Canadians Choose a NewGovernment

In the 1921 federal election, there were two newleaders as well as a new party in the race. WilliamLyon Mackenzie King was chosen to lead theLiberals in 1919. King had a reputation as a re¬former and was an authority on social and eco¬nomic issues. Arthur Meighen, a brilliant debaterand long-standing Member of Parliament, waschosen to replace Borden as the leader of theConservatives.

King and Meighen despised each other per¬sonally and had very different approaches to pol¬itics. King was conciliatory, always seeking themiddle path that would offend the least number ofpeople. Meighen believed in principles over com¬promise, and didn't care who might be offended byhis stand on issues.

In the 1921 federal election, the Liberalselected 117 members, the Conservatives electedfifty members, and the Progressives elected an as¬tonishing sixty-four members, mostly in westernCanada. The Conservatives didn't win a single seatin western Canada; the Liberals won six. TheIndependent Labour Party won two seats, and theLabour-Liberals and Independent Liberals eachwon a seat. This meant that the Liberals were aminority government and needed the support ofsome of the opposition members to pass legislation.

Despite its initial success, the ProgressiveParty did not last very long. However, it was in¬fluential in bringing about changes to Canada'ssocial policy. In 1926, for example, MackenzieKing was challenged by the Progressives to set upan old age pension. The Old Age Pension Act waspassed in 1927. The basic pension was not gen¬erous, just $240 per year. Nevertheless, the actwas an acknowledgement that government had arole to play in providing a network of social ser¬vices for its citizens.

Canada's Growing

Independence

After World War I, Prime Minister Borden hadtaken a number of important steps that raised

Canada's profile internationally. Mackenzie King,once he became prime minister, continued to pushfor greater independence. In 1922, King refusedto support Britain when it announced plans to in¬vade Turkey. The following year, he insisted thatCanada be allowed to sign an international treatywithout the signature of a British representative.In 1926, he publicly challenged Britain over itsinfluence on Canada's internal politics in whatbecame known as the King—Byng crisis, and heparticipated in the Imperial Conference that ledto the Balfour Beport.

The King—Byng CrisisFollowing the 1925 election, the Liberals held 101seats, the Conservatives 116, and the Progressivestwenty-four. This meant that the Liberals wereforced to seek the support of the Progressive Partyin order to stay in power. The following year, how¬ever, the Liberals lost the support of the ProgressiveParty as a result of a liquor-smuggling scandal inthe Customs Department. The Conservativescalled for a motion of censure—a vote of strongdisapproval—against King's government. If the mo¬tion of censure had passed, King would have hadto resign as prime minister. King immediately askedGovernor General Viscount Byng to call anotherelection. Byng refused King's request on thegrounds that, constitutionally, the vote of censurehad to be completed first. King was furious. Byngwas eventually forced to call an election. Duringthe campaign, King appealed to nationalist senti¬ments by claiming it was undemocratic for an of¬ficial appointed by Britain to refuse to take theadvice of the prime minister, who was elected byCanadians. King won the election. No governorgeneral since has acted against the wishes of anelected prime minister.

The Balfour BeportIt was at the Imperial Conference of 1926 thatCanada made the greatest progress towards chang¬ing Canada's legal dependence on Britain. At thisconference, the dominions of the British Empire(Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and SouthAfrica) requested formal recognition of their au¬tonomy, the freedom to govern themselves. A

Chapter 3 Canada and the Twenties 55

A C T ! V I T I E S

Figure 3-5Canada's delegation

to the League ofNations in Geneva in1928. Prime

Minister King is thirdfrom the right.

What were the reasons for the rise of:

a) the Maritime Rights Movement?

b) the Progressive Party?

2. Prior to the 1921 federal election there were twoparties (Liberals and Conservatives) represented inParliament. Since then, three or more parties have

arisen. From what you have learned, why do you

think this happened?

3.; What was the significance of the Old Age PensionAct?

4. You are a Canadian historian writing a biography ofPrime Minister Mackenzie King.

a) Write a paragraph describing how Canada's rela¬

tionship with Britain changed during the 1920s,and the part King played in this change.

b) Rewrite this paragraph as an election campaignspeech for King.

... We refer to the group of self-governing com¬

munities composed of Great Britain and theDominions. Their position and mutual relation may

be readily defined. They are autonomous commu¬

nities within the British Empire, equal in status, inno way subordinate one to another in any aspect of

their domestic or external affairs, though united bya common allegiance to the Crown....

The recommendations of the Balfour Reportbecame law in 1931, when the Statute ofWestminster was passed by the British govern¬ment. This statute formally turned the BritishEmpire into the British Commonwealth.Canada was now a country equal in status withBritain, entitled to make its own laws. There were,however, two remaining restrictions on Canada's

independence. Canada's constitution, the BritishNorth America Act (BNA Act), remained inBritain because the Canadian federal and provin¬cial governments could not agree on an amending

formula—the procedure for changing the act. Aswell, the judicial court of appeal for Canadiansresided in Britain until 1949.

special committee under the leadership of LordBalfour, a respected British politician, examinedthe request. Its findings, published as the BalfourReport, supported the dominions' position:

56 Unit I Canada in the Twentieth Century

The Economy Improves

Canada began the 1920s in a state of economicdepression. By the middle of the decade, how¬ever, the economy started to improve. Wheat re¬

mained an important export for Canada, but therewas also enormous growth in the exploitation ofnatural resources and in manufacturing. The de¬

mand for Canadian pulp and paper increased, andnew mills were built in several provinces. Miningalso boomed during these years. Record amountsof lead, zinc, silver, and copper were produced forexport. These minerals were being used in theproduction of consumer goods such as radios andhome appliances. The expansion of the forest andmining industries increased demand for hydro¬electric power. Several new hydro-generating sta¬

tions were constructed, providing cheap energyfor Canadian industries.

The United States Invests inCanada's Economy

Prior to the war, Canada traded mainly withBritain. After the war, however, Britain was deeplyin debt, and the United States emerged as theworld's economic leader. During the 1920s, U.S.investment in Canada increased.

U.S. companies invested in pulp and papermills and mines across Canada. The majority of

these resources were then exported to the UnitedStates. For example, almost 75 per cent of thenewsprint produced in Canada was exported tothe United States, and most of the metals minedin Canada were used in U.S.-made products such

as automobiles and radios.Rather than lend money to Canadian busi¬

nesses the way the British had, most U.S. investorspreferred to set up branch plants—businessesowned and controlled by companies in the UnitedStates, but which operated in Canada. For exam¬ple, by manufacturing cars in Canada for theCanadian market, U.S. car makers avoided havingto pay Canadian tariffs.

By the end of the 1920s, the Canadian autoindustry had been taken over by the "Big Three"U.S. automobile companies—General Motors,

Ford, and Chrysler. Even the most successfulCanadian company, McLaughlin, based inOshawa, Ontario, had disappeared. U.S. compa¬

nies also owned a high proportion of Canada's oilbusiness, nearly half the machinery and chemi¬cal industries, and over half the rubber and elec¬trical companies.

Figure 3-6 Foreign investment in Canada, 1919-1926,

Reading a graph How much did U.S. investment in

Canada increase during the period shown in this bargraph? How much greater was U.S. investment thanBritish investment?

60005500500045004000

in 3500c0 3000

1 2500200015001000500

0

British

IIa

M USA Other

¦1918 1919 1920 1921 1922

Source: Statistics Canada, Historical Statistics of Canada, 1983.

1923 1924 1925 1926

Chapter 3 Canada and the Twenties 57

Many Canadians were so pleased with U.S.investment that they did not question what thelong-term consequences might be. It was true thatthe United States enriched Canada's economy byextracting or harvesting raw materials (primaryindustries), but these materials were all trans¬ported to the United States for processing andmanufacturing (secondary industries). It wasthe U.S. economy that benefited most from thisdevelopment.

Bootlegging Across the BorderThere was one manufacturing product thatCanada exported in large quantities to the UnitedStates: illegal alcohol. During World War I, theWoman's Christian Temperance Union and sim¬ilar organizations succeeded in bringing aboutProhibition, which banned the manufacture andsale of alcoholic beverages in Canada. Alcohol,however, was still available for those with money,whether obtained as a "tonic" from a doctor, orfrom a "bootlegger"—someone who sold alcohol il¬legally, or who made "bathtub gin," homemade al¬cohol.

By 1920, the provincial governments had toadmit that Prohibition was not working: it was toounpopular with most Canadians. War veterans,

who were familiar with more relaxed Europeandrinking habits, complained bitterly about the law.From 1921 on, most provincial governmentsdecided to regulate sales of alcohol rather thanban the product. In a series of plebiscites (voteson a public issue), Canadians eventually adoptedgovernment-controlled liquor outlets.

In the United States, Prohibition continueduntil 1933. Canadians now had a golden oppor¬tunity to supply the United States with illegalliquor. Rum-running—smuggling alcohol into theUnited States—became a fact of everyday life.Ships from ports in the Maritimes and Quebec,speedboats from Ontario, cars and trucks fromthe prairie provinces, and salmon trawlers fromBritish Columbia transported alcohol to theUnited States as fast as they could. There werethousands of tales of daring and wily tricks as thesmugglers outwitted the U.S. Customs Bureau.

Rum-running was extremely profitable, andCanadians looked on the rum-runners with tol¬erance and even admiration for the way theyflouted the U.S. authorities. Canadian govern¬ments seemed content to close their eyes to thepractice. In fact, not all rum-runners were suc¬

cessful. Many got caught or perished during theirgreat adventure.

Figure 3-7 Prohibitionists did

not accept the opening ofgovernment liquor storeswithout protest. This adappeared in British Columbiain 1925. It claimed that, in the

previous year, British Columbiahad spent just over $9 millionon education while the peopleof the province had spent over$21 million on liquor."Somebody's boy is required

to keep the liquor businessoperating," it stated. "Shall itbe yours?"

The 3oy0Ayhe

tBoTTiE

ich:

58 Unit I Canada in the Twentieth Century

Urbanization

Canada's growing manufacturing sector broughtmore and more people to the cities in search ofwork in factories. In rural areas, farms were be¬

coming more mechanized, which meant fewerfamily members and workers were needed to runthe farms. This trend towards urbanization, whichhad started at the turn of the century, continuedthrough the 1920s. By 1931, city dwellers out¬numbered the rural population for the first time.

It was during this period that the modernCanadian city began to take shape. Businesses

and industry often located in the city centre, mak¬ing this area an undesirable place to live. It was thepoor and working-class people who mostly lived inthis part of the city, where conditions werecrowded and unsanitary. Slums, already an urbanproblem, became an even bigger one. Smoke fromnearby smokestacks polluted the air and con¬tributed to health problems of workers and theirfamilies. More affluent families moved to tree-lined residential areas. Automobiles and street¬cars made it feasible for them to do so, since theycould get from their homes to the business dis¬trict without difficulty.

Figure 3-8 These photos showthe sharp contrast between rural

and urban Canada. The gasstation at Robson and Seymourstreets in Vancouver reflects the

growing urban population ofCanada. Small farmingcommunities, like this one inSaskatchewan, were still a

major part of the Canadian

economy.

Thinking critically Identifyfour differences between ruraland urban life, based on these

photographs.

The Role of Women

The 1920s was to be a new era for women inCanada. Hopes were high for reforms in health,education, and women's and children's workingconditions. The reality, however, did not measureup to the expectations. In the 1921 federal elec¬tion, only five women ran for office, and only one,Agnes Macphail, won her seat. Macphail was theonly woman in the House of Commons until19B5. The four western provinces elected ninewomen to their legislatures, but the federal and

Figure 3-9 As the first woman elected to the House

of Commons, Agnes Macphail was undertremendous pressure. Her every move and word

were scrutinized. She eventually started eating awayfrom Parliament rather than face the stares in the

House of Commons.

provincial governments remained firmly male dom¬

inated.

The principal role of women was as wives andmothers. New labour-saving devices—such as the

refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, washing machine,

and electric iron—became more affordable tomiddle-class women, but this often meant thatwomen were expected to maintain higher stan¬dards of cleanliness in the home. Many familiesstill couldn't afford these modem consumer goods.Married women were expected to stay at homeand raise a family. Those who weren't married hadlimited opportunities in careers. The professionsof nursing and teaching were open to women, butthese paid very poorly. A few women became doc¬tors, lawyers, professors, or engineers, but most

women who worked in business or industry heldjobs as secretaries, telephone operators, or sales

clerks.

The Persons Case

The Persons Case of 1929 brought the issue offemale political participation to a head. EmilyMurphy, a well-known suffragist, was appointed amagistrate in Alberta. Her appointment was chal¬lenged on the basis that only "persons" could holdthis office under the BNA Act, and that womenwere not "persons" in the eyes of the law. TheSupreme Court of Alberta ruled that Murphy did,indeed, have the right to be a judge, but the mat¬ter did not stop there. Emily Murphy and fourother women activists challenged Prime MinisterMackenzie King to appoint a woman senatorand to clarify the definition of "persons." In April1928, the Supreme Court of Canada decided thatwomen were not "persons" under the Constitution.

Murphy and her associates, nicknamed the"Famous Five," appealed to the JudicialCommittee of the Privy Council in Britain. OnOctober 18, 1929, the Judicial Committee de¬clared its support for the women:

The exclusion of women from all public offices is arelic of days more barbaric than ours,,.. To those

who ask why the word ["person"] should includefemales the obvious answer is why should it not?

60 Unit I Canada in the Twentieth Century

ACTIVITIES

1. What was the difference between U.S. and British in¬

vestment in Canada?

2. a) Explain how tariffs imposed by the Canadian gov¬ernment on imported manufactured goods en¬

couraged U.S. branch plants to locate in Canada.

b) Most of the manufacturing branch plants wereset up in Ontario and Quebec, as these provinces

were closest to the manufacturing centres in the

United States. How do you think this affected thetrend towards regionalism in Canada? Explain youranswer.

3. What have you learned about the attitude towardswomen in positions of authority in Canada duringthe 1920s?

A New ProsperityThe upswing in the economy meant that manyCanadians had enough income to participate inthe style of life that caused the decade to beknown as the "Roaring Twenties." People boughtcars and radios and went to the movies. Fads from

the United States spread quickly to Canada.College students took to swallowing live goldfish,and six-day bicycle races were all the rage. Songslike "Happy Days Are Here Again" and "I'm Sittingon Top of the World" flooded the airwaves. Youngpeople scandalized their parents with dances suchas the Charleston, the Shimmy, and the TurkeyTrot. American tourists drove to Canada in theirnewly acquired cars, and the tourism industryflourished. Jobs increased as people found work inservices such as railways, hotels, and holiday re¬sorts. Merchants welcomed affluent Americans. In1929, four million Americans spent $300 millionvacationing in Canada.

Tourists from the United States brought morethan their money to Canada. Canadians were in¬fluenced by the newest fashions these touristswere wearing. For men, straw hats, form-fitting

double-breasted suits, bell-bottom pants, bow ties,and slicked-down hair (in imitation of screen idolssuch as Rudolph Valentino) were popular. The"flapper" look dominated women's fashion."Robbed" hair, hemlines above the knees, silkstockings, and dresses that promoted the flat-chested look outraged the older generations.

Figure 3-10 These flappers wereright in style and were consideredthe "bee's knees" by other young

people.

Thinking critically Compare thisphoto with Figure 1-2 on page 6.How would you explain the drasticchange in women's fashion from1910 to 1925? Is fashion a validindicator of social change?

Chapter 3 Canada and the Twenties 61

Increased MobilityIn the 1920s, the automobile was beginning tochange the landscape of the country, much as therailway had done earlier. The invention of the as¬sembly line in 1913 by Henry Ford meant thatcars could be mass produced inexpensively andquickly. The most popular automobile was theModel T Ford. One came off the assembly lineevery three minutes; all were identical and costless than $300. As Henry Ford said, "You can haveany colour you like, as long as it's black." Fordpaid his workers five dollars a day, far above the av¬erage for those days. In return he wanted nounions in his factories.

In 1920, Canada had only 1600 km of top-rated highways, a figure that increased tenfold bythe end of the decade. The Canadian Shield andthe Rocky Mountains were physical barriers thatdelayed the construction of the Trans-CanadaHighway. As a result, most of the better roads ransouth to the United States. These closernorth—south connections led British Columbia tochange from driving on the left-hand side of theroad (the British system) to the right-hand side(the U.S. system) in 1927. Another U.S. innova¬tion linked to the automobile arrived in Vancouverin 1928 when the hamburger chain White Spotopened the first drive-in restaurant in Canada.

Aviation also expanded in the years after thewar. Many veteran pilots became "bush pilots"who flew geologists and prospectors into remoteareas to explore mining opportunities. The firstaerial mineral exploration in Canada was in theTelegraph Creek area of northwestern BritishColumbia in 1925. Bush pilots helped make therugged coast of British Columbia more accessi¬ble. Many pilots started businesses flying suppliesto lumber camps up the coast.

One daring mission was made by Wilfrid"Wop" May, the World War I Canadian flying ace.May and fellow pilot Vic Horner volunteered todeliver an antitoxin to treat a diphtheria outbreakin a northern Alberta community. It was NewYear's Day, 1929. After a harrowing flight througha blizzard in an open cockpit, they landed withoutskis on a snow-covered lake. The engine had tobe thawed with a blowtorch before they couldtake off again. They returned to a heroes' welcomein Edmonton.

May also assisted the RCMP in one of thegreatest manhunts in Canadian history, the hunt forAlbert Johnson. Johnson, nicknamed the MadTrapper of Rat River, was suspected of woundingan RCMP constable who was investigating traplines. Following a shoot-out in the northern Yukonthat left Johnson and one Mountie dead, May flewanother seriously wounded Mountie to Aklavik.

Figure 3-11 Traffic

accident in Toronto, 1929.

Thinking critically Givethree possible causes ofthis traffic accident.

62 Unit I Canada in the

Improved Communications

By the 1920s, the telephone had become a stan¬dard household appliance. Telephone lines wereshared by many neighbours, which meant anyonecould eavesdrop—listen in on everyone else's con¬

versations. Eavesdropping became daily enter¬tainment.

Widespread use of the radio began to breakdown the isolation between far-flung communi¬ties. It soon became a necessity, bringing popu¬lar culture and entertainment into Canadianhomes across the country. For farm families andother isolated communities, this was a revolu¬tionary development. Smaller Canadian stations,however, soon found it difficult to compete withbigger, more powerful U.S. ones. By the end ofthe twenties, nearly 300 000 Canadians were tun¬ing into U.S. stations for their entertainment.

Soon radio entertainment was rivalled by mov¬ing pictures—the movies. At first, movies were

silent. An orchestra or piano player would providesound effects to accompany the silent screen,while subtitles conveyed the messages and dia¬logue. The "talkies" arrived in 1927 with comedi¬ans such as Laurel and Hardy and the MarxBrothers.

Movies about Canada were made here dur¬ing the early days, but Canadian-made films couldnot compete with productions from the big U.S.studios. Eventually Hollywood came to dominatethe industry. In the absence of a home-grown in¬dustry, many Canadian actors, writers, and tech¬

nicians were drawn to the glitter and glamour ofHollywood. Many were very successful. Moviestar Mary Pickford, born in Toronto, becameknown as "America's Sweetheart."

Figure 3-12 The Mountieswere a favourite topic with

Hollywood. Mountiesalways caught the villainand got the girl.

Using evidence What

stereotypes are used inthis photo to portray theRCMP?

Chapter 3 Canada and the Twenties 63

Canadian Inventions,

Innovations, and Inventors

During the 1920s, Canadians witnessedrapid changes in technology that had aneffect on everyday life. Electric washingmachines, refrigerators, and neon signsbegan to appear in Canadian cities.Telephones came into widespread use,

with links to Europe in place by 1927. By1929, three out of four families had a tele¬

phone, up from one infour in 1921. Linoleumcovered wood floors

and aluminum

replaced iron forpots and pans.Bobby pinswere inventedin 1926 forthe shorter

Frederick Banting was a medical doctor in

London, Ontario. At the University ofWestern Ontario he developed a techniquethat eventually led to the isolation of theantidiabetic component of the pancreas. Inthe winter of 1921-1922, he and CharlesBest were part of a team of scientists whodiscovered insulin. The discovery helpedmillions of people suffering from diabetes.In 1923, Banting won the Nobel Prize formedicine. ÿ

U.S. automobiles came to dominate theCanadian market during these years.However, Canadian cars such as theDurant, a low-cost, four-cylinder "Star,"

managed to survive until 1928.

In 1925, Ted Rogers from Toronto createdthe alternating-current radio tube which

replaced the noisy, battery-operated model.In 1928, Morse Robb of Ontario inventedthe first electronic church organ. A more

significant discovery, perhaps, givenCanada's harsh climate, was the invention

of the first snowblowerby Arthur Sicard ofMontreal, in 1927.

hair styles.

Early radios were crude. Listeners used ear¬

phones and strained to hear broadcastsmade only 150 km away. Before long,radios were encased in handsome cabinetswith speakers, so that earphones were not

needed.

Armand Bombardier of Valcourt, Quebec,developed the snowmobile in 1922, whenhe was just sixteen. From 1926 to 1935, he

improved on the first machine, designingvehicles that could travel on snow-covered

roads, helping people in rural and remoteareas to overcome the isolation of winter.

Reginald Fessenden has been called"Canada's great forgotten inventor." He

made the first public broadcast of musicand voice in 1906. He redesigned ThomasEdison's light bulb, giving it the shape andmaterial we use today, Fessenden alsoinvented the depth sounder, which wasused by sea vessels in the 1920s to indicatethe depth of the ocean floor. The depthfinder emitted a short burst of sound under¬water. The time it took the echo to comeback indicated the depth of the bottom ofthe ocean.

64 Unit 1 Canada in the Twentieth Century

A New Canadian Art

The increased U.S. influence on Canada's cul¬ture coincided with the development of a newCanadian art movement. In 1920, the Group ofSeven held an exhibition in Toronto that brokewith traditional Canadian art. These painters werein tune with the new post-war national confi¬dence. Rather than imitate realistic classical styles,members of the group sought to interpret Canada'srugged landscape as they saw it, using broad, boldstrokes and brilliant colours. Although criticized bysome critics in the early years as the school of"hot mush painting," they had gained wide ac¬ceptance by the end of the 1920s.

Emily Carr

On the Pacific coast, the best-known painter wasEmily Carr of Victoria. She painted scenes of WestCoast forests and Aboriginal life. At first, shegained little recognition for her work. She had al¬most abandoned hope of making a living from herpainting when the National Museum in Ottawaorganized a showing of West Coast art built aroundher work.

While she was in Ottawa, Emily Carr firstsaw the work of the Group of Seven. She was im¬mediately moved by their bright, powerful images.Carr eventually had a show at the Vancouver ArtGallery and in eastern Canada. She also wrote,winning a Governor-General's Literary Award forKlee Wyck, a collection of stories of her life withBritish Columbia Aboriginal people.

Of the reaction to her painting, Carr said:

Local people hated and ridiculed my newer work....

Whenever I could afford it I went up to the North,among the ... woods and forgot all about every¬

thing in the joy of those lonely wonderful places. Idecided to try and get as good a representative col¬

lection of those old villages and wonderful totempoles as I could.... Whether anybody liked them or

not I did not care a bean. I painted them to please

myself in my own way.... Of course nobody

wanted to buy my pictures.

Source: Quoted in J. Russell Harper, Three

Centuries of Canadian Painting (Toronto: Oxford,1973), 29.

Sports as Popular Entertainment

The thirst for entertainment led to tremendousinterest in spectator sports. Baseball became im¬portant to Canadians who were delighted to spendSaturday afternoon listening to the radio, follow¬ing their favourite players. Professional boxing andrugby football were also popular, as were curlingand golf. Hockey came into Canadian homesacross the country when sportswriter FosterHewitt made the first hockey radio broadcast in1923.

Canadian athletes also excelled on the inter¬national stage. Vancouver's Percy Williams wontwo gold medals at the 1928 Olympics in sprint¬ing events, and Ethel Catherwood, nicknamed"the Saskatoon Lily," won the gold medal in thewomen's high jump event, clearing 1.59 m.Canadian hockey teams won gold medals by lop¬sided scores at every Olympics, with the excep¬tion of 1936, during the inter-war period. CharlesGorman held seven world speed skating recordsbefore he retired in 1928, and John Myles set anew record for the Boston Marathon in 1926.

ACTIVITIES

1. Our economy is fuelled by consumers spending

money on various items. What evidence is there in

this chapter that the 1920s were the beginning ofthe modern "consumer age"?

2. -a) List the technological developments that made

the 1920s a period of great change in communi¬

cations.

b) Beside each development, make short notes on

how the change affected society.

3. What does the interest in professional sports tell

you about leisure time and the standard of living forCanadians in this period?

4. Go to the library and find a painting you like by EmilyCarr or one of the Group of Seven. Explain why you

think the painting you chose is "Canadian."

Chapter 3 Canada and the Twenties 65