noxsi raise Pedi 3 noxsada raise Exercise 38 In the following sentences, underline all future suffixes. (Nyax 17) Nyabag kalanyä wedede sägäpase na He took it and went and they met a person me agäwan, with old eyes, (A&A 7) Anocci awutäde zigä nganggonag. Let’s go tie rope on our mothers. (A&A 14-15) Na kala Alkadis kasay onge Then Cat looked back oxada bo Apoconag pete and saw the mother of Hare running (Pedi 2-3) Tanda tawiny tä cabärä Caning boxuxeneni To the West of the mountain of Caning, that nyadoga ligid täng kala grandmother there it gave a spirit Kaläg mänang noxsada kän tä xäs. like God so as to raise people from the dead. (Pedi 26) Mände känggi täbanganang bate nya People who follow will take the fish axsicci ndä melede täng. itself and return (it).

Repeating (pluralactional) verbs A repeating verb shows an action happens more than once or continues a long time. It can also emphasize the subject is more than one person, or can emphasize the object receiving the action is more than one. [check this]. Repeating suffixes include –d-. They can be on incomplete or complete verbs. They can be on transitive verbs or on intransitive verbs. In (Nyax 20), the repeating suffix –de on wedede ‘walk, go’ shows this action happened more than once, or continued a long time. (Nyax 20) (Repeated action) Na nyäwedede nyäꞌdoxo me ngasäwan. He walked and walked and found an important person. In (A&N 15), the repeating suffix –d- on ꞌdoxodig ‘we find’ may draw attention to or emphasize that there is more than one person doing this action (‘we’). (A&N 15) (Emphasizing plural subject) Bonog, kala kendäsig ndä ꞌdoxodig mas? When we finish skinning, where will we find fire? In (N&A 21), the repeating suffix –dä on mägäyawudu ‘he collected’ may draw attention to or emphasize that there are plural objects receiving this action (satu ‘calabashes’ and kobony

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‘gourds’). (N&A 21) (Emphasizing plural object) Na mägäyawudu satu na kobony. And he collected calabashes and gourds. Repeating suffixes can attach to both incomplete, future and complete verbs. Below, the repeating verb forms for all subject pronouns are shown on the verb ꞌdanye ‘hide’. Incomplete Future Complete hide (repeating) Kig ꞌdanydä ꞌdog Kig ꞌdanydada ꞌdog Kig kaꞌdanydä ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä aꞌdanydä agä aꞌdanydada agä kaꞌdanydä I gi ꞌdanydä gi ꞌdanydada gi käꞌdanydä you (sg) ma mäꞌdanydä ma mäꞌdanydada ma maꞌdanydä he ce cäꞌdanydä ce cäꞌdanydada ce caꞌdanydä she nya nyäꞌdanydä nya nyäꞌdanydada nya nyaꞌdanydä it was waꞌdanydig was waꞌdanydedig was kaꞌdanydig we (not you) kog ꞌdanydig kog ꞌdanydedig kog käꞌdanydig we (and you) anggo ꞌdanydang anggo ꞌdanydadang anggo käꞌdanydang you (pl) sa säꞌdanydä sa säꞌdanydada sa saꞌdanydä they Other suffixes come after a repeating suffix. Below, the repeating suffix –edä- and identity suffix -ng are shown on the verb lawe ‘scream’ for all subject pronouns. a Incomplete Complete scream (repeating, identifying ?) Kig lawedäng ꞌdog Kig kälawdäng ꞌdog Person . . . thing agä alawedäng agä kalawdäng I gi lawedäng gi kälawdäng you (sg) ma mälawedäng ma mägälawdäng he ce cälawedäng ce cägälawdäng she nya nyälawedäng nya nyägälawdäng it was walawedänig was wagälawdänig we (not you) kog lawedänig kog kälawdäning we (and you) anggo lawedänang anggo kälawdänang you (pl) sa sälawedäng sa sägälawdäng they Repeating verbs can have the suffixes –dä, -tä, -adä, -tädä, -kädä or another suffix. The repeating suffix often depends on the last root consonant. Future verbs (non-repeating) are also shown for comparison. Root Root Repeat. Incomplete Repeating Future consonant vowel suffix Incomplete (non-repeating) l o -dä bolo ꞌdog boldu ꞌdog bolada ꞌdog make y a ꞌdaye ꞌdog ꞌdaydä ꞌdog ꞌdayada ꞌdog wash m nyame ꞌdog nyamdä ꞌdog nyamada ꞌdog check w gawe ꞌdog gawdä ꞌdog gawada ꞌdog throw w lawe lawdä scream

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n sane sandä sanada fly, jump b ä gäbo ꞌdog gäbdä ꞌdog gäbada ꞌdog bury n e bene ꞌdog bendä ꞌdog benede ꞌdog wait for ng i ꞌdingi ꞌdog ꞌdingdä ꞌdog ꞌdingidi ꞌdog cut, break g o -tä togo ꞌdog toktu ꞌdog togada ꞌdog carve p copo ꞌdog coptu ꞌdog copada ꞌdog look at x u buxu ꞌdog buxtu ꞌdog buxudi ꞌdog roast s e pese ꞌdog pestä ꞌdog pesede ꞌdog talk g i pigi ꞌdog pitä ꞌdog pigidi ꞌdog defend k o -ädä poko ꞌdog pokudu ꞌdog pokada ꞌdog carry st ꞌdosto ꞌdog ꞌdoskudu ꞌdog ꞌdoskada ꞌdog pull k e zeke ꞌdog zekädä ꞌdog zekede ꞌdog block sk meske ꞌdog meskädä ꞌdog meskede ꞌdog protect z i wizi ꞌdog wizädä ꞌdog wizidi ꞌdog be fed-up with xs a yaxse ꞌdog yaxsädä ꞌdog yaxsada ꞌdog send y a -ada maya mayada mayada be satisfied ꞌd o -edä xoꞌdo ꞌdog xoꞌdedä ꞌdog xoꞌdada ꞌdog smear t o -kädä soto ꞌdog sokudu ꞌdog sotkada ꞌdog transfer t a bate ꞌdog bakädä ꞌdog bate ꞌdog get, take t e pete pekädä pekede run d ä -tädä ꞌdädo ꞌdog ꞌdätädä ꞌdog ꞌdädada ꞌdog pull apart d o codo ꞌdog cotudu ꞌdog codada ꞌdog wrestle As stated in spelling rule 12, the suffixes -dä, -tä –ädä become –du, -tu, -udu following vowel o or u. Spelling Rule 12 (page ): When a suffix beginning with –ä is joined to a word with last vowel o or u, the suffix vowel changes to –u.

Verb suffix -dä, ꞌdaye wash ꞌdaydä wash (rep) bolo make boldu make (rep) -tä, pese talk pestä talk (rep) copo look at coptu look at (rep) -ädä meske protect meskädä protect (rep) poko carry pokudu carry (rep) The following are repeating verbs found in stories. Root Repet Verb Vowel Suffix Repeating verb Incom. ꞌdäto ? cut ä -dä A&N 62 ꞌdätädä they cut nyägate fear a -d- O&A 44 nyägatadang you (pl) fear oxo see o A&N 83 noxadang you (pl) see colo pour Nyax 87 wacolodunig we (not you) pour ꞌdoxo find A&N 15 ꞌdoxodig we find (and you) nge cry e Nyax 83 ngedenang you (pl) cry päse fill ä Pedi 24 päsetig we (and you) will fill Compl kalaygä ? be late a -dä T&A 14 kalaygädä I was late

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käyaw collect N&A 21 mägäyawudu he collected kanyänggä ? check ä -d- T&A13 kanyänggädig we (not you) checked Other suffixes follow repeating suffixes, as shown below. Other suffixes following repeating suffixes Repeating Other suf. Command wede walk Nyax 42 wededi Walk! command Complete kamän asked Nyax 71 nyämändäs it asked (someone) applicative kasan jumped Nyax 118 sasandasatäng they jumped away kaxsä tied A&A 27 kaxsädasa tied away kasay claim Nyax 6 nyägäsaydawa it claimed reflexive Incomplete paye want A&N 94 mpayadangang if you (pl) want identifying laxäng pass by Pedi 15 laxetäsäng pass away, ident. laxäng pass by N&A 26 mälaxetäng pass by identifying pirtidä ? shake Nyax 112 pirtidining they shake reciprocal Exercise 39 In the following sentences, underline all repeating suffixes. (O&A 44) Neng, nyägatadang buguning? Ok, are you (pl) fearing the king? (Nyax 6) Ndä ganang key na nyägäsaydawa If it is like this, he claims he sees badly. nyoxo nyädas. (Nyax 42) Wededi ndä awung. Continue (onwards), and I will come (later). (Nyax 71) Na nyamän, kala mäneki And he asked and nyämändäs nganakanang. asked the elder sisters. (Nyax 83) Oxadi wadi ngedenang? Why are you (pl) crying? (Nyax 87) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig Bend over with your head (down) and mid taxä caxsägi. we will pour oil into your anus. (Nyax 113) Na nyoxo ligitigä weg pirtidining. And he saw shadows of things shaking. (Nyax 117-118) Na koyo pacce kawuno kaꞌdox sa And they ran fast and came and na kaꞌdoxung Nyaxolowiny, found them and found hyenas with them, na sasandasatäng sacotädä kapax käꞌday. and jumped on and overturned, killed all. (A&N 8) Kälaygädiccig kax käꞌdoxig ya käsiyig song. We remained but did not find meat to eat. (A&N 84) Noxadang päxä yanäsko song, You (pl) see, there is not a lot of our meat.

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(A&N 94) I mpayadangang, owgadas anggo tä panäma. If you want, I will escort you to his home. (T&A 6) Na säwedeccä na penggänya And they went with his children nyäꞌdingidi ewetäng siye. and he cut down trees to eat. (T&A 13) Neng kala kanyänggädig, When we have checked (forest for food), wameleccig tä pa. we go home. (Pedi 23) Boxu uxong, edekeny, Old woman, tomorrow edekeny wunodung todong päsetig lang täng. will will come here and fill the basket here.

Reflexive verbs Reflexive7 verbs show the subject that does the action also receives the action. The reflexive suffix is always –wa. It can be on either incomplete or complete verbs, but only on transitive verbs. In (Nyax 24), the suffix –wa shows Nyoxolow ‘Hyena’ does the action nyäkädelwa ‘decorate’ to himself. (Nyax 24) (Subject and object are the same person) Na nyabag kala nyägädelwa seley. Like this he took and decorated himself. The reflexive suffix can make a verb have a new meaning. In (N&A 25-26), the reflexive verb mäsogowa literally means ‘he made himself’. But this has become the new meaning ‘he pretended’. (N&A 25-26) (New meaning) Na kala manid mägaleza mäwuꞌdate Then he appeared as in a hurry, mäsogowa ka mälaxetäng. he pretended to pass by. Reflexive suffixes can attach to incomplete and complete verbs. Below, the reflexive verb forms for all subject pronouns are shown on the verb ꞌdanye ‘hide’ for incomplete, future and complete. Incomplete Future Complete hide (reflexive) Kig ꞌdanyuwa Kig ꞌdanyewa Kig kaꞌdanyuwa Person . . . self. agä aꞌdanyuwa agä aꞌdanyewa agä kaꞌdanyuwa I gi ꞌdanyuwa gi ꞌdanyewa gi käꞌdanyuwa you (sg) ma mäꞌdanyuwa ma mäꞌdanyewa ma maꞌdanyuwa he 7 See analysis of Boyeldieu, Pascal (2009) in Afrika und Übersee, 90:9-84 which agrees with the data in the stories

of this book.

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ce cäꞌdanyuwa ce cäꞌdanyewa ce caꞌdanyuwa she nya nyäꞌdanyuwa nya nyäꞌdanyewa nya nyaꞌdanyuwa it was waꞌdanyänig was waꞌdanyenig was kaꞌdanyänig we (not you) kog ꞌdanyänig kog ꞌdanyenig kog käꞌdanyänig we (and you) anggo ꞌdanyäning anggo ꞌdanyenang anggo käꞌdanyänang you (pl) sa säꞌdanyäno sa säꞌdanyeno (?) sa saꞌdanyäno they The repeating suffix –da attaches before the reflexive suffix –wa in the verb below. a Incomplete Complete hide (reflexive, repeating) Kig ꞌdanydawa Kig kaꞌdanydawa Person . . . self. agä aꞌdanydawa agä kaꞌdanydawa I gi ꞌdanydawa gi käꞌdanydawa you (sg) ma mäꞌdanydawa ma maꞌdanydawa he ce cäꞌdanydawa ce caꞌdanydawa she nya nyäꞌdanydawa nya nyaꞌdanydawa it was waꞌdanydänig was kaꞌdanydänig we (not you) kog ꞌdanydänig kog käꞌdanydänig we (and you) anggo ꞌdanydänang anggo käꞌdanydänang you (pl) sa säꞌdanydäning sa saꞌdanydäning they Singular and plural subjects have different reflexive suffixes. In (1) the singular subject reflexive suffix is –wa and in (2) the plural subject reflexive suffix is –äno. Singular subject (1) ꞌDog ꞌdanyewa. Thing is hid. Plural subject (2) Weg säꞌdanyäno. Things are hid. Below, the singular and plural subject reflexive verbs can take the place of ꞌdanyewa and säꞌdanyäno in (1) and (2) above. (1) Singular (2) Plural Root Last subject reflexive subject relfexive vowel cons. Incomplete Incomplete Incomplete o st ꞌdosto ꞌdog ꞌdostowa ꞌdostuno pull l bolo ꞌdog bolowa boluno make g togo ꞌdog togowa toguno carve k poko ꞌdog pokowa pokuno carry ꞌd xoꞌdo ꞌdog xoꞌdowa xoꞌdeyno smear d codo ꞌdog codowa coduno wrestle t soto ꞌdog sotowa sokuduno transfer p copo ꞌdog copowa copuno look at a t bate ꞌdog batewa bagäno get, take xs yaxse ꞌdog yaxsewa yaxsänso send y ꞌdaye ꞌdog ꞌdayewa ꞌdayäno wash w gawe ꞌdog gawewa gawäno throw

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m nyame ꞌdog nyamewa nyamäno check ä d ꞌdädo ꞌdog ꞌdädowa ꞌdädäno pull apart b gäbo ꞌdog gäbowa gäbäno bury u r duru ꞌdog duruwa duruno gather x buxu ꞌdog buxuwa buxuno roast e sk meske ꞌdog meskewa meskäno protect n bene ꞌdog benewa benäno wait for s pese ꞌdog pesewa pesäno talk k zeke ꞌdog zekewa zekäno block i ng ꞌdingi ꞌdog ꞌdingiwa ꞌdingäno break z wizi ꞌdog wiziwa wizäno be fed-up with g pigi ꞌdog pigiwa pigäno defend a w lawe lawewa lawdäno scream Reflexive verbs found in the stories are shown below. Verb Reflexive verb Oth. suf. Command ꞌdanya hide O&A 30 ꞌdanyawa hide yourself! soga make, do AKT 16 sogawa pretend! Incomplete pele finish (tr) Pedi 8 pelewa you be finish sogo make, do N&A 26 mäsogowa he pretended sogo make, do T&A 25 sogowang it happens leye refuses N&A 24 leyewa he refuses meske protect T&A 32 ameskewang I protect (her) identify. Complete kaꞌdany hid O&A 31 kaꞌdanywa he hide himself kabag took Nyax 2 kabatwa he looked nice kasayda claim, see Nyax 6 nyägäsaydawa he claims himself molas ? Nyax 51 cägämolaswa she prepared herself kaley refused N&A 9 kaleywa he refued kasog make, do A&N 27 kasogwang it happened identify. Exercise 40 In the following sentences, underline all relfexive verb suffixes. (O&A30-31) “Gining wede ꞌdanyawa ndey “You go hide yourself so that you pretend Kaccä wung, icca ndä kala men.” to catch Fox, but instead you catch Donkey.” Kala buguning käꞌdoc kaꞌdanywa. So, the king went and hide himself. (O&A 38) I nya Atorndori tetex nyägäꞌdoc And Fox himself quickly went nyaꞌdanywa. and hid himself. (Nyax 1-2) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila Long ago, was girl who refused to marry unless ka paye yoxa caxse kabatwa. she found a handsome husband looked nice. (Nyax 5)

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Na säläpeda tänya ka sagaleneni, And they said to him she is a girl that paye yoxa caxse kabatwa. wants a handsome husband looked nice. (Nyax 6) Ndä ganang key na nyägäsaydawa, If like this, he claims himself nyoxo nyädas. he sees badly. (Nyax 51) Na ce cägämolaswa napäl. And she remained quiet. (A&N 27) Anya, oxadi kasogwang? Why, what happened? (T&A 25-26) Buguning ngade ka, The king said, “Oxadiyang sogowang?” “What is happening?” (T&A 32) Uxong wede na exengge pätaxakang This woman will go with two legs nyang sogoka ameskewang. and I protect (her). (Pedi 7-8) Nya abisoloni nuxung sadogung täging, If only sweet sorghum was given to you, you would ziye ndä pelewa song na mayanäs. eat and not be able to finish and be satisfied. (N&A 9) Nyoxolow kaleywa. Hyena refused. (N&A 24) Nyoxolow käcoxäwa ka sälege ngaki, Hyena was in a hurry to discuss that issue, ndä Osox leyewa. but Lion refused (to listen). (AKT 16) Ka nox Tumos kawungang, If you see Elephant come, sogawa ka käsängga ndey axony gi. pretend to sleep and I will save you.

Verbal nouns Verbal nouns are verbs that are used as nouns. They can be introduced by prepositions, be possessed, be the object of a verb, or be used in other ways as nouns. Many verbal nouns only have a plural form which takes plural suffixes, but a few have only a singular form or both a singular and plural form. The most common singular verbal noun suffix is –ic. Many plural verbal nouns have the suffix –ad, ed, -id or -d, but some are without any suffix, and are the same as the verb root. In (T&A 6-7), the verb wuxi ‘drinks’ has the suffix –id. It is used as the noun wuxid ‘drinking’ being introduced by the preposition tä ‘for’. (T&A 6-7) (Introduced by preposition) Na säwedeccä na penggänya nyäꞌdingidi They went with children and he cut down trees ewetäng siye i säwedetäse tä luku tä wuxid. to eat while they went to pond for drinking.

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In (T&A 27), the verbal noun tarjanged ‘attacking’ has the possessor pronoun –kang ‘my’. (T&A 27) (Possessed) Layis xäng seley wede tarjangekang? Who remains to attack me (lit. my attacking)? In (Nyax 1), the verbal noun batad ‘marriage’ is an object that receives the action saxe ‘refused’. (Nyax 1) (Object) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad. Long ago, there was girl who refused marriage. Singular verbal noun (1) Kig wede tä codic. Person went for wrestling. Plural verbal noun (2) Kig wede tä codad. Person went for wrestlings. The verbal nouns below can take the place of codic in (1) or codad in (2). Incomplete Singular verbal noun Plural verbal noun o ꞌdosto pull ꞌdostad pulling bolo make bolic bol making togo carve togic carving poko carry pokad carrying xoꞌdo smear xoꞌde smearing codo wrestle codic codad wrestling soto transfer sotic sotad transferring oxo see oxad seeing togo carve togad carving xonyo rescue xonyad rescuing ꞌdoco move, go ꞌdoc moving, going copo look at copic cop looking at xoꞌdo smear xoꞌde smearing a bate get, marry batad getting, marriage yaxse send yaxsic sending ꞌdaye wash ꞌdayad washing cata sit cad sitting maya be satisfied mayad being satisfied sane fly sanad flying saxe refuse saxad refusing rake surround rakad surrounding sane fly, jump sanad flying, jumping wange leaving wangad leaving ꞌdanye hide ꞌdanyad hiding ngade speak ngad, ngadad speaking gawe throw gaw throwing lawe scream law screaming

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nyame check nyamic nyam checking dänge hear däng hearing axse tying axäs tying ä ꞌdädo pull apart ꞌdädad pulling apart käre think käred thinking äxse die xäs dying, death zäbe plant zäb planting gäbo bury gäb burying e meske protect megis, mesked protecting bene wait ben waiting iyex know yexic yex knowing, meaning pese talk pesed talking pete run pecig, peted running zeke block zekic zeked blocking enge skin enged skinning teye create teyed creating zeke block zeked blocking mesede loose mes loosing i ꞌdingi break ꞌdingic ꞌdingid breaking wizi be fed-up wizic wizid being fed-up piri be surprised pirid surprising pigi defend pigic pigid defending u luw cut luwid cutting, circumcision uccu stay cud staying buxu roast bux, buxid roasting, wine, beer duru gather duric dur gathering The plural verbal noun suffix often depends on the verb root vowel. The suffix –ad is often on plural verbal nouns with root vowels o and a. The suffix –ed is often on verbal nouns with root vowel ä and e. The suffix –id is often on verbal nouns with root vowel i or u. The suffix –d is often on verbal nouns with a vowel as the last root letter (such as cud ‘staying’ from uccu ‘stay’). Plural verbal nouns in the stories are shown below. Incomplete Plural verb verbal noun bate take, marry Nyax 1 batad marriage mene catch, take Nyax 66 mened carrying enge skin A&N 14 enged skinning codo wrestle A&N 78 codad wrestling pogo fight A&N 88 pogud fighting wuxi drink T&A 7 wuxid drinking megäso ? care for N&A 8 megäs caring for cata sit O&A 23 cad sitting mene catch, take O&A 30 men catching

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nyame check Nyax 110 nyam checking dage chop Nyax 115 dag chopping lage hunt A&N 5 lag hunting Plural verbal nouns in the stories with other suffixes are shown below. Incomplete Verbal Verbal noun verb noun with plural suffix colo serve colad N&A 29 colake that serving bokada bring botad AKT 19 botakä ganygänya bringing his weapon bate take, marry batad Nyax int batakä Nyoxolow marriage of Hyena siye eat siyad A&N 71 siyakä kängga eating of people koying bring koyinad T&A 12 koyinakä nycokong escorting of people mäne ask mäned Nyax 71 mäneki asking which käre think käred A&N 23 kärekä ngakä thinking of matter tarjange attch tarjanged T&A 27 tarjangekang my attacking wuxi drink wuxid AKT 2 wuxikä ma drinking of water nge cry, wail nged A&N 95 ngekänya his crying ngade say ngad T&A 30 ngakä uxong word of this wife dänge listen däng O&A 2 dänggä ꞌdogi listening of thing ꞌdase ? be like ꞌdas T&A 34 ꞌdaskandang there is be like ꞌdoco go ꞌdoc Pedi 15 ꞌdockusa their going Singular verbal nouns in the stories are shown below. Incomplete Verbal Verbal noun verb noun with singular suffix bange call, follow bang O&A 15 bangänya his calling axe ? fish ax Pedi 12 axä as fishing of fish bene wait ben ? AKT 12 bendänya his waiting Exercise 41 In the following sentences, underline all verbal nouns. (O&A 1) Osox kabandä oxayda kawuno käꞌday Lion called the animals to all dänge ngakänya täng. come hear his message there. (O&A 2) Na oxayda kawuno tä dänggä ꞌdogi nyäpaye And the animals came for listening of thing that nyängetang. it wanted them to hear. (O&A 15) Atorndori käꞌdoc tä bangänya mände. Fox went for his calling (to call him) again. (O&A 23-25) Kala noxo ganang ꞌdoga zeke gi tä cad If you see now the thing of covering you for wundung. sitting is absent.

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(Nyax 66) Käxi kalayis sagal saxe mened, She became an older girl and refused to babysit. (Nyax 71) Sawuno tä colonggo, na nyamän kala They came to the river, and he asked and began mäneki nyämandäs nganakanang. asking which to ask the elder sister. (A&N 13-14) (lit. refused caring) Na sägärakä samen sapax And they surrounded and killed (cow) na sägendä sägäꞌdese and completely removed engeke na kala sägäccasäng. the skin and then sat down. (A&N 78) Edekeny, mägoying anggo tä codad. Tomorrow, he brings you to wrestling. (A&N 87-88) Na nyabag penggänya And he took his children nyäꞌdocconang tä pogud ta Atorndori. and went for fighting with Fox. (A&N 95) Kala Nyoxolow kädäng ngekänya, Then Hyena hear its crying, na ngade ta pengge ka, . . . and said to (its) children, (T&A 12) Kampätäng tä koyinakä nycokong tä I come for the escorting of these people for siyakä ota tä pumpung. eating of places in bush. (T&A 29-30) Agänang, ngakang layis ngakä uxong. I am the one, my word remains word of wife. (T&A 34) Neng gang käxa wede näs me kudura Ok, now is a person that walks a person ka ꞌdaskandang säxong? not be strong like that (to pull someone). (T&A 51) I no ꞌdogu wuxikä tabanänyanani. There seems to be thing of smoking of tobacco. (Pedi 12) Na kala Caning käꞌdocco tä axä as. So the Caning went for catching fish. (AKT 12) Mände ka gi danye, ka bendänya tä igä gol Also, if you are brave, you will wait for him tä ka nyäwung tägi. at the water well for him to come to you.

Passive In Caning, the prefix sa- ‘they’ on transitive verbs with an object before the verb can have a general meaning of ‘some people’. When this subject prefix has this meaning, it is as if the verb is done by an unmentioned subject, which is like a passive verb in other languages. In (Pedi 7-8), the subject prefix sa- ‘they’ on sadogung ‘they give’ are unmentioned people. This action is done to the object abisoloni ‘sorghum’ which comes before the verb sadogung. (Pedi 7-8) Nya abisoloni nuxung sadogung täging, If only sweet sorghum was given to you, you would

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ziye ndä pelewa song na mayanäs. eat and not be able to finish and be satisfied.

Applicative Applicative verbs are used to show the benefit, tool or cause of an action. [check this]. In (Nyax 11), the applicative suffix -äs shows the action abage ux ‘I marry a woman’ is done for the benefit of tägog ‘us’. When Hyena has a wife, she will cook food for all the other hyenas. (Nyax 11) (Benefit) Bo tong zäginong anoc abagäs Speak truthfully, I want to marry uxandäng tägog. a woman for us. In (Nyax 79-80), the applicative suffix –äs on cädoxo ‘she lights’ shows that the woman used the kogolge ‘peels’ as a tool to light the mas ‘fire’. (Nyax 79-80) (Tool) Na kala cabag enggä soc sägel, Then she (wife) took fruit and peeled (it), ndä cäbag kogolge cädoxus mas. and took the peels and lit a fire. In (A&A 18), the applicative suffix -äs on kangany ‘sold’ changes the meaning to ‘bought’. Cat causes someone to sell him food which is the same meaning as ‘to buy food’. (A&A 18) (Causative) Na kala Alkadis käꞌdocco kangany bona Then Cat sold his mother kanganyäs siyad. and bought food. Applicative suffixes can attach to both incomplete and complete verbs. a Incomplete Complete hide (benefit) Kig ꞌdanyäs ꞌdog Kig kaꞌdanyäs ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä aꞌdanyäs agä kaꞌdanyäs I gi ꞌdanyäs gi käꞌdanyäs you (sg) ma mäꞌdanyäs ma maꞌdanyäs he ce cäꞌdanyäs ce caꞌdanyäs she nya nyäꞌdanyäs nya nyaꞌdanyäs it was waꞌdanyäsig was kaꞌdanyäsig we (not you) kog ꞌdanyäsig kog käꞌdanyäsig we (and you) anggo ꞌdanyäsang anggo käꞌdanyäsang you (pl) sa säꞌdanyäs sa saꞌdanyäs they The repeating suffix –da attaches before the applicative suffix –äs in the complete verbs below.

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a Incomplete Complete destroy Kig wanyäs ꞌdog Kig kawanydäs ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä awanyäs agä kawanydäs I gi wanyäs gi käwanydäs you (sg) ma mäwanyäs ma mawanydäs he ce cäwanyäs ce cawanydäs she nya nyäwanyäs nya nyawanydäs it was wawanyäsig ? was kawanydäsig we (not you) kog wanyäsig ? kog käwanydäsig we (and you) anggo wanyäsang ? anggo käwanydäsang you (pl) sa säwanyäs sa sawanydäs they The applicative suffix –äs is always the same regardless of root vowel or final consonant. There are no changes in the final letters of verbs when the applicative suffix attaches. The suffix –äs attaches to incomplete verbs in place of the incomplete suffix vowel. Root Last Incomplete Applicative vowel cons. Incomplete o st ꞌdosto ꞌdosus pull l bolo bolus make g togo togus carve k poko pokus carry ꞌd xoꞌdo xoꞌdus smear d codo codus wrestle t soto sotus transfer p copo copus look at a t bate batäs get, take xs yaxse yaxsäs send y ꞌdaye ꞌdayäs wash w gawe gawäs throw m nyame nyamäs check ä d ꞌdädo ꞌdädäs pull apart b gäbo gäbäs bury u r duru durus gather x buxu buxus roast e sk meske meskäs protect n bene benäs wait for s pese pesäs talk k zeke zekäs block i ng ꞌdingi ꞌdingäs break z wizi wizäs be fed-up with g pigi pigäs defend ꞌdoc ꞌdocus move, go ca canäs sit a y maya mayäs be satisfied n sane sanäs fly

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e t pete petäs run i r piri piräs be surprised a w lawe lawäs scream As stated in spelling rule 12, the suffix –äs becomes –us following vowel o or u. Spelling Rule 12 (page ): When a suffix beginning with –ä is joined to a word with last vowel o or u, the suffix vowel changes to –u. Verb suffix -äs pese talk pesäs talk for copo look at copus look at for Applicative verbs found in the stories are shown below. Verb Applicative verb Incompete bate marry Nyax 11 abagäs uxandäng tägog I marry woman for us mane asks Nyax 71 nyämändäs nganakanang it asks sisters toxo lights Nyax 80 cädoxus mas she lights fire poko carry A&N 16 pokusig we (and you) carried (it) nganye sell A&A 5 nganyäsig siyad we (and you) buy food wede go T&A 7 säwedetäse (?) they go bange call Pedi 1 säbangäs Wawa Pedi they called (her) Pedi maya be satisfied Pedi 8 mayanäs you are satified sogo do AKT 4 nyäsogus Kamalä he do to Camel Complete kendä skinned A&N 15 kendäsig we (and you) skinned (it) kälarä devided A&N 73 sägälaräsang they divided (them) kangany sold A&A 18 kanganyäs siyad he bought food Exercise 42 In the following sentences, underline all applicative suffixes on verbs. (Nyax 71) Na sawuno tä colonggo, na nyamän, And they came to river, and he asked, kala mäneki nyämändäs nganakanang. and asking that he asked was to elder sisters. (A&N 15) Bonog, kala kendäsig ndä ꞌdoxodig Friend, when we finish skinning, mas ti? where will we find fire? (A&N 16-17) Ndey pokusig ndakä letugu deny So that we can carry it so that owners of cow wuno ꞌdoxung kog todongang. will not arrive and find us here. (A&N 73) Na kala sägälaräsang na sägäꞌdocco, Then they divided them and they left– käxi käꞌdoc tä pane. every person went home. (A&A 4-5) Gining nycu key basa What do you think, shall

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nganyig nganggonag ndey nganyäsig siyad? we sell our mothers in order to buy food? (Pedi 1) Mägaccäng tä cabärä Bäräkili Long ago, in the Barakili mountain, there boxuxandäng säbangäs Wawa Pedi. was a grandmother they called Grandma Pedi. (Pedi 7-8) Nya abisoloni nuxung sadogung täging, If sweet sorghum was given you, you would ziye ndä pelewa song na mayanäs. eat and not be able to finish and be satisfied. (AKT 3-4) Na todi nyanimäng ꞌdogi nyäsogus Kamalä He (Fox) considered what he could do to na Tumos ndey nyäwasasang. Camel and Elephant in order to gather (them).

Unmentioned object suffixes (Antipassive, detransitive) Unmentioned object suffixes show that a transitive verb has an unstated object that receives the action. Verbs cannot have both an unmentioned object suffix –za and a stated object; they can only have one or the other. When the meaning is clear, a transitive verb can be without both the object and the unmentioned object suffix. So, if the object is known, the unmentioned object suffix may show importance to the unstated object. If the object is not known, the unmentioned object suffix may show the object is not mentioned on purpose. [check this] In (N&A 17-18), the unmentioned object suffix shows there is an unstated object receiving the action of käzäkey ‘reported’. The object is the situation of Hyena claiming his bull gave birth to a calf and claiming it as his own. (N&A 17-18) Ndä Apoco nyägate Nyoxolow, na kala And Hare was afraid of Hyena, and so he kept käpäla käꞌdoc käzäkeyza tä pang Osox. silent and went and reported to the house of Lion. The unmentioned object suffix can attach to both incomplete and complete verbs, but only to transitive verbs. a Incomplete Complete hide (unmentioned object) Kig ꞌdanyza Kig kaꞌdanyza Person . . . (something) agä aꞌdanyza agä kaꞌdanyza I gi ꞌdanyza gi käꞌdanyza you (sg) ma mäꞌdanyza ma maꞌdanyza he ce cäꞌdanyza ce caꞌdanyza she nya nyäꞌdanyza nya nyaꞌdanyza it was waꞌdanyzig was kaꞌdanyzig we (not you) kog ꞌdanyzig kog käꞌdanyzig we (and you) anggo ꞌdanyzang anggo käꞌdanyzang you (pl) sa säꞌdanyza sa saꞌdanyza they Unmentioned verbs can have the suffixes –za or –sa. The unmentioned suffix often depends on

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the last root consonant. Root Root Unm. Obj. Incomplete Unmentioned consonant vowel suffix. Transitive object verb l o -za bolo ꞌdog bolza make something y a ꞌdaye ꞌdog ꞌdayza wash w lawe ꞌdog lawza scream m nyame ꞌdog nyamza check ny ꞌdanye ꞌdog ꞌdanyza hide ng i ꞌdingi ꞌdog ꞌdingza cut, break g pigi ꞌdog pigzi defend w e gawe ꞌdog gawza throw t o -za soto ꞌdog sotoza transfer k poko ꞌdog pokoza carry st ꞌdosto ꞌdog ꞌdostoza pull ꞌd xoꞌdo ꞌdog xoꞌdeza smear xs a yaxse ꞌdog yaxsäza send n zane ꞌdog zaneza make fly k e zeke ꞌdog zekeze block sk meske ꞌdog meskäza protect n bene ꞌdog beneza wait for s pese ꞌdog peseza talk z i wizi ꞌdog wiziza be fed-up with x u buxu ꞌdog buxuza roast p o -sa copo ꞌdog copsa look at g togo ꞌdog toksa carve d codo ꞌdog cotsa wrestle b ä gäbo ꞌdog gäbsa bury d ꞌdädo ꞌdog ꞌdätsa pull apart t a bate ꞌdog baksa get, take r u duru ꞌdog dursa gather Unmentioned object verbs in stories are listed below. Verb Unmentioned object verb Incomplete lege speak Nyax 102 legezi you say that (?) Complete kawux ? drank T&A 7 sawuxsi they drank that (?) kacocole ? came down Nyax 119 sacocoleza they came down kacocole ? came down A&A 26 kacocoleza he came down kädole ? led Pedi 17 kädolezang he led käzäkey ? reported N&A 18 käzäkeyza he reported Exercise 43 In the following sentences, underline unmentioned object suffixes in verbs.

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(Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi? You say there is (thing) in his anus, you say that? (Nyax 119) Na todi kala sacocoleza sägäꞌdocco Then they came down and went tä pa ta menggäsa. to the home of their fathers. (A&A 25) Na Alkadis kacocoleza tetex ngade ka, And Cat came down quickly and said, (Pedi 25) Käxi kädolezang gawa axsic tägaxsä lang. Person who leads will throw fish into basket. (Pedi 17-18) Käxi kapäcca kädolezang kabag axsic The person who calls and leads took a single fish nuxung gawa tä lang. and threw (it) into the basket. (N&A 17-18) Ndä Apoco nyägate Nyoxolow, na kala And Hare was afraid of Hyena, and so he kept käpäla käꞌdoc käzäkeyza tä pang Osox. silent and went and reported to the house of Lion.

Reciprocal suffixes Reciprocal suffixes show the action is done by several people and to several of the same people—to each other. These suffixes are only for actions done by more than one person and not for singular subjects. In (T&A 43), the reciprocal suffix –ning shows the verb sägäyawesäning ‘they gathered’ is done by the animals to the animals themselves. The animals gather each other for a meeting. (T&A 43) Na sägäyawesäning nanggäsa And they gathered each other all of them kala nyängade ka, and he (Fox) said, Reciprocal suffixes can attach to both incomplete and complete verbs, but only to plural noun or pronoun subjects. a Incomplete Complete hide (reciprocal) Kig ꞌdanye ꞌdog Kig kaꞌdany ꞌdog Person . . . thing. was waꞌdanyinig was kaꞌdanyinig we (not you) kog ꞌdanyinig kog käꞌdanyinig we (and you) anggo ꞌdanyinang anggo käꞌdanyinang you (pl) sa säꞌdanyining sa saꞌdanyining they Reciprocal plural command can have the suffix –ining regardless of the root vowel or last root conasonant. Root Root Reciprocal vowel consonant Incomplete command plural o st ꞌdosto ꞌdostining pull

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l bolo bolining make g togo dogining carve k poko mpokining carry ꞌd xoꞌdo xoꞌdening smear d codo codining wrestle t soto zotining transfer p copo nycopining look at a t bate bagining get, take xs yaxse yaxsining send y ꞌdaye ꞌdayining wash w gawe nggawining throw m nyame nyamining check ä d ꞌdädo ꞌdädining pull apart b gäbo nggäbining bury u r duru durining gather x buxu buxining roast e sk meske meskining protect n bene benining wait for s pese pesining talk k zeke zekining block i ng ꞌdingi ꞌdingining cut, break z wizi wizining be fed-up g pigi mpigining defend cata nycasining sit a y maya mayining be satisfied a w lawe lawining scream The following reciprocal verbs are in the stories. Verb Reciprocal verb Incomplete ꞌdaye wash T&A 8 säꞌdayining they wash each other Complete kadug share A&N 62 saduguning they shared with each other käyaw gather T&A 43 sägäyawesäning they gathered each other Exercise 44 In the following sentences, underline all receiprocal suffixes on verbs. (A&N 62) Ndä sägäbäg miye na ipe, i ze kalay tunyu, They took skin and tail, left head behind, and ndä saduguning tä wungge säꞌdätädä. they shared with each other ears which were cut. (T&A 8) Ndä säꞌdayining na kala samen sog And they washed themselves and then säwedeccä säꞌdocco tä pa. they began going and went home. (T&A 43) Na sägäyawesäning nanggäsa And they gathered themselves

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kala nyängade ka, and he (Fox) said,

Away verbs (Abitive) Away verbs show the action happens away from the speaker or away from the previous location talked about in the story. [check this]. Only transitive verbs can have away suffixes. [which doesn’t make any sense, so ‘away’ may not be the correct use]. Away verbs can also show the action may or may not be true (hearsy) such as when someone hears about the action and is reporting it to others. In (O&A 21-22), the away suffix –asa may show the action kaꞌdoxasa ‘he found’ happens away from the previous location in the story where Donkey ran away from Lion. (O&A 21-22) Sax mände Atorndori käꞌdoc tä bangänya, Again Fox went to call him, again he mände käꞌdoc kaꞌdoxasa nya na ngade tänya, went and found him and said to him (donkey) Away suffixes can attach to both incomplete and complete transitive verbs, but not to intransitive verbs. Incomplete Complete hide (away) Kig ꞌdanyasa ꞌdog Kig kaꞌdanyasa ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä aꞌdanyasa agä kaꞌdanyasa I gi ꞌdanyasa gi käꞌdanyasa you (sg) ma mäꞌdanyasa ma maꞌdanyasa he ce cäꞌdanyasa ce caꞌdanyasa she nya nyäꞌdanyasa nya nyaꞌdanyasa it was waꞌdanyasänig was kaꞌdanyasänig we (not you) kog ꞌdanyasänig kog käꞌdanyasänig we (and you) anggo ꞌdanyasänang anggo käꞌdanyasänang you (pl) sa säꞌdanyasa sa saꞌdanyasa they In the verb below, the repeating suffix –ta comes before the away suffix –asa in the incomplete forms, and the repeating suffix –dä comes before the away suffix –asa in the complete forms. Incomplete Complete hide (away, repeating) Kig ꞌdanyatasa ꞌdog Kig kaꞌdanydäsa ꞌdog Person . . . thing. agä aꞌdanyatasa agä kaꞌdanydäsa I gi ꞌdanyatasa gi käꞌdanydäsa you (sg) ma mäꞌdanyatasa ma maꞌdanydäsa he ce cäꞌdanyatasa ce caꞌdanydäsa she nya nyäꞌdanyatasa nya nyaꞌdanydäsa it was waꞌdanyatasänig was kaꞌdanydäsänig we (not you) kog ꞌdanyatasänig kog käꞌdanydäsänig we (and you) anggo ꞌdanyatasänang anggo käꞌdanydäsänang you (pl)

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sa säꞌdanyatasa sa saꞌdanydäsa they Away verbs can have the suffix -osa, –asa, –esa, -usa, or –isa. The away suffix often depends on the verb root vowel. Root Root Repeat. Incomplete Away consonant vowel suffix Incomplete o g -osa togo dogosa carve ꞌd xoꞌdo xoꞌdosa smear st -asa ꞌdosto ꞌdosasa pull l bolo bolasa make d codo codasa wrestle t soto sokatasa transfer a y -asa ꞌdaye ꞌdayasa wash w gawe gawasa throw m nyame nyamasa check ä d -asa ꞌdädo ꞌdädasa pull apart b gäbo gäbasa bury u r -usa duru durusa gather x buxu buxusa roast e sk -esa meske meskesa protect n bene benesa wait for s pese pesesa talk k zeke zekesa block i ng -isa ꞌdingi ꞌdingisa break z wizi wizisa be fed-up with g pigi pigisa defend Verbs with away suffixes in the stories are listed below. Verb Away verb Other sufx. Incomplete wange leave AKT 6 wangäsa they leave bokada brings AKT 20 nyäbokasa it brought ꞌdake untie A&A 12 aꞌdakasa I will untie axse tie A&A 24 waxsetasänig we (not you) tie repeating wasi gather AKT 4 nyäwasasang he gathers identifying Complete kaꞌdox found O&A 22 kaꞌdoxasa he found kädukusa poured Nyax 108 nyägädukusa he poured kaxsä tied A&A 27 kaxsädasa he tied kabod agreed Pedi 23 kabodosa they agreed kayaxsä sent N&A 29 sayaxsäsa they sent kapäcca ? led Pedi 31 kapäccasang who leads identifying käbota brought A&N 50 kabotasang I brought identifying käyaw collected T&A 43 sägäyawesäning they gathered reciprocal Command axsa let us tie A&A 26 axsasa let us tie

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Exercise 45 In the following sentences, underline all away suffixes on verbs. (Nyax 108-109) Na Nyaxolowiny kasag kawuno na And Hyenas gathered together and nyägädukusa päxä wegki nyägong. he gave them the many things which he had. (A&N 50) Nya masi kabotasang ndä awung nyang. It is fire that I brought and came with it. (T&A 43) Na sägäyawesäning nanggäsa And they gathered each other all of them kala nyängade ka, and he (Fox) said, (A&A 12) Gom käꞌdoccig tä wang asugkang. Later, when we go to the market, ndä aꞌdakasa gi noy. I will untie you and you can escape. (A&A 23) Yex key megedetäng You know, there are storms coming udosäno na koxa basa waxsetasänig with rain and we tie ngastänggog tawagä ewe. ourselves to the bottom of the trees. (A&A 26) Axsasa agä täzäläg. Let us tie me first. (AKT 3-4) Na todi nyanimäng ꞌdogi nyäsogus Kamalä He (Fox) considered what he could do to na Tumos ndey nyäwasasang. Camel and Elephant in order to gather (them).

Towards suffixes (Ventive) Towards suffixes show the action happens towards the speaker or towards the previous location talked about in the story [check this]. The towards suffix –äng is similar to the identifying suffix –(a)ng. But whereas the towards suffix is only on verbs, the identifying suffix can be on any kind of word. And whereas the towards suffix always has the vowel ä, the identifying suffix can only have the vowel a. In (A&N 32-33), the towards suffix –äng is on the verb läpede ‘tells’ and shows the telling should happen toward the speaker (me). (A&N 32-33) (Towards action) Neng ampaye ka gi läpäng rajta sogig ndey Ok, I want you to tell (me) a deceitful way to sokudig yanang i laye. transfer the meat without eating it. In (A&A 29), the identifying suffix –ang is on the adverb song ‘not’ and shows the words kasog gi mänang songang ‘if I didin’t tie you like this’ depend on the following words inorder to be a complete sentence.

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(A&A 29) (Identifying for dependent clause) Abad, kasog gi mänang songang, Stupid, if I didn’t tie you like this, asiye wegkägi song. I couldn’t eat your food. Towards suffixes can attach to both incomplete and complete verbs, and to both transitive and intransitive verbs. a Incomplete Complete scream (towards) Kig lawäng ꞌdog Kig kälawäng ꞌdog Person . . . thing agä alawäng agä kalawäng I gi lawäng gi kälawäng you (sg) ma mälawäng ma mägälawäng he ce cälawäng ce cägälawäng she nya nyälawäng nya nyägälawäng it was walawänig was wagälawänig we (not you) kog lawänig kog kälawäning we (and you) anggo lawänang anggo kälawänang you (pl) sa sälawäng sa sägälawäng they In the verb below, the repeating suffix –da comes before the towards suffix –äng. a Incomplete Complete scream (repeating, towards) Kig lawedäng ꞌdog Kig kälawdäng ꞌdog Person . . . thing agä alawedäng agä kalawdäng I gi lawedäng gi kälawdäng you (sg) ma mälawedäng ma mägälawdäng he ce cälawedäng ce cägälawdäng she nya nyälawedäng nya nyägälawdäng it was walawedänig was wagälawdänig we (not you) kog lawedänig kog kälawdäning we (and you) anggo lawedänang anggo kälawdänang you (pl) sa sälawedäng sa sägälawdäng they Some intransitive verbs have the plural towards suffix –asäng for plural subjects. In (1-2), the verbs with singular subject kig ‘person’ have the singular towards suffix –äng. In (3-4), the verbs with plural subject kän ‘people’ have the plural towards suffix –asäng. Incomplete Complete Singular verb (1) Kig teläng. Person falls. (2) Kig kadeläng. Person fell. Plural verb (3) Kän telasäng. People fall. (4) Kän kadelasäng. People fall. The verb teläng ‘fall’ with all subject pronouns is shown below. All plural subjects have the plural towards suffix –asäng. Incomplete Complete falls [check]

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Kig teläng Kig kadeläng Person . . . agä adeläng agä kadeläng I gi deläng gi kädeläng you (sg) ma mädeläng ma madeläng he ce cädeläng ce cadeläng she nya nyädeläng nya nyadeläng it was wadelasänig was wadelasänig we (not you) kog telasänig kog kädelasäning we (and you) anggo delasänang anggo kädelasänang you (pl) sa sädelasäng sa sadelasäng they The towards suffix –äng is always the same regardless of root vowel or final consonant. When attached to incomplete verbs, it takes the place of the incomplete vowel suffix. In repeating verbs, it follows the repeating suffix –da. Root Last Incomplete Towards Repeating towards vowel cons. incomplete incomplete o st ꞌdosto ꞌdosung ꞌdostodung pull l bolo bolung bolodung make g togo togung togodung carve k poko pokung pokodung carry ꞌd xoꞌdo xoꞌdung xoꞌdodung smear d codo codung cododung wrestle t soto sotung sotodung transfer p copo copung copodung look at a t bate batäng batedäng get, take xs yaxse yaxsäng yaxsedäng send y ꞌdaye ꞌdayäng ꞌdayedäng wash w gawe gawäng gawedäng throw m nyame nyang nyamedäng check n zane zanäng zanedäng make fly ä d ꞌdädo ꞌdädäng ꞌdädodung pull apart b gäbo gäbäng gäbodung bury u r duru durung durudung gather x buxu buxung buxudung roast e sk meske meskäng meskedäng protect n bene benäng benedäng wait for s pese pesäng pesedäng talk k zeke zekäng zekedäng block i ng ꞌdingi ꞌdingäng ꞌdingidäng break z wizi wizäng wizidäng be fed-up g pigi pigäng pigidäng defend o c ꞌdoc ꞌdocung ꞌdocodung move, go a t ca catäng catadäng sit y maya mayäng mayedäng be satisfied n sane sanäng sanedäng fly

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e t pete petäng petedäng run i r piri piräng piridäng be surprised a w lawe lawäng lawedäng scream As stated in spelling rule 12, the suffix –äng becomes –ung following the vowel o or u. Spelling Rule 12 (page ): When a suffix beginning with –ä is joined to a word with last vowel o or u, the suffix vowel changes to –u. Verb suffix -äng pese talk pesäng talk towards copo look at copäng look towards Towards verbs found in the stories are shown below. Verb Towards verb Other sufx. Incomplete ꞌdoxo find O&A 39 nyaꞌdoxung it found ꞌdoxo find A&N 17 ꞌdoxung they find udodu ? comes Nyax 36 udodung he comes läpede tell A&N 32 läpäng you tell cata sit Pedi 14 säcasäng they sit plural colo pour Nyax 87 wacolodunig we (not you) pour repeating ngade says Nyax 102 ngadatäng you (sg) say repeating ngade says Nyax 14 nyängadetäng he says repeating laxäng pass by Pedi 15 laxetäsäng they pass by pl., repeat. laxäng pass by N&A 26 mälaxetäng he pass by repeating Complete kaꞌdox found Nyax 117 kaꞌdoxung they found kädukusa rose A&N 36 kädukusing it rose käboka ? brought A&N 81 käbokung he brought kanyas pulled A&N 65 sanyasäng they pulled kadoga gave Pedi 7 sadogung they give kälaxäng pasd by Pedi 22 kälaxesäng they passed by plural kasan jumped Nyax 118 sasandasatäng they jumped plural ? kaccä sat A&N 14 sägäccasäng they sat plural Exercise 46 In the sentences below, underline all towards suffixes on verbs. (O&A 39-40) Ndä nyämel nyawung na nyaꞌdoxung nycoki And he returned and came and found people kasiy ya i kawang zä Kaccä na nyimecce. ate meat and left head of Donkey with liver. (Nyax 14-15) Na nyängadetäng ka, And he said, “Bonog, tong anadarugugigong anoc “Friend, bring these glasses, abagäs uxandäng tägog.” I am going to marry a certain woman for us.” (Nyax 36)

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Neng yox udodung xongondong na Ok, your potential husband is coming today kala noccang mänang? and you want to go like this? (Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi? You are saying there is in his anus? (Nyax 117-118) Na koyo pacce kawuno kaꞌdox sa na And they ran fast and came and found them kaꞌdoxung Nyaxolowiny, and found hyenas (with them), na sasandasatäng sacotädä kapax käꞌday. and jumped on and overturned and killed all. (A&N 13-14) Na sägärakä samen sapax na sägendä And they surrounded and killed (it) and sägädimi engeke na kala sägäccasäng. completely removed the skin and then sat

down. (A&N 17) Letugu deny wuno ꞌdoxung kog todongang? Will not owners of cow arrive and find us here? (A&N 65) Kaꞌdiꞌdi nanggäsa, säs kodos na sanyasäng He and pulled with them, those three, tunyu. and they pulled (it) out. (A&N 81) Na kala Atorndori käbokung pengge tunyu. Then Fox brought out (his) children. (T&A 10) Bo buguning, i kämpätäng ti? Important king, where have you come from?

Identifying and locating near suffixes on verbs In the lesson Identifying suffixes, we learned that identifying suffixes can be an equal sign in a sentence without a verb, they can show the end of an specific relative clause, and they can show a clause depends on another clause to make a complete sentence. Identifying suffixes can be attached to any kind of word. In this lesson we learn how they are attached to verbs. In (AKT 16) the identifying suffix –ang on the verb kawungang ‘came’ shows the clause Ka nox Tumos kawungang ‘if you see elephant come’ depends on the following words to make a complete sentence. These words cannot be a sentence by themselves. (AKT 16) (Dependent clause) Ka nox Tumos kawungang, If you see Elephant come, sogawa ka käsängga ndey axony gi. pretend to sleep and I will save you. In (Nyax 34), the identifying suffix –ang shows the end of the specific relative clause nyäpaye nyängetang ‘I like’. This clause shows which ꞌdogi ‘thing’ we are talking about. It is the word mentioned in the line before that Lion wanted to tell the animals. (O&A 2) (End of specific relative clause) Na oxayda kawuno tä dänggä And the animals came to listen to ꞌdogi nyäpaye nyängetang. the thing that it wanted them to hear.

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In the lesson Locating near suffixes, we learn locating near suffixes can be used as an equal sign to compare one noun with another, to identify a nearby or recently mentioned noun, or to show the end of a relative clause. Locating near suffixes can also be on verbs to show the action is near the speaker. In (A&N 80), the locating near suffix –nang shows the verb kawunonang ‘come here’ happens near the speaker. (A&N 80) (Locatining near) Na kala odudi Nyoxolow kabag pengge Then in the morning, Hyena took kawunonang. (his) children and came here. Identifying suffixes can attach to both incomplete and complete verbs. The suffix –ng attaches to a verb with final vowel. The suffix –ang or other suffixes attach to a verb with final consonant, depending on the consonant [check this]. Incomplete Complete want [check] Opi kig payeng nyang, kawung. Opi kig käpayang nyang, kawung. Man that

person . . came. Opi ampayeng nyang, kawung. Opi kampayang nyang, kawung. I Opi mpayeng nyang, kawung. Opi kämpayang nyang, kawung. you (sg) Opi mäpayeng nyang, kawung. Opi mägäpayang nyang, kawung. he Opi cäpayeng nyang, kawung. Opi cägäpayang nyang, kawung. she Opi nyäpayeng nyang, kawung. Opi nyägäpayang nyang, kawung. it Opi wampayigang nyang, kawung. Opi wagäpayigang nyang, kawung. we (not you) Opi payigang nyang, kawung. Opi käpayigang nyang, kawung. we (and you) Opi mpayangang nyang, kawung. Opi kämpayangang nyang, kawung. you (pl) Opi säpayeng nyang, kawung. Opi sägäpayang nyang, kawung. they The identifying suffix –ng attaches to incomplete verbs after the incomplete suffix vowel. Root Last Incomplete Identifying [check] vowel cons. incomplete o st ꞌdosto ꞌdostong pull l bolo bolong make g togo togong carve k poko pokong carry ꞌd xoꞌdo xoꞌdong smear d codo codong wrestle t soto sotong transfer p copo copong look at a t bate bateng get, take xs yaxse yaxseng send y ꞌdaye ꞌdayeng wash w gawe gaweng throw

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m nyame nyameng check n zane zaneng make fly ä d ꞌdädo ꞌdädong pull apart b gäbo gäbong bury u r duru durung gather x buxu buxung roast e sk meske meskeng protect n bene beneng wait for s pese peseng talk k zeke zekeng block i ng ꞌdingi ꞌdinging break z wizi wizing be fed-up g pigi piging defend o c ꞌdoc ꞌdocong move, go a t ca catang sit y maya mayang be satisfied n sane saneng fly e t pete peteng run i r piri piring be surprised a w lawe laweng scream Identifying suffixes on verbs in the stories are shown below. Verb Identifying verb Other suf. Incp wung comes A&N 50 masi . . awungang fire which I come paye want Nyax 34 yoxanggi ampayeng husband which I want go have Nyax 109 wegki nyägong things which he has nge cry Nyax 83 wadi ngedenang which you (pl)crying? nyägate fear T&A 35 ndey anyägateng I fear (him)? ngade says O&A 2 ꞌdogi . nyängetang thing which he speaks repeating ngade says T&A 49 käxi ngadaccang person which saying continuing paye want A&N 94 i mpayadangang if you (pl) want repeating laygä ? be late A&N 67 i . . laygädäng if you (sg) are late repeating meske protect T&A 32 sogoka ameskewang do that I protect (her) reflexive sogo do T&A 25 sogowang what is happening? reflexive käre think A&N 26 agäre nga pacce I think much mod. con. wasi gather AKT 4 ꞌdogi . nyäwasasang thing which he gathers away comp. kawung came O&A 45 i . . kawungang after he came kädoleza led Pedi 17 käxi . . kädolezang person who led unm. obj. kapäcca led Pedi 31 käxi . . kapäccasang person who led away kasog did A&N 27 oxadi kasogwang what happened? reflexive käbota brought A&N 50 masi kabotasang fire which I brought away Location near suffixes on verbs in the stories are shown below. Verb Location near verb

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Incomplete ꞌdoco go A&N 88 nyäꞌdocconang it goes here Complete kawung came A&N 80 kawunonang he came here Exercise 47 In the following sentences, underline all identifying suffixes and location near suffixes. (O&A 44-45) Ziya ꞌdog winy, i gom buguning kawungang You just eat the thing, after the king comes, wanga tagä. leave it for me. (Nyax 34) Appa, nya yoxanggi ampayeng nyanang Father, my potential husband kawung xongondong. that I like has come today. (Nyax 36) Neng yox udodung xongondong na Ok, your potential husband is coming today kala noccang mänang? and you want to go like this? (A&N 27) Anya, oxadi kasogwang? Why, what happened? (A&N 35-36) Nycugo, xa musku xong kädukus i song Let’s go, becuase before the sun rises, i xong kädukusing, läpi ka, you say, . . . (A&N 50) Nya masi kabotasang ndä awung nyang. It is fire that I brought and came with it. (A&N 80) Na kala odudi Nyoxolow kabag pengge Then in the morning, Hyena took kawunonang. (his) children and came here. (A&N 87-88) Na nyabag penggänya And he took his children nyäꞌdocconang tä pogud ta Atorndori. and went here to fight Fox. (T&A 10) Bo buguning, i kämpätäng ti? Important king, where have you come from? Go penggägi käꞌdayang. You have all these children. (T&A 25) Buguning ngade ka, “Oxadiyang sogowang?” The king said, “What is happening?” (T&A 35) Xänang mände ngonde tagäng ndey anyägateng?

Who is there big enough that I should fear?

(T&A 49) I nya käxi ngadaccang ka, So, the person that says, ‘(There is someone) ‘Ngonde tagäng’ nya ndi? bigger than me’ where is he? (T&A 59-60) I käxägini kawungang, läpi ka But your person that comes, mänang mäs käxa ngondeyang, say to that big person, i agänang anoco xa kacoxowa.” that I am going, because I am in a hurry.”

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Clauses with only the verb ꞌbe, wasꞌ Some clauses only have an equal sign as the verb. The equal sign can be näs ‘be, was’ or any of the complement suffixes. In (T&A 1), the only verb is the equal sign verb nyäs ‘it was, be’. It shows Tumos ‘Elephant’ is the same as (equal to) buguningza ngonde ‘important king’. (T&A 1) (näs ‘was, be’) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed. an important king in the forest. In (N&A 1) the identifying suffix –g on aminug ‘frineds’ shows Nyoxolow na Apoco ‘Hyena and Hare’ are equal to aminug ‘friends’. (N&A 1) (Identifying suffix) Nyoxolow na Apoco aminug. Hyena and Hare were friends.

Main Clauses and Dependent Clauses A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. An identity suffix –ang often attaches to the end of the last word of a dependent clause. In the following sentences, the identity suffix –ang attaches the last word of clauses to show they depend on the following words to be a complete sentence. (A&A 12) Gom käꞌdoccig tä wang asugkang. Later, when we go to the market, ndä aꞌdakasa gi noy. I will untie you and you can escape. (A&A 29) Abad, kasog gi mänang songang, Stupid, if I didn’t tie you like this, asiye wegkägi song. I couldn’t eat your food. (AKT 16) Ka nox Tumos kawungang, If you see Elephant come, sogawa ka käsängga ndey axony gi. pretend to sleep and I will save you.

Connectors (Conjunctions)

Question Words (Interrogatives)

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Question words are used to ask questions. They take the place of unknown nouns, adjectives, numbers, prepositional phrases, adverbs or clauses. First we learn about each question word with examples. Then there is a list of the question words at the end of the lesson. Question words xäng ‘who, whom (specific)’, xänang ‘who, whom (general)’ The question words xäng and xänang replace singular or plural human nouns that are subjects, objects or introduced by prepositions. Xäng replaces nouns that are specific and xänang replaces nouns that are general or unknown [check this]. Sentences (1) and (3) are statements. Sentences (2) and (4) are questions. (1) Kig kasiy ya. Person ate meat. (3) Kän kasiy ya. People ate meat. (2) Xäng kasiy ya? Who ate meat? (4) Xäng kasiy ya? Who ate meat? In (1, 3), the subject is kig/kän ‘person/people’. The question in (2, 4) asks about the subject in (1, 3). The question word xäng ‘who’ is used instead of this subject kig/kän in (1, 3). In (5), there is a general or unknown subject kigkandang ‘certain person’. The general question word xänang ‘who’ in (6) is used instead of this genearl subject in (5). (5) Kigkandang kasiy ya. Certain person ate meat. (6) Xänang kasiy ya? Who ate meat? The question words xäng and xänang can also be used to ask about object nouns [check this]. In (7, 9), the object is pipi/pipindäng ‘child/certain child’. The question words xäng/xänang ‘who’ in (8, 10) are used instead of these objects in (7, 9). (7) Kig kox pipi. Person saw child. (9) Kig kox pipindäng. Person saw certain child. (8) Kig kox xäng? Person saw who? (10) Kig kox xänang? Person saw who? In (11, 13), the noun after the preposition na ‘with’ is kig/kigkandäng ‘person/certain person’. The question words xäng/xänang ‘who’ in (12, 14) are used instead of these nouns after the preposition in (11, 13). (11) Apang käꞌdoc na kig. Man went with

person. (13) Apang käꞌdoc na kigkandäng. Man went with

certain person. (12) Apang käꞌdoc na xäng? Man went with

who? (14) Apang käꞌdoc na xänang? Man went with

who? Question word oxadi ‘what (specific)’ wi ‘what (general)’ The question words oxadi and wi replace non-human singular and plural nouns that are subjects, objects or introduced by prepositions. Oxadi replaces specific nouns and wi replaces general or unknown nouns [check this].

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In (15, 17), there is a non-human noun ya/yandäng ‘meat/certain meat’. The question words oxadi/wi ‘what’ in (16, 18) are used instead of these non-human nouns. (15) Kig kasiy ya. Person ate meat. (17) Kig kasiy yandäng. Person ate certain meat. (16) Kig kasiy oxadi? Person ate what? (18) Kig kasiy wi? Person ate what? Question suffix –adi ‘which (specific)’ –adiyang ‘which (general)’ The asking specific suffix –adi and -adiyang ‘which’ replace both singular and plural adjectives. In (19, 21), there is an adjective apo/apoccu ‘good’. The asking specific suffix –adi ‘which’ in (20, 22) is used instead of this adjective. (19) Käxa apo kasiy ya. Good person

ate meat. (21) Kängga apoccu kasiy yadäg. Good people

ate meats. (20) Käxadi kasiy ya. Which person

ate meat? (22) Känggadi kasiy yadäg? Which people

ate meats?

In (23, 24), there is an adjective apodung/apoccundung ‘certain good’. The asking specific suffix –adiyang ‘which’ in (24, 26) is used instead of this adjective. [check]

(23) Käxa apondung kasiy ya.

Certain good person ate meat.

(25) Kängga apoccundung kasiy yadäg.

Certain good people ate meats.

(24) Käxadiyang kasiy ya.

Which person ate meat?

(26) Känggadiyang kasiy yadäg?

Which people ate meats?

Question word kreny ‘how many’ The question word kreny ‘how many’ replaces numbers. In (28), the question word keny ‘how many’ is used instead of the number kudos ‘three’ in (27). (27) Kig kasiy yadäg kudos. Person ate three meats. (28) Kig kasiy yadäg kreny? Person ate how many meats? Question word ti ‘where’ and question suffix –ndi ‘where’ The question word ti ‘where’ replaces location and goal prepositional phrases introduced with ta/tä ‘in, at, to’. It also replaces place adverbs [check this]. The asking location suffix –ndi ‘where is’ replaces the equal sign verb näs ‘is, be’ and a location. In (30), the question word ti ‘where’ is used instead of the location prepositional phrase tä pa ‘in house’ in (29).

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(29) Kig kasiy ya tä pa. Person ate meat in house. (30) Kig kasiy ya ti? Person ate meat where? In (32), the asking location suffix -ndi ‘where is’ is used instead of the equal sign verb and location näs tä pa ‘is in house’ in (31). (31) Ya näs tä pa. Meat is in house. (32) Yandi? Where is the meat? Question words oge ‘when’ and tägäreny ‘how often’ The question word oge ‘when’ replaces time adverbs. The question word tägäreny ‘how often’ replaces habitual time adverbs. In (34), the question word oge ‘when’ is used instead of the time adverb xongondong ‘today’ in (33). (33) Kig kasiy ya xongondong. Person ate meat today. (34) Kig kasiy ya oge? Person ate meat when? In (36), the question word tägäreny ‘how often’ is used instead of the habitual time adverb tolang ‘every day’ in (35). (35) Kig siye ya tolang. Person ates meat everyday. (36) Kig siye ya tägäreny? Person ates meat how often? Question words key ‘how’, anya ‘why’ and xanya ‘why’ The question word key ‘how’ replaces tool prepositional phrases introduced by na ‘by’ and manner adverbs. The question word anya ‘why’ replaces reason clauses introduced by xa ‘because’. The question word xanya ‘why’ replaces purpose clauses introduced by ndey ‘so that’. In (38), the question word key ‘how’ is used instead of the tool prepositional phrase na ande ‘with his hand’ in (37). (37) Kig kasiy ya na ande. Person ate meat with his hand. (38) Kig kasiy ya key? Person ate meat how? In (40), the question word anya ‘why’ is used instead of the reason clause xa xas kapax nanao ‘because he was very hungry’ in (39). (39) Kig kasiy ya xa xas kapax nanao. Person ate meat because he was very hungry. (40) Kig kasiy ya anya? Person ate meat why?

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In (42), the question word xanya ‘why’ is used instead of the purpose clause ndey lay pädäg ‘so that he remained strong’ in (41). (41) Kig kasiy ya ndey lay pädäg. Person ate meat so that he remained strong. (42) Kig kasiy ya anya? Person ate meat why? Yes/no questions The identity suffix –ang is used to ask a question with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer. In (44) the identity suffix –ang on yanang ‘it is meat’ is used to ask the yes/no question answered by (43). (43) Kig kasiy ya. Person ate meat. (44) Kig kasiy yanang? Did person eat meat? The questions words are listed below.

specific general xäng xänang who (people) oxadi wi what (things) -adi -adiyang which kreny how many ti where -ndi where is oge when tägäreny how often key how anya why (reason) xanya why (purpose) -ang yes/no Exercise 48 In the following sentences, underline all question words and suffixes. (O&A 41) I zaxadang siyakä ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogong anya? Why you refuse to eat brain of head of this

thing? (O&A 47) I ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogang giyandi? The brain of the head of my thing, where are

you? (Nyax 30) Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko wala wi?” Listen, have you come to our home or what? (Nyax 60) Za agä, anycus key? Look at me. How do I look?

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(Nyax 83-85) “Oxadi wadi ngedenang?” “Why are you crying?” “I noxo lägong song?” “Donꞌt you see this smoke?” “I oxadi kasokwa xongong mänang?” “What happened this day so that it is like

this?” (Nyax 92) ꞌDogong käꞌdoxang ti? Where have you found this thing? (A&N 27) Anya, oxadi kasogwang? Why, what happened? (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you yourself go hunting and kill a cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang, and you have no fire, what do you do then, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw? (A&N 47) ꞌDoxo mas ti ganangang? Where will you find fire now? (A&N 51) Neng xänang ꞌdocco bokada tägogkang? Ok, who will go and bring (it) to us? (T&A 10) Bo buguning i kämpätäng ti? You are an important king, where have Go penggägi käꞌdayang. you come from? You have all your children. (T&A 25-26) Buguning ngade ka, The king said, “Oxadiyang sogowang?” “What is happening?” (T&A 27) Layis xäng seley wede tarjangekang? Who remains to attack me (lit. my attacking)? (T&A 35) Xänang mände ngonde tagäng ndey anyägateng?

Who is there big enough that I should fear?

(A&A 15) Na kala Alkadis kasay onge Then Cat looked back oxada bo Apoconag pete na nyängade ka, and saw the mother of Hare running and said, “Xay bonggondi?” “Oh, where is your mother?” (N&A 15) Tanganiccägi kiye key? How has your bull given birth? (N&A 30) Ama, anya apanginy iyeccä? Hey, how are men giving birth? (AKT 18) Na Tumos kawung mänecce ka, And Elephant came and was asking, “Kamaländi?” “Where is Camel?” (AKT 23) Gang alkodos tä Kamalänani, Now the pipe for Camel is there, i gang Kamalä key? and now how can Camel?

Caning Stories

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The words on the previous pages are found in the following stories. Each story is introduced with some information. The abbreviations used in the stories are as follows: ID -(a)ng identifying equal sign PS sa-, sä- passive RE -dä repeating LF -ani location far C ka-, kä- complete AP -äs applicative (benefit, tool) CN -acca, -ecce continuous RL -i relative PNS -e pointing known RX -wa reflexive VN -ed, -id verbal noun UN -za unmentioned object ID -äng direction (towards) AW -asa reporting FT -ada future EX -(a)ndäng existing SG -ic, -c singular UN -za unmentioned object (antipassive) PL -däg (etc.) plural PF -i pointing far PN -ong pointing near RC -ning reciprocal QL -andi question location LN -anang locating near The title of each story is given in short form between parentheses (). This short form is how the story is refered to for examples in this book. Osox na Atorndori (O&A) lion and fox The Lion and the Fox 1. Aniyandäng, Osox kabandä oxayda kawuno käꞌday dänge ngakänya täng. when.EX lion C.call animals C.come all listen word.its there In former times, Lion called the animals to all come hear his message. 2. Na oxayda kawuno tä dänggä ꞌdogi nyäpaye nyängetang. and animals C.come for listen.VN.PC thing.RL 3n.want 3n.speak.ID And the animals came to listen to the thing that he wanted to speak. 3. Na nyängade ka, “Ampaye ya.” and 3n.say that 1s.want meat And he said, “I want meat.” 4. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Mpaye ya?” and fox say that 2s.want meat And Fox said, “You want meat?” 5. Na nyängade ka, “E.” and 3n.say that “Yes.” And he said, “Yes.” 6. Na Atorndori ngade ta oxayda ka, and Fox say to animals that And Fox said to the animals,

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7. “Nycugo awasesining tä koyinakä ya ta buguning.” CD.1i.go CD.1i.separate for bring.PC meat to king “Let us disperse in order to bring meat to the king.” 8. Na sawasesining na nya Atorndori nyägäꞌdoc and 3p.C.separate.3p and it Fox 3n.C.g o And they dispersed and the Fox himself went 9. ta Kaccä nyängade ta Kaccä ka, to donkey 3n.say to donkey that to Donkey, and he said to Donkey, 10. “Agänang buguning, kayaxsä agä tägi ka 1s.LN king C.send me to.you that “I am the king, I sent myself to you 11. gi wung, xa ka nyäpaye nyädong butug tägi.” you come because that 3n.want 3n.give kingdom to.you to come because he wants to give the kingdom to you.” 12. Na Kaccä ngade ka, “Nycugo.” Na samen akä sog sawuno and donkey say that CD.1i.go and 3p.C.start road.PC journey 3p.C.come And Doneky said, “Letꞌs go.” And they set out on the road, and they came 13. na nyägäꞌdoc ta buguning and 3n.C.went to king and went to the king, 14. na Osox kasäx kängaw nya, nyägoy nyangaw ipänya. and Lion C.jump C.catch him 3n.C.run 3n.C.catch tail.its and the Lion jumped and caught him, and he ran and caught his tail. 15. Atorndori käꞌdoc tä bangänya mände, käꞌdoc läpede tänya ka, fox C.go to call.VN.his again C.go tell to.him that Fox went to call him again, went to tell him, 16. “Gi layis abad, ꞌdogu nycakä buguningzi ginang, you remain stupid.person thing.PC seat.PC king.RL you.LN “You are stupid. Here is the throne of the king, which is you. 17. na ipäginani nycata täng keke ila ganang kala and tail.your.LF 2s.sit on.it how unless now like and how can you sit on your tail unless the sitting is 18. nycata apoyo winy?” Na Kaccä ngade ka, “Neng nycugo.”

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2s.sit well just and donkey say that ok CD.1i.go good like that?”8 Then Donkey said, “Ok, letꞌs go.” 19. Na samen akä sog sawuno mände, na sax Osox kasäx and 3p.C.start road.PC journey 3p.C.come again and again lion C.jump And they set out on the road, and they came again, and again Lion jumped and 20. kamen nya nyägoy i käluw wundunya. Nyägoy nyägäꞌdoc. C.catch him he.C.run but C.cut ear.his 3n.C.run 3n.C.go caught him and he ran, and he cut his ear. He ran and went. 21. Sax mände Atorndori käꞌdoc tä bangänya, again again Fox C.go to call.VN.his Again Fox went to call him, 22. mände käꞌdoc kaꞌdoxasa nya na ngade tänya ka, again C.go C.find.AW him and say to.him that again he went and found him and said to him, 23. “Kala noxo ganang ꞌdoga zeke gi tä cad wundung, afterwards 2s.see now thing.MC cover you for sit.VN not.there “If you now see the thing covering you for sitting (saddle) is not there, 24. ꞌdoga zeke gi tä lakgä tarupus wundung, kala ganang thing.MC cover you for wear.PC mat not.there like now the thing of covering you as wearing a mat is not there, then afterwards 25. noco na nycata tä butug apoyiyo winy.” 2s.go and 2n.sit in kingdom well just you will go and sit comfortably in the kingdom.”9 26. Kaccä ngade ka, “Neng nycugo.” Na samen akä sog sägämele. donkey say that ok CD.1i.go and 3p.C.start road.PC journey 3p.C.return Donkey said, “Ok, letꞌs go.” And they set off on the road and they returned. 27. Atorndori ngade ta Kaccä ka, fox say to donkey that Fox said to Donkey, 28. “Uccudi todong bende agä ndä awung.” CD.stay here CD.wait me then 1s.come “Stay here and wait until I come.” 8 Fox tells Donkey this so he will think a king should not have a tail for better sitting on the throne and Donkey is

thus willing to go back to the Lion. 9 Maybe Fox tells Donkey this so he will think a king should not have ears for better wearing a crown and Donkey is

thus willing to go back to the Lion.

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29. Na nyägäꞌdoc nyapäcca ta buguning, ngade täng ka, and 3n.C.go 3n.C.call to king say to.him that And he went and called the king and said to him, 30. “Gining wede ꞌdanyawa ndey Kaccä wung, icca ndä kala men.” you.LN CD.go CD.hide.RX so.that donkey come CD.sit then then catch.VN “You go hide yourself so that you pretend to catch Fox, but instead you will catch

Donkey.” 31. Kala buguning käꞌdoc kaꞌdanywa na kala so king C.go C.hide.RX and like So, the king went and hide himself and 32. nyägäꞌdoc nyaläpe ta Kaccä ka, “Bo icca.” it.C.go 3n.C.tell to donkey that CD.come CD.sit went and told Donkey, “Come sit.” 33. Na Kaccä käpätäng käcca, na Osox kasäx todi kamen nya. and donkey C.come C.sit and lion C.jump there C.catch it And Donkey came and sat, and Lion jumped there and caught him. 34. Kala Osox kasiy nya ndä wang bange ta oxaydagi so lion C.eat it and leave remainder.PNS for animals.RL So Lion ate him and left the remainder for the other animals, 35. kalungang, i nyängade ka, others.ID but 3n.say that but he said, 36. ꞌdärägsä ze adakä sasiy, ka sawang tänya. brains.PC head should.not 3p.C.eat that 3p.C.leave for.it the brains of the head they should not eat, but leave for him. 37. Na oxayda kasiy ya käꞌday i kawang ze, and animals C.eat meat all but C.left head Then the animals ate all the meat but left the head, 38. i nya Atorndori tetex nyägäꞌdoc nyaꞌdanywa. but he Fox quickly 3n.C.go 3n.hide.RX and Fox himself quickly went and hid himself. 39. Ndä nyämel nyawung na nyaꞌdoxung nycoki and 3n.return 3n.C.come and 3n.C.find.TW people And he returned and came and found people

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40. kasiy ya i kawang zä Kaccä na nyimecce ka, C.eat meat but C.leave head.PC donkey with liver.PNS that had eaten the meat and left the head of Donkey with the liver, and (said), 41. “I zaxadang siyakä ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogong anya?” but 2p.refuse eat.PC brain.PC head.PC thing.PN why “Why do you refuse to eat the brain of the head of this thing?” 42. Kala oxayda ngadeccä ka, so animals say.CN that So the animals said, 43. “I no käꞌdang buguning ngade ka, sawang ꞌdärägse tänya.” but seems if king say that 3p.leave brain.PM to.it “It seems the king said to leave the brain to him.” 44. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Neng, nyägatadang buguning?” Nyängade ka, and fox says that ok 2p.fear.RE.2p king 3n.say that And Fox said, “Ok, are you afraid of the king?” He said, 45. “Ziya ꞌdog winy, i gom buguning kawungang, wanga tagä.” CD.2p.eat thing just but after king C.come.ID CD.leave for.me “You just eat the thing, after the king comes, leave (it) for me.” 46. Na sabag ꞌdärägsä zä Kaccä sasiy na kala buguning and 3p.C.take brain.PC head.PC donkey 3p.eat and so king And they took the brain of the head of the donkey, and they ate and so the king 47. kangäsa tä säng na mänecce ka, “I ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogang giyandi?” C.stand to down and 3s.ask.CN that but brain.PC head.PC thing.my where stood and asked, “Where is the brain of the head of my thing?” 48. Na Atorndori ngade tänya ka, and fox say to.it that And Fox said to him, 49. “Gi ndey bäle ka gining tä zägi ninggi wundung. 2s so.that know that 2s.LN to your.head with.you not.there “You were supposed to collect all the meat, but you were not there. 50. ꞌDog kabandä käluw ipe, kawang, käluw wungge, thing C.call C.cut tail.PNS C.leave C.cut ears.PNS The thing called the tail you cut and I left (it), you cut those ears, 51. kawang, käwang käpax käsiy käꞌday. 1s.C.leave 2s.C.leave 2s.C.kill 2s.C.eat all

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and I left, you left and you killed and ate everything. 52. Kaꞌdang ꞌdärägsä ze tängang kax kämel tagä mänang?“ if brain.PC head there.ID suppose 2s.C.return to.me like.this If (the donkey) had a brain, would he have returned (after you tried to kill it the first

time)?” 53. Na buguning ngade ka, and king say that And the king said, 54. “Pezängga ngakong tireneng.” Na kala todi sawasesining. True speech.PN really.true and so there 3p.C.separate.3p “This speach is really true.” And so from there they dispersed. 55. Tampililig. forever The end. Batakä Nyoxolow (Nyax) marry.VN.PC Hyena The marriage of Hyena 1. Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila ka paye long.ago that girl.EX refuse marry.VN unless that want Long ago, there was a girl who refused to marry unless she found 2. yoxa caxse kabatwa. Xongenandäng Nyoxolow kädäng ꞌdogkeneni, husband.MC handsome C.looks.nice.RX time.PNS.EX hyena C.hear thing.PW a handsome husband. There was a time that Hyena heard there was this matter, 3. na nyängade ka, “Ila anoc abag sagalong.” and 3n.say that unless 1s.go 1s.marry girl.PN and said, “I really must marry this girl.” 4. Na nyämänecce ka, sagalong paye yoxa key. and 3n.ask.CN that girl.PN want husband.MC how And he asked this girl what kind of husband she wanted. 5. Na säläpeda tänya ka, sagaleneni, paye yoxa caxse kabatwa. and 3p.tell to.it that girl.PW want husband.MC handsome C.looks.nice.RX And she told him she is a girl that wants a handsome husband. 6. Ndä ganang key na nyägäsaydawa nyoxo nyädas. then now how and 3n.C.claim.RE.RX 3n.see 3n.bad If it is like this, he claims he sees badly.

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7. Na nyagäräng ka enggä aminugunyatäng. and 3n.C.remember that children.PC friends.his.EX And he remembers his young friends. 8. Ndey nyägäꞌdoc täng toga wegkä del tänya. so 3n.C.go there give things.PC decorating to.it So he goes there (so that they) give him decorations (to dress him up nicely). 9. Na kala nyägäꞌdoc ta me zäwan. and so 3n.C.go to person head Then, he went to the head of the family, 10. na nyängade täng ka, and 3s.say to.him that and said to him, 11. “Bo tong zäginong, anoc abagäs uxandäng tägog.” CD.come CD.bring head.your.PN 1s.go 1s.marry.AP woman.EX to.us “Speak truthfully, I want to marry a woman for us.”10 12. Na taxodi kodoga ze tänya. and from.there C.give head to.it And at that point, he gave head to him. 13. Na nyägäꞌdoc nyäwedede nyaꞌdox me anadaru. and 3n.C.go 3n.walk 3n.C.find person glasses And he went and found a person with glasses. 14. Na nyängadetäng ka, and 3n.say.RE.TW that And he said, 15. “Bonog, tong anadarugugigong, anoc abagäs uxandäng tägog.” friend CD.bring glasses.your.PN 1s.go 1s.marry.AP woman.EX to.us “Friend, bring these glasses of yours, I am going to marry a certain woman for us.” 16. Na me anadaru ngade ka, “Neng, nang bi.” and person glasses say that ok with.it then And the person with glasses said, “Ok, take them then.” 17. Nyabag kalanyä wedede sägäpase na me agäwan, 3n.C.take C.take walk.FT 3p.C.meet with person eyes

10

In marrying a woman, the whole family benefits from her services of cooking, cleaning, and managing the

household. Thus the phrase ꞌmarry a woman for usꞌ is used.

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He took it and they met a person with old eyes, 18. na nyängade ta me agäwan ka, “Bonog, tong boxänggä agägigong and 3s.say to person eyes that friend CD.bring old.person.PC eyes.your.PN and he said to the person with old eyes, “Friend, bring these old eyes of yours, 19. anoco abagäs uxandäng tägog.” Na kadoga tänya, 1s.go 1s.marry.AP woman.EX to.us with C.give to.it I am going to marry a certain woman for us.” He gave (it) to him, 20. na nyäwedede nyäꞌdoxo me ngasäwan na nyägade täng ka, and 3n.walk.RE 3n.find person neck and 3n.say to.him that and he continued and found a person of importance said to him, 22. “Bonog tong ngasäginong, anoc abagäs uxandäng tägog.” friend CD.bring neck.your.PT 1s.go 1s.marry.AP woman.EX for.us “Friend, bring this your neck, I am going to marry a certain woman for us.” 23. Na me ngasäwan ngade ka, “Neng ata baga.” and person neck say that ok may CD.take And the person of importance said, “Ok, you can take it.” 24. Na nyabag kala nyägädelwa seley kala nyägäduru nycoki käꞌday and 3n.C.take so 3n.C.decorate.RX surely so 3n.C.gather people all And in this way he took and became dressed up and gathered all the people 26. kala seley nyägädimi delgänya käꞌday. so surely 3n.C.complete decoration.its all for comparison so as to complete all his adornment (he then looked like a person). 27. Na kala nyägäꞌdoc nyapara pa na nyägädokol and so 3n.C.go 3n.C.arrive home and 3n.C.stand And he went and arrived to the home and stood 28. täxande na ce cägox ma. far.away and she 3f.C.see him far away and she saw him. 29. Na cägäꞌdoc täma na cängade ka, and 3f.C.go to.him and she.say that And she went to him and said, 30. “Key gi? Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko wala wi?” how you you.EX 2s.C.come to home.our(e) or what “How are you? Listen, have you come to our home or what?”

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31. Na mängade ka, “E, agänang kawung tä panägo xongondong.” and 3m.say that yes 1s.LN 1s.C.come to house.your(pl) this.day And he said, “Yes, I have come to your house today.” 32. Na cängade ka, “Wanga xa apo winy.” and 3f.say that CD.leave because good just And she said, “Ok, then that is good.” 33. Na kala cägäꞌdoc ta mesa cängade täng ka, and so 3f.C.go to father.her 3f.say to.him that And then she went to her father and said to him, 34. “Appa, nya yoxanggi ampayeng nyanang, kawung xongondong.” father it husband.my.RL 1s.want.ID 3n.LN C.come this.today “Father, my potential husband that I like has come today.” 35. “Neng wanoccig.” Na mesa ngade ka, ok 1e.go and father.her say that “Ok, we will go.” And the father said, 36. “Neng yox udodung xongondong na kala noccang mänang?” ok husband come.TW this.today and so 2p.go like.this “Ok, (your) potential husband is coming today and you want to go like this?” 37. Na cängade ka, “Neng, zaxeng adelgede tä masäginani.” and 3s.say that ok if.like 1s.fall.down to fire.your(sg).LF And she said, “Well, if like that (we donꞌt go), I will fall down into your fire there.” 38. Na mesa ngade ka, “Neng, wesi bi.” and father.her say that ok CD.2p.go just And (her) father said, “Ok, then go.” 39. Cägäduru wayagkäsa käꞌday. Kala kadogas ce tä akä sog 3f.C.gather relatives.their all so C.escort her on path.PC journey She gathered all their relatives. Then they escorted her on the way 40. ndä säpäse lang täce kätos na päxä weg. and 3p.fill basket for.her full with small.PC things and they filled small bags for her there with many things. 41. Kala säwedeccä mänang, kala de sapara täxande, So 3p.move.CN like.this so after 3p.C.arrive far Then moving along like this, they later arrived at a great distance, 42. na nyängade täce ka, “Wededi ndä awung.” and 3n.say to.her that CD.walk.RE and 1s.come

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and he (husband) asked her, “Continue (onwards), and I will come (later).” 43. Na mägäꞌdoc ta me zäwan. Na me zäwan ngade ka, and 3m.C.go to person head and person head say that Then he went to the head of the (hyenaꞌs) family. 44. “Bonog, nya uxogkiyanani?” Na nyängade ka, “Uxog, uxog, kädugig? friend it 3n.wife.our(i).PF.LF and 3n.say that wife.our(i) wife.our 1i.C.share “Friend, is that our wife which is there?” And he said, “Our wife, the one we are

sharing? 45. Neng tong zang.” Nyägäꞌdoc ta me exenggäwan, ok CD.bring head.my 3n.C.go to person legs Ok, bring my head.” He went to a person with legs, 46. ta me asänggäwan, ta me ayaꞌdog. Nycoki kabag wegka käꞌday. to person hands to person everything people C.get things.MC all to a person with hands, to a person with everything. People got everything (for him). 47. Na kala nyägäpätäng nyäwede tä bangäce, and so 3n.C.come 3n.walk for call.VN.her And then he came and continued to follow her, 48. kätäbäxäs kätäbäxäs kätäbäxäs. Na cäbangacca ka, C.limp C.limp C.limp and 3f.call.CN that limping all the way. And she called, 49. “Ama gisani me panangani todi, läpi täma ka mawung.” hey guy.LF person house.my.LF? there CD.tell to.him that 3m.come “Hey, there is a guy, the father of my children (one dressed as person),

tell him to come.” 50. Na maluw mängade täce ka, “Cong agänang.” and 3m.C.respond 3m.say to.her that be 1s.LN And he responded saying to her, “I am the one.” 51. Na ce cägämolaswa napäl. Kala säwedeccä mänang kala sapara pa.

and she 3f.C.remain.RX quiet so 3p.walk.CN like.this so 3p.reached home And she remained quiet. Then they continued like this until they reached home. 52. Kala tä pa sägucco kala cägoxsonga. Na cäläpede täma ka, so to home 3p.C.stay so 3f.C.be.pregnant and 3f.tell to.him that Then they stayed at home and became pregnant. And she told him, 53. “Wede tä pa koying nuxu päxäsko tagä ndey menecce tagä.” CD.go to house CD.bring only child.our(e) to.me so.that care.CN to.me

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“Go to (my family’s) house and bring our only child to me so that he may care for me.” 54. Na mamen akä sog mägäꞌdoc tä pa ta menggäsa, and 3m.C.start path.PC journey 3m.C.go to house to fathers.her And he began the journey and went to house of her fathers, 55. i mägäyoge wegkä del maꞌday. but 3m.C.collect things.PC decoration 3m.C.wash but he collected the decorations and washed. 56. Kala maläpe ta menggäsa ka, “Päxägo paye medenow.” so 3m.C.tell to fathers.her that daughter.your(p) need baby.sitter Then he told her fathers, “Your daughter needs a babysitter.” 57. Na menggäsa ngadeccä ka, “Baga medenow.” and fathers.her say.NC that CD.take baby.sitter And her fathers said, “Take the babysitter.” 58. Na mabag päxä pipi kala säwedeccä sawuno tä ikä colonggo. and 3m.C.take child baby so 3p.walk.NC 3p.C.come to mouth.PC river And he took the babysitter and walked and came to a river bank. 59. Na nya nyägäꞌdoc nyedel tägaxsänggä ma na nyängade ka, and it 3n.C.go 3n.C.fell insides.PC water and 3n.say that And he went and fell into the middle of the water and said, 60. “Za agä, anycus key?” Na päxä pipi ngade ka, CD.see me 1s.look how and child baby say that “Look at me. How do I look?” And the babysitter said, 61. “Cong boxu gisongang käbag nganäskong?” be like.PC guy.PN.ID 2s.C.marry sister.our(e).PN “Are you this guy that married this our sister?” 62. Na nyasan nyamen nyasiy, ndä nyäꞌdoc nyäläpede täce ka, and 3n.C.jump 3n.C.start 3n.C.eat and 3n.go 3n.tell to.her that And he jumped and began eating (her), and he went and told her(wife) that 63. nycoki leye pipi täma. Mände cayaxsä ma ka, people refuse baby to.him again 3f.C.send him that people refused (to give) him a babysitter. (Later) Again she sent him saying, 64. “Mo wede ta nycoki tä pa ka sädong päxä pipi tagä.” just CD.walk to people to home that 3p.give child baby to.me “Now go to the people of (my) home so that they give me a babysitter.”

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65. Kala mägämel tä pa maläpe na nycoki ngadeccä ka, “E käxiyandi?” So 3m.C.return to home 3m.C.tell and people say.CN that hey person.PF.QL So he returned to the home and requested (another) and the people said,

“Hey, where is that person?” 66. Na mängade ka, “Käxi kalayis sagal saxe mened, neng ganang key?“

and 3m.say that person.PF C.remain girl refuse care.VN ok now how And he said, “That person became an older girl and refused to babysit (anylonger),

so now what do we do?” 67. Na sadoga nuxu mände täma. and 3p.C.give only again to.him And they gave another (babysitter) to him. 68. Na sägäꞌdocco tä colonggo, na mände mände kasax ma and 3p.C.go to river and again again C.refuse him And they went to the river, and again the girl refused him and he 69. na masiy mände nyägäꞌdoc tä pa ka nycoki leye pipi. and 3m.C.eat again 3n.C.go to house that people refuse babysitter ate (her), and again he went to the house as if the people refused (to give) a babysitter. 70. Kala sax cayaxsä ma kala cadästä ma tä buxani biyeyang so again 3f.C.send him so 3f.C.advise him for wine.RL small.LN So she sent him and advised him to have a little wine 71. na sawuno tä colonggo, na nyamän, kala mäneki nyämändäs nganakanang. and 3p.C.come to river and 3n.C.ask so ask.VN.RL 3n.ask.RE.AP elder.sisters.LN and they came to the river and he asked and asked the elder sisters. 72. Na ngade ka, “Noxo, mpoyo nano.” and say that 2s.see 2s.good very And (he) said, “You see, you are very good.” 73. Na kala nyawetä nyängade ka, “Kala cugo.” and so 3n.C.go 3n.say that so CD.1i.go And then he went out and said, “Letꞌs go.” 74. Na samen akä sog sägäꞌdocco tä pa ta nganäsa. and 3p.C.start path.PC journey 3p.C.go to house to elder.sister.their And they began on the way and they went to the house of their elder sister. 75. Kala edekeny Nyoxolow käꞌdoc tä wedäg i sa salaye tä pa. so next.day hyena C.go to journey but they 3p.C.remain at home So, the next day, Hyena went on journey, but they(wife & sister) remained at home.

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76. Na kala ce cäläpede ta nganäsa ka, “Gi nycu ka käxogkandäng? and so she 3f.tell to sister.her that you 2s.remain that person.our(i).EX

And then she told her elder sister, “Do you still (see) our person? 77. ꞌDoxtong kasiy nganakog käꞌday song?” guy.PN C.eat elder.sisters.our(i) all not Didnꞌt this guy completely eat all our elder sisters?” 78. Kala säpaye saxake ndä sänyägate Nyoxolow. so 3p.want divorce.PNS and 3p.fear hyena So, they wanted a divorce and they were afriad of Hyena. 79. Na kala cabag enggä soc sägel, and so 3f.C.take children.PC fruit 3p.C.peel And then she (wife) took fruit and peeled (it), 80. ndä cäbag kogolge cädoxus mas. and 3f.take peels 3f.light.AP fire and took the peels and lit a fire. 81. Ndä kala läge lägo ndä sängeccä. and so smoke.PNS smoke and 3p.cry.CN And then there was smoke and they cried. 82. Na wäx ta agäsa kacu cucu cu. and tears from eyes.their C.drop drop drop And tears from their eyes came pouring out. 83. Na nyawung nyämäne ce ka, “Oxadi wadi ngedenang?” and 3n.C.come 3n.ask her that what wrong cry.RE.2p.ID And he came and asked her, “Why are you crying?” 84. Na cängade ka, “I noxo lägong song?” and 3f.say that but 2s.see smoke.PN not And she said, “Donꞌt you see this smoke?” 85. Sax nyämäne ce ka, “I oxadi kasokwa xongong mänang?” again 3n.ask her that but what C.happen day.PN like.this Again he asked her, “But what happen this day so that it is like this?” 86. Na cängade ka, “I midong” Na cäläpede nya ka, and 3f.say that but oil.PC and 3f.tell him that And she said, “That oil.” And she told him, 87. “Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig mid taxä caxsägi CD.bend and head.your(s) and 1e.pour.RE.TW oil inside anus.your(s)

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Bend over with your head (down) and we will pour oil into your anus 88. na kala käwing.” and so 2s.C.be.fat so that you will be fat. 89. Na nyalilingäzi na cabag mida täpeye cocola taxä caxsänya. and 3n.C.bend and 3f.C.take oil.MC be.hot 3f.pour inside anus.his And he bent over and she took hot oil and poured (it) into (his) anus. 90. Na Nyoxolow käxsä na cabag päxäsa, na nya päxä Nyaxolowzi. and hyena C.die and 3f.C.take child.their and it child.PC hyena.PF And Hyena died and she took their child and it is the child of Hyena. 91. Kala samen akä sog säwedeccä mänang kala säpaseccä na me so 3p.C.start path.PC journey 3p.walk.CN like.this so 3p.met.CN with person

So, they began walking on the way until they met a witchdoctor. 92. kaläg. Kala me kaläg mäne sa ka, “ꞌDogong käꞌdoxang ti?” amulet so person amulet ask them that thing.PN 2p.C.find where Then the witchdoctor asked them, “Where have you found this thing?” 93. Na päxä Nyoxolow käluw ngade ka, and child.PC hyena C.interrupt say that And the child of the Hyena interrupted saying, 94. “Ngganang kapax appanang.” mother.my C.kill father.my “My mother killed my father.” 95. Na Nyoxolow nyängade ka, “Wi? and hyena 3n.say that what And Hyena (witchdoctor) said, “What? 96. Kanggo luwing nyimec ta andäma. that.you(pl) cut.2P liver to hand.his You cut out the liver for his hand (give liver to the child). 97. Kala säꞌdox kanggong mänang säꞌdox kanggong mänang. so 3p.FT.find that.you(p).ID like.this 3p.FT.find that.you(p).ID like.this So, they will find you like this, they will find you like this. 98. Na säꞌdoxa apangä buguningzä za.” and 3p.find man.PC king.PC head And they will find an important king.”

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99. Na nyämänecce ka, “Lägong lägo ti?” Na päxä Nyoxolow ngade ka, and 3n.ask.CN that smoke.PN smokes where with child.PC hyena say that And he asked, “Where is this smoke smoking from?” And child of the Hyena said, 100. “Ngganang kapax appanang.” Ka “Wi?” Na sängadeccä ka, mother.my C.kill father.my that what and 3p.say.CN that “My mother killed my father.” (Hyena) said, “What?” And they said, 101. “Kagi luw nyimec ta andäma.” Na Nyoxolow ngade ka, that.you(s) cut liver to hand.his and hyena say that “Oh you cut out the liver for his hand.” And Hyena (witchdoctor) said, 102. “Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi?” Ngade ka, “Wi?” oh 2s.say.RE.TW in.PC anus.his 2s.speak.? say that what “Oh you are saying there is a problem in his anus? He said, “What?” 103. Päxä Nyoxolow ngade ka, “Ngganang kapax appanang” child.PC hyena say that mother.my C.kill father.my The child of the Hyena said, “My mother killed my father.” 104. Na mägäpokä sa madoga sa tägaxsä bo meldänäny and 3m.C.carry them 3m.C.put them inside.PC big bladder And he carried them (woman, child, sister) and put them in the blatter (of dead hyena) 105. kala nyabandä osony kawuno. so 3n.C.call lions C.come then he called lions to come. 106. Nyaxolowiny kawuno na nyäläpede täsa ka, hyenas C.come and 3n.tell to.them them Hyenas came and he told them, 107. “Päxä yanang kaꞌdox tanggo, wining lala.” young meat.LN PS.C.find to.you(p) CD.2p.come CD.see “Here is a lot of meat for you. Come and see.” 108. Na Nyaxolowiny kasag kawuno na nyägädukusa and hyenas C.gather C.come and 3n.C.pour.AW And Hyenas gathered together and he poured out 109. päxä wegki nyägong, ndä nyäꞌdoxo nycoki wunodung. small things.RL 3n.have.ID but 3n.find people come many things he had, but discovered the people (woman, child, sister) escaped. 110. Na nyäläpede täsa ka, “Wesi zagi tä kaxsed tä nyam.” and 3n.tell to.them that CD.2p.go CD.gather in forest for check.VN

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He told them, “You go gather in the forest to check (for them).” 111. Na säsage sänyamecce mänang, and 3p.gather 3p.check.CN like.this Then they scattered and checked like this, 112. i nya nyägäꞌdoc nyägäcca toboxu koxiccandäng. but he 3n.C.go 3n.C.sit under.PC coconut.tree.EX but he went and sat under a coconut tree. 113. Na nyoxo ligitigä weg pirtidining na nyägäcop sa nyoxo and 3n.see shadows.PC things shake.RE.3p and 3n.C.look them 3n.see And he saw shadows of things shaking and he looked and he saw 114. kän tiyati na nyabandä sa ka, “Ama kän zagi xa sakang.” people up and 3n.C.call them that hey people CD.gather because 3p.LN people up (in tree) and called to them, “You people, come because they are here.” 115. Na nycoki kasag kawuno. Na kala sadelese tä dag sädagacca, and people C.gather C.come and so 3p.C.make.fall by cut.VN 3p.cut.CN And the people gathered and came. Then they (tried to) make (tree) fall by cutting (it), 116. na calanga mildä isugusatäng na isu kädäng mildäce and 3f.C.sing song.PC dogs.their.EX and dogs C.hear song.her and she (wife) sang a song about their dogs and dogs heard her song, 117. na koyo pacce kawuno kaꞌdox sa na kaꞌdoxung Nyaxolowiny, and C.run very C.come C.find them and C.find.TW hyenas, and they ran fast and came and found them and found hyenas with them, 118. na sasandasatäng sacotädä kapax käꞌday. and 3p.C.jump.RE.PL.TW 3p.C.overturn C.kill all and jumped on and overturned and killed all (of them). 119. Na todi kala sacocoleza sägäꞌdocco tä pa ta menggäsa. and there so 3p.C.come.down.UN 3p.C.go to house to father.their Then they (woman, child, sister) came down and went home to their fathers. 120. Tampililig. forever The end. Atorndori na Nyoxolow (A&N) fox and hyena The Fox and Hyena

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1. Legedäniccä Atorndorindäng na Nyoxolow. story.PC fox.EX and hyena There is a story of Fox and Hyena. 2. Sälege mägaccäng wane ka Atorndori 3p.speak long.time past.time that fox It is said that a long time ago Fox 3. na Nyoxolow ka säs enggä bony. and hyena that be children.PC friends and Hyena were friends. 4. Na kala xongonendäng, nyängade ta amindänya ka, and so time.period.EX 3n.say to friend.its that And there was a time when he (Fox) said to his friend, 5. “Bonog, anocci edekeny oloxti odudi tä keskow anocci tä lag Friend CD.1i.go tomorrow early morning at dawn CD.1i.go to hunt.VN “Friend, early tomorrow morning at dawn, let us go hunting 6. tä pumpung ndey ꞌdoxig oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig ta penggog, in bush so.that 1i.find animal.MC big 1i.kill 1i.bring to children.our(i) in the bush so that we can find a big animal and kill and bring (it) to our home, 7. xa xas kapax kog nano. because hunger C.kill us very because we were very hungry. 8. Kälaygädiccig kax käꞌdoxig ya käsiyig song.” Nyoxolow ngade ka, 1i.C.remain.RE.CN must 1i.C.find meat C.eat not hyena say that We remained (a long time) but did not find meat to eat.” Hyena said, 9. “Bonog, nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song ꞌdoccig winy. Andaya odudi cugo.” friend only thing.EX not 1i.move just CD.1i.go morning CD.1i.go “Friend, there is nothing. Let us just move on. Let us go in the morning.” 10. Na kala edekeny tä keskow sägädayino ta awadi And so tomorrow at dawn 3p.C.go to bird.RL Then the next day at dawn, they went to a bird for which 11. nuxungang kala satäng tä pumpung. Na kala saꞌdoxa denyä only.ID so 3p.EX in bush and so 3p.C.find cow there is only one, and they listened (for it) in the bush. Then they found a cow 12. nuxu kigkandäng kämes kasängga täpox tä kaxsed tä pumpung. only person.EX C.loose C.sleep away in forest in bush

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someone lost sleeping far away in the forest in the bush. 13. Na sägärakä samen sapax na sägendä sägäꞌdese and 3p.C.surround 3p.C.start 3p.C.kill and 3p.C.skin 3p.C.complete And they surrounded and killed (it) and completely removed 14. engeke na kala sägäccasäng. Atorndori ngade ka, skin.VN and so 3p.C.sit.PL?.TW fox say that the skin and then sat down. Fox said, 15. “Bonog, kala kendäsig ndä ꞌdoxodig mas ti ndey friend so 1i.C.skin.AP and 1i.find.RE fire where so.that “Friend, when we finish skinning, where will we find fire so that 16. buxusig nuxu ya siyig ndey pokusig ndakä 1i.roast only meat 1i.eat so.that 1i.carry.AP so.that.not we can roast some of the meat and eat (it) so that we can carry it so that 17. letugu deny wuno ꞌdoxung kog todongang?” owners.PC cow arrive find.TW us here.PN.ID owners of the cow will not arrive and find us here?” 18. Nyoxolow ngade ka, “Cugo azaya.” Hyena said that CD.go CD.1i.see Hyena said, “Let us see (the meat).” 19. I tari nya Atorndori ngakänya täng täzäg but surely it fox matter.its to.him down But the fox himself surely had the goal of indirectly 20. nyäpaye nyäbag ya watäkänya, 3n.want 3n.take meat alone.its taking the meat for himself, 21. na kala nyäläpede ta Nyoxolow ka, and so 3n.tell to hyena that and he said to Hyena, 22. “Bonog bende agä, aꞌdo todani ndä awung.” Nyägäꞌdoc friend CD.wait me 1s.FT.go there and 1s.come 3n.C.go “Friend, wait for me. I will go there and then return.” He went 23. tä kärekä ngakä ꞌdoga nyäsog ndey nyäbag ya watäkänya. for think.VN.PC matter.PC thing.MC 3n.do so.that 3n.take meat alone to think about what he could do inorder to take the meat for himself.

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24. Na nyägäꞌdoc nyaꞌdox Apoco na nyängade ta Apoco ka, and 3n.C.go 3n.find hare and 3n.say to hare that And he went and found Hare and said to Hare, 25. “Päxä bisko, gi todong? Agänanganang ngakä käꞌdang child.PC friend you(sg) here.PN 1s.LN.LN matter.PC since Young friend, are you here? And I was really thinking about you 26. todong agäre nga pacce ndä aꞌdiy ꞌdoga asog?” here 1s.think matter very and 1s.forget thing.MC 1s.do.FT here and do I not know what to do? 27. Na Apoco ngade ka, “Anya, oxadi kasogwang?” Atorndori and hare says that why what C.happen.RX.ID fox And Hare said, “Why, what happened?” Fox 28. ngade ka, “Accang, wasaki kawunig tä lag na buguning ndä say that oh 1e.gather 1e.C.come for hunt with king and said, “Oh, we gathered and came for hunting with the king (Hyena), and 29. kapaxig denyä nuxu kigkandäng ndä nya mänang mäle mämeske. 1in.C.kill cow.PC one person.EX and it like.this 3m.refuse 3m.protect we killed a cow of one person, and like this he remained back to protect (meat). 30. Seley ka wabuxig nuxu wasiyig ndey wampokusig surly that 1e.roast one 1e.eat so.that 1e.carry Surely, we roasted one (cow) and ate (it) and we carried (it) 31. ndakä letugu deny ꞌdoxu was, mäsaxe. so.that.not owners.PC cow find us(e) 3m.refuse so that the owner of the cow would not find us, and refuse (us the beef). 32. “Neng ampaye ka gi läpäng rajta sogig ndey sokudig ok 1s.want that you(sg) 2s.tell.TW tricks 1i.do so.that 1i.transfer “Ok, I want you to tell me a deceitful way to transfer 33. ya nang ndey lay.” Apoco ngade ka, meat with so remain hare said that my meat remaining.” Hare said, 34. “Nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song, sotagä raj mangeccä. one thing.EX not ways.PC trick many “There is no problem, there are many ways to trick. 35. Ndä nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song, cugo xa musku xong kädukusi song, and one thing.EX not CD.go because still sun C.rise not

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And there is no problem, let us just go because the sun is still not risen, but the sun 36. i xong kädukusing läpi ka, ‘Bonog, masani, nuxu kig ꞌdoc but sun C.rise.TW CD.tell that friend fire.LF one person go.FT is rising, and say, ‘Friend, there is fire, one person will go 37. bota tägog’, ndä dängig ꞌdoga mängade tägog.” bring.FT to.us(i) and 2s.see.FT thing.MC 3m.say to.us(i) bring (fire) (pretending the sun is fire) to us’, and you will see the thing he tells us

about.” 38. Na sägäꞌdocco na Apoco na saꞌdox Nyoxolow and 3p.C.go and hare and 3p.C.find hyena And they went and Hare found Hyena 39. na Atorndori ngade ta Nyoxolow ka, and fox say to hyena that and Fox said to Hyena, 40. “Bonog, yex ka kaꞌdoxa Apocondung sängo!” friend 2s.know that 1S.C.find hare.EX sleep “Friend, you know I found hare sleeping!” 41. Nyoxolow ngade ta Apoco ka, “Gindäng wanägi apo?” hyena say to hare that you(sg).EX body.your good Hyena said to Hare, “How are you?” 42. Apoco ngade ka, “E, agänang wanang apo winy, Hare say that yes 1s.LN body.my good just Hare said, “Yes, I am fine. 43. nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song.” Na Apoco ngade ta Nyoxolow ka, one thing.EX not and hare say to hyena that There is no problem.” And Hare said to Hyena, 44. “Boxu tayic, käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny big ox 1s.C.come for hunt and 2s.LN.LN 2s.C.kill cow “Backbitting (we have been talking about you), when you go hunting and kill a cow 45. ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang, ziye pes?” and fire.your(s) not.exist and 2s.do.FT what now.ID 2s.eat raw and you have no fire, what do you do then, or do you eat (the meat) raw?” 46. Na nyoxolow ngade ka, “Xanya?” Apoco ngade ka, and hyena say that why hare say that And Hyena said, “Why?” Hare said,

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47. “ꞌDoxo mas ti ganangang?” 2s.find.FT fire where now.ID “Where will you find fire now?” 48. Yä Atorndorindäng zacca na raj na nyängade ka, but fox.EX cause.see with trick with 3n.say that But Fox looks for sun to make a trick, and (Hare) says, 49. “Ama buguning, ꞌdogkani kaꞌdas mas.” Na Apoco ngade ka, hey king thing.LF C.like fire and Hare say that You oh king, there is a thing like fire.” And the Hare said, 50. “Nya masi kabotasang ndä awung nyang.” It fire.RL 1s.C.bring.AW.ID and 1s.come the.one “It is fire that I brought and came with it.” 51. Buguning ngade ka, “Neng xänang ꞌdocco bokada tägogkang?” king say that ok who go.FT bring.RE to.us(i).ID The king said, “Ok, who will go and bring (it) to us?” 52. Nyoxolow ngade ka, “Wanga Atorndori ꞌdoc bota tägog.” Hyena said that CD.let fox go.FT bring.FT to.us(i) Hyena said, “Let Fox go and bring (it) to us.” 53. Apoco käluw ngade ka, “Atorndori pete song.” hare C.respond say that fox run not Hare refused (this idea) and said, “Fox is not fast (enough).” 54. Buguning ngade ka, “Neng, wanga Apoco ꞌdoc tägog.” king say that ok CD.let hare go.FT for.us(i) The king said, “Ok, let Hare go for us.” 55. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Apoco täläng ndä nyaxic loy, nyäꞌdoco and fox say that hare short and grass tall 3n.go.FT And Fox said, “Hare is short and the grass is tall. He will go and 56. nyämese, nyäꞌdoxo odu mas song.” Na buguning mänecce ka, 3n.be.lost 3n.find place.PC fire not and king ask.CN that get lost and not find the place of the fire.” And the king asked, 57. “Ndä key gangang?” Atorndori ngade ka, and how now fox say that “So now what do we do?” Fox said (to Hyena), 58. “Giza wede tägog xa gining loy ndey luw nuxu

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you.MC walk for.us(i) because 2s.LN tall so.that 2s.cross one “You go for us because you are tall and will cross the 59. etä mas goying tägog tetex.” Na Nyoxolow käꞌdoc. tree.PC fire 2s.bring for.us(i) quickly and hyena C.go forest of the fire and bring (it) for us quickly.” And Hyena went. 60. I sa salaye sasokuda ya käꞌday tä pang Atorndori but they 3p.C.remain 3p.C.transfer meat all to home.ID fox But they remained and transfered all the meat home to house of Fox, 61. ndä sägäba miye na ipe, i ze kalay tunyu, and 3p.C.take skin.PNS with tail.PNS but head C.remain separate and they took the skin with the tail but left the head behind 62. ndä saduguning tä wungge säꞌdätädä. Ndä sangedicco pacce ka, and 3p.C.share.RC to ears.PNS 3p.cut.RE and 3p.C.cry.? very that and they shared the ears which were cut. Then they cried very loudly, 63. “Waa waa waa buguning, xonya was xa zäg kabag ya käꞌday kasiy.” (crying sound) king CD.rescue us(e) because soil C.take meat all C.eat “Oh, oh king, rescue us because the soil has taken all the meat and eaten (it). ” 64. Nyoxolow käpätäng na pecäg na kamen zä deny, hyena C.come with running and C.catch head.PC cow Hyena came and ran and caught the head of the cow 65. kaꞌdiꞌdi nanggäsa, säs kodos na sanyasäng tunyu, C.pull all.people.their 3p.be three and 3p.C.pull.TW out and pulled all of them, those three, and they pulled (it) out, 66. kusucag na Atorndori ngade ka, “Mo boxu tayic, pull.out and fox say that just big ox and Fox said, “Oh backbiting, “Oh backbiting, 67. i käꞌdang laygädäng, kax zägkong kasiy yanong käꞌday song mo. but if 2S.be.late.RE.ID must soil.PN C.eat meat.PN all not just and if you are late, this soil was not suppoed to eat all this meat. 68. Neng gang key, kala zäg kasiy ya, ok now how so soil C.eat meat Ok, now what do we do, since the soil ate the meat, 69. ndä key gang?” Atorndori ngade ka, then how now fox say that so how now?” Fox said,

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70. “Nycugo alara, gi baga ze buguning, ndey noccang CD.1i.go 1in.divide you(sg) take head king so.that 2p.go “Let us divide (things). You take the head king, so that you will come 71. ziyang ꞌdärägse, xa siyakä kängga ngoninyag. 2p.eat brain.PNS because eat.VN.PC people.MC important.ID and eat the brain, because it is the eating of important people. 72. Yanä ike tägining, miye tagä, ipe ta Apoco.” Meat.PC mouth.PNS to.you.LN skin.PNS to.me tail.PNS to hare The meat of the mouth is for you, the skin is for me, and the tail is for Hare.” 73. Na kala sägälaräsang na sägäꞌdocco, käxi käꞌdoc tä pane. and so 3p.C.divide.AP? and 3p.C.go person.PF C.go to home.PNS Then they divided them and they left–that person went home. 74. Kala xongonendäng, enggä penggä Nyoxolow käꞌdocco tä pang Atorndori. so time.period.EX young.PC children.PC hyena C.go to house.ID fox Then there was a time when the children of Hyena went to the house of Fox. 75. Wanyeccä na penggänya na nyäwede nyäꞌdoxong towa. play.CN and children.their and 3n.come 3n.find.ID inside They were playing and his (Foxꞌs) children and he came and found (them) inside. 76. Na nyängade ta penggä Nyoxolow ka, and 3n.say to children.PC hyena that And he (Fox) said to children of Hyena, 77. “Wesi läpi ta menggo ka kangad ka, CD.2p.go tell to father.your(p) that C.say that “Go tell your father, that I said that 78. ‘Edekeny, mägoying anggo tä codad’ na xetego ka kangad mänang.” tomorrow 3m.bring you(pl) for wrestle.VN and brothers.your(p) that C.say like.that ‘Tomorrow, he brings you to wrestling’ and (to) your brothers speak like this.” 79. Kala enggä penggä Nyoxolow käꞌdocco kaläpe ta mena. so young.PC children.PC hyena C.go C.tell to father.their So, the children of Hyena went and told (their) father. 80. Na kala odudi Nyoxolow kabag pengge kawunonang. and so morning hyena C.take children C.come.3p.LN Then in the morning, Hyena took (his) children and came. 81. Na kala Atorndori käbokung pengge tunyu

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and so fox C.bring?.TW children out Then Fox sent out (his) children 82. na penggä Atorndori kacotädä penggä Nyoxolow. and children.PC fox C.wrestle children.PC hyena and the children of Fox defeated the children of Hyena. 83. Ndä penggä Atorndori kalaye degeje penggä Nyoxolow ka, and children.PC fox C.remain stronger children.PC hyena that And the children of Fox were stronger than the children of Hyena (and said), 84. “Noxadang päxä yanäsko song, appanang degeje menggo, 2p.see.RE child.PC meat.our(e) not father.my 3m.stronger father.your(p) “You see, there is not a lot of our meat, and my father is stronger than your father. 85. Ka zäg kabag ya, i cong mabag ya magoying täwas.” that soil C.take meat but surely 3m.take meat 3m.C.bring to.us(x) That soil surely took the meat and bring the meat to us.” 86. Na penggä Nyoxolow käꞌdocco kaläpe ta mena. and children.PC hyena C.go C.tell to father.their And the children of Hyena went and told their father. 87. na Nyoxolow ngade ka, “Ganang mänang?” Na nyabag and hyena say that now how and 3n.C.take And Hyena said, “Now what should we do?” And he took 88. penggänya nyäꞌdocconang tä pogud ta Atorndori. children.its 3n.go.LN for fight.VN to fox his children and went to fight Fox. 89. Na Atorndori kabäle ꞌdogi tängang na nyägäꞌdoc and fox C.realize thing.RL there.ID and 3n.C.go And Fox realized what was happening and went 90. toboxu miy ndä nyäläpede ta penggänya ka, “Badänya!” under.PC skin and 3n.tell to children.its that beat inside the skin (to be scary) and spoke to the children, “Beat!” 91. Na kala penggänya bade nya ndä nyänge ka, and so children.its beat it and 3n.cry that Then his children beat him and cried, 92. “Waa waa waa, ndakä paxang agä, (crying sound) so.that.not 2p.kill me “Ah, ah, ah.” (And Fox says,) “Do not kill me

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93. xa agänangang kapax denyang song.” because I.LN.ID C.kill cow.ID not for I am not the one that killed the cow.” 94. Nyaxolowang na Apoco, “I mpayadangang, owgadas anggo tä panäma.” Hyena.ID and hare if 2p.want.RE.ID 1s.escort you(p) to home.his Hyena and Hare (said), “If you want, I will escort you to his home. ” 95. Kala Nyoxolow kädäng ngekänya na ngade ta pengge ka, so hyena C.hear cry.VN.his and say to children that Then Hyena heard crying for him and said to (his) children, 96. “Xoyi nycugo anoyi xa letugu denyaki kawuno. carefully CD.1i.go CD.1i.run because owners.PC cow.LF C.come “Oh, let us run because the owners of the cow are coming. 97. Nycugo anoyi, awanga Atorndori watäke CD.1i.go CD.1i.run CD.1i.leave fox alone Let us run! Leave Fox alone

98. xa nya mänang Atorndori, mägädäng nycoki tägog. Nycugo anoyi!” because 3n like.that fox 3m.C.hear people to.us(i) CD.1i.go CD.1i.run because Fox he is the one (who is being killed by owner for killing cow) and he will hear people coming to us. Let us run!” 99. Na sägoyo sägäꞌdocco sägämele, saꞌdanyining soxo ka and 3p.C.ran 3p.C.go 3p.C.return 3p.C.hide.LF 3p.see that And they ran and went and returned back, and they hide thinking that 100. letugu deny kamen Atorndori. owner cow C.catch fox the owner of the cow had caught Fox. 101. I cong letugu denyatäng song, nyägänanange Nyoxolow winy. But surely owners cow.EX not 3n.C.trick hyena just But the fact is, the owner of the cow was not there–he (Fox) just tricked Hyena. 102. Tampililig. forever The end. Tumos na Atorndori (T&A) elephant and fox The Elephant and the Fox

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1. Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed, old.time long.past that elephant 3n.be king.MC big in forest A long time ago, Elephant was an important king of the forest, 2. ndä nyang nyäs me kudurang mände, and 3n.ID 3n.be person strong.ID only and he was a powerful creature– 3. nuxu kigkandäng layis me kudura kaꞌdas nya song. only person.EX remain person strong C.be.like it not there was no one more powerful than him. 4. Na xongonendäng nyabag penggänya and time.period.EX 3n.C.take children.his And there was a time when he took his children 5. na uxunya, säꞌdocco tä walang tä siyakä ota tä pumpung. and wife.his 3p.go to trips for eat.VN.PC places in bush and his wife and they went on a trip to the eating places in the bush. 6. Na säwedeccä na penggänya nyäꞌdingidi ewetäng siye and 3p.go.CN with children.its 3n.cut.RE trees.EX eat And they went with his children and he cut down trees to eat 7. i säwedetäse tä luku tä wuxid. Na kala sägäꞌdocco sawuxsi but 3p.go.FT.AP ? to pond for drink.VN and so 3p.C.go 3p.C.drink.UN while they were going to a pond to drink. Then they went and drank 8. ndä säꞌdayining na kala samen sog säwedeccä säꞌdocco tä pa. and 3p.wash.RC and so 3p.C.start journey 3p.go.CN 3p.go to home and washed and then began the journey of going home. 9. Na sägäpase na Atorndori na Atorndori ngade tänya ka, and 3p.C.met with fox and fox say to.it that And they met Fox and Fox said to him, 10. “Xänanang? Bo buguning i kämpätäng ti? Go penggägi käꞌdayang.” who.ID big king but 2s.C.come where have children.your(s) all.ID “Who are you? (You are) an important king, you came from where? You have all these

children.” 11. Buguning ngade ka, “Accang mo wasakang wawedeccig, king say that surely just we(e).LN 1e.go.CN The king said, “Surely we are just going,

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12. kampätäng tä koyinakä nycokong tä siyakä ota 1s.C.come for escort.VN.PC people.PN for eat.VN.PC places and I am escorting these people to the eating places 13. tä pumpung, neng kala kanyänggädig, wameleccig tä pa.” in bush had so 1e.C.check.RE 1e.return.CN to home in the bush, and when we have checked (forest for food), we will return home.” 14. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “E nga mo kalaygädä, kax and fox say that yes word just 1s.C.be.late.RE supposed And Fox said, “Yes, it seems I am late, and am not supposed 15. kanox anggo song. Anggotäng watäkägo apoccu?” 1s.C.see you(p) not you(p).EX yourselves good to see you. Are you all fine?” 16. Buguning ngade ka, “E wasatäng watäkäsko apoccu winy.” king said that yes we(e).EX ourselves(e) be.good just The king (answered), “Yes, we are all just fine.” 17. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Mo nga gi ndenye nga winy.” and fox say that just word you(s) 2s.ignore word just And Fox said, “It seems you didnꞌt hear correctly.” 18. Mände nyangad ta uxu buguning ka, again 3n.C.say to wife.PC king that Again, he (Fox) said to the wife of the king, 19. “Bo nycokong anggokang.” Na uxu buguning ngade ka, mother people.PN you.(p)LN and wife.PC king say that “Mother of those people, are you fine?” And the wife of the king said, 20. “E wasakang.” Atorndori kämele ngade ka, yes we(e).LN fox C.return say that “Yes, we are fine.” Fox responded and said, 21. “Anggotäng käwunang xongong, sagoying anggo tä siyakä ota tä kaxsed?” you(p).EX 2p.C.come today 3p.C.bring you(p) for eat.VN.PC places to foreset “You have come this day, they brought you to eat in places of the forest?” 22. Bo nycoki ngade ka, “E.” Tumos ngade ka, mother people say that yes elephant say that Mother of those people said, “Yes.” Elephant said, 23. “Amo ngade ka, ‘Agä adenye nga key?’” guy said that I 1s.ignore word how

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“Someone said, ‘How do I ignore (this) word?’” 24. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Accang go pipu tägaxsä camanong. and fox say that surely have children inside danger.PN And Fox said, “Surely the children are (not) in danger. 25. Yex diniyena wede?” Buguning ngade ka, “Oxadiyang sogowang?” 2s.know storm.MC go king say that what.ID happen.RX.ID? Do you know a storm is coming?” The king said, “What is happening?” 26. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “I oda wede ndä kadarjange gi na pipuwang?” and fox say that but place.MC go and C.attack you(sg) and children.ID? And Fox said, “Will the storm come and attack you and the children?” 27. Tumos ngade ka, “Layis xäng seley wede tarjangekang?” elephant say that remain who surely go attack.VN.my Elephant said, “Who remains to attack me?” 28. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Neng mo nga näs me kudura nenyang. and fox say that ok just word be person strong that.is.why And Fox said, “Ok, It seems you are a strong person, that is why (you are not afraid).” 29. Na buguning ngade ka, “Agänang, ngakang layis and king say that I.LN word.my remain And the king said, “I am the one, my word remains 30. ngakä uxong wede na exengge pätax songang, word.PC wife.PN go and legs.PNS two not.ID

the word of this wife, not walking 31. kax amäso agang ndä awede? Mänang ngakä uxong supposed 1s.close eyes.my and 1s.go like.this word.PC woman.PN am I supposed to close my eyes and go? Like this, the wife 32. wede na exengge pätaxakang nyang sogoka ameskewang.” go with legs.PNS two.LN 3n.ID make.VN.MC? 1s.protect.RX.ID will walk and I protect (her).” 33. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Neng gang käxa wede näs and fox say that ok now person.MC go be And Fox said, “Ok, now is a person that walks a person 34. me kudura ka ꞌdaskandang säxong?” Na Tumos ngade ka, person strong that be.like.VN.EX not and elephant say that not strong enough (to pull someone)?” And the elephant said,

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35. “Xänang mände ngonde tagäng ndey anyägateng?” who big present than.me so 1s.fear.ID? “Who is there here big enough that I should fear (him)?” 36. Atorndori ngade ka, “I buguningza ngonde wundung?” fox say that but king.MC big absent Fox said, “But is the big king absent?” 37. Na Tumos ngade ka, “Buguningziyang ngonde tagäng?” and elephant say that king.PF.LN big than.me.ID And Elephant said, “That king is bigger than me?” 38. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Neng soga nycamiye ndey zaye.” and fox say that ok CD.make meeting if 2s.see And Fox said, “Ok, make an accusation if you see (something is not correct).” 39. Na edekeny sabandä oxayda käꞌday. and tomorrow 3p.C.call animals all And the next day, they called all the animals (to see if Elephant is the king). 40. Na nyäꞌdoc ta Kamälä na nyängade ta Kamalä ka, and 3n.go to camel and 3n.say to camel that

And he (Fox) went to Camel and said to Camel, 41. “Ama, gi nycu key käccäg ndey ka Tumosandäng ngade ka, guy you 2s.stay how 2s.C.be.unaware so.that that elephant.EX say that “Hey, how are you unaware that Elephant says, 42. käxa layis ngonde tänyandäng song.” person.MC remain big to.it.EX not there is no person bigger than him.” 43. Na sägäyawesäning nanggäsa kala nyängade ka, “Kamalä buguningzä and 3p.C.collect.AW.RC all.people.their so 3n.say that camel king.PC And they gathered everyone and he (Fox) said, “Camel is now the chairman of the 44. odu nycamiye ganang, i Osox me bokosänakä ganang.” place.PC meeting now but lion person usher.PC now the place of meeting, and Lion is now the usher.” 45. Kala Kamalä kawung kasängga na Nyoxolow kawung so camel C.come C.sleep and hyena C.come Then Camel went to sleep and Hyena 46. käcca mände na kala Tumos käpätäng. C.sit again and so elephant C.come

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sat down and then Elephant arrived. 47. I nya Atorndori nyägäꞌdoc nyuccu tä akä sogä Tumos. but it fox 3n.C.go 3n.stay at path.PC journey.PC elephant But Fox went and stayed at the entrance of Elephant. 48. Na Tumos käleza na kawung mänecce ka, and elephant C.appear and C.come ask.CN that And Elephant appeared and came and asked (Fox), 49. “I nya käxi ngadaccang ka, ‘Ngonde tagäng’ nyandi?” but it person.RL say.CN.ID that big to.me.ID it.QL “So, that person says, ‘(Someone) is bigger than me’ where is he?” 50. Na Atorndori läpede tänya ka, and fox tell to.it that And Fox told him, 51. “Ata bende nya xa nyäwunodung i no ꞌdogu wuxikä tabanänyanani.” let CD.wait it because 3n.come but seem thing.PC smoke.PC tobacco.its.LF “Just wait for him, because he is coming and there seems to be his tobacco pipe

smoking.” 52. Na Tumos ngade ka, “Ganang ꞌdogu wuxikä tabanänyanani?” and elephant say that now thing.PC smoke.PC tobacco.its.LF And Elephant said, “Now there is his tobacco pipe smoking?” (Fox made a big

smoking pipe to scare Elephant into thinking there is an usher bigger than him.) 53. Atorndori ngade ka, “E.” fox say that Yes Fox said, “Yes” 54. Na Tumos mänecce ngade ka, “I wiyani?” and elephant ask.CN say that but what.LF And Elephant asked and said, “What is there?” 55. Nyämäne ngakä Osox, na Atorndori ngade ka, 3n.ask word.PC lion and fox say that He asked for Lion, and Fox said, 56. “Accang i ꞌdogu cigiyenene.” Nyämänecce ka, “ꞌdogu cigiyeneni?” surely but thing.PC mane.PNS 3n.ask.CN that thing.PC mane.PW “Surely there is something like a mane.” He (Elephant) asked, “Something like that

mane?” 57. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “E.”

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and fox say that yes And Fox said, “Yes.” 58. Na Tumos, “I ganang lede uccu key xoyi, aꞌdägane anoco and elephant but now owner stay how carefully 1s.hurry 1s.go And Elephant (said), “But now, the owner carefully listens, and I am in a hurry, 59. i käxägini kawungang, läpi ka mänang mäs käxa but person.your(s).RL C.come.ID tell that like.this 3m.be person.MC

but after your person that comes, say to that big person that, 60. ngondeyang, i agänang anoco xa kacoxowa.” Na kala nyägäꞌdoc. big.ID but I.LN 1s.go because 1s.C.hurry and so 3n.C.go I am going, because I am in a hurry.” Then he left. 61. Tampililig. forever The end.

Legedäniccä Alkadis na Apoco (A & A) story.SG.PC cat and hare The Story of the Cat and the Hare Author: Juma Kaafi Tiya 1. Alkadis na Apoco käxong na bona na käxong na bona. cat and hare person.PN with mother.its with person.PN with mother.its Cat and Hare, were each with their own mother. 2. Säguccu tä pana nuxu käꞌdaygäsa na xas kawung kapax sa. 3p.C.stay from house.MC one all.their and hunger C.came killed them They lived in one house and they were very hungry. 3. Säguccu mänang na sagäräng ka sägäccasäng tä nycamiye. 3p.C.stay like.that and 3p.C.remember that 3p.C.sit.PL?.TW for meeting They remained like that and remembered they could have a meeting (about it). 4. Na Apoco läpede ta Alkadis ka, “Gining nycu key basa and Hare told to cat that you.LN 2s.stay how unless Hare said to Cat, “What do you think, shall 5. nganyig nganggonag ndey nganyäsig siyad?” “Yex agänang ampaye, 1i.sell mothers so.that 1i.buy.AP food 2s.know I.LN 1s.need we sell our mothers in order to buy food?” (Cat said) “You know I need (food).

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6. aläpäng tägi neng gi käpäcca käläpäng tagä, ‘Nycugo anganyi sa.’” 1s.tell.TW to.you had you 2s.C.call 2s.C.tell.TW to.me CD.1i.go CD.1i.sell them I was going to tell you, but you had already told me, ‘Let us go and sell them.’” 7. Na Apoco ngade, “Anocci awutäde zigä nganggonag.” and Hare said 1i.go 1s.tie.FT ropes.PC mothers And Hare said, “Let’s go tie rope on our mothers.” 8. Na kala Apoco käꞌdoc kawud zitä bona na Alkadis käꞌdoc and so Hare C.went C.tie rope.PC mother.its and cat C.went So, Hare went and tied rope on his mother and Cat went 9. kawud zitä bona. Apoco kasog zitä bona kätolojog, C.tied rope.PC mother.its Hare C.made rope.PC mother.its C.loose and tied rope on his mother. Hare made the rope of his mother loose, 10. i nya Alkadis nyägäsi zid tä ngasä bosa. but it Cat 3n.C.tighten rope at neck.PC mother.his but Cat tightened the rope around the neck of his mother. 11. Na kala sägäꞌdocco tä asug na Apoco läpede ta bona ka and so 3p.C.go to market and Hare told to mother.its that So, they went to the market and Hare told his mother, 12. “Gom käꞌdoccig tä wang asugkang, ndä aꞌdakasa gi noy.” later 1i.C.go to near market.ID and 1s.untie.AW? you 2s.FT.run “Later, when we go to the market, I will untie you and you can escape.” 13. Na kala sägäꞌdocco ngäte tä wang asug. and so 3p.C.go be.near to near market Then they went until they were near the market. 14. Na kala Apoco käꞌdaka bona koy. Na kala Alkadis kasay onge and so Hare C.untie mother.its C.run and so cat looked behind So, Hare untied his mother and she escaped. Then Cat looked back 15. oxada bo Apoconag pete na nyängade ka, “Xay bonggondi?” saw.FT mother hare.? run and 3n.say that oh mother.your.QL and saw the mother of Hare running and said, “Oh, where is your mother?” 16. Na nyängade ka, “Käwiccisi.” Na Alkadis ngade ka, “Gi käꞌdaka and 3n.say that C.disappear and cat said that you C.untie He said, “She disappeared.” Cat said, “You untied 17. bonggong koy. Anox oda ꞌdox siyad täng.” mother.your.PN ran 1s.see.FT place.MC 2s.get food from.it

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your mother and she escaped. I will see the place she gets food from.” 18. Na kala Alkadis käꞌdocco kangany bona kanganyäs siyad. and so cat 3s.C.go C.sell mother.its C.buy.AP food then Cat sold his mother and bought food. 19. Alkadis ꞌdoc todong nyäꞌdoc tä bange kala Alkadis kawizä ngakänya, cat go here 3n.go after call so.that cat C.fed word.his Cat went and he (Hare) followed calling so that Cat beame fed-up of him (Hare), (Hare was following to get food and Cat didn’t want to give it) 20. kaꞌdeg täzä ed nanya, Apoco nyawung nyägäcca C.ascend over tree with.it Hare 3n.C.come 3n.C.sit and climbed up in tree with it food). Hare came and sat 21. täcaxsä ed nanya nyängade ka “ꞌDogong asogo ngake under tree with.it 3n.say that thing.PN 1s.do matter.PNS under the tree with it and said, “This thing that I do to find and eat food, 22. mänang song basa ananange ꞌdogong ndey aꞌdox siyad asiye.” like.that not unless 1s.trick thing.PN so.that 1S.find.FT food 1s.eat (will not happen) unless I am deceptive.” 23. Na nyäläpede ta Alkadis ka, “Yex key megedetäng and 3n.tell to cat that 2s.know how storms.EX He said to Cat, “You know, there are storms coming 24. udosäno na koxa basa waxsetasänig ngastänggog tawagä ewe.” come.DA with rain unless 1e.tie.FT.AW necks.our(i)? bottom trees with rain and we need to tie ourselves to the bottom of the trees.” 25. Na Alkadis kacocoleza tetex ngade ka, and cat C.come.down fast said that And Cat came down quickly and said, 26. “Axsasa agä täzäläg.” Na kala nyacocoleza tä zäg CD.1i.tie.AW me first and so 3n.C.come.down.UN to ground “Let us tie me first.” Then he came down to the ground 27. na Apoco kaxsädasa nya tä awagä ed na mände and hare C.tied.RE.AW it to chests.PC tree and again and Hare tied him to the trunks of the trees, and then 28. Apoco kaꞌdeg täzä ed na ngede tänya, hare ascended over tree and said to.it Hare climbed up in the tree and said to him,

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29. “Abad, kasog gi mänang songang, asiye wegkägi song.”

stupid 1s.C.make you like.this not.ID 1s.eat things.your not “Stupid, if I didn’t tie you like this, I couldn’t eat your food.”

30. Na kala nyasiy wegke käꞌday ndä kala nyuli ganang. and so C.eat thing.PNS all and then C.untie now So, he ate all the food and then untied (him).

Legedäniccä Wawa Pedi (Pedi) story.PC ancestor Pedi The Story of Wawa Pedi Author: Hassan Kuwa Kaki 1. Mägaccäng tä cabärä Bäräkili, boxuxandäng säbangäs Wawa Pedi. long.ago to mountain.PC Barikili grandmother.EX 3p.call.AP Wawa Pedi Long ago, in the Barakili mountain, there was a grandmother they called Grandma Pedi. 2. Tanda tawiny tä cabärä Caning, boxuxeneni nyadoga ligid at west in mountain.of people grandmother.PW 3s.C.give spirit To the West of the mountain of Caning, that grandmother he (God) gave spirit to her 3. täng kala Kaläg mänang noxsada kän tä xäs. to.her as God like.that raises.FT people from death so as to raise people from the dead. 4. Boxuxeneni nyandäng tänya cabäri watäke na päxä atäne grandmother.PW it.EX to.it mountain alone with young child.PNS That grandmother lived in the mountain alone with her grandchild 5. ndä wacca tidi song, wegke iyeccä pacce tidi song. and cultivate.CN sweet not things.PNS yield.CN very sweet not and cultivated sweet crops that produced many sweet (crops). 6. Caning wunosäno tä panäce na cäꞌdoco cäꞌdingi abisolo cädogada people come.DA to home.her and 3f.go 3f.cut.RE sorghum 3f.give.RE People came to her home and she harvested sweet sorghum and gave 7. täsa nunuxundi. Nya abisoloni nuxung sadogung täging, to.them one.by.one it sorghum.RL only.ID PS.C.give.TW to.you.ID to each of them. If only the sweet sorghum was given to you, 8. ziye ndä pelewa song na mayanäs, 2s.eat and finish.RX not and 2s.satisfy.AP

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you would eat and not be able to finish before you were satisfied, 9. i gi känoc käpälang, käsiyang täbag, but you 2s.C.go 2p.C.steal 2p.C.eat bitter but if you went and stole (it), you would eat with bitterness, 10. i näs ceza cadogäng täging lilim. but be she.MC 3f.C.gave.TW to.you.ID is.sweet and when she gave (it) to you, it would be sweet. 11. Jenenendäng koxa kawung pacce na as kawuno tä colonggo year.PNS.EX rain C.came very and fish.PL C.came in river In that year, there was much rain and there were many fish in the river 12. mangeccä, na kala Caning käꞌdocco tä axä as. very.much and so people C.go to fish.VN.PC fish so the Caning went for catching fish. 13. Na ce boxux cäläpede ta päxä atänäce ka bag and she grandmother 3s.tell to young child.her that take And the grandmother told her grandchild to take 14. lang säꞌdocco säcasäng tä nyäxtä colonggo ta akä sogi basket 3p.go 3p.sit.PL.TW at bank.PC river at path journey.RL a basket and they go sit on the bank of the river on the path where 15. Caning wunosäno laxetäsäng tä ꞌdockusa täzäläg.

people come.DA pass.RE.PL.TW to go.VN.their fast Caning came and quickly passed on their journey 16. Kala Caning kämele na axä as. so people C.return from fish.VN.PC fish Then the Caning returned from catching fish. 17. Käxi kapäcca kädolezang, kabag axsic nuxung gawa person.RL C.call C.lead.UN.ID C.took fish.SG only.ID threw

The person who calls and leads took a single fish and threw (it) 18. tä lang na kala känggi kalasa tongang, kasog mänang. to basket and so people.RL C.remain back.ID C.made like.this

into the basket, and then people who came afterwards, did the same. 19. Sägäcogä waccid lang käpäs. Edekeny mände 3p.C.reach evening basket C.fill tomorrow again By evening, the basket was filled. The next day

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20. sawuno tänya axä odusani na mände Caning kasog täsa mänang. 3p.C.come to.it hut.PC place.their.LF and again people C.did to.them like.this they went to the same place and the Caning again did the same to them. 21. Tä sängga kodosang, Caning kasog täsa mänang, for days three people C.did to.them same For three days, the Caning did the same to them, 22. na tespedeneni, Caning kälaxesäng käꞌdocco tä colonggo and fourth people C.passed.by.PL.TW C.go to river and on the fourth day, the Caning passed by going to the river 23. na käꞌdocco kabodosa ngadeccä ka, “Boxuxong, edekeny, and C.go C.agree.AW said.CN that grandmother.PN tomorrow and went and agreed saying, “Old woman, tomorrow 24. edekeny wunodung todong päsetig lang täng, tomorrow come here 1i.fill.RE basket here will come here and fill the basket here, 25. xongondong kämelekang, käxi kädolezang gawa axsic tägaxsä lang, this.day that return.VN.ID person.RL C.leads.UN.ID throw fish inside.PC basket this day when (we) return, the person who leads will throw a fish into the basket, 26. mände känggi täbanganang bate nya axsicci ndä melede täng. also people.RL following.LN take it fish.SG.PF then return.FT there and the people who follow will take the fish itself and return (it). (Since the woman was

blind, the people thought they could deceive her.) 27. Na kala pezängga sawuno käxi täzälägkang kasog mänang, and so truly 3p.C.come person.RL first.ID C.did like.that So truly they came and the first person came and did as planned, 28. na sägäcogä waccid na axsic tägaxsä lang nuxung. and 3p.C.reach evening and fish.SG inside.PC basket only.ID and when they arrived to evening, there was only one fish in the basket. 29. Na kala cämäne päxä atänäce ka, “Kala, lang käpäs?” and so 3f.asked young child.her that so basket C.fill So, she asked her grandchild, “So, is the basket full?” 30. Päxä atänäce ngade ka, “Aꞌa, Wawa, kax lang käpäs song.” young child.her said that no grandmother not.yet basket C.full not The grandchild said, “No, Grandma, the basket is not yet full.” 31. Päxä atänäce ngade ka, “Käxi käꞌdang kapäccasang

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young child.her said that person.RL if C.lead.AW.ID The grandchild said, “The person who when led 32. nyang tol mänang gawa axsic tä langang.” it.ID only like.that throw fish.SG in basket.ID was the only one who threw a fish into the basket.” 33. Na cängade ka, “Baga lang anocci tä pa.” and 3f.said that CD.take basket CD.1i.go to home She said, “Take the basket and let us go home.” 34. Edekeny sawuno sasog täsa mänang tä sängga kodos, Tomorrow 3p.C.come 3p.C.did for.them like.that for days three The next three days, they came and did the same, 35. na xongondi näs kodoseneng cäläpede ta atänäce ka, and day.PF be third 3f.tell to child.her that and on the third day, she said to her grandchild, 36. “Koying salangic tagä, na ngäccä ayis na legeresic.” CD.bring stalk to.me and dung.PC goat and gravel “Bring me a sorghum stock and goat dung and gravel.” 37. Na kala atänäce kagoying sa wegki täce. and so child.her C.bring they things.PF to.her And so her grandchild brought together the things to her. 38. Täzäläg cabag salangic cägawa tä ma, first 3f.C.take stalk 3f.throw to water First, she took the sorghum stock and threw it into the water, 39. na camän päxä atänäce ka, “ꞌDogi kawung tiyati?” then 3f..C.ask young child.her that thing.PF C.came up then she asked her grandchild, “Did the thing come up?” 40. Päxä atänäce kagixi na cängade ka, “Bokäng tunyu!” young child.her C.respond and 3f.say that CD.remove out Her grandchild answered and said, “Take (it) out!” 41. Cabag ngäccä ayis cägawa tä ma, na cämän päxä atänänce ka 3f.C.take dung.PC goat 3f.throw to water and 3f.ask young child that She took the goat dung and threw (it) into the water, and asked the young child, 42. “ꞌDogi kawung tiyati?” Päxä atänäce ngade ka, “E.” thing.PF came up young child.her said that yes “Did the thing come up?” Her young child said, “Yes.”

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43. Cäläpede ka, “Bokäng tunyu!” 3f.tell that CD.remove out She said, “Take (it) out!” 44. Cabag päxä legeresic cägawa tä ma. 3f.C.took small gravel 3p.throw to water She took the gravel and threw it into the water. 45. Camän päxä atänäce ka, “Päxä ngayic kawung tiyati?” 3f.C.ask young child.her that small stone C.came up She asked her grandchild, “Did the small stones come up?” 46. Päxä atänäce ngade ka, “Aꞌa.” Na capes cängade ka, young child.her said that no and 3f.C.talk 3f.said that Her grandchild said, “No.” And she talked and said, 47. “Päxä Caning äxse laya kala ngayiccani.” young person die remain like stone.LF “A young person dies like that stone.” 48. Na kala todi kig äxse säpoko säꞌdocco sädogada and so there person dies 3p.carry 3p.go 3p.give.RE Then a person died and they carried (him) and went and put (it) 49. täzä telegu ndey ka sängo pätax na moso, over shelter so.that that day two and rots on a shelter for two days and rots, 50. na säbate säꞌdocco säboso, na kala kalasa täng mänang. and 3p.take 3p.go 3p.bury and so C.remain here like.that and they took (it) and went and burried (it), so it ended like this.

Legedäniccä Nyoxolow na Apoco (N&A) Story hyena and hare The Story the Hyena and the Hare Author: Hassan Kuwa Kafi 1. Nyoxolow na Apoco aminug. Nyoxolow tanganiccandäng, Hyena and hare friends.ID hyena bull.EX Hyena and Hare were friends. Hyena had a bull, 2. i nya Apoco denyänya uxang. Denyä Apoco kawung koxsonga, but it hare cow.his woman.ID cow.PC hare C.came C.pregnant

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but Hare he had a cow. The cow of Hare became pregnant, 3. na nyoxolow ngade ka, “Anocci tä barug.” Na kala Apoco kagixi and hyena said that CD.1i.go to cow.shed and so hare C.accept and Hyena said, “Let us go to the cow shed.” Then Hare agreed 4. na kala sägäꞌdocco säcuccu tä barug. and so 3p.C.went 3p.C.stay in cow.shed and so they went to the cow shed. They stayed in the cow shed. 5. Apocong meskecce tolang, i Nyoxolow meskecce song. hare.ID care.for.CN everyday but hyena care.for.CN not Hare cared for (her) everyday, Hyena was not caring for (her). 6. Kala xongondi Nyoxolow kox denyä Apoco päxe siye tängang. and day.PF hyena C.see cow.PC hare young eat there.ID Then a certain day, Hyena saw the cow of Hare in labor pains there. 7. Na Nyoxolow ngade ta Apoco ka, “Bonog, wanga agä xongondong and hyena said to hare that friend CD.let me this.day Hyena said to Hare, “Friend, today let me 8. anoc tä megäs.” Na Apoco ngade ka, “Anya? Wanga agä anoco 1s.go to care.for.VN and hare said that why CD.let me 1s.go for caring for (her).” Hare said, “Why? Just let me go 9. tä megäs winy.” Nyoxolow kaleywa. Na kala Apoco to he.care.for.VN just hyena C.refuse.RX and so hare for the caring for (her).” Hyena refused. Then Hare 10. kawang nya nyägäꞌdoc tä megäs, na kala denyä Apoco käꞌdoc kiye. C.leave it 3n.C.went to care.for.VN and then cow.PC hare C.went C.delivered allowed him and he went for the caring for (her), and the cow of Hare gave birth. 11. Nyoxolow kabag tamiccä caxsä denyä Apoco kaxoꞌda hyena C.take blood.PC anus.PC cow.of hare C.put Hyena took blood of the anus of the cow of Hare and put (it) 12. ta caxsä tanganicce, na kala käpokä päxä deny kawung to anus.PC bull.PNS and so C.carried young calf C.came on the anus of that bull, then he carried the calf and came 13. nang tä barug. Na kala Apoco kox Nyoxolow poko päxä deny with.it to cow.shed and so hare C.see hyena carrying young cow with it to the cow shed. Then Hare saw Hyena carrying the calf

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14. na ngade ka, “Kala deny kiye.” Nyoxolow ngade ka, and said that so cow C.deliever hyena said and said, “So, the cow has given birth.” Hyena said, 15. “Aꞌa, tanganiccangang kiye.” Apoco ngade ka, “Tanganiccägi kiye key?” oh bull.my.ID C.deliver hare said that bull.your.ID C.deliver how “Oh, my bull has given birth.” Hare said, “How has your bull given birth?” 16. Ndä Nyoxolow seley wange deny ꞌdoco tä wang päxe song. and hyena surely allow cow go to near young not Then Hyena completely did not allow cow to go near the calf. 17. Ndä Apoco nyägate Nyoxolow, na kala käpäla and hare be.afraid hyena and so C.be.silent And Hare was afraid of Hyena, and so he kept silent 18. käꞌdoc käzäkeyza tä pang Osox, na kala Osox kabandä C.go C.report.UN to house.ID lion and so lion C.called and went and reported to the house of Lion, then Lion called 19. oxayda na kawuno basa Atorndoring wundungang. animals and came unless fox.ID absent.ID the animals and came except that Fox was absent. 20. ꞌDogi kosog Atorndori wundungang. Ma mägädäng ngakä Nyoxolow na Apoco, thing.PF C.make fox absent.ID he 3m.C.hear word.PC hyena and hare That thing made Fox absent. He heard the discussion of Hyena and Hare, 21. na mägäyawudu satu na kobony, and he.C.collect.RE calabashes and gourds and he collected calabashes and gourds, 22. masol kulung tä onguma na tä agäma, i oxaydagi bene ma 3m.C.carry some on back.his and on front.his and animals.PF wait.for him and carried some on his back and some on his front, and those animals waited 23. tä pang buguning Osox. to house.ID chief lion for him at the house chief Lion. 24. Nyoxolow käcoxäwa ka sälege ngaki, ndä Osox leyewa hyena C.hurry that 3p.discuss word.PF and lion refuse.RX Hyena was in a hurry to discuss that issue, but Lion refused (to listen) 25. bas ka Atorndori wung. Na kala mani mägaleza mäwuꞌdate until that fox come and so 3m.C.be.there? 3m.appear 3m.hurry

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until Fox came. Then he appeared as in a hurry 26. mäsogowa ka mälaxetäng, na buguning kabandä ma ka, 3m.do.RX that 3m.pass.by.RE.TW and chief C.call him that pretending to pass by, and the chief called to him, 27. “Ama no ti wati? Känakang bene gi ka gi wung!” hey seem where fast people.LN wait.for you that you come “Hey where (are you going) so fast? People are waiting for you to come!” 28. Mängade ka, “Päx agänangandäng awunodung tanggo säxong. 3m.said that not 1s.LN.EX 1s.come to.you(p) not He said, “I am not coming to you. 29. Kawung sayaxsäsa tagä ka appanang kiye, neng anoco tä colake” yesterday 3p.C.sent.AW to.me that father.my C.deliever so 1s.go to serve.VN.PNS Yesterday they sent to me (a message) that my father had given birth, so I am going to

help.” 30. Na Nyoxolow kasan ngade ka, “Ama, anya apanginy iyeccä?” and hyena C.be.surprise said that hey how men deliver.CN Hyena was surprised and said, “Hey, how are men giving birth?” 31. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Accang i gang gi ngade ka, and fox said that surely but now you said that And Fox said, “Then surely now how can you say that 32. tanganiccägi kiye anya? Käley päxä denyä Apoco ka tanganiccäging kiyeng!” bull.your C.deliver how C.2s.refuse young cow.PC hare that bull.your.ID C.deliver.ID your bull gave birth? You refused (to give) the calf of Hare that your bull delivered!” 33. Na Nyoxolow kädäng mänang na kaway tä warä kän. and hyena C.heard like.that and C.disappear from among.PC people And Hyena heard like this and went away from among people. 34. Na kala buguning Osox ngade ka, “Neng dogi päxä denyä Apoco.” and so chief lion said that so CD.2p.give young cow.PC hare So the chief Lion said, “Give the calf of Hare (to Hare).”

Legedäniccä Atorndori, Kamalä na Tumos (AKT) story.PC fox camel and elephant The Story of the Fox, Camel and Elephant Author: Obed 1. Atorndori na Kamalä na Tumos säs aminu. Säguccu ta oda

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fox and camel and elephant 3p.be friends 3p.C.stay to place.MC Fox and Camel and Elephant were friends. They all stayed in the 2. nuxu käꞌdaygäsa. Ndä Tumos muso Atorndori tä wuxikä ma, only all.their and elephant cause fox to drink.VN.PC water same place. Elephant caused Fox to drink water, 3. i Kamalä muso nya tä siyakä soc. Na todi nyanimäng and camel cause him to eat.VN.PC fruit and there 3n.C.scatter.TW and Camel caused him to eat fruit. From here, he (Fox) considered 4. ꞌdogi nyäsogus Kamalä na Tumos ndey nyäwasasang. thing.RL 3n.do.AP camel and elephant so.that 3n.gathered.AW.ID

what he could do to Camel and Elephant in order to gather (them). 5. Nyängade ka, “Basa ampoke nycokong ndey ꞌdocco 3n.say that unless 1s.make people.PN so.that go He said, “I must make people (fight) so that they go 6. wangäsa agä todong.” Na nyägäꞌdoc ta Tumos ndä leave.AW me here and 3n.C.went to Elephant then and leave me (alone) here.” And he went to Elephant then 7. nyäläpede täng ka, “Tumos, yex key? Kamalä ngade ka, 3n.tell to.him that elephant 2s.know how camel said that told him, “Elephant, do you know how? Camel said, 8. “Nyaꞌdox kaging ka basa layis ux mände mänangang basa 3n.C.find you.ID that unless 2s.become woman again like.that.ID unless “If it finds you, you must become a woman like that and 9. kagi noyo ta kanya.” Ndä nyämele ta Kamalä mände that.you 2s.run before that.him then 3n.return to camel again you run before him.” Then he (Fox) returned to Camel again 10. nyäläpede täng ka, “Kamalä, gi nycu key? 3s.told him that camel you 2s.stay how and told him, “Camel, how are you staying? 11. Tumos ngade ka, ‘Nyaꞌdox kaging ka ndä nox ꞌdoga nyäsogo tägi. elephant said that 3n.C.find that.you.ID that then 2s.see thing.MC 3n.do to.you Elephant said, ‘If it finds you, then you will see the thing that it does to you. 12. Mände ka gi danye, ka bendänya tä igä gol again that you 2s.brave that wait.VN.his at water.PC well Also, if you are brave, you will wait for him at the water well

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13. tä ka nyäwung tägi.’ ” Ndä nyägäꞌdoc ta Tumos mände for that 3n.come to.you then 3n.C.went to elephant again for him to come to you.’ ” Then he (Fox) went to Elephant again 14. nyäläpede täng ka Kamalä ngade ka, “ꞌDägane, wung tetex.” 3n.tell to.him that camel said that 2s.hurry 2s.come quickly And told him that Camel said, “You should hurry and come quickly.” 15. Ndä nyoyo nyäꞌdoc ta Kamalä nyäläpata täng ka, then 3n.run 3n.go to camel 3n.tell him that Then he ran to Camel and told him, 16. “Ka nox Tumos kawungang, sogawa ka käsängga ndey axony gi.” that 2s.see elephant C.come.ID CD.do.RX that 2s.C.sleep so.that 1s.save you “If you see Elephant come, pretend to sleep and I will save you.” 17. Na Tumos käleza na Kamalä kasängga loy tä zäg. And elephant C.appear and camel C.sleep flat on ground And Elephant appeared and Camel slept flat on the ground. 18. Na Tumos kawung mänecce ka, “Kamaländi?” And elephant C.came ask.CN that camel.QL And Elephant came and was asking, “Where is Camel?” 19. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Bende nya xa nyägäꞌdoc tä botakä and fox said that CD.wait him because 3n.C.go to bring.VN.PC And Fox said, “Wait for him because he went to bring 20. ganygänya ndä alkodostunyanani todani, nyäbokasa weapon.his then pipe.his.LF here 3n.bring.AW his weapon that is his pipe there, he brings (it) 21. ndä ka nyäwung.” Na Tumos mänecce ka, then that 3n.come and elephant ask.CN that then comes.” And Elephant asked, 22. “Alkodos tä Kamalänani mänangang?” Na Atorndori kagixi ka, “E.” pipe for camel.LF like.that.ID and fox answer that yes “The pipe for Camel is like that?” And Fox answered, “Yes.” 23. Na Tumos ngade ka, “Gang alkodos tä Kamalänani, i gang Kamalä key?” and elephant said that now pipe for camel.LF and now camel how Elephant said, “Now the pipe for Camel is there, and now how can Camel?” 24. Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Gi noxo cuku alkodos tänya song?”

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and fox said that you 2s.see pumpkin? pipe for.him not And Fox said, “You don’t see his pipe?” 25. Na nyäzacca kädeg na nyäkoy nyägäꞌdoc tägaxsä pumpung. and 3n.cause.look C.firm and 3n.C.run 3n.C.went inside forest And he looked carefully and ran and went inside the forest. 26. Na Atorndori läpede tä Kamalä ka, “Kamalä, gi sänggada and fox tell to camel that camel you 2S.sleep.RE And Fox told Camel, “Camel, sleep 27. xa Tumos käꞌdoc tä botakä wuleke, ndä nox because elephant C.went to bring.VN.PC weapons.PNS then 2s.see.FT because Elephant went for bringing weapons, and you will see 28. ꞌdoga nyäsogo tägi xongong.” Na Kamalä kangäsa ngade ka, thing.MC 3n.do to.you today and camel C.wake.up said that the thing it will do to you today.” And Camel woke up and said, 29. “ꞌDogi ganangang nyapay pogud tagäng?” Na Kamalä zacca käteg thing.RL now.ID 3n.C.want fight to.me.ID and camel cause.see firmly “That thing now wants to fight me?” And Kamel looked carefully 30. na koy, kämese tä pumpung mände. Na kala Atorndori and C.ran C.disappear to forest again and so fox and ran and also disappeared into the forest. Then Fox 31. kalay todi lawacca mänang ndä nyäsiye soc na nyäwuxi C.remain there scream.CN like.that then 3n.eat fruit and 3n.drink remained there screaming, then he ate the fruit and drank 32. ma nyämada kätos. Sayinydä legedäniccang mänang tampililig. water 3s.besatisfied fully end.PC story.ID like.that amen the water to his comlete satisfaction. The story ends like this.

Glossary

The following important words are from the Caning Consonant and Vowel Book.

Word Example Definition syllable po ro ga in

poroga ‘mat’ The parts of a word that can be divided according to beats.

consonant c b r in cabär ‘mountain’

Letter sounds that begin or end syllables; a consonant cannot be a syllable by itself.

vowel a ä in Letter sounds in the middle and sometimes end

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cabär ‘mountain’ of a syllable; a vowel can be a syllable by itself. suffix -iny in

abadiny ‘stupid people’

Ending letters attached to words that change the meaning of the word.

The following important words are discussed in the Caning Grammar Book.

Word Example Definition grammar Words and how they go together in

phrases, clauses and sentences. prefix ka- in kig kasax

‘Person refused’ Beginning letters of a word that are not part of the root.

noun nycoki ‘people’ ya ‘meat’, zä ‘head’

A person, animal, place, thing, or idea.

verb kasax ‘refused’, kamene ‘caught’, nyägoyi ‘ran’ and kälu ‘cut’

An action, motion, change, state, or equal sign between words.

noun singular form

uxic ‘worm’ Only one of the noun.

noun plural form ux ‘worms’ More than one of the noun. root ux in uxic ‘worm’

A word without any prefix or suffix. The original part of the word.

preposition tä in Atorndori käꞌdoc tä pumpung. ‘Fox went to bush.’

A word that introduces nouns or pronouns and describe (tell about) an action.

prepositional phrase

tä pumpung ‘to bush’ A preposition and the words it introduces.

location täzä ‘above’ in Coxo täzä kig ‘She sees above person.’

A word that tells the location of an action.

subject kig in Kig kasiy ya. ‘Person ate meat.’

A noun or pronoun that does the action of the verb.

object ya in Kig kasiy ya. ‘Person ate meat.’

A noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb.

possessor kig in Atorndorinä kig käꞌdoc tä pumpung. ‘Fox of person went to bush.’

A noun or pronoun that possessess or owns something or someone.

pronoun nyä- ‘he’, -nya ‘his’ in Nyängade ta amindinya. ‘He (Fox) said to his friend (friend of Fox).’

A word, prefix or suffix used instead of a noun.

possessor -ang ‘my’ in Kig kasax A suffix used instead of a possessor noun.

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pronoun suffix axinygang. ‘Person refused my huts.’

possessive pronoun

numanggo ‘mine’ in Kig kasax numanggo. ‘Person refused his.’

A word used instead of a possessed noun and its possessor.

noun form nyangzong ‘this crocodile’ nyanginygong ‘these crocodiles’

Nouns that are described (modified) by other words or suffixes, or talked about in a sentence (complements).

pointing near suffix

-ong in Opong kadeläng. ‘This young man fell.’

Suffix that points to a noun near the speaker. In stories, the pointing near suffix is nearly always used in speeches.

pointing far suffix

-i in Opi kadeläng. ‘That young man fell.’

Suffix that points to a noun away from the speaker or near the hearer. In stories, it shows the noun was previously mentioned.

pointing known suffix

-i in Opi kadeläng. ‘That known young man fell.’

Suffix that points to a noun known by the hearers. Often it is a noun that has not been mentioned before in a story, but can be known from the context or situation.

modifier connector suffix

-a in Opa opo kadeläng. ‘Good young man fell.’

Suffix that shows a noun is described by the following word or clause.

possessive connector suffix

-ä in Opä buguning kadeläng. ‘Young man of king fell.’

Suffix that show a noun is owned by or closely related to the following noun.

identifying suffix -ang in Opang. ‘It is a young man.’

Suffix that shows an equal sign, the end of an specific relative clause, a dependent clause, or a noun phrase in focus.

locating near suffix

-anang in Opanang. ‘This is a young man.’

Suffix that show comparison of one noun to another, the noun we are talking about, or the end of an specific relative clause.

locating far suffix

-ani in Opani. ‘There is a young man.’

Suffix that shows the noun we are talking about is away from the speaker. In stories, it is nearly always in speeches.

existing suffix -andäng in Opandäng. ‘A young man exists.’

Suffix that introduces or rementions a noun and shows it is important in the story (salient marker).

asking location andi in Opandi? ‘Where is the young man?’

A word that ask the location of a noun.

adjective buguningza ngonde ‘big king’

A word that describes a noun and has a singular and plural form.

quantity ya käꞌday ‘all meat’ A word that tells the approximant number or amount of a nouns.

cardinal number padäga kudos ‘three houses’

A word that tells the exact amount of a noun.

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ordinal number xongondi näs kodoseneng ‘third day’

A word that tells the order a noun comes in a list of nouns.

adverb Apang kawung tägaxse. ‘Man cam inside.’

A word that describes a verb.

specific relative clause

Opi kagoyingang nyang kadelengang. ‘The young man that I brought fell.’

A clause that is introduced by the pointing far connector suffix –i on a noun and identifies or describes a particular noun in the mind of the speaker.

general relative clause

buguningza ngonde ‘a king that is big’

A clause that is introduced by the modifier connector suffix –a on a noun and identifies or describes a general noun, or one not previously mentioned.

compound phrase

ax ‘hut’ and mas ‘fire’ together make axä mas ‘gun’

More than one word used together to make a new meaning.

verb form kasax ‘had refused’ saxe ‘refuses’

A way to use each verb that changes by adding a prefix or suffix to the verb.

complete verb kasax in Kig kasax (ꞌdog). ‘Person refused (something).’

A verb that talks about the action as a whole, regardless of the time of the action.

incomplete verb saxe in Päxäginang saxe (ꞌdog) ganang. ‘Your child refuses (something) now.’

A verb that talks about the action as an ongoing process, such as if we are watching the action happen in a film. In the Caning dictionary, verbs are found listed by the incomplete verb form.

imperative verb Ngada! ‘Speak!’ ꞌDanya! ‘Hide’

A verb used to order someone to do the action.

continuous verb Anya apanginy iyeccä? ‘How are men giving birth?’

A verb that shows the action happens over time.

repeating verb Na nyäwedede nyäꞌdoxo me ngasäwan. ‘He walked and walked and found an important person.’

A verb that shows the action happens more than once. It can also emphasize the subject is more than one person, or can emphasize the object receiving the action is more than one.

reflexive verb nyäkädelwa in Na nyabag kala nyäkädelwa seley. ‘Like this he took and decorated himself.’

A verb that shows the doer of the action also receives the action.

verbal noun ngadad in Kig wede tä ngadad. ‘Person went for speaking.’

A verb used as a noun.

applicative Bo tong zäginong anoc abagäs uxandäng tägog.

A verb used to show the benefit, tool or cause of an action.

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‘I want to marry a woman for us.’

unmentioned object (antipas.)

käꞌdoc käzäkeyza tä pang Osox. ‘She went and reported (something) to Lion’

A transitive verb has an unstated object that receives the action.

reciprocal sägäyawesäning nanggäsa ‘they gathered themselves’

A verb that shows the action is done by a plural subject to several of the same people—to each other.

away (abitive) käꞌdoc kaꞌdoxasa ‘he went and found’

A verb that shows the action happens away from the speaker or away from the previous location mentioned.

Direction verb gi läpäng rajta sogig ‘you tell to me a deceitful way’

A verb that shows the action happens towards the speaker or towards the previous location mentioned.

dependent clause A group of words with a verb that requires or depends on another clause to complete the sentence.

main clause A group of words with a verb that is a sentence by itself; it does not require another clause to be a complete sentence.

connector A word that joins a phrase, clause or sentence.

question word A word used to ask questions.

Answers to Exercises Answers to the exercises of this book are given below. Exercise 1 Test Word Write correctly Test Word Write correctly baxedic diarrhea paxedic manyjal grass cutter manycal nyaxijaru reed nyaxiccaru kabasic tatto, marking kabasic apa father appa kacä donkey kaccä bocca usually bocca gurwej millet gurwec kojogoric hoof kojogoric käꞌday all käꞌday oxsontug pregnancy oxsondug kaxsäpa town kaxsäpa tambilig forever tampilig diyada forget ꞌdiyada tandä shirt tandä cermegic bird trap cermegic karꞌdek scraper karꞌdeg exengkukalä sweet potato exenggukalä mekken orphan megen doxajul clay doxajul ob young man op jen year jen

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atorndori fox atorndori apuꞌdonyo crocodile type apudonyo batat marriage batad pugusic buttock pugusic sundwan knee sundwan asaydic hail, ice asaydic keskow dawn keskow waxat dowry waxad turuk armies turug guguric fish type guguric akaꞌdogo insect type akaꞌdoko aguan face agwan xainya why? xaynya mexxes crippled person mexes Exercise 2 (O&A 13-14) ta buguning Na nyägäꞌdoc tabuguning, . . . And went to the king, kängaw nya na Osox kasäx kängawnya, and the Lion caught him, (Nyax 5) tänya Na säläpeda tä nya ka sagaleneni. And they said to him that she is a girl. (Nyax 39-40) tä akä Kala kodogas ce täkä sog Then they escorted her on the way na päxä ndä säpäse lang täce kätos napäxä weg. and they filled bags for her with things. (Nyax 47) Na kala nyägäpätäng And then he waited and tä bängäce nyäwede täbängäce. continued for calling of her. (Nyax 87) na zägi Lilingäzi nazägi, ndä wacolodunig Bend over with your head, we will caxsägi mid taxä caxsä gi. pour oil to inside your anus. (Nyax 96) ta andäma Kanggo luwing nyimec tandäma. Oh, you cut out liver for his hand. (Nyax 110) tä kaxsed Wesi zagi tägaxsed tänyam.” Now you gather in forest for checking. tä nyam (A&N 22) bende agä Bonog bendagä. Friend, wait for me. (A&N 36-37) tägog Bonog, masani nuxu kig ꞌdoc bota tä kog. We need person to go bring fire to us. (A&N 61) na ipe Ndä sägäbä miye nipe. They took skin with tail. (T&A 21) Sogoying anggo Sogoyinganggo tä siyakä tä kaxsed? They brought you to see the forest? (T&A 26) kadarjange gi I oda wede ndä kadarjangegi. Will the storm come and attack you? (A&A 19) Apoco nyawung nyägäcca Hare came and sat täcaxsä tä caxsä ed nanya under the tree with it (food) (Pedi 28) Na sägäcogä waccid na axsic When evening arrived, there was one tägaxsä tä gaxsä lang nuxung. fish in the basket. Exercise 3

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(O&A 1) Osox kabandä oxayda kawuno käꞌday Lion called the animals to all dänge ngakänya täng. come hear his message there. (O&A 36) ꞌDärägsä ze adakä sasiy, ka sawang tänya. Brains of head they should not eat, but leave (O&A 39-40) for him. Ndä nyämel nyawung na nyaꞌdoxung He returned and came and found nycoki kasiy ya people had eaten meat i kawang zä Kaccä na nyimecce. and left head of Donkey and liver. (Nyax 1-2) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila Long ago, was a girl who refused to marry ka paye yoxa caxse kabatwa. unless she found a handsome husband. (A&N 5-6) Annoci edekeny oloxti odudi tä keskow, Early tomorrow morning at dawn, annoci tä lag tä pumpung ndey ꞌdoxig let us go hunting in bush so that we find oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig ta penggog. big animal and kill and bring to our home, (A&N 72) Yanä ike tägining, miye tagä, The meat of mouth is for you, skin is for ipe ta Apoco. me, and tail is for Hare. (T&A 44) Kamalä buguningzä odu nycamiye ganang “Camel is now chairman of meeting place, i Osox me bokosänakä ganang. and Lion is now the usher.”

Exercise 4 (O&A 40) Nycoki kasiy ya i kawang zä Kaccä na People had eaten meat and left head of nyimecce. Donkey and the liver. (Nyax 1-2) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila ka paye Long ago, there was a girl who refused marriage yoxa caxse kabatwa. unless she found a husband that is handsome, (Nyax 7-8) looking nice. Na nyägäräng ka enggä aminugunyatäng. And he remembers his young friends. Ndey nyägäꞌdoc täng toga wegkä del tänya. So he goes there to give him decorations. (Nyax 58) Na mabag päxä pipi kala säwedeccä sawuno And he took the babysitter and they walked and tä ikä colonggo. came to mouth of river. (Nyax 89-90) Na nyalilingäsi na cabag mida täpäye cocola And he bent over and she took hot oil and taxä caxsänya. Na Nyoxolow käxsä poured (it) into the anus. And Hyena died na cabag päxäsa, na nya päxä Nyaxolowzi. and she took child and it is child of the Hyena. (Nyax 112-113) I nya nyägäꞌdoc nyägäcca toboxu koxiccandäng. But he went and sat under of coconut tree there. Na nyoxo ligitigä weg pirtidining. And he saw shadows of things shaking.

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(T&A 1) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed. an important king in the forest. (T&A 29-30) Agänang, ngakang layis ngakä uxong. I am the one, my word remains word of wife. Exercise 5 (O&A 13) Na nyägäꞌdoc ta buguning, . . . And went to the king, (O&A 25) Noco na nycata tä butug apoyiyo winy. you will go and sit comfortably in kingdom. (O&A 29) Na nyägäꞌdoc nyapäcca ta buguning, . . . And he went and called to king, (O&A 34) Kala Osox kasiy nya ndä wang bange So Lion ate him and left the remainder ta oxaydagi. for the other animals. (O&A 40) I kawang zä Kaccä na nyimecce And left the head of Donkey with the liver. (Nyax 17) Nyabag kalanyä wedede sägäpase na me He took it and they met with a person agäwan, with eyes, (Nyax 30) Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko wala wi?” Listen, have you come to our home or what? (Nyax 37) Neng zaxeng adelgede tä masäginani.” Well if like that, I will fall down into your fire. (Nyax 39-40) Kala kodogas ce tä akä sog Then she escorted (them) on the way ndä säpäse lang täce kätos na päxä weg. and they filled bags for her there with things. (Nyax 52) Kala tä pa sägucco kala cägoxsonga. Then she stayed at home and became pregnant. (Nyax 54) Na memen akä sog mägäꞌdoc tä pa He began journey and went to house ta menggäsa. of fathers. (Nyax 70) Kala sax cayaxsä ma kala cadästä ma So she sent him and advised him tä buxani biyeyang. for a little wine. (Nyax 87) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig Bend over with your head (down) and we will mid täxä caxsägi. pour oil inside your anus. (Nyax 91) Kala semen akä sog säwedeccä mänang So, they began walking on the way kala säpaseccä na me kaläg. until they met with a witchdoctor. (Nyax 96) Kanggo luwing nyimec ta andäma. Oh, you cut out liver for his hand. (Nyax 110)

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Wesi zagi tä kaxsed tä nyam. You go gather in forest for checking. (A&N 1) Legedäniccä Atorndorindäng na Nyoxolow. There is a story of Fox with Hyena. (A&N 28) Accang, wasaki kawunig tä lag na buguning. We gathered and came for hunting with king. (A&N 61) Ndä sägäba miye na ipe, i ze kalay tunyu. They took skin with tail but left head behind. (A&N 78) “ ‘Edekeny, mägoying anggo tä codad’ “ ‘Tomorrow, he brings you for wrestling’ na xetego ka kangad mänang.” with your brothers speak like this.” (T&A 12) Kampätäng tä koyinakä nycokong I come for escorting these people tä siyakä ota for eating places. (T&A 26) I oda wede ndä kadarjange gi na pipuwang? Will storm come and attack you with children? Exercise 6 (Nyax 104) Na mägäpokä sa madoga sa And he carried them and put them tägaxsä bo meldänäny. in the blatter. (T&A 24) Accang go pipu tägaxsä camanong. Surely the children are in danger. (A&A 19-21) Alkadis ꞌdoc todong nyäꞌdoc tä bange Cat went and he (Hare) followed calling kala Alkadis kawizä ngakänya, so that Cat beame fed-up of him (Hare), kaꞌdeg täzä ed nanya, and climbed up in tree with it food). Apoco nyawung nyägäcca Hare came and sat täcaxsä ed nanya under the tree with it (food) (A&A 28) Apoco kaꞌdeg täzä ed na ngede tänya. Hare climbed up in the tree and said to him. (Pedi 28) Na sägäcogä waccid na axsic When evening arrived, there was only one fish tägaxsä lang nuxung. in the basket. (Pedi 48-49) Na kala todi kig äxse säpoko säꞌdocco Then a person died and they carried (him) sädogada täzä telegu and went and put (it) over shelter. (AKT 25) Na nyäzacca kädeg na nyäkoy nyägäꞌdoc And he looked carefully and ran and went tägaxsä pumpung. inside the forest. Exercise 7 (O&A 1) Osox kabandä oxayda kawuno käꞌday Lion called the animals to all dänge ngakänya täng. come hear his message.

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(O&A 39-40) Nycoki kasiy ya People had eaten meat i kawang zä Kaccä na nyimecce. and left head of Donkey with liver. (A&N 5-6) Anocci edekeny oloxti odudi tä keskow, Early tomorrow morning at dawn, anocci tä lag tä pumpung ndey ꞌdoxig let us go hunting in bush so that we find oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig ta penggog. big animal and kill and bring to our home. (A&N 86) Na penggä Nyoxolow käꞌdocco kaläpe ta mena. Children of Hyena went and told to father. Exercise 8 (O&A 14) Na Osox kasäx kängaw nya, And the Lion jumpe caught it, nyägoy nyangaw ipänya. and he ran and caught its tail. (Nyax 5) Na säläpeda tänya ka sagaleneni, And they said to him she is a girl that paye yoxa caxse kabatwa. wants a handsome husband. (Nyax 28) Na ce cägox ma. And she saw him. (Nyax 44) Uxog, uxog, kädugig? Our wife, our wife, the one we are sharing? (Nyax 49) Ama gisani me panangani todi Hey, there is a guy, the father of my house, läpi täma ka mawang. speak to him to come. (Nyax 53) Wede tä pa koying nuxu päxäsko tagä ndey Go to house and bring our only menecce tagä. child to me so that he may care for me. (Nyax 76) Gi nycu ka käxogkandäng? Do you still (see) our person? (Nyax 112) I nya nyägäꞌdoc nyägäcca toboxu koxiccandäng.

But he went and sat under a coconut tree.

(A&N 36-37) ‘Bonog, masani nuxu kig ꞌdoc bota tägog’, ‘Friend, there is fire, one person will bring it ndä dängig ꞌdoga mängade tägog. to us, and you will see thing he tells us

about. (A&N 60) I sa salaye sosokuta ya käꞌday But they remained and transfered all meat tä pang Atorndori. home to house of Fox. (A&N 84) Appanang degeje menggo. And my father is stronger than your father. (T&A 21) Sagoying anggo tä siyakä ota tä kaxsed? They brought you to see the forest?

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Exercise 9 (A&N 19-20) I tari nya Atorndori ngakänya täng täzäg But Fox himself surely had goal of

indirectly nyäpaye nyäbag ya watäkänya, taking the meat for himself, (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you yourself go hunting and kill a

cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang, and you have no fire, what do you do then, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw? (A&N 64-65) Nyoxolow käpätäng na pecäg na kamen zä Hyena came and ran and caught the head

of deny, kaꞌdiꞌdi nanggäsa, the cow, and pulled all of them, säs kodos na sanyasäng tunyu. those three, and they pulled (it) out. (A&N 92-93) Ndakä paxang agä, Do not kill me, xa agänangang kapax denyang song. for I am really not the one that killed the

cow. (T&A 15-16) “Anggotäng watäkägo apoccu?” Buguning, ngade ka,

“Are you yourselves all fine?” King (said),

“E wasatäng watäkäsko apoccu winy.” “Yes, we oursleves are all just fine.” (T&A 43) Na sägäyawesäning nanggäsa. And they gathered all of them. (A&A 23) Yex key megedetäng You know, there are storms coming udosäno na koxa basa waxsetasänig with rain and we need to tie ngastänggog tawagä ewe. ourselves to the bottom of the trees. Exercise 10 (O&A 21-22) Sax mände Atorndori käꞌdoc tä bangänya, Again Fox went to call him, again he mände käꞌdoc kaꞌdoxasa nya na ngade tänya. went and found him and said to him (donkey) (O&A 29) Na nyägäꞌdoc nyapäcca ta buguning, And he went and called the king ngade täng ka, and said to him, (O&A 45) Ziya ꞌdog winy, i gom buguning You just eat the thing, after the king comes, kawungang wanga tagä. leave it for me. (O&A 49) Gi ndey bäle ka gining tä zägi You were supposed to collect all the meat, ninggi wundung. but with you absent.

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(Nyax 11) Bo tong zäginong anoc abagäs Speak truthfully, I want to marry uxandäng tägog. a woman for us. (Nyax 16) Na me anadaru ngade ka, “Neng, nang bi.” Person with glasses said, “Ok, with it then.” (Nyax 42) Na nyängade täce ka, And he (husband) asked to her, (Nyax 49) Ama gisani me panangani todi, Hey, there is a guy, the father of my children, läpi täma ka mawung. tell to him to come. (Nyax 107) Päxä yanang kaꞌdox tanggo, wining lala. This is a lot of meat for you. Come and see. (Nyax 110) Na nyäläpede täsa ka, He told to them, (A&N 85) Ka zäg kabag ya, That soil surely took the meat, i cong mabag ya magoying täwas. so bring the meat to us. (A&N 97-98) Nycugo anoyi, awanga Atorndori watäke Let us run! Leave Fox alone xa nya mänang Atorndori, because Fox he is the one, and he will hear mägädäng nycoki tägog. Nycugo anoyi! people coming to us. Let us run! (A&A 19-21) Alkadis ꞌdoc todong nyäꞌdoc tä bange Cat went and he (Hare) followed calling kala Alkadis kawizä ngakänya, so that Cat beame fed-up of him (Hare), kaꞌdeg täzä ed nanya. and climbed up in tree with it (food). Exercise 11 (O&A 1) Aniyandäng, Osox kabandä oxayda In former times, Lion called the animals to kawuno käꞌday dänge ngakänya täng. all come hear his message. (O&A 19-20) Na sax Osox kasäx kamen nya nyägoy And again Lion jumped and caught him i käluw wundänya. and he ran, and he cut his ear. (O&A 47) I ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogang giyandi? Where is the brain of the head of my thing? (Nyax 30) Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko wala wi?” Listen, have you come to our home or what? (Nyax 31) E, agänang kawung tä panägo xongondong. Yes, I have come to your house today. (Nyax 33) Na kala cägäꞌdoc ta mesa cängade täng ka, And then she went to her father and said to him, (Nyax 39) Cägäduru wayagkäsa käꞌday. She gathered all their relatives. (Nyax 44-45) Na nyängade ka, “Uxog, uxog, kädugig? He said, “Our wife, the one we are sharing?

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Neng tong zang.” Ok, bring my head.” (Nyax 54) Na mamen akä sog mägäꞌdoc tä pa And he began the journey and went ta menggäsa, to house of her fathers, (Nyax 56) Kala maläpe ta menggäsa ka, Then he told her fathers, “Päxägo paye medenow.” “Your daughter needs a babysitter.” (Nyax 61) Cong boxu gisongang käbag nganäskong? Are you this guy that married this our sister? (Nyax 74) Na samen akä sog sägäꞌdocco And they began on the way and they went tä pa ta nganäsa. to the house of their elder sister. (Nyax 76) Na kala ce cäläpede ta nganäsa ka, And then she told her elder sister, “Gi nycu ka käxogkandäng? “Do you still (see) our person? (Nyax 77) ꞌDoxtong kasiy nganakog käꞌday song? Didn‘t this guy eat all our elder sisters?” (Nyax 82) Na wäx ta agäsa kacu cucu cu. And tears from their eyes came pouring out. (Nyax 87-88) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig mid Bend over with your head and we will pour oil taxä caxsägi na kala käwing.” into your anus so that you will be fat. (Nyax 93-94) Na päxä Nyoxolow käluw ngade ka, And the child of the Hyena responded saying, “Ngganang kapax appanang.” “My mother killed my father.” (Nyax 96) Kanggo luwing nyimec ta andäma. You cut out the liver for his hand. (Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi? You are saying there is a problem in his anus? (A&N 41-42) Nyoxolow ngade ta Apoco ka, Hyena said to Hare, “Gindäng wanägi apo?” Apoco ngade ka, “You are your body is good?” Hare said, “E, agänang wanang apo winy.” “Yes, I am my body is good.” (A&N 75) Wanyeccä na penggänya They were playing and his children na nyäwede nyäꞌdoxong towa. and he came and found (them) inside. (A&N 78) ‘Edekeny, mägoying anggo tä codad’ ‘Tomorrow, he brings you to wrestling’ na xetego ka kangad mänang. and (to) your brothers speak like this. (A&N 84) Appanang degeje menggo, My father is stronger than your father. (A&N 86) Na penggä Nyoxolow käꞌdocco kaläpe And the children of Hyena went and ta mena. told their father. (T&A 10) Bo buguning i kämpätäng ti? You are an important king, where have

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Go penggägi käꞌdayang. you come from? You have all your children. (T&A 31) Kax amäso agang ndä awede? Am I supposed to close my eyes and go? (A&A 15) Xay bonggondi? Where is your mother? Exercise 12 (O&A 41) I zaxadang siyakä ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogong anya? You refuse to eat brain of head of this thing? (O&A 54) Peszängga ngakong tireneng. This speach is really true. (Nyax 3-4) “Ila anoc abag sagalong.” “I really must marry this girl.” Na nyämänecee ka, sagalong paye yoxa key. He asked this girl what husband she wanted. (Nyax 15) Bonog, tong anadarugugigong anoc abagäs Friend, bring these glasses, I am going to marry uxandäng tägog. a certain woman for us. (Nyax 18-19) Bonog, tong boxänggä agägigong anoc abagäs Friend, bring these your old eyes, I am going to uxandäng tägog. marry a certain woman for us. (Nyax 22) Bonog tong ngasäginong anoc abagäs Friend, bring this your neck, I am going to uxandäng tägog. marry a certain woman for us. (Nyax 61) Cong boxu gisongang käbag nganäskong? (Are you) bad guy that married this our sister? (Nyax 77) ꞌDoxtong kasiy nganakog käꞌday song? Didn‘t this guy completely ate our elder sister? (Nyax 84-86) “I noxo lägong song?” “Donꞌt you see this smoke?” “I oxadi kasokwa xongong mänang?” “What happened this day so that it is like this?” Na cängade ka, “I mindong.” And she said, “This oil.” (Nyax 92) ꞌDogong käꞌdoxang ti? Where have you found this thing? (A&N 67) Kax zägkong kasiy yanong käꞌday song mo. This soil was not suppoed to eat all the meat. (T&A 12) Kampätäng tä koyinakä nycokong I am escorting these people tä siyakä ota. to eating places. (T&A 21) Anggotäng käwunang xongong, You have come this day, sagoying anggo tä siyakä ota tä kaxsed? they brought you to eat in places of the forest? (T&A 24) Accang go pipu tägaxsä camanong. Surely you have children in this strange forest. (T&A 29-32)

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Agänang, ngakang layis I am the one, my word remains ngakä uxong wede na exengge pätax songang, the word of this wife, not walking kax amäso agang ndä awede? am I supposed to close my eyes? Mänang ngakä uxong wede na exengge Like this, this wife will walk with pätaxakang nyang sogoka ameskewang. them two legs and be kept safe. (A&A1) Alkasis na apoco käxong na bona Cat and Hare this person with his mother, na käxong na bona. and this person with his mother. Exercise 13 (Nyax 44) Bonog, nya uxogkiyanani? Friend, is that our wife there? (Nyax 65) E käxiyandi? Hey, where is that person? (Nyax 66) Käxi kalayis sagal saxe mened. That person became girl and refused babysitting. (Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi? That saying there is a problem in his anus? (A&N 73) Na kala sägälaräsang na sägäꞌdocco, Then they divided them and they left, käxi käꞌdoc tä pane. that person went home. (T&A 37) Buguningziyang ngonde tagäng? That king is bigger than me? (T&A49) I nya käxi ngadaccang ka, So, that person says, ‘(There is someone) ‘Ngonde tagäng’ nyandi? bigger than me’ where is he? (Pedi 25-26) Käxi kädolezang gawa axsic tägaxsä lang, Person who leads will throw fish into basket, mände känggi täbanganang bate and the people who follow will nya axsicci ndä melede täng. take that fish itself and return it. (Pedi 37) Na kala atänäce kagoying sa wegki täce. Grandchild brought together those things to her. (N&A 6) Kala xongondi Nyoxolow kox denyä Then that day, Hyena saw the cow Apoco päxe siye tängang. of Hare in labor pains there. (N&A 20) ꞌDogi kosog Atorndori wundungang. That thing made Fox absent. (N&A 22) I oxaydagi bene ma tä pang buguning Osox. Those animals waited at house chief Lion. (N&A 24) Nyoxolow käcoxäwa ka sälege ngaki, Hyena was in a hurry to discuss that issue, ndä Osox leyewa. but Lion refused (to listen). Exercise 14

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(Nyax 5) Na säläpeda tä nya ka sagaleneni, And they said to him that she is that girl, paye yoxa caxse kabatwa. who wants a handsome husband. (T&A 56) Nyämänecce ka, “ꞌdogu cigiyeneni?” He asked, “Something like that mane?” (Pedi 2) Tanda tawiny tä cabärä Caning boxuxeneni To the West of the mountain of Caning, that nyadoga ligid täng kala Kaläg grandmother it gave a spirit like God mänang noxsada kän tä xäs. so as to raise people from the dead. (Pedi 4-5) Boxuxeneni nyandäng tänya cabäri watäke That grandmother lived in the mountain alone na päxä atäne ndä wacca tidi song with her grandchild, and cultivated sweet crops wegke iyeccä pacce tidi song. that produced many sweet (crops). (Pedi 21-22) Tä sängga kodosang, Caning kasog For three days, the Caning did the same täsa mänang, na tespedeneni, to them, and on that fourth, Caning kälaxesäng käꞌdocco tä colonggo. the Caning passed by going to the river. Exercise 15 (Nyax 1-2) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila ka paye Long ago, there was girl who refused to marry yoxa caxse kabatwa. unless she found husband that handsome. (Nyax 4) Na nyämänece ka sagalong paye yoxa key. He asked girl, she wanted husband that how. (Nyax 89) Na nyalilingäzi na cabag mida täpeye cocola And he bent over and she took oil that hot and täxä caxsänya. poured (it) into (his) anus. (A&N 6) Ndey ꞌdoxig oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig So that we can find a animal that big and kill ta penggog. and bring (it) to our children. (A&N 25-26) Agänanganang ngakä käꞌdang todong And I (was thinking on) the matter that is here agäre nga pacce ndä aꞌdiy ꞌdoga asog? and do I know the thing that I do? (A&N 70-71) Gi baga ze buguning, ndey noccang ziyang You take head king, so that you will come eat ꞌdärägse, xa siyakä kängga ngoninyag. brain, it is eating of people that important. (T&A 25) Yex diniyena wede? Do you know the storm that is coming? (T&A 34) I buguningza ngonde wundung? But is the king that is big absent? (T&A 42) Käxa layis ngode tänyandäng song. There is no person that is bigger than him. (T&A 59-60) I käxäginani kawungang läpi ka, But your person that comes, mänang mäs käxa ngondeyang, . . say to that person that big, . .

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Exercise 16 (O&A 2) Na oxayda kawuno And animals came for tä dänggä ꞌdogi nyäpaye nyägatang. listening of thing that he wanted them to hear. (O&A 7) Nycugo awasesining tä koyinakä Let us disperse for bringing of meat ya ta buguning. to the king. (O&A 13) Na samen akä sog sawuno . . . They set out on way of journey . . . (O&A 16) Gi nycu abad, ꞌdogu nycakä buguningzi You are stupid. Here is thing of sitting of king ginang. which is you. (O&A 36) ꞌDärägsä ze adakä sisiy, ka sawang tänya. Brains of head they should not eat, leave for him. (O&A 41) I zaxadang siyakä ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogong anya? Why you refuse to eat brains of head of thing? (Nyax 7-8) Na nyägäräng ka enggä aminugunyatäng, And he remembers young friends of him, ndey nyägäꞌdoc täng toga wegkä del tänya. as he goes, to give things of decorations to him. (Nyax 58) Na mabag päxä pipi kala säwedeccä sawuno And he took the babysitter and walked and tä ikä colonggo. came to mouth of river. (Nyax 90) Na Nyoxolow käxsä na cabag päxäsa, And Hyena died and she took their child na nya päxä Nyaxolowzi. and it is the child of Hyena. (Nyax 98) Na soꞌdoxa apangä buguningzä za. And they will find man of king of head. (Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi? Oh there is problem mouth of his anus, you say? (Nyax 112-113) I nya nyägäꞌdoc nyägäcca toboxu But he went and sat under of coconut koxiccandäng. Na nyoxo tree there. And he saw ligitigä weg pirtidining. shadows of things shaking. (Nyax 116) Na calanga mildä isugusatäng And she sang a song about dogs na isu kädang mildäce. and dogs heard her song. (A&N 1) Legedäniccä Atorndorindäng na Nyoxolow. There is a story of Fox and Hyena. (A&N 16-17) Ndey pokusig ndakä letugu deny So that we can carry it so that owners of cow wuno ꞌdoxung kog todongang. will not arrive and find us here. (A&N 22-23) Nyägäꞌdoc tä kärekä ngakä ꞌdoga nyäsog He went for thinking of matter of thing that he ndey nyäbag ya watäkänya. could do inorder to take the meat for himself.

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(A&N 55-56) Nyäꞌdoco nyämese nyäꞌdoxo odu mas song. He will go get lost and not find place of fire. (A&N 71-72) Xa siyakä kängga ngoninyag. Because eating of for important people. Meat Yanä ike tägining, miye tagä, ipe ta Apoco. of mouth for you, skin for me, tail for Hare. (T&A 12) Kampätäng tä koyinakä nycokong tä I come for the escorting of these people for siyakä ota tä pumpung. eating of places in bush. (T&A 18) Mände nyangad ta uxu buguning ka, Again, he (Fox) said to the wife of king, (T&A 43-44) Kamalä buguningzä odu nycamiye ganang, Camel is now chairman of place of meeting, i Osox me bokosänakä ganang. and Lion is usher of now. (T&A 51) I no ꞌdogu wuxikä tabanänyanani. There seems to be thing of smoking of tobacco. Exercise 17 (O&A 1) Aniyandäng, Osox kabandä oxayda In former times, Lion called the animals to kawuno käꞌday dänge ngakänya täng. all come hear his message. (O&A 14) Na Osox kasäx kängaw nya, And the Lion jumped and caught him, nyägoy nyangaw ipänya. and he ran and caught his tail. (O&A 17) Na ipäginani nycata täng keke And how can you sit on your tail ial ganang kala nycata apoyiyo winy?” unless the sitting is good like that? (O&A 47) I ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogang giyandi? Where is the brain of the head of my thing? (Nyax 11) Bo tong zäginong, Come bring this your head, anoc abagäs uxandäng tägog. I want to marry a woman for us. (Nyax 15) Bonog, tong anadarugugigong, Friend, bring these your glasses, anoc abagäs uxandäng tägog. I am going to marry a certain woman for us. (Nyax 18) Bonog, tong boxänggä agägigong . Friend, bring these your eyes. (Nyax 22) Bonog tong ngasäginong Friend, bring this your neck. (Nyax 26) Kala seley nyägädimi delgänya käꞌday. So as to complete all its decorating. (Nyax 30) Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko wala wi?” Listen, have you come to our home or what? (Nyax 31) E, agänang kawung tä panägo xongondong. Yes, I have come to your house today.

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(Nyax 33-34) “Appa, nya yoxanggi ampayeng “Father, my potential husband that I like nyanang kawung xongondong.” has come today.” (Nyax 37) Neng zaxeng adelgede tä masäginani. Well, if like that, I will fall down in your fire . (Nyax 39) Cägäduru wayagkäsa käꞌday. She gathered all their relatives. (Nyax 44-45) “Bonog, nya uxogkiyanani?” “Friend, is that our wife which is there?” Na nyängade ka, “Uxog, uxog, kädugig? He said, “Our wife, the one we are sharing? Neng tong zang.” Ok, bring my head.” (Nyax 49) Ama gisani me panangani todi Hey, there is a guy, father of my children läpi täma ka mawang. (lit. house), tell him to come. (Nyax 53) Wede tä pa koying nuxu päxäsko Go to house and bring our only child tagä ndey menecce tagä. to me so that he may care for me. (Nyax 76) “Gi nycu ka käxogkandäng? “Do you still (see) our person? (Nyax 82) Na wäx ta agäsa kacu cucu cu. And tears from their eyes came pouring out. (Nyax 87-88) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig mid Bend over with your head and we will pour oil taxä caxsägi na kala käwing.” into your anus so that you will be fat. (Nyax 90) Na Nyoxolow käxsä na cabag päxäsa. And Hyena died and she took their child. (Nyax 96) Kanggo luwing nyimec ta andäma. You cut out the liver for his hand. (Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi You are saying there is a problem in his anus? (Nyax 116) Na calanga mildä isugusatäng And she (wife) sang a song about their dogs na isu kädäng mildäce and dogs heard her song, (A&N 4) Na kala xongonendäng, And there was a time nyängade ta amindänya ka, . . . when it said to its friend, (A&N 6-7) Ndey ꞌdoxig oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig So that we find big animal and kill and bring ta penggog, xa xas kapax kog nano. (it) to our children, we are very hungry (A&N 19-20) I tari nya Atorndori ngakänya täng täzäg Fox himself surely had his goal (A&N 44-45) Gininganang käpax deny When you go hunting and kill a cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang? and before your fire arrives, what do you do? (A&N 84) Noxadang päxä yanäsko song, You see, there is not a lot of our meat,

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(A&N 94) Nyaxolowang na Apoco, “I mpayadangang, Hyena and Hare said, “If you want, owgadas anggo tä panäma.” I will escort you to his home.” (A&N 95) Kala Nyoxolow kädäng ngekänya, Then Hyena hear its crying, na ngade ta pengge ka, . . . and said to (its) children, (T&A 4-5) Na xongonendäng nyabag penggänya There was a time when he took its children na uxunya säꞌdocco tä walang tä siyakä and its wife and they went on a trip to the ota tä pumpung. Eating places in the bush. (T&A 10) Bo buguning i kämpätäng ti? You are an important king, where have Go penggägi käꞌdayang. you come from? You have all your children. (T&A 29-31) Agänang, ngakang layis I am the one, my word remains ngakä uxong wede na exengge pätax songang, the word of this wife, not walking kax amäso agang ndä awede? am I supposed to close my eyes and go? (T&A 59) I käxägini kawungang, läpi ka, But your person that comes, say to mänang mäs käxa ngondeyang, . . . that person who is big, . . . (N&A 15) Tanganiccägi kiye key? How has your bull given birth? Exercise 18 (O&A 40) Nycoki kasiy ya i kawang zä Kaccä na People had eaten meat and left head of nyimecce. Donkey and its liver. (O&A 43) I no käꞌdang buguning ngade ka, Because a little while ago king said sawang ꞌdärägse tänya. to leave its brain to him. (O&A 50) ꞌDog kabandä käluw ipe, kawang, Thing called its tail you cut, and I left (it), käluw wungge, kawang, you cut its ears, and I left, käwang käpax käsiy käꞌday. you left and you killed and ate everything. (Nyax 2-3) Xongenadäng Nyoxolow kädäng ꞌdogkeneni, There was its time that Hyena heard the na nyängade ka, “Ila anoc abag sagalong.” thing and said, “I really must marry this girl.” (Nyax 78) Kala säpaye saxake So, they wanted his divorce ndä sänyägate Nyoxolow. and they were afriad of Hyena. (Nyax 81) Ndä kala läge lägo ndä sängeccä. And then there was its smoke and they cried. (A&N 62) Ndä sägäbäg miye na ipe, i ze kalay tunyu, They took its skin and its tail, left head behind. ndä saduguning tä wungge säꞌdätädä. and they shared its ears which were cut.

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(A&N 70-71) Nycugo alara, gi baga ze, buguning Let us divide (things). You take head, king ndey noccang ziyang ꞌdärägse, so that you will come and eat its brain, xa siyakä kängga ngoninyag. because it is the eating of important people. (A&N 72-73) Yanä ike tägining, miye tagä, ipe ta Apoco. Meat of its mouth is for you, its skin is for me, Na kala sägälaräsang na sägäꞌdocco, and its tail is for Hare. Then they divided them käxi käꞌdoc tä pane. and they left–every person went to his home. (T&A 29-32) Agänang, ngakang layis I am the one, my word remains ngakä uxong wede na exengge pätax songang, word of this wife, not walking with her two legs kax amäso agang ndä ewede? am I supposed to close my eyes? Mänang ngakä uxong wede na exengge Like this, the wife will walk with pätaxakang nyang sogoka ameskewang. her two legs and be kept safe. Exercise 19 (O&A 34-35) Kala Osox kasiy nya ndä wang bange So Lion ate him and left the remainder ta oxaydagi kalungang. for the other animals, (Nyax 97) Kala säꞌdox kanggong mänang So, they will find you are like this, säꞌdox kanggong mänang. they will find you are like this. (A&N 10-11) Na kala edekeny tä keskow sägädayino Then the next day at dawn, they went to a bird ta awadi nuxungang. of which there is only one. (A&N 16-17) Ndey pokusig ndakä letugu deny So that we can carry it so that owners of cow wuno ꞌdoxung kog todongang. will not arrive and find us here. (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you go hunting and kill a cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang, and you have no fire, what do you do then, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw? (A&N 47) ꞌDoxo mas ti ganangang? Where will you find fire now? (A&N 51) Neng xänang ꞌdocco bokada tägogkang? Ok, who will go and bring (it) to us? (A&N 60) I sa salaye sosokuda ya käꞌday But they remained and transfered all meat home tä pang Atorndori. to the house of Fox. (A&N 70-71) Nycugo alara, gi baga ze, buguning Let us divide (things). You take head, king ndey noccang ziyang ꞌdärägse, so that you will come and eat the brain, xa siyakä kängga ngoninyag. because it is the eating of important people. (A&N 74)

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Kala xongonendäng, enggä penggä Nyoxolow Then there was a time when the children of käꞌdocco tä pang Atorndori. Hyena went to the house of Fox. (A&N 92-93) Ndakä paxang agä, Do not kill me, xa agänangang kapax denyang song. for I am not the one that killed the cow. (A&N 94) Nyaxolowang na Apoco, “I mpayadangang, Hyena and Hare said, “If you want, owgadas anggo tä panäma.” I will escort you to his home.” (T&A 1-2) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was an buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed, important king of the forest, ndä nyang nyäs me kudurang mände, and he was a powerful creature– (T&A 10) Bo buguning i kämpätäng ti? Go (You) are important king, where have penggägi käꞌdayang. you come from? You have all these children. (T&A 25-26) Buguning ngade ka, “Oxadiyang sogowang?” The king said, “What is happening?” Na Atorndori ngade ka, “I oda wede ndä And Fox said, “Will the storm come and attack kadarjange gi na pipuwang?” you and the children?” (T&A 29-32) Agänang, ngakang layis I am the one, my word remains ngakä uxong wede na exengge pätax songang, the word of this wife, not walking kax amäso agang ndä awede? am I supposed to close my eyes? Mänang ngakä uxong wede na exengge Like this, the wife will walk with pätaxakang nyang sogoka ameskewang. them two legs and be kept safe. (T&A 37) Buguningziyang ngonde tagäng. That king is bigger than me? (N&A 1) Nyoxolow na Apoco aminug. Hyena and Hare were friends. Exercise 20 (O&A 10) Agänang buguning, kayaxsä agä tägi ka I am the king, I sent myself to gi wung. you to come. (O&A 16) Gi nycu abad, ꞌdogu nycakä buguningzi You are stupid. Here is thing of sitting of king ginang. which is you. (O&A 30) Gining wede ꞌdanyawa ndey Kaccä wung, You go hide yourself so that you pretend to icca ndä kala men. catch Fox, but instead you will catch Donkey. (O&A 49) Gi ndey bäle ka gining tä zägi, You were supposed to collect all the meat, ninggi wundung. but you were not there. (Nyax 31)

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E, agänang kawung tä panägo xongondong. Yes, I have come to your house today. (Nyax 34) Appa, nya yoxanggi ampayeng, Father, my potential husband that I like, nyanang kawung xongondong. he has come today. (Nyax 50) Na maluw mängade täce ka, “Cong agänang.” He responded saying to her, “I am the one.” (Nyax 70) Kala sax cayaxsä ma kala cadästä ma So she sent him and advised him tä buxani biyeyang. to have a little wine. (Nyax 71) Sawuno tä colonggo, na nyamän kala mäneki They came to the river, and he asked and began nyämandäs nganakanang. to ask the elder sister. (Nyax 114) Ama kän zagi xa sakang. You people, come because they are here. (A&N 25-26) Agänanganang ngakä käꞌdang And I was really thinking about you todong agäre nga pacce ndä aꞌdiy ꞌdoga asog? here and do I know what to do (implied ꞌnoꞌ)? (A&N 41-42) Nyoxolow ngade ta Apoco ka, Hyena said to Hare, “Gindäng wanägi apo?” Apoco ngade ka, “You are your body is good?” Hare said, “E, agänang wanang apo winy.” “Yes, I am my body is good.” (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you go hunting and kill a cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang, and you have no fire, what do you do then, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw? (A&N 58) Giza wede tägog xa gining loy. It is you that walks for us because you are tall. (A&N 72) Yanä ike tägining, miye tagä, ipe ta Apoco. Meat of the mouth is for you, skin is for me, (A&N 92-93) Ndakä paxang agä, Do not kill me, xa agänangang kapax denyang song. for I am not the one that killed the cow. (T&A 19-20) “Bo nycokong anggokang.” Na uxu buguning “Mother of those people, are you fine?” And ngade ka, “E wasakang.” the wife of the king said, “Yes, we are fine.” (T&A 29-32) Na buguning ngade ka, “Agänang, And the king said, “I am the one, ngakang layis ngakä uxong my word remains the word of this wife, wede na exengge pätax songang, not walking kax amäso agang ndä awede? am I supposed to close my eyes and go? Mänang ngakä uxong wede na exengge Like this, the wife will walk with pätaxakang nyang sogoka ameskewang.” two legs and be kept safe. Exercise 21

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(O&A 17-18) Na ipäginani nycata täng keke ila ganang kala How can you sit on your tail unless sitting is nycata apoyiyo winy? good like that? (Nyax 37) Neng zaxeng adelgede tä masäginani. Well, if like that, I will fall down into your fire. (Nyax 44) Bonog, nya uxogkiyanani? Friend, is that our wife? (Nyax 49) Ama gisani me panangani todi Hey, there is a guy, the father of my children, läpi täma ka mawung. tell him to come. (A&N 36-37) Bonog, masani nuxu kig ꞌdoc bota tägog. Friend, there is fire one person will bring to us. (A&N 96) Xoyi nycuko anoyi xa letugu denyaki kawuno Let us run because owners of cow are coming. (T&A 51-52) Ata bende nya xa nyäwunodung i no ꞌdogu Just wait for him, he is coming and there is his wuxikä tabanänyanani. Na Tumos ngade ka, tobacco pipe smoking there. Elephant said, “Ganang ꞌdogu wuxikä tabanänyanani? “Now there is his tobacco pipe smoking there?” (T&A 54) Na Tumos mänecce ngade ka, “I wiyani?” And Elephant asked and said, “What is there?” (Pedi 47) Päxä Caning äxse laya kala ngayiccani. A young person dies like that stone there. (AKT 23) Gang alkodos tä Kamalänani, Now the pipe for Camel is there, i gang Kamalä key? and now how can Camel? Exercise 22 (O&A 1) Aniyandäng, Osox kabandä oxayda There was a time when Lion called the animals kawuno käꞌday dänge ngakänya täng. to all come hear his message. (Nyax 2) Xongenandäng Nyoxolow kädäng ꞌdogkeneni, There was a time that Hyena heard this matter, (Nyax 7) Na nyägäräng ka enggä aminugunyatäng, And he remembered his young friends, (Nyax 11) Bo tong zäginong, anoc abagäs Speak truthfully, I want to uxandäng tägog. marry a woman for us. (Nyax 15) Bonog, tong anadarugugigong anoc abagäs Friend, bring these glasses, I am going to uxandäng tägog. marry a certain woman for us. (Nyax 18-19) Bonog, tong boxänggä agägigong anoco Friend, bring these old eyes, I am going to abagäs uxandäng tägog. marry a certain woman for us. (Nyax 30) Key gi? Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko wala wi? Listen, have you come to our home or what?

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(Nyax 76) Gi nycu ka käxogkandäng? Do you still see our person? (Nyax 112) I nya nyägäꞌdoc nyägäcca But he went and sat under toboxu koxiccandäng. a coconut tree. (Nyax 116) Calanga mildä isugusatäng She sang song about dogs na isu kädäng mildäce. and dogs heard her song. (A&N 1) Legedäniccä Atorndorindäng na Nyoxolow. There is a story about Fox and Hyena. (A&N 4-5) Na kala xongonendäng, nyängade ta And there was a time, when he said to amindinya ka, “Bonog, anocci edekeny his friend, “Friend, early tomorrow morning oloxti odudi tä keskow anocci tä lag.” at dawn, let us go hunting.” (A&N 9) Bonog, nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song, ꞌdocig winy. Friend, there is nothing. Let us just move on. (A&N 28-29) Accang, wasaki kawunig tä lag na buguning We gathered and came for hunting with king, ndä kapaxig denyä nuxu kigkandäng. and we killed one cow of a person. (A&N 34) Nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song, sotagä raj mangeccä. There is nothing, there are many ways to trick. (A&N 40-41) “Bonog, yex ka kaꞌdoxa Apocondung “Friend, do you know that hare was found sängo?” Nyoxolow ngade ta sleeping?” Hyena said Apoco ka, “Gindäng wanägi opo?” to Hare, “How are you?” (A&N 101) I cong letugu denyatäng song, But the fact is, the owners of the cow were not nyägänanange Nyoxolow winy. there–he (Fox) just tricked Hyena. (T&A 2-3) Ndä nyang nyäs me kudurang mände, nuxu And he was a powerful creature– kigkandäng layis me kudura kaꞌdas nya song. there was no person more powerful than him. (T&A 6) Na säwedeccä na penggänya And they went with his children nyäꞌdingidi ewetäng siye. and he cut down trees to eat. (T&A 15-16) “Anggotäng watäkägo apoccu?” Buguning, ngade ka,

“Are you all fine?” King (answered),

“E wasatäng watäkäsko apoccu winy.” “Yes, we are all just fine.” (T&A 33-34) Neng gang käxa wede näs Ok, now is a person that walks a person me kudura ka ꞌdaskandang säxong? not strong enough to pull (someone)? (T&A 40-42) Na nyäꞌdoc ta Kamälä na nyängade ta Kamalä He (Fox) went to Camel and said to Camel, ka, “Ama, gi nycu key käccäg ndey Hey, you seem to overthrow (the king) so that ka Tumosandäng ngade ka, Elephant says that there is no person bigger käxa layis ngonde tänyandäng song.” than him.”

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Exercise 23 (O&A 47) I ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogang giyandi? The brain of the head of my thing, where are you? (Nyax 92) ꞌDogong käꞌdoxang ti? Where have you found this thing? (Nyax 99) Lägong lägo ti? Where is this smoke smoking from? (A&N 15) Bonog, kala kendäsig ndä ꞌdoxodig Friend, when we finish skinning, mas ti? where will we find fire? (A&N 47) ꞌDoxo mas ti ganangang? Where will you find fire now? (T&A 10) Xänanang? Bo buguning, Who are you? An important king, i kämpätäng ti? you came from where? (T&A 49) I nya käxi ngadaccang ka, So, that person says, ‘Ngonde tagäng’ nyandi? ‘(Someone) is bigger than me’ where is he? (A&A 15) Na kala Alkadis kasay onge Then Cat looked back oxada bo Apoconag pete na nyängade ka, and saw the mother of Hare running and said, “Xay bonggondi?” “Oh, where is your mother?” (N&A 27) Ama no ti wati? Hey where (are you going) so fast? Känakang bene gi ka gi wung! People are waiting for you to come! (AKT 18) Na Tumos kawung mänecce ka, And Elephant came and was asking, “Kamaländi?” “Where is Camel?” Exercise 24 (O&A 10) Agänang buguning, kayaxsä agä tägi ka I am the king, I sent myself to you gi wung. to come. (O&A 47) I ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogang giyandi? The brain of head of my thing, where are

you? (Nyax 15) Bonog, tong anadarugugigong, Friend, bring these your glasses, (Nyax 22) Bonog tong ngasäginong. Friend, bring this your neck. (Nyax 30) Key gi? Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko How are you, have you come to our home wala wi? or what?

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(Nyax 33) Na kala cägäꞌdoc ta mesa cängade täng ka, Then she went to her father and said to him, (Nyax 44-45) Na nyängade ka, “Uxog, uxog, kädugig? He said, “Our wife, the one we are sharing? Neng tong zang.” Ok, bring my head.” (Nyax 97) Kala säꞌdox kanggong mänang, So, they will find that you are like this, säꞌdox kanggong mänang. they will find that you are like this. (Nyax 101) Kagi luw nyimec ta andäma. Oh that you cut out the liver for his hand. (Nyax 116) Na calanga mildä isugusatäng And she (wife) sang a song about their dogs na isu kädäng mildäce. and dogs heard her song. (A&N 41) Nyoxolow ngade ta Apoco ka, Hyena said to Hare, “Gindäng wanägi apo?” “You exist, your body is good?” (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you yourself go hunting and kill a

cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang, and you have no fire, what do you do then, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw? (A&N 51) Neng xänang ꞌdocco bokada tägogkang? Ok, who will go and bring (it) to us? (A&N 58) Giza wede tägog xa gining loy. It is you that walks for us because you are

tall. (A&N 64-65) Nyoxolow käpätäng na pecäg na kamen zä Hyena came and ran and caught the head of deny, kaꞌdiꞌdi nanggäsa, the cow, and pulled all of them, säs kodos na sanyasäng tunyu. those three, and they pulled (it) out. (A&N 72) Yanä ike tägining, miye tagä, Meat of the mouth is for you, skin is for

me, (A&N 92-93) Ndakä paxang agä, Do not kill me, xa agänangang kapax denyang song. for I am really not the one that killed the

cow. (A&N 97) Nycugo anoyi, awanga Atorndori watäke Let us run! Leave Fox alone because Fox xa nya mänang Atorndori, mägädäng nycoki tägog.

he is the one and will hear people coming to us.

(T&A 15-16) “Anggotäng watäkägo apoccu?” Buguning, ngade ka,

“Are you yourselves all fine?” King (said),

“E wasatäng watäkäsko apoccu winy.” “Yes, we oursleves are all just fine.” (T&A 19-20)

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“Bo nycokong anggokang.” Na uxu buguning “Mother of those people, are you fine?” And

ngade ka, “E wasakang.” the wife of the king said, “Yes, we are fine.”

(T&A 37) Buguningziyang ngonde tagäng? That king is bigger than me (to me)? (T&A 42) Tumosandäng ngade ka, Elephant says that there is no person bigger käxa layis ngonde tänyandäng song. than him. (T&A 43) Na sägäyawesäning nanggäsa. And they gathered all of them. (T&A 49) I nya käxi ngadaccang ka, So, that person says, ‘Ngonde tagäng’ nyandi? ‘(Someone) is bigger than me’ where is he? (T&A 51) I no ꞌdogu wuxikä tabanänyanani. There is the thing of smoking of his

tobacco. (A&A 19-21) Alkadis ꞌdoc todong nyäꞌdoc tä bange Cat went and he (Hare) followed calling kala Alkadis kawizä ngakänya, so that Cat beame fed-up of his matter

(Hare), kaꞌdeg täzä ed nanya. and climbed up in tree with it (food). (A&A 23) Yex key megedetäng You know, there are storms coming udosäno na koxa basa waxsetasänig with rain and we need to tie ngastänggog tawagä ewe. ourselves to the bottom of the trees. Exercise 25 (A&N 5-6) Annoci edekeny oloxti odudi tä keskow, “Early tomorrow morning at dawn, annoci tä lag tä pumpung ndey ꞌdoxig let us go hunting in bush so that we find oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig ta penggog. big animal and kill and bring to our home, (A&N 34) Nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song, sotagä raj mangeccä. There is nothing, the ways to trick are many. (A&N 41-42) Nyoxolow ngade ta Apoco ka, Hyena said to Hare, “Gindäng wanägi apo?” Apoco ngade ka, “You are your body is good?” Hare said, “E, agänang wanang apo winy.” “Yes, I am my body is good.” (T&A 1) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed. an important king in the forest. (T&A 15-16) “Anggotäng watäkägo apoccu?” Buguning, ngade ka,

“Are you yourselves good?” King (said),

“E wasatäng watäkäsko apoccu winy.” “Yes, we oursleves are very good.”

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(T&A 59-60) I käxäginani kawungang läpi ka, But your person that comes, mänang mäs käxa ngondeyang, . . say to that person that is big, . . . (Pedi 4-5) Boxuxeneni nyandäng tänya cabäri watäke That grandmother lived in the mountain alone na päxä atäne ndä wacca tidi song with her grandchild, and cultivated sweet crops wegke iyeccä pacce tidi song. that produced many sweet (crops). (Pedi 11-12) Jenenendäng koxa kawung pacce In that year, there was much rain na as kawuno tä colonggo mangeccä. and there were many fish in the river. Exercise 26 (O&A 1) Osox kabandä oxayda kawuno käꞌday Lion called the animals to all dänge ngakänya täng. come hear his message there. (Nyax 25-26) Na nyabag kala nyägädelwa seley kala And in this way he took and became dressed up nyägäduru nycoki käꞌday and gathered all the people for comparison so kala seley nyägädimi delgänya käꞌday. as to complete all his adornment (Nyax 39) Cägäduru wayagkäsa käꞌday. She gathered all their relatives. (Nyax 46) Nycoki kabag wegka käꞌday. People got everything (for him). (Nyax 77) ꞌDoxtong kasiy nganakog käꞌday song?” Didnꞌt this guy completely eat all our elder sisters (A&N 67) Kax zägkong kasiy yanong käꞌday song mo. This soil was not suppoed to eat all this meat. (T&A 10) Bo buguning i kämpätäng ti? You are an important king, where have Go penggägi käꞌdayang. you come from? You have all your children. (N&A 21-22) Na mägäyawudu satu na kobony, And he collected calabashes and gourds and masol kulung tä onguma na tä agäma, carried some on his back and some on his front Exercise 27 (Nyax 67) Na sadoga nuxu mände täma. And they gave another one (babysitter) to him. (A&N 9) Bonog, nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song ꞌdoccig winy. Friend, there is not one thing. (A&N 10-11) Na kala edekeny tä keskow sägädayino Then the next day at dawn, they went ta awadi nuxungang. to a bird for which is one. (A&N 12-13) Na kala saꞌdoxa danyä nuxu kigkandäng Then they found cow one person lost sleeping

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kämes kasängga täpox tä kaxsed tä pumpung. far away in the forest in the bush. (A&N 15-16) Bonog, kala kendäsig, ndä ꞌdoxodig mas ti ndey

When we finish skinning, where we find fire

buxusig nuxu ya siyig? so we can roast one of the meat and eat (it)? (A&N 34) Nuxu ꞌdogkandäng song, There is not one problem, sotagä raj mangeccä. there are many ways to trick. (A&N 37) Bonog, masani, nuxu kig ꞌdoc bota tägog’ There is fire, one person will go bring to us. (A&N 64-65) Nyoxolow käpätäng na pecäg na kamen zä Hyena came and ran and caught the head of deny, kaꞌdiꞌdi nanggäsa, the cow, and pulled all of them, säs kodos na sanyasäng tunyu. they be three, and they pulled (it) out. (T&A 29-32) Agänang, ngakang layis I am the one, my word remains ngakä uxong wede na exengge pätax songang, the word of this wife, not walking with two kax amäso agang ndä awede? legs am I supposed to close my eyes? Mänang ngakä uxong wede na exengge Like this, this wife will walk with pätaxakang nyang sogoka ameskewang. them two legs and be kept safe. (Pedi 21-22) Tä sängga kodosang, Caning kasog For three days, the Caning did the same täsa mänang, na tespedeneni, to them, and on the fourth, Caning kälaxesäng käꞌdocco tä colonggo. the Caning passed by going to the river. (Pedi 28) Na sägäcogä waccid na axsic tägaxsä and when evening arrived, there was lang nuxung. one fish in the basket. (Pedi 34) Edekeny sawuno sasog täsa mänang tä The next three days, they came and sängga kodos, na xongondi näs kodoseneng, did the same, and on the third day cäläpede ta atänäce ka, , she said to her grandchild, (Pedi 48-49) Na kala todi kig äxse säpoko Then a person died and they carried (him) säꞌdocco sädogada and went and put (it) täzä telegu ndey ka sängo pätax na moso, on a shelter for two days and rots, Exercise 28 (O&A 2) Na oxayda kawuno tä dänggä ꞌdogi nyäpaye And the animals came to listen to the thing that nyängetang. it wanted them to hear. (O&A 34) Kala Osox kasiy nya ndä wang bange So Lion ate him and left the remainder ta oxaydagi kalungang. for the animals which are others. (Nyax 34)

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Appa, nya yoxanggi ampayeng nyanang Father, my potential husband that I like kawung xongondong. has come today. (Nyax 71) Na sawuno tä colonggo, na nyamän, And they came to the river, and he asked, kala mäneki nyämändäs nganakanang. and the asking that he asked was to elder sisters. (Nyax 108-109) Na Nyaxolowiny kasag kawuno na And Hyenas gathered together and nyägädukusa päxä wegki nyägong. he gave them the many things which he had. (A&N 10-11) Na kala edekeny tä keskow sägädayino Then the next day at dawn, they went to a bird ta awadi nuxungang. of which there is only one. (A&N 89) Na Atorndori kabäle ꞌdogi tängang. And Fox realized thing that was there. (Pedi 14-15) Säꞌdocco säcasäng tä nyäxtä colonggo They were going and sitting on the bank of river ta akä sogi Caning wunosäno on the path where Caning came and laxetäsäng tä ꞌdockusa täzäläg. quickly passed on their journey. (Pedi 25-26) Käxi kädolezang gawa axsic tägaxsä lang, Person who leads will throw fish into basket, mände känggi täbanganang bate and the people who follow will nya axsicci ndä melede täng. take that fish itself and return it. Exercise 29 (O&A 23-25) Kala noxo ganang ꞌdoga zeke gi tä cad If you see now the thing of covering you for wundung, ꞌdoga zeke gi tä lagkä sitting is absent, the thing of covering you tarupus wundung, kala ganang noco as wearing a mat is absent, then na nycata tä butug apoyiyo winy. you will go and sit comfortably in kingdom. (O&A 54) Peszängga ngakong tireneng. Truths that this speach is really true. (Nyax 1-2) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila ka paye There was girl who refused to marry unless yoxa caxse kabatwa. she found husband that handsome looking. (Nyax 4) Na nyämänece ka sagalong paye yoxa key. He asked girl, she wanted husband that how. (A&N 25-26) Agänanganang ngakä käꞌdang todong And I (was thinking on) the matter that is here agäre nga pacce ndä aꞌdiy ꞌdoga asog? and do I know that much the thing that I do? (A&N 36-37) ‘Bonog, masani nuxu kig ꞌdoc bota tägog’, ‘Friend, we need one person to go bring fire ndä dängig ꞌdoga mängade tägog. to us’, and you will see thing that he tells us. (A&N 58) Giza wede tägog xa gining loy. It is you that walks for us because you are tall. (T&A 42) Käxa layis ngode tänyandäng song. There is no person that is bigger than him.

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(T&A 59-60) I käxäginani kawungang läpi ka, But your person that comes, mänang mäs käxa ngondeyang, i agänang anoco say to that person that is big, that I am going. (A&A 17) Anox oda ꞌdox siyad täng. I will see the place that she gets food from it. (AKT 11) Nyaꞌdox kaging ka ndä nox If it finds you, then ꞌdoga nyäsog tägi. you will see the thing that it does to you. Exercise 30 (O&A 25) Noco na nycata tä butug apoyiyo winy. You will go and sit comfortably in kingdom. (Nyax 31) E, agänang kawung tä panägo xongondong. Yes, I have come to your house today. (Nyax 39-40) Kala kodogas ce tä akä sog Then she escorted (them) on the way, ndä säpäse lang täce kätos na päxä weg. they filled bags for her completely with things. (Nyax 87) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig Bend over with your head (down) and we will mid täxä caxsägi. pour oil inside your anus. (N&A 20) ꞌDogi kosog Atorndori wundungang. That thing made Fox absent. (A&N 25-26) Agänanganang ngakä käꞌdang todong And I (was thinking on) the matter that is here agäre nga pacce ndä aꞌdiy ꞌdoga osog? and do I know the thing that I do? (Nyax 41) Kala säwedeccä mänang, Then moving along like this, kala de sapara täxande. they later arrived far away. (A&N 5) Bonog, anocci edekeny oloxti odudi Friend, early tomorrow morning at dawn, tä keskow anocci tä lag. let us go hunting. (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you yourself go hunting and kill a cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi and you have no fire, what do you do now then, ganangang, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw? (A&N 61) Ndä sägäba miye na ipe, i ze kalay tunyu. They took skin with tail but left head separate. (T&A 1) Mägaccäng wane, ka Tumos nyäs A long time ago, Elephant was a buguningza ngonde tä kaxsed. king that important of the forest. (T&A 33-34) Neng gang käxa wede näs Ok, now is a person that walks a person me kudura ka ꞌdaskandang säxong? not strong enough to pull (someone)? (T&A 58) I ganang lede uccu key xoyi, aꞌdägane But now, owner carefully listens, and I hurry.

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anoco. (Pedi 2-3) Tanda tawiny tä cabärä Caning boxuxeneni To the West of the mountain of Caning, that nyadoga ligid täng kala grandmother there it gave a spirit Kaläg mänang noxsada kän tä xäs. like God so as to raise people from the dead. (Pedi 17-18) Käxi kapäcca kädolezang kabag axsic The person who calls and leads took a single fish nuxung gawa tä lang na kala and threw (it) into the basket, and then känggi kalasa tongang kasog mänang. people who came afterwards did like that. (AKT 25) Na nyäzacca kädeg na nyäkoy And he looked carefully and ran and nyägäꞌdoc tägaxsä pumpung. went inside the forest. Exercise 31 Test compound phrase Write correctly ze buxic kidney zä buxic aydagä apanginy brother-in-laws aydakä apanginy axänggä mas guns axänggä masta wawanakusko apang father-in-law wawanakäsko apang wungga ed leaves wunggä ewe ngeca awagic rib ngeccä awagic mezanä tas demon mezana tas zä tas crazy ze tas limicäxong sunrise limiccä xong nadabi poorly na dabi nandä banic rightward na andä banic Exercise 32 Test verb Write correctly Test verb Write correctly gi cogo you arrive gi nycogo gi ngade you speak gi ngade agä anggowe I throw agä anggowe agä apaxe I kill agä apaxe kig kaꞌdoc person went kig käꞌdoc kig kädeläng person fell kig kadeläng agä adokolo I stand agä andokolo gi koying you bring gi goying agä aziye I eat agä asiye kig kagärtä person thought kig kagärtä agä anoyo I run agä anoyo gi zäbe you plant gi nzäbe agä anycodo I drop agä acodo kig kox person saw kig kox Exercise 33 (O&A 2-4) Na oxayda kawuno tä dänggä ꞌdogi And the animals came to listen to the thing nyäpaye nyägatang. that it wanted them to hear. Na nyängade ka, “Ampaye ya.” And he said, “I want meat.” Na Atorndori ngade ka, “Mpaye ya?” And Fox said, “You want meat?”

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(O&A 14) Na Osox kasäx kängaw nya, nyägoy And Lion caught him, that is he ran nyangaw ipänya. and caught his tail. (O&A 50-52) ꞌDog kabandä käluw ipe, Thing called tail you cut, kawang, käluw wungge, I left, you cut ears kawang, käwang käpax käsiy käꞌday, I left it, I left and you killed ate everything, ꞌdärägsä ze tängang kax kämel tagä mänang? brain of head were you suppose return to me? (Nyax 13) Na nyägäꞌdoc nyäwedede nyaꞌdox me anadaru. He went walked found a person with glasses. (Nyax 20) Na nyäwedede nyaꞌdoxo me ngasäwan He continued and found a person of na nyägade täng ka, . . . importance said to him, . . . (Nyax 34) Appa, nya yoxanggi ampayeng nyanang Father, my potential husband kawung xongondong. that I like has come today. (Nyax 47) Na kala nyägäpätäng nyäwede tä bängäce, Then he waited and continued to follow her, (Nyax 63) Nycoki leye pipi täma. People refused (to give) him a babysitter. (Nyax 66) Käxi kalayis sagal saxe mened, She became an older girl and refused to neng ganang, key? babysit (anylonger), so now what? (Nyax 76) Gi nycu ka käxogkandäng? Do you remain that (still see) our sisters? (Nyax 78) Kala säpaye saxake ndä sänyägate Nyoxolow. They wanted divorce, they afraid of Hyena. (Nyax 87-88) Ndä wacolodunig mid täxä caxsägi And we will pour oil into your anus na kala käwing so that you will become fat, (Nyax 98) Na säꞌdoxa apangä buguningzä za. And they will find an important king. (A&N 6-7) Ndey ꞌdoxig oxaya ngonde paxig koyinig So we can find big animal, kill, bring to our ta penggog, xa xas kapax kog nano. home, in order that we have a lot of meat. (A&N 30-31) Seley ka wabuxig nuxu wasiyig ndey We killed one (cow) and ate and wampokusig ndakä letugu deny ꞌdoxu was, we carried so that owner of cow mäsaxe. would not find us, and refuse (us the beef). (A&N 36-37) ‘Bonog, masani nuxu kig ꞌdoc ‘We need one person to go bring fire to us’, bota tägog, ndä dängig ꞌdoga mängade tägog. you will see the thing he tells us about.’ (A&N 73) Na kala sägälaräsang na sägäꞌdocco, Then they divided them and they left– käxi käꞌdoc tä pane. every person went home. (T&A 13)

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Neng kala kanyänggädig, wameleccig tä pa.” When we have checked, we will return home. (T&A 25) Yex diniyena wede? Do you know a storm is coming? Exercise 34 Test verb Write correctly Test verb Write correctly annoxo I see anoxo sogox they saw sägox kig koyo person ran kig koy mägoy he ran mägoy nyuccu it stays nyuccu konox you (sg) see känox niyäng you (sg) produce niyäng cugucu she stayed cäguccu cägäyäng she produced cägiyäng kig ꞌdoskädä person pulls kig ꞌdosto kig käwung person came kig kawung muwang he comes mäwung awundäng I come awunodung nocang you (pl) go noccang anocco I go anoco mäꞌdocco he goes mäꞌdoco Exercise 35 (O&A 7) Nycugo awasesining tä koyinakä Let us disperse for bringing of meat ya ta buguning. to the king. (O&A 28) Uccudi todong bende agä ndä awung. Stay here and wait until I come. (O&A 30) Gining wede ꞌdanyawa ndey Kaccä wung, You go hide yourself so that you pretend to icca ndä kala men. catch Fox, but you sit and will catch Donkey. (O&A 32) Nyägäꞌdoc nyaläpe ta Kaccä ka, “Bo icca.” He went and told Donkey, “Come sit.” (O&A 45) Ziya ꞌdog wing, I gom buguning You (pl) just eat the thing, kawungang wanga tagä. after the the king comes, leave (it) for me. (Nyax 11) Bo tong zäginong, anoc abagäs Come bring true speaking, I want to marry uxandäng tägog. a woman for us. (Nyax 23) Na me ngasäwan ngade ka, “Neng ata baga.” Important person said, “Ok, you can take it.” (Nyax 38) Na mesa ngade ka, “Neng wesi bi.” And (her) father said, “Ok, then go.” (Nyax 42) Na nyängade täce ka, And he (husband) asked her, “Wededi ndä awung.” “Continue (onwards), and I will come (later).” (Nyax 49) Ama gisani me panangani todi Hey, there is a guy, the father of my children, läpi täma ka mawung. tell him to come. (Nyax 57)

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Na menggäsa ngadeccä ka, “Baga medenow.” And the fathers said, “Take the babysitter.” (Nyax 60) Za agä, anycus key? Look at me. How do I look? (Nyax 87) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig mid Bend over with your head (down) and täxä caxsägi. we will pour oil into your anus. (Nyax 107) Päxä yanang kaꞌdox tanggo, wining lala. This is a lot of meat for you. Come and see. (A&N 22) Bonog bende agä, oꞌdo todani ndä awung. Friend, wait for me. I will go, then return. (A&N 77) Wesi läpi ta menggo ka kangad ka, Go tell your father, . . . (A&N 97) Nycugo anoyi, awanga Atorndori watäke. Let us run! Leave Fox alone. Exercise 36 (O&A 13-14) Na Osox kasäx kängaw nya, And the Lion jumped and caught him, (Nyax 28) Na ce cägox ma. And she saw him. (Nyax 82-83) Na nyawung nyämaŋe ce ka, And he (hyena) came and asked her (girl), “Oxadi wadi ngedenang?” “Why are you crying?” (A&N 16-17) Ndey pokusig ndakä letugu deny So that we can carry it so that owners of cow wuno ꞌdoxung kog todongang. will not arrive and find us here. (A&N 22) Bonog bende agä. Friend, wait for me. (A&N 63) Waa waa waa buguning, xonya was Oh king, rescue us xa zäg kabag ya käꞌday kasiy. because the soil has taken all meat and eaten (it). (T&A 21) Sagoying anggo tä siyakä ota tä kaxsed? They brought you to see the forest? (T&A 26) I oda wede ndä kadarjange gi Will the storm come and attack you na pipuwang? and your children? (A&A 2) Säguccu tä pana nuxu käꞌdaygäsa na They lived in one house and xas kawung kapax sa. hunger went and killed them. Exercise 37 (O&A 42) Kala oxayda ngadeccä ka, . . . So the animals were saying, (Nyax 4)

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Na nyämänecce ka He was asking sagalong paye yoxa key. this girl what kind of husband she wanted. (Nyax 41) Kala säwedeccä mänang, Then going along like this, kala de sapara täxande. they later arrived at a great distance. (Nyax 51) Na ce cägämolaswa napäl. And she prepared herself quietly. Then they Kala säwedeccä mänang kala sapara pa. were going like this until they reached home. (Nyax 53) Wede tä pa koying nuxu päxäsko tagä Go to (my family’s) house and bring our only ndey menecce tagä. child to me so that he may be caring for me. (Nyax 57-58) Na menggäsa ngadeccä ka, “Baga mededow.” And fathers were saying, “Take babysitter.” Na mabag päxä pipi kala säwedeccä And he took the babysitter and was continuing sawuno tä ikä colonggo. and came to a river bank. (Nyax 65) Kala mägämel tä pa maläpe So he returned to home and requested and na nycoki ngadeccä ka, “E käxiyandi?” people were saying, “Where is that person?” (Nyax 81) Ndä kala läge lägo ndä sängeccä. Then there was smoke and they were crying. (Nyax 91) Kala samen akä sog säwedeccä mänang So, they began walking on the way kala säpaseccä na me kaläg. until they were meeting a witchdoctor. (A&N 8) Kälaygädiccig kax käꞌdoxig ya käsiyig song. We were remaining, did not find meat to eat. (A&N 75) Wenyeccä na penggänya They were playing with his (Foxꞌs) children na nyäwede nyäꞌdoxong towa. and he came and found (them) inside. (T&A 6) Na säwedeccä na penggänya. And they were going with his children. (T&A 8) Ndä säꞌdayining na kala samen sog And they washed and then säwedeccä säꞌdocco tä pa. they began going and went home. (T&A 48) Na tumos käleza na kawung mänecce ka, Elephant appeared and came and was asking, (Pedi 4-5) Boxuxeneni nyandäng tänya cabäri watäke That grandmother lived in mountain alone na päxä atäne ndä wacca tidi song with grandchild, and were cultivating sweet wegke iyeccä pacce tidi song. crops that were producing sweet (crops). (N&A 5) Apocong meskecce tolang, Hare was caring for (her) everyday, i Nyoxolow meskecce song. Hyena was not caring for (her). (AKT 30-31) Na kala Atorndori kalay todi lawacca mänang then Fox remained there screaming like that. Exercise 38

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(Nyax 17) Nyabag kalanyä wedede sägäpase na He took it and went and they met a person me agäwan, with old eyes, (A&A 7) Anocci awutäde zigä nganggonag. Let’s go tie rope on our mothers. (A&A 14-15) Na kala Alkadis kasay onge Then Cat looked back oxada bo Apoconag pete and saw the mother of Hare running (Pedi 2-3) Tanda tawiny tä cabärä Caning boxuxeneni To the West of the mountain of Caning, that nyadoga ligid täng kala grandmother there it gave a spirit Kaläg mänang noxsada kän tä xäs. like God so as to raise people from the dead. (Pedi 26) Mände känggi täbanganang bate nya People who follow will take the fish axsicci ndä melede täng. itself and return (it). Exercise 39 (O&A 44) Neng, nyägatadang buguning? Ok, are you (pl) fearing the king? (Nyax 6) Ndä ganang key na nyägäsaydawa If it is like this, he claims he sees badly. nyoxo nyädas. (Nyax 42) Wededi ndä awung. Continue (onwards), and I will come (later). (Nyax 71) Na nyamän, kala mäneki And he asked and nyämändäs nganakanang. asked the elder sisters. (Nyax 83) Oxadi wadi ngedenang? Why are you (pl) crying? (Nyax 87) Lilingäzi na zägi, ndä wacolodunig Bend over with your head (down) and mid taxä caxsägi. we will pour oil into your anus. (Nyax 113) Na nyoxo ligitigä weg pirtidining. And he saw shadows of things shaking. (Nyax 117-118) Na koyo pacce kawuno kaꞌdox sa And they ran fast and came and na kaꞌdoxung Nyaxolowiny, found them and found hyenas with them, na sasandasatäng sacotädä kapax käꞌday. and jumped on and overturned, killed all. (A&N 8) Kälaygädiccig kax käꞌdoxig ya käsiyig song. We remained but did not find meat to eat. (A&N 84) Noxadang päxä yanäsko song, You (pl) see, there is not a lot of our meat. (A&N 94) I mpayadangang, owgadas anggo tä panäma. If you want, I will escort you to his home.

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(T&A 6) Na säwedeccä na penggänya And they went with his children nyäꞌdingidi ewetäng siye. and he cut down trees to eat. (T&A 13) Neng kala kanyänggädig, When we have checked (forest for food), wameleccig tä pa. we go home. (Pedi 23) Boxu uxong, edekeny, Old woman, tomorrow edekeny wunodung todong päsetig lang täng. will will come here and fill the basket here. Exercise 40 (O&A30-31) “Gining wede ꞌdanyawa ndey “You go hide yourself so that you pretend Kaccä wung, icca ndä kala men.” to catch Fox, but instead you catch Donkey.” Kala buguning käꞌdoc kaꞌdanywa. So, the king went and hide himself. (O&A 38) I nya Atorndori tetex nyägäꞌdoc And Fox himself quickly went nyaꞌdanywa. and hid himself. (Nyax 1-2) Wane ka sagalandäng saxe batad ila Long ago, was girl who refused to marry unless ka paye yoxa caxse kabatwa. she found a handsome husband looked nice. (Nyax 5) Na säläpeda tänya ka sagaleneni, And they said to him she is a girl that paye yoxa caxse kabatwa. wants a handsome husband looked nice. (Nyax 6) Ndä ganang key na nyägäsaydawa, If like this, he claims himself nyoxo nyädas. he sees badly. (Nyax 51) Na ce cägämolaswa napäl. And she remained quiet. (A&N 27) Anya, oxadi kasogwang? Why, what happened? (T&A 25-26) Buguning ngade ka, The king said, “Oxadiyang sogowang?” “What is happening?” (T&A 32) Uxong wede na exengge pätaxakang This woman will go with two legs nyang sogoka ameskewang. and I protect (her). (Pedi 7-8) Nya abisoloni nuxung sadogung täging, If only sweet sorghum was given to you, you would ziye ndä pelewa song na mayanäs. eat and not be able to finish and be satisfied. (N&A 9) Nyoxolow kaleywa. Hyena refused. (N&A 24) Nyoxolow käcoxäwa ka sälege ngaki, Hyena was in a hurry to discuss that issue, ndä Osox leyewa. but Lion refused (to listen).

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(AKT 16) Ka nox Tumos kawungang, If you see Elephant come, sogawa ka käsängga ndey axony gi. pretend to sleep and I will save you. Exercise 41 (O&A 1) Osox kabandä oxayda kawuno käꞌday Lion called the animals to all dänge ngakänya täng. come hear his message there. (O&A 2) Na oxayda kawuno tä dänggä ꞌdogi nyäpaye And the animals came for listening of thing that nyängetang. it wanted them to hear. (O&A 15) Atorndori käꞌdoc tä bangänya mände. Fox went for his calling (to call him) again. (O&A 23-25) Kala noxo ganang ꞌdoga zeke gi tä cad If you see now the thing of covering you for wundung. sitting is absent. (Nyax 66) Käxi kalayis sagal saxe mened, She became an older girl and refused to babysit. (Nyax 71) Sawuno tä colonggo, na nyamän kala They came to the river, and he asked and began mäneki nyämandäs nganakanang. asking which to ask the elder sister. (A&N 13-14) Na sägärakä samen sapax And they surrounded and killed (cow) na sägendä sägäꞌdese and completely removed engeke na kala sägäccasäng. the skin and then sat down. (A&N 78) Edekeny, mägoying anggo tä codad. Tomorrow, he brings you to wrestling. (A&N 87-88) Na nyabag penggänya And he took his children nyäꞌdocconang tä pogud ta Atorndori. and went for fighting with Fox. (A&N 95) Kala Nyoxolow kädäng ngekänya, Then Hyena hear its crying, na ngade ta pengge ka, . . . and said to (its) children, (T&A 12) Kampätäng tä koyinakä nycokong tä I come for the escorting of these people for siyakä ota tä pumpung. eating of places in bush. (T&A 29-30) Agänang, ngakang layis ngakä uxong. I am the one, my word remains word of wife. (T&A 34) Neng gang käxa wede näs me kudura Ok, now is a person that walks a person ka ꞌdaskandang säxong? not be strong like that (to pull someone). (T&A 51) I no ꞌdogu wuxikä tabanänyanani. There seems to be thing of smoking of tobacco. (Pedi 12) Na kala Caning käꞌdocco tä axä as. So the Caning went for catching fish.

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(AKT 12) Mände ka gi danye, ka bendänya tä igä gol Also, if you are brave, you will wait for him tä ka nyäwung tägi. at the water well for him to come to you. Exercise 42 (Nyax 71) Na sawuno tä colonggo, na nyamän, And they came to river, and he asked, kala mäneki nyämändäs nganakanang. and asking that he asked was to elder sisters. (A&N 15) Bonog, kala kendäsig ndä ꞌdoxodig Friend, when we finish skinning, mas ti? where will we find fire? (A&N 16-17) Ndey pokusig ndakä letugu deny So that we can carry it so that owners of cow wuno ꞌdoxung kog todongang. will not arrive and find us here. (A&N 73) Na kala sägälaräsang na sägäꞌdocco, Then they divided them and they left– käxi käꞌdoc tä pane. every person went home. (A&A 4-5) Gining nycu key basa What do you think, shall nganyig nganggonag ndey nganyäsig siyad? we sell our mothers in order to buy food? (Pedi 1) Mägaccäng tä cabärä Bäräkili Long ago, in the Barakili mountain, there boxuxandäng säbangäs Wawa Pedi. was a grandmother they called Grandma Pedi. (Pedi 7-8) Nya abisoloni nuxung sadogung täging, If sweet sorghum was given you, you would ziye ndä pelewa song na mayanäs. eat and not be able to finish and be satisfied. (AKT 3-4) Na todi nyanimäng ꞌdogi nyäsogus Kamalä He (Fox) considered what he could do to na Tumos ndey nyäwasasang. Camel and Elephant in order to gather (them). Exercise 43 (Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi? You say there is (thing) in his anus, you say that? (Nyax 119) Na todi kala sacocoleza sägäꞌdocco Then they came down and went tä pa ta menggäsa. to the home of their fathers. (A&A 25) Na Alkadis kacocoleza tetex ngade ka, And Cat came down quickly and said, (Pedi 25) Käxi kädolezang gawa axsic tägaxsä lang. Person who leads will throw fish into basket. (Pedi 17-18) Käxi kapäcca kädolezang kabag axsic The person who calls and leads took a single fish nuxung gawa tä lang. and threw (it) into the basket. (N&A 17-18)

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Ndä Apoco nyägate Nyoxolow, na kala And Hare was afraid of Hyena, and so he kept käpäla käꞌdoc käzäkeyza tä pang Osox. silent and went and reported to the house of Lion. Exercise 44 (A&N 62) Ndä sägäbäg miye na ipe, i ze kalay tunyu, They took skin and tail, left head behind, and ndä saduguning tä wungge säꞌdätädä. they shared with each other ears which were cut. (T&A 8) Ndä säꞌdayining na kala samen sog And they washed themselves and then säwedeccä säꞌdocco tä pa. they began going and went home. (T&A 43) Na sägäyawesäning nanggäsa And they gathered themselves kala nyängade ka, and he (Fox) said, Exercise 45 (Nyax 108-109) Na Nyaxolowiny kasag kawuno na And Hyenas gathered together and nyägädukusa päxä wegki nyägong. he gave them the many things which he had. (A&N 50) Nya masi kabotasang ndä awung nyang. It is fire that I brought and came with it. (T&A 43) Na sägäyawesäning nanggäsa And they gathered each other all of them kala nyängade ka, and he (Fox) said, (A&A 12) Gom käꞌdoccig tä wang asugkang. Later, when we go to the market, ndä aꞌdakasa gi noy. I will untie you and you can escape. (A&A 23) Yex key megedetäng You know, there are storms coming udosäno na koxa basa waxsetasänig with rain and we tie ngastänggog tawagä ewe. ourselves to the bottom of the trees. (A&A 26) Axsasa agä täzäläg. Let us tie me first. (AKT 3-4) Na todi nyanimäng ꞌdogi nyäsogus Kamalä He (Fox) considered what he could do to na Tumos ndey nyäwasasang. Camel and Elephant in order to gather (them). Exercise 46 (O&A 39-40) Ndä nyämel nyawung na nyaꞌdoxung nycoki And he returned and came and found people kasiy ya i kawang zä Kaccä na nyimecce. ate meat and left head of Donkey with liver. (Nyax 14-15) Na nyängadetäng ka, And he said, “Bonog, tong anadarugugigong anoc “Friend, bring these glasses,

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abagäs uxandäng tägog.” I am going to marry a certain woman for us.” (Nyax 36) Neng yox udodung xongondong na Ok, your potential husband is coming today kala noccang mänang? and you want to go like this? (Nyax 102) Aa ngadatäng ikä ndosuma, legezi? You are saying there is in his anus? (Nyax 117-118) Na koyo pacce kawuno kaꞌdox sa na And they ran fast and came and found them kaꞌdoxung Nyaxolowiny, and found hyenas (with them), na sasandasatäng sacotädä kapax käꞌday. and jumped on and overturned and killed all. (A&N 13-14) Na sägärakä samen sapax na sägendä And they surrounded and killed (it) and sägädimi engeke na kala sägäccasäng. completely removed the skin and then sat down. (A&N 17) Letugu deny wuno ꞌdoxung kog todongang? Will not owners of cow arrive and find us here? (A&N 65) Kaꞌdiꞌdi nanggäsa, säs kodos na sanyasäng He and pulled with them, those three, tunyu. and they pulled (it) out. (A&N 81) Na kala Atorndori käbokung pengge tunyu. Then Fox brought out (his) children. (T&A 10) Bo buguning, i kämpätäng ti? Important king, where have you come from? Exercise 47 (O&A 44-45) Ziya ꞌdog winy, i gom buguning kawungang You just eat the thing, after the king comes, wanga tagä. leave it for me. (Nyax 34) Appa, nya yoxanggi ampayeng nyanang Father, my potential husband kawung xongondong. that I like has come today. (Nyax 36) Neng yox udodung xongondong na Ok, your potential husband is coming today kala noccang mänang? and you want to go like this? (A&N 27) Anya, oxadi kasogwang? Why, what happened? (A&N 35-36) Nycugo, xa musku xong kädukus i song Let’s go, becuase before the sun rises, i xong kädukusing, läpi ka, you say, . . . (A&N 50) Nya masi kabotasang ndä awung nyang. It is fire that I brought and came with it. (A&N 80) Na kala odudi Nyoxolow kabag pengge Then in the morning, Hyena took kawunonang. (his) children and came here. (A&N 87-88) Na nyabag penggänya And he took his children

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nyäꞌdocconang tä pogud ta Atorndori. and went here to fight Fox. (T&A 10) Bo buguning, i kämpätäng ti? Important king, where have you come from? Go penggägi käꞌdayang. You have all these children. (T&A 25) Buguning ngade ka, “Oxadiyang sogowang?” The king said, “What is happening?” (T&A 35) Xänang mände ngonde tagäng ndey anyägateng?

Who is there big enough that I should fear?

(T&A 49) I nya käxi ngadaccang ka, So, the person that says, ‘(There is someone) ‘Ngonde tagäng’ nya ndi? bigger than me’ where is he? (T&A 59-60) I käxägini kawungang, läpi ka But your person that comes, mänang mäs käxa ngondeyang, say to that big person, i agänang anoco xa kacoxowa.” that I am going, because I am in a hurry.” Exercise 48 (O&A 41) I zaxadang siyakä ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogong anya? Why you refuse to eat brain of head of this

thing? (O&A 47) I ꞌdärägsä zä ꞌdogang giyandi? The brain of the head of my thing, where are

you? (Nyax 30) Gindäng, käwung tä panäsko wala wi?” Listen, have you come to our home or what? (Nyax 60) Za agä, anycus key? Look at me. How do I look? (Nyax 83-85) “Oxadi wadi ngedenang?” “Why are you crying?” “I noxo lägong song?” “Donꞌt you see this smoke?” “I oxadi kasokwa xongong mänang?” “What happened this day so that it is like

this?” (Nyax 92) ꞌDogong käꞌdoxang ti? Where have you found this thing? (A&N 27) Anya, oxadi kasogwang? Why, what happened? (A&N 44-45) Käwung tä lag ndä gininganang käpax deny When you yourself go hunting and kill a cow ndä masägi wundung, ndä zog wi ganangang, and you have no fire, what do you do then, ziye pes? or do you eat (the meat) raw? (A&N 47) ꞌDoxo mas ti ganangang? Where will you find fire now? (A&N 51) Neng xänang ꞌdocco bokada tägogkang? Ok, who will go and bring (it) to us?

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(T&A 10) Bo buguning i kämpätäng ti? You are an important king, where have Go penggägi käꞌdayang. you come from? You have all your children. (T&A 25-26) Buguning ngade ka, The king said, “Oxadiyang sogowang?” “What is happening?” (T&A 27) Layis xäng seley wede tarjangekang? Who remains to attack me (lit. my attacking)? (T&A 35) Xänang mände ngonde tagäng ndey anyägateng?

Who is there big enough that I should fear?

(A&A 15) Na kala Alkadis kasay onge Then Cat looked back oxada bo Apoconag pete na nyängade ka, and saw the mother of Hare running and said, “Xay bonggondi?” “Oh, where is your mother?” (N&A 15) Tanganiccägi kiye key? How has your bull given birth? (N&A 30) Ama, anya apanginy iyeccä? Hey, how are men giving birth? (AKT 18) Na Tumos kawung mänecce ka, And Elephant came and was asking, “Kamaländi?” “Where is Camel?” (AKT 23) Gang alkodos tä Kamalänani, Now the pipe for Camel is there, i gang Kamalä key? and now how can Camel?