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CahuachiintheAncientNascaWorld

ByHelaineSilverman

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UniversityofIowaPress,IowaCity52242Copyright1993bytheUniversityofIowaPressAllrightsreservedPrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

DesignbyKarenCopp

Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedorutilizedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopyingandrecording,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.

PublishedwiththeassistanceoftheGettyGrantProgram

Printedonacidfreepaper

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationDataSilverman,Helaine.CahuachiintheancientNascaworld/byHelaineSilverman.p.cm.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN08774540781.CahuachiSite(Peru).2.Nazcaculture.3.Nazca(Peru)Antiquities.I.Title.F3429.1.N3S551993985'.27dc209242223CIP

9796959493C54321

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paraJosuLanchoRojasArmandoValdiviaylosniosdelacuencadelroGrandedeNazcaandinfondmemoryofmytwoprofessorsofPeruvianarchaeologyGaryS.VesceliusEdwardP.Lanning

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Contents

ANoteonOrthography ix

Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiii

ChapterOneThePhysicalSetting

1

ChapterTwoAHistoryofFieldworkintheNazcaRegion

14

ChapterThreeNascaChronology

30

ChapterFourStrong'sFieldworkatCahuachi:ChronologyandCulture

43

ChapterFiveSurfaceSurveyofCahuachi

55

ChapterSixArchitectureandSpatialOrganizationatCahuachi

88

ChapterSevenLootersandLooting

100

ChapterEightExcavationStrategyandMethodology

110

ChapterNineExcavationsinanOpenArea

116

ChapterTenExcavationatUnitF

126

ChapterElevenTestPits

129

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ChapterTwelveExcavationofMoundArchitecture

143

ChapterThirteenExcavationoftheRoomofthePosts

174

ChapterFourteenBurialsatCahuachi

195

ChapterFifteenTrophyHeadsatCahuachi

218

ChapterSixteenNascaPotteryatCahuachi

227

ChapterSeventeenOtherCeramicArtifacts

260

ChapterEighteenTextileArtifacts

264

ChapterNineteenArtifactsinOtherMedia

275

ChapterTwentyBotanicalRemains

289

byMaradelCarmenRodrguezdeSandweiss

ChapterTwentyOneMalacologicalAnalysis

294

ChapterTwentyTwoTheIdentificationofCahuachiasaCeremonialCenter

300

ChapterTwentyThreeTheSignificanceandBroaderContextofCahuachi

320

Bibliography 345

Index 361

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ANoteonOrthography

ExceptwhenIamquotingothers,NascaspecificallyreferstothefamousarchaeologicalculturedatingtotheEarlyIntermediatePeriodthatischaracterizedbyprefireslippaintingoficonographicallycomplexmotifs.Nazcadenotesthegeographicalarea,river,moderntown,andalloftheprehispanicandpostconquestsocietiesthatexistedinthedrainage.Iadvocatethisorthographicconventiontoavoidsemanticconfusion.Insodoing,IrecognizethatMenzel,Rowe,andDawson(1964:8)viewNazcaasamisspellingandNascaasthehistoricallycorrectform.Nevertheless,thesandzdistinctionservesausefulpurpose,andIhopeitwillbeadoptedbymycolleagues.

VariouswordsaremoreappropriateinSpanishandQuechuathanintheirwordyEnglishtranslation.TheyarewellknowntoAndeanistsandaredefinedinthetextatthemomentoffirstusage.FollowingPeruvianconvention,certainQuechuawordshavebeenpluralizedintheirSpanishform.Forinstance,thepluraloftheQuechuaword"huaca"is"huacas."

AllLatinplantandanimalnamesareitalicizedfollowingconvention.

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Preface

EversinceitsscientificorofficialdiscoverybyMaxUhlein1901,Nascaarthasattractedtheattentionandcapturedtheimaginationofarchaeologists,arthistorians,looters,andthepublic.Untilrecently,however,archaeologistshaveconfusedtheirfamiliaritywiththeNascastylewitharealunderstandingoftheculturethatproducedit.Onthebasisofthescantfielddataavailable,therewaswidespeculationaboutthenatureandlevelofsocioculturalintegrationinNascasociety(e.g.,Rowe1963:1112Proulx1968:9699Lumbreras1974a:123124Silverman1977).PeruvianistscreatedanimageofNascasocietythatwasanarchaeologicalconstructdevoidofsocietalcontentacultureidentifiedonthebasisofartanditsregionaldistributionratherthanontheculture'sinfrastructuralandorganizationalmanifestationsinthearchaeologicalrecord.

TheissueofthenatureofNascacultureandsocietyisimportanttounderstandingthedevelopmentofcomplexsocietyintheCentralAndes,oneoftheareasofprimarygenesisofthestate(e.g.,Service1975).Furthermore,elucidationofthenatureandfunctionofCahuachi,manifestlythemostimportantNascasite,isrelevanttoawidebodyofliteratureandtheoryconcerningtheevolutionofurbanismandtherelationshipoftheceremonialcentertothecity(e.g.,Adams1966Wheatley1971Schaedel1966a,b,1969,1978,1980a,bLumbreras1981,1982SandersandPrice1968SandersandWebster1988).TheseproblemsfirstarousedmyinterestinNascaandsubsequentlyguidedmylongtermresearch.

Basedonhis19521953fieldworkonthesouthcoast,WilliamDuncanStrong,uponwhoseworkvirtuallyallinterpretationtillnowhashadtorest,assessedtheculturalsignificanceofNascainthefollowingterms:"IntheFormative,Florescent,andlaterepochslargeceremonialconstructionsaswellastownsweremadeintheNazcaIcaregionand,...ofallthese,theceremonialstructuresoftheMiddleNazcaculturephaseatCahuachiarebyfarthemostimpressivewenoted.Inouropinion,Cahuachiwasthegreatest,andprobablythemaincapitalsiteoftheNazcacivilizationinthetimeofitsownpeculiarhighestflorescence"(Strong1957:3233).

Strong'sstatementshavebeencorrectlyinterpretedbyarchaeologistsasimputingsomekindofmultivalleyintegrationtotheearlyNasca(Strong'sMiddleNazca)socialformation.Nonetheless,thepoliticalcorrelatesofthisregionalcohesionhavebeendebatedandarenotuniformlyagreedupon.BasedonthebroadarealdistributionofanessentiallyhomogeneousNascaceramicstyle,theseemingintrusionofNasca3potteryintotheAcarvalleyinassociationwiththesuddenappearanceoflarge,reputedlyfortifiedsitesinthatvalley,andtheprimacyofCahuachi,ithaslongbeenarguedthatNascawasanexpansioniststate(e.g.,Rowe1963:1112Proulx1968:9699Lumbreras1974a:123124MatosMendieta1980:489,495Massey1986seealsoSilverman1987,1988a).ProblemswiththeascriptionofstatehoodtotheearlyNascasocialformationhavebeenindicated,however,andanotherorganizationalmodelhasbeenproposedinwhichachiefdomlevelofsociopoliticalintegrationandparticipationinasharedculturaltraditionwouldhaveintegratedthevariousindependentNascasocietiesintheregion(Silverman1977,1985a,b,1986,1990a).

Asisevidentabove,Ihaveheldboth"partylines"ontheNascastatehoodissuedependingonthedataavailabletomeatthetimeofwriting.BasedonpreliminaryanalysisofsurveydataIcollectedduringninemonthsofintensivefieldwork(concludedinAugust1989)intheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleysandonDavidBrowne's1987and1989surveysofthePalpavalley,thedataappeartobefavoringanonstateconfiguration.FinalanalysisofthenewlycollectedsurveydataandfutureexcavationsatseveralkeysitesshoulddefinitivelyresolvetheNascastatehoodproblemalthough,asindicatedinthefinalchapterofthisbook,Iregardthatissue

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asatheoreticalredherring(seeGledhill1988andPaynter1989forexcellentcritiquesofthechiefdomstatedebateseealsoSilverman1990b:450454).

HandinhandwiththemodelofanearlyNascacentralizedstateorlittleempire,Cahuachiwasalsofrequentlydescribedintheliteratureasagreatcity(e.g.,Rowe1963:1011Lanning1967:116117Lumbreras1974a:123),eventhoughStrong(1957)didnotmakeanyclaimsastothesite'sdegreeofurbanism.WhiletheprimacyofCahuachihasneverbeenindoubt,itsnaturehas.CahuachiisclearlythemostimportantsiteofearlyNascasociety,butatthetimeIbeganmyresearchpreciouslittlewasknownaboutitand,asitturnsout,muchofwhatwethoughtweknewisinerror.Evenworseisthatmuchofwhatwecouldhaveknownislosttoarchaeologistsbecauseofthedestructionwroughtbymassiveillicitexcavationsatthesiteoverthepastcentury.

My19841985researchatCahuachiwasabletoaddressandredresstheprecedingissueswithvaryingdegreesofsuccess.TheurbannatureofCahuachihasbeendisproven,butasaresultIwasunabletoaddmeaningfuldataondomesticlifeinearlyNascasociety.Ontheotherhand,Ihavebeenabletoconstruct,onthebasisoftheempiricaldatarecoveredinthefieldandthroughethnographicanalogy,aparsimoniousand,aboveall,AndeanmodelofhowCahuachimighthavefunctionedasagreatAndeanceremonialcenter(seechap.22).WiththeaidoftherecentlycollectedsettlementpatterndataandimportantethnohistoricinvestigationsbyGaryUrton(1990),CahuachicannowbecontextualizedintheancientNascaworld(seechap.23).

Theresearchreporteduponhereinwasthefirststageinwhathasbecomealongterm,multistageprogramofinvestigationintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagesystem.Thedatapresentedinthisbookwereoriginallypresentedinmy1986doctoraldissertation.Thesedatahavebeenthoroughlyreviewed,andseveralerrors(typographical,analytical,andinterpretive)intheoriginalmanuscripthavebeencorrected.Thetexthasbeensignificantlyreorganizedandexpandedtoreflectmynewinterpretationsofthefielddataaswellastheliteraturesubsequentlyavailabletome.GiventhedramaticallyincreasedpaceoffieldworkonthesouthcoastsinceexcavationsatCahuachiwerecompletedin1985,Ibelieveitisimportanttoputthebodyofdataandhypothesesencompassedhereinintothepublicdomainsothatthismaterialcanbeusedandtested.Inclusionoftheoreticalliteratureoncomplexsocietyhasbeenkepttoanabsoluteminimumintheinterestofmaintainingthisbookasasitereport.Thefinalchapterdoes,however,includeaverybriefsummaryoftheresultsofmyrecentlycompletedsurveysincethesedatahavegreatbearingonthereconstructionofearlyNascasociety.Indeed,itwasthesuccessofthe19881989surveyprojectthatmademerealizetheurgencyofthisbook'spublication.Thisbookisoffered,then,asacontributiontowhatwillsurelybeavastandimportantnewliteratureontheprehistoryofthesouthcoast.

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Acknowledgments

The19841985programofexcavationsatCahuachiwasauthorizedbyResolucinSuprema16584ED.IamverygratefultotheInstitutoNacionaldeCulturaforfacilitatingfieldwork.TheMuseoNacionaldeAntropologayArqueologaextendedmeaffiliation.Itsdirector,HermilioRosasLaNoire,wasmosthelpfulinexpeditingexportationofthe14CsamplesunderExpedienteNo.15507andInformeNo.173CGMNAA85.

TheCahuachiProjectwasfundedwithresearchgrantsfromtheInstituteofInternationalEducation(FulbrightHaysAct),NationalScienceFoundation(BNS8401085),SocialScienceResearchCouncil,OrganizationofAmericanStates,andInstituteofLatinAmericanStudiesattheUniversityofTexasatAustin.TotheseorganizationsIexpressmydeepestthanksfortheirsupport.MarciaKothdeParedes,executivedirectoroftheComisinFulbrightinLima,washelpfulinmanywaysandissincerelythanked.

MiguelPazos,adearfriendandcolleague,workedwithmeparttimeatCahuachi,andIamverygratefultohim.Ialsobenefitedfromthesequentialparticipationoffourexcellentarchaeologystudentswhoseassistanceisaffectionatelyandgratefullyacknowledged:FrancesHayashida(thenofStanford),DennisScott(Yale),JuanAntonioMurro(PontificiaUniversidadCatlicadelPer),andJosPabloBaraybar(UniversidadNacionalMayordeSanMarcos).Inaddition,IhadawonderfulcrewofworkerscomposedofArmandoValdivia,JulioTueros,GerardoRojas,AbelGuevarra,andGuillermoTinkuy.HugoVerneNavasandCenenandEstelaGuzmnmademewelcomeintheirhomesatCahuachi,andIrememberthemwithaffection.

Mythankstothespecialistswhoundertooktheanalysisofparticularclassesofmaterialremains.Burial1wasstudiedbySoniaGuillnBurial11wasanalyzedbyAlfonsoMadrid.JosPabloBaraybarstudiedthetrophyheads.MaradelCarmenRodrguezdeSandweissanalyzedtheshellfishremains.BernardinoOjedaidentifiedallbotanicalremains.Theirfindingsarereportedherein.

ThenewmapofCahuachipresentedherewasdrawnbyarchitectJosPinedaonthebasisofaerialphotogrammetricprojection,supplementedbyfieldreconnaissanceandgroundverification.

IamverygratefultoJosuLanchoRojasofNazcaandhiswife,Isabel(Chabuca)PereyradeLancho,whowerealwayswarmhostsduringmymanyvisitstotheirhomeandhelpedmeinmorewaysthanIcanpossiblyenumerate.IhavebenefitedgreatlyfrommanystimulatingconversationswithJosu,whosefundofknowledgeaboutNazcaisvirtuallyunlimited.

Dr.TerenceD'AltroyatColumbiaUniversityhasbeenexceedinglykindovertheyearsinfacilitatingaccesstoStrong'scollectionsatColumbiaUniversity.Reviewofthecollectionsin1988wasmadepossiblebyagrantfromtheAmericanCouncilofLearnedSocieties.Dr.RobertFeldmankindlyfacilitatedaccesstotheKroeberCollectionsfromCahuachi,whicharecuratedattheFieldMuseumofNaturalHistoryinChicago.

Manycolleaguesvisitedmeinthefield,andothersgavegenerouslyoftheirtimetodiscussNascaandotherrelatedissueswithmeinLimaandintheUnitedStates.IbenefitedgreatlyfromthevisitsofIdilioSantillana,DanielSandweiss,WilliamIsbell,LuisLumbreras,RobertFeldman,andFritzRiddellandfromtheconversationswithRuthShady,DuccioBonavia,FedericoKauffmannDoig,CarlosWilliamsLen,MaraRostworowski,DonaldProulx,DwightWallace,andPatriciaKnobloch.ImostespeciallywishtothankRichardBurger,LucySalazarBurger,KarenMohrChavez,andSergioChavezfortheirhelpandadviceatCahuachiandbackintheUnitedStates.

Igivedeepthankstomyoutstandingdraftsman,StevenHolland,andgratefullyacknowledgeagrantfromtheCampusResearchBoardoftheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaignthatpartiallyunderwrotethecostofproducingthefiguralmaterialforpublication.

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DavidMinor,staffphotographerintheDepartmentofAnthropologyattheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaign,withcheerandpatienceworkedmiracleswithoftenpoornegatives.WarmthanksalsogotoMarilynBridgeswhotookthemagnificentphotographofCahuachithatappearsonthejacketofthisbook.

Finally,unendingthankstomyhusband,EnriqueMayer,forhisconstantlove,support,enthusiasm,patience,andhelp.Hehasbeenmyforemostintellectualcompanion,andlivingwithhimalltheseyearshasbeenthebestanthropologicalandPeruvianisteducationanyonecouldeverhopetoreceive.

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ChapterOneThePhysicalSetting

TheRoGrandedeNazcaDrainage

TheheartlandofNascacultureisconsideredtobetheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage(figs.1.11.3seechap.2).Theriversystemencompassessome10,750squarekilometers(ONERN1971:2).Itsupperreachesareinthedepartments(states)ofAyacuchoandHuancavelicaitslowerportionisinthedepartmentofIca.Althoughthesearecontemporarypoliticaldivisions,theyappeartoreflect,tosomeextent,precolumbianculturalfrontiers.

TheGrandedrainagesystemonthePeruviancoastisexceptionalbecauseitisformedofmanyaffluentswithonlyoneoutlettothesea,theGrandeRiveritself.ThisisbecauseupliftingeologicaltimesblockedtheGrandetributaries'accesstothesea.ThetributaryriversoftheGrandesystemare,beginninginthewestandmovingeastandsouth:SantaCruz,Grande,Palpa,Viscas,Ingenio,Aja,TierrasBlancas,Nazca,Taruga(Pajonal),andLasTrancas(Poroma,Tunga).Alloftheseriversoriginateinthehighlandsasaresultofsummerrainfall(ONERN1971:30).Theyareseparatedfromeachotherbynarrowmountainrangesordesertstretches.Adrivethroughtheriversystemisbreathtaking,asbarrenhillsandaridplainsrepeatedlygivewaysuddenlytogreen,irrigatedvalleys.

TheGrandeRiverdoesnotexhibitthewidedeltaandrichalluvialdepositstypicalofmostoftheotherrivervalleysofthePeruviancoast.Rather,mostoftheearthrichsedimentscarriedinsuspensionbytheriveraredepositedinthemiddlestretchoftheGrandeRiverbetweenChiquerilloattheunionoftheGrandeandIngenioriversandCerroColoradowheretheNazcaRiverenterstheGrande(ONERN1971:31)thisistherichestagriculturalareaofthewholedrainage.However,whenthereisreallyabundanthighlandrainfallandthetributariesfullycharge,thenitispreciselythisCabildostretchthatcanbedetrimentallyaffected.Localinformantsstatethatthesoilscanbecomewaterloggedandthecottonplantsmayyellowandwither.Thus,1989,abeneficentrainyear,broughtbumpercropstotherarelywateredSantaCruzvalleywhileproducingsomewhatdeleteriouseffectsinthemiddleGrande.

Ecology

ThatpartoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageinwhichNascaculturedevelopedisecologicallyclassifiedasa"premountaindesertformation"ora"subtropicaldessicateddesert"bytheOficinaNacionaldeEvaluacindeRecursosNaturales(NationalOfficefortheEvaluationofNaturalResourceshenceforthONERN)(ONERN1971:2).ThelatterdesignationisarefinementofTosi's(1960)earliersystemusedbytheONERNandrepresentsthestandardizationofecologicalcriteriafollowingHoldridge's(1967)worldwideecologicalclassificationoflifezones.Basically,itmeansthattheNazcaregion(RoGrandedeNazcadrainage)isverydryand,inthesummer,extremelyhot.

AlthoughtheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagebelow2,000metersabovesealevelisclassifiedbytheONERN(1971)underonemajorecologicaltype,averyimportantecologicaltransitionoccursjustwestofthetown

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1.1.MapofthesouthcoastofPeruindicatingthecomponentriversoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageandthelocationofCahuachi.

BasedonStrong(1957:fig.1).

ofNazca,aroundMajoro,Venturosa,Conventillo,andAguaSanta.Fromthere,westwardanddowntothesea(i.e.,600metersabovesealeveltosealevel),weareinthatpremountaindesertzoneofthecoastcalledchalabyPulgarVidal(n.d.:2954).Herethetemperatureaverages21.3degreesC(ONERN1971:2),butthereissignificantdiurnalandseasonalvariation.

FromthetownofNazcaeastwardthereisarapidecologicaltransitionuptowardthehighlands.Thisnaturalregionbetweenthecoastandhighlands,between600and2,000metersabovesealevel,isknownasyunga,thehot,dry,narrowvalleyorquebrada(PulgarVidaln.d.:5571).

Kosok(1965:50)correctlyobservesthattheNazcaregion"isnotstrictlycoastal.ItisevenlessSierra.Indeed,itscharacterincludeselementsofboth."HedescribesNazcaasa"peculiartransitionzone,"pointingoutthattheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage"formsthebeginningofanincreasinglyelevatedseriesofintensivelycultivatedbranchvalleysofthewesternsemiSierraregionwhichextendssoutheasttowardsArequipa."HealsonotesthattheNazcaregion"hasalwaysbeenthenaturalsoutherncoastalentranceintothesouthernSierrasproperconnectingthissectionoftheCoastwithAyacucho,Abancay,CuzcoandevenLakeTiticaca"(Kosok1965:50).

Kroeber(1944:24)voicesasimilarviewinemphasizingthattheareainwhichNascaculturedevelopedis"coastalbutnotmaritime."ThisisnotsurprisingconsideringthattheGrandedoesnothaveadevelopeddeltaanditsmouthisjustanarrowstretchofmarshylandextendingafewhundredmetersbeyondthemagnificent,highwalled,multicolored,narrowlowerGrandecanyon.Engel(1981:21)reportsseeingthisSantaAnaareacoveredwithmonte(treesandbushyvegetation,sometimesquitedense)around1960andnotestheexistenceoftwopossiblelatepreceramicsitesatthemouthoftheGrandeRiveranotherissaidtohaveunidentifiableerodedpottery.Strong(1957:811)foundpreceramicshellmoundsalongSanNicolsBayperma

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nentNascalittoralsitesareasyetunreportedforthemouthoftheGrandeRiveranditsadjacentcoastline.Thefirstrich,arableoasisinlandfromtheseaisatMonteGrande.1

ThetinyMaijoChico,MaijoGrande,andCaracolesoasesandthelargerMonteGrandeoasiscouldhaveplayedasignificantroleintheeconomyoftheNascaperiod(andinprecolumbiantimesingeneral)becausetheyarewithineasywalkingdistanceofthesea.EarlyNascaiconographyplacessignificantemphasisonmaritimemotifs,and,eventhoughtherealsubsistencewealthoftheNazcaregionliesintheagriculturaltractsinland,shellremainsarefoundatCahuachi(seechap.21)andonthesurfaceofmanyNascahabitationsitesidentifiedonthe19881989survey.Furthermore,atitsmouththeGrandeiswithinsightofthemouthoftheIcaRiver.PeopleinthelowerIcaandlowerGrandevalleyswouldhavehadrelativelyquickcontactwitheachotherthroughtheuseofcoasthuggingseacraftoracislittoraloverlandtrail.DespitethehypothesizedimportanceofthelowerGrande,however,thereisnodoubtthatthemajordevelopmentofNascaculturewaslargelyaninlandaffair,andtherethecrucialproblemwaswater,forthetributaryriversarechargedonlybyvaryinglyintense,summerhighlandrainfall.

Besidestheecologicalzonesalreadyreferredto(littoral,coastalorchala,andyunga),theprecolumbianinhabitantsoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagecouldalsohavetakenadvantageofthelomas(winterfogmeadows)stillfoundtodayintherelativelynearbyareasofSanFernandoBay,SanJuanBay,andSanNicolsBay(seeStrong1957:fig.1),aswellasinquebradapocketslocatedinlandinthevalleys(Silverman1989a:45).

PrecipitationPatterns

PrecipitationoccursinthesummermonthsofJanuaryandFebruary.InrareyearsitmayoccurearlierinDecemberandlaterinMarch.Inthecoastalsectorofthedrainage,precipitation,whenitoccurs,variesbetweenvirtuallynonetoperhaps25millimeters(ONERN1971:4244).

Otoca,locatedatmorethan1,800metersabovesealevelintheupperIngeniovalleyandattheupperendoftheyungazone,receivesanaverageof84millimetersofrainfallperyear(ONERN1971:44).Thereisnopublishedrecordofrainfallintherestoftheyungaecologicalzone,butobservationindicatesthatthecoastalpatternprevails.Nascasettlementsarefoundinthisyungazone,totheexclusionofanyothersofthesametimeperiod.

Inthehighlandsectionsofthedrainage'svalleys,between2,000and3,000metersabovesealevel,rainfallincreasesandvariesbetween125and250millimetersperyear.At3,400to3,600metersabovesealevelrainfallisgreaterstillandrangesbetween250and300millimeters(ONERN1971:4445).At4,000metersabovesealevelannualrainfallcanreach500millimeters(ONERN1971:45).

Rainfallisnoteventhroughoutthedrainage.TheONERN(1971:44)observesthatrainfalloccursatloweraltitudesinthenorthernpartofthedrainage(theIngenio,Grande,Palpa,Viscas,andSantaCruzvalleys)andathigherelevationsinthesouthernvalleysofNazca,Taruga,andLasTrancas.

Soils

Geologically,theRoGrandedeNazcadrainageiscomposedofQuaternarysedimentaryrockformationsthatareprimarilyriverineandriverinealluvial(ONERN1971:map2).Thesoilseriesisriverine,andthegroundisfairlylevel(ONERN1971:map3).Surfacesoil(050centimeters)isthickintexture(ONERN1971:map5).Thesoilsofthedrainagevaryfromthoseappropriateforagriculturewithoutmajorlimitationstolandscharacterizedasaptforirrigationagriculturewithmoderatetostronglimitations(ONERN1971:maps3,5).

WaterRegime

Kosok(1965:51)aptlydescribestheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageascomposedof"minute,isolatedvalleysthatliescatteredoveroneoftheworld'sdriestdeserts."Kroeber(1944:25)observesthatthe"amountofcultivablelandinIcaandRoGrandevalleysisstrictlylimited,andhoweverdensethepopulation,itcouldneverhavebeenverygreatabsolutely."Inadditiontoasmallamountofland,thevalleyssufferfromchronicwatershortage.Thissituationisfurtherworsenedbyperiodiclongdroughts,thelastoneofwhichblightedallofsouthernPeruin1983whilethenorthcoastwassimultaneouslyandcatastrophicallyinundatedbyrainandfloodsasaresultofasevereNio.TheONERN(1971:181)concludesthattodayonly12,920hectaresofprecariousagriculturecanbemaintainedinthedrainage.

Ironically,whentheseasonalhighlandrainscomeandthecoastalriverscharge,theresultisnotalwaysbeneficialforthepeopleoftheNazcaregion.Inthesummerof1985Iwitnessedadramaticevent.IthadbeguntorainheavilyinthehighlandswheretheAjaandTierrasBlancasriversoriginate.ThetownofPuquio,forinstance,wasfeaturedonthenationalnewsforitsgaleforcewindsanddrivingrains.InlateJanuary1985theAjaandTierrasBlancasriverssimultaneouslychargedto

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1.2.TopographicmapoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage.BasedonInstitutoGeogrficoMilitar(Nacional)maps30mand30ninthe1:100,000series.

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1.3.MapoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageshowingthemajorcontemporarytownsandmodernextentofagriculturallands.

BasedonInstitutoGeogrficoMilitar(Nacional)maps30mand30ninthe1:100,000series.

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1.4.PhotographiccompositeofHaciendaCahuachi.NotethemeanderingcourseoftheNazcaRiver.Alsonotethe

uncultivatedfieldbehind(farleft)thehaciendahousewhereTestPit16wasexcavated.

overflowingandonthesamenightbrokethroughtheembankmentsprotectingthetownofNazca,disastrouslyfloodingthecityandcausingmuchlossofproperty.BecauseeachofthecomponentriversoftheGrandesystemhasitsheadwatersinadifferentpartoftheadjacenthighlands,thedrainage'sriversusuallydonotchargeatthesametime.Inasmuchastheareaisarid,mostvernaculararchitectureisoftypicalcoastalconstruction:canereedorwattleanddaubshacksforthepoor,adobehousesforthosebetteroff,andcementstructuresfortherich.Theperishableandsolublehousesclosesttotheriversweresweptawayormelteddown.AtthesametimeitrainedratherheavilyinNazca.Theriverscontinuedtochargeandfloodforseveraldays.DownstreamatCahuachitheriversweptawaymanyhectaresofHugoVerneNavas'sfields(fig.1.4)andalmostdrownedthefamilyofoneofmyworkers.

TheONERN(1971:181)considerstheGrande,Ingenio,Palpa,Viscas,andNazcariverstobetheonlyrealriversofthesystemtheothers,itsays,havesuchscarcewaterandtheirwaterregimeissovariablethattherecanbelongdroughtsduringwhichabsolutelynoagriculturecanbepracticed.IntheGrande,Ingenio,Palpa,Viscas,andNazcarivervalleys,althoughdroughtscanbefrequentandsevere,agricultureisnottotallyinhibited.Indeed,theNazcaregion'sirregularriversandbarrensurroundingplainsandhillsbeliethefertilityoflargesectorsofthedrainage.ItisnotwithoutreasonthatFelipeGuamanPomadeAyala(1936:1043,1044)portrayedthecolonialvillaofNazcainasettingofgrapeorchards.TheJesuits'tworichesthaciendasinthedrainagewerelocatedintheIngeniovalleyatSanJosandSanJavierwherewinewasproducedinadditiontoagriculturalproducts(Quijandra1961).Asrecentlyastwentyyearsago,HaciendaCahuachiwasfamousforitswineandpisco(HugoVerneNavasandJosuLanchoRojas,personalcommunication1984),andpiscoisstillbeingproducedinTunga.

Yetincomparisontothelarge,richvalleysofthePeruviannorthcoast,theRoGrandedeNazcadrainageispoor.Kosok(1965:5859)suggeststhatthescarcityofarablelandandwaterintheNazcadrainagemayhaveplayedalimitingroleinthedevelopmentofcomplexsocietythere."InthesmallvalleysoftheRoGrandenogreatwealthcouldaccumulatethusnolargeconstructionscouldbeundertaken.Atbest,afewsmalladobemoundscouldbeerected.Consequently,conditionsneverarosewherebyasecularstatecouldappearexceptatrareintervalsandthenprobablyonlyasanoutsideintrusion.AndtheNazcaareawastoopoortoattractanybutthetemporaryinterestofpassingconquerors...[therewasa]retentionofthereligious

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ceremonialemphasisamongthepoorerNazcans."ThefieldworkatCahuachiandthesettlementpatterndataobtainedin19881989fromtheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleyswillpermitustoevaluatetheveracityofKroeber'sandKosok'sstatements.

SubsurfaceWaterResources.

IntheareaofthelowerAjaandTierrasBlancasriversandcontinuingwestofthetownofNazcaforsome10kilometers,subsurfaceorwatertablewaterhasbeeneffectivelyexploitedforcenturiesthroughasystemofsubterraneanfiltrationgalleries,leadercanals,andreservoirs(MejaXesspe1940RossellCastro1977GonzlezGarca1978SchreiberandLanchoRojas1988).Theprinciplebywhichthesefunctionisrelativelysimple.Atpointsofseepage,onedugtowardthewatertablewhileattemptingtoconservethecorrespondingslopesothatthewaterwouldruntowardthereservoir.Anothertechniquewastoopenaseriesof"eyes"(ojos),orverticalairshafts,20to30metersdistantfromeachother.These"eyes"weredugdownuntilthewatertablewashit.Abravesoulwoulddescendintoan"eye"andacompanionworkerwouldentertheadjacent"eye,"andthetwowoulddigtunnelsuntiltheyconnectedwitheachother.Thisprocedurewasfolloweduntilthewaterwasabletobedrawnouttothesurface,whenceitwaschanneledintoanopenditchthatledtoareservoir.

GonzlezGarca(1978:132,134mytranslation)correctlyobservesthat"asthecanaladvances[intothegroundandawayfromthepointofseepage]thelevelofthewatergetsdeeperanddeeperwithrespecttosurfacelevelbecausethecanalismovingwithalessergradientthanthesurface.Whenthedifferencebetweenthetwolevels(thatofthegroundandthatoftheaqueduct)getstoabout3meters,theaqueductgoesundergroundandatthispointthe`box'begins."Oncethegallerieswereconnectedbeneaththeground,thelateralwallswerebuiltwithrivercobbles,andoverthese,stoneslabroofswereplaced.

Therearecomplexreasonsforthepresenceofthissubsurfacewater.TheAcarRivereffectivelyblocksproperdrainageinthesouthernGrandedrainagebycuttingofftheupperreachesoftheAja,TierrasBlancas,andLasTrancasrivers(seefig.1.5).Thiscontrastswiththe"normal"hydrographicregimeofthenorthernvalleys(Ingenio,Palpa,Viscas,Grande,andSantaCruz).Some5kilometerseastofNazcathesurfacewaterflowingintheNazcaRiverdisappearsthroughsurfacecracksanddoesnotemergeagaintill10kilometerswestofNazca,atwhichpointtheriverhassurfacewaterallthewaytoitsunionwiththeGrande.Dryzones,suchastheonecharacterizingthemiddleNazcavalley,arefoundinthetwosouthernmostriversofthedrainageand,there,too,filtrationgalleriesarepresent.

Thedepthofthewatertablevariesinthedrainagesystembutisneverthelessquitehigh.InthebarrenSantaCruzbranch,thewatertableisat15to32metersbeneaththesurfaceinPalpaandViscasitisat3to12metersintheGrandeproperitisatonly1to5meters(ONERN1971:199).InSantaCruzthegradientofsubterraneanwatervariesbetween0.7and2.0percentfortheGrandeitisbetween0.8and1.0percentforPalpaandViscasitis1.25percent(ONERN1971:199).Itisreasonabletosupposethatpriortoindustrializedagriculture,withitselectricpumpsandtubularwells,thewatertablewouldhavebeenevenhigherandthedischargegreaterthantoday.Furthermore,irrespectiveoflosstomodernagriculturalmethods,thewatertableisnotstableyearround.Whenitrainsinthehighlands,thewatertablerisesandcarriesmorewater.

Thereisanongoingdebateoverthedateofthefiltrationgalleries.ScholarshaveindicatedthatthetechnologyoftheNazcafiltrationgalleriesissimilar(thoughnotidentical)tothewayqanatsintheNearEastfunction(Cressey1958Wulff1968English1968SchreiberandLanchoRojas1988).QanatlikesystemsarealsoknowninChileandtheTehuacnvalleyofMexico.TheresemblancesbetweentheOldWorldandNewWorldsystemshavepromptedsometosuggestthattheNazcasystemistheresultofdiffusion.Cressey(1958:44),forinstance,proposesthatthe"Arabsbroughtthefoggara[qanat]ideaintoSpain,andtheSpanishbroughtittotheNewWorld"(seealsoBarnesandFleming1991).English(1968:178)leavestheissueofdiffusionopen,statingthattheqanatsystemsintheAtacamaregionmayantedatethearrivaloftheSpanishintheNewWorld.

Otherscholarsdefendindependentinvention(GonzlezGarca1978RossellCastro1977Ravines1978:129).SchreiberandLanchoRojas(1988)argue,basedonshiftsinsettlementpatterns,thatitislikelythatthefiltrationgalleriesinthewidemiddlesectoroftheNazcavalleyproperarenotonlyprehispanicindatebutthattheywerefirstbuiltinNasca5times,C.A.D.500to600.Theycontendthatwithoutirrigation,settlementinthelower,waterlessstretchesoftheAjaandTierrasBlancasriverswouldhavebeenrestricted.Accordingtothem,theexistenceoflargehabitationsitesinthisareapresupposesthepracticeofagriculture,whichwouldhavebeenpossibleonlywithirrigation.Theearliestdateof

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1.5.MapofthesouthcoastofPeruindicatingthecomplexhydrologyofthecomponentriversystems.NotehowtheAcarRiversweepsnorth,cuttingoffthedrainageoftheheadwatersoftheAjaandTierrasBlancasrivers(theNazcaRiver)

andsoutherntributariesoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage.

thosesiteswouldbeaminimaldateforthefiltrationgalleries.Theexistenceanddatingofcemeteries,ontheotherhand,arenotgoodindicatorsofwhenthefiltrationgalleriesweremadesincecemeteriesarenotsubjecttothesameconstraintsaslivingcommunities.

Ibelievethatthepeculiar"nowyouseeit,nowyoudon't"behaviorofNazca'ssurfacewatermustnothavegoneunnoticedamongthearea'sprecolumbianinhabitants.Theancientsmusthaveobservedwherewaterseepedouttothesurfaceafterdisappearingfora15kilometerlongdrystretch.FurthersupportforaprecolumbiandatecomesfromlocallegendscollectedbyGary

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Urton(citedinReinhard1988).TheselegendsareoriginmythsaboutthefiltrationgalleriesandrefertoCerroBlanco,thesacredmountainofNazca,asthesourceoftheirwater.ClarksonandDorn(1991)havereportedtwo14CdatesforNazca'sfiltrationgalleriestheirdatesarewithintheA.D.550to650rangeandconformtoSchreiberandLanchoRojas's(1988)suggestionthatthefiltrationgallerieswereinitiallyconstructedinNasca5times.TheClarksonandDorn14Cdatesshouldsettletheissueofindependentorigins.

SubsurfacewateralsoseepstothesurfaceatCorralones,ManchaVerde,EstaqueraAlta,EstaqueraBaja,Jumana,andCahuachi.ButnofiltrationgallerieswereconstructedintheseplacesbecausethereisalsogroundwaterfromtheNazcaRiver.

Wesee,then,thatinadditiontoitsmultipletributaries,theRoGrandedeNazcadrainageisexceptionalbecausetwodifferentwaterregimesoperate,anorthernonewhichgeneratesamoreorlessstandardcoastalirrigationsystemandasouthernonewhoseproblematicnaturewasresolvedinthepastthroughtheconstructionofaningenioussystemofundergroundcanalsandsurfacereservoirs.Thetwowaterregimeshadthepotentialtogeneratedifferentkindsofsettlementpatternsandsocialandpoliticalorganization.WhenDavidBrowneandIfinishouranalysisofthenortherndrainagesurveydataandKatharinaSchreiberanalyzesthedatafromhersurveyofthesouthernportionofthedrainage,itshouldbepossibletodetermineifthereareanysystematicwaterrelateddifferencesbetweenthevalleys.

Population

In1961acensuswascarriedoutintheRiGrandedeNazcadrainagebytheVICensoNacionalandrevealedaruralpopulationofalmost15,000individuals(citedinONERN1971).In1971theONERNestimatedthepopulationofthedrainageatapproximately55,000individuals.Approximately40percentofthesepeopleresidedinthe"urban"centersofNazca(about18,400inhabitants)andPalpa(about3,800inhabitants),withatotalofapproximately2,000individualslivinginthesmalltownsofElIngenio,Changuillo,RoGrande,Llipata,andSantaCruz.Ruralpopulationwasfiguredatapproximately20,500.ThepopulationofthedrainagesouthofChanguillodoesnotappeartohavebeenincludedin1971.Iwouldaddnomorethanathousandindividualsforthatarea.In1971theruralpopulationfortheentiredrainagecertainlydidnotexceed22,000.Iregard15,000to22,000asareasonablestandardagainstwhichtheprehispanicpopulationofthedrainagecaneventuallybeestimatedandcompared.

TheLocalSettingofCahuachi

ThearchaeologicalsiteofCahuachiisabout500kilometerssouthofLimaand18kilometerswestofthemoderndaytownofNazca(asthecrowflies).Itislocatedina500meterwidesectionoftheNazcavalleyonthesouthbankoftheNazcaRiver.ThesitesitsonaseriesofbrownbarrenriverterracesjustabovethenarrowvalleyfloorandbeneaththePampadeAtarcoitisapproximately365metersabovesealevel.InmoderngeopoliticaltermsCahuachiisintheprovinceofNazcainthedepartmentofIca.

Tothenorthandsouth,Cahuachifacesapampa(PampadeSanJosandPampadeAtarco,respectively).Itisonthesepampas,particularlythePampadeSanJosnorthofCahuachi,thatthemajorityofthefamousgrounddrawingsoftheNazcadesertwereetched(seeAveni1986,1990Reiche1968Reinhard1988Silverman1990a,b).

Cahuachiissubjecttofierceparacas(verystrongwindsthatcanwhipthemselvesupinintensitytobecomeveritablesandstorms)thattypicallygustupfromCerroTungatothesouthwest.Althoughmyworkersassociatedparticularlybadwindswitha"changeofthemoon"(forthem,thefullmoon)andalthoughthewindisreputedtobeworstinthesummermonths,IfoundthatduringtheyearIspentatCahuachiitwastheabsenceofwindthatwasthemorenoteworthyevent.FrequentlythewindwasalreadyhowlingwhenIarrivedatthesiteat6A.M.Sometimesitwoulddiedownandsometimesitwouldnot.Ilostseveraldaysofworkwhenthewindwassobellicosethatitwasliterallyimpossibletostandupstraight,letaloneexcavateorscreen.OnNovember21,1984,Iperformedanexperimenttoassesstheprocessesofinflationanddeflationatthesite.Everymorningwewouldbeginworkbysweepinguptheaeoliansandthathadaccumulatedinourpitsovernight.Onthisparticularmorningwesweptupenoughfinesandfroma2by2meterunittofillabucketmeasuring36centimetershighby22centimetersonasidetowithin1centimeterofitstop.Itisthissamewindblownsandthatfillsinlooters'holesandlootedarchitecture,makingthesefeatureseasytorecognize.

ThefrequencyofsandstormsbringsupthedesertificationissueraisedbygeologistGeorgPetersen(1980).Petersen(1980:13mytranslation)contendsthatCahuachiinparticularandtheNazcaregioningeneralbeganto"graduallysuffertherigorsofanencroachingdesert"andtothisheattributesthedemiseofNascacivilization.Weshallseeinchapters9through13thatevi

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1.6.AerialshotofthecentralzoneofCahuachi.ThesiteisbuiltoverthenaturalhillsborderingthesouthbankoftheNazca

River.Thenaturalhillslookliketheartificiallyterracedmounds.

1.7.Reservoirconstructedin1984infront(north)ofCenen

Guzmn'shouse.UnitVVisseeninthecenterforeground.Thisareaofthesiteismassivelylooted.ExcavationandconstructionofthereservoirbroughtnoarchaeologicalmaterialstothesurfaceeventhoughthelargeUnitVV

moundisnearby.

denceofthisclimaticchangewasnotforthcomingfromourexcavations.

TheterracesonwhichCahuachisitsarecharacterizedbyhillsthesehillsformthecoreofthemajorityofartificialconstructionsatthesite(seechap.5).Millenniaofwinderosionhaveflattenedthetopsofthesegravelcoveredhills.Inaddition,theirsedimentarystratahavebeeneroded,therebygivingthehillsanaturallytruncated,pyramidalappearance(fig.1.6).Itisdifficulttodistinguishanerodedadobewallreinforced,terracedmoundfacefromanaturallyflattenedhillwithhorizontallayersofexposed,lightcoloredrock.

AtCahuachiwealsoseetheeffectsofwatererosion.Thesitesurfaceismarkedbygulleyscreatedbywateractionfrominfrequentstrongrainsmanyofthemounds,suchasUnit2,showerosionchannelscausedbyrainwater.TheRoomofthePostsonUnit19(seechap.13)showsevidenceofseverewaterdamageonitseasternwallandnortheastcorner.ArchitectGiuseppeOrefici(personalcommunication1989)excavatedamajoradobewallonUnit10thathadcollapsedinantiquity,presumablyastheresultofagreatflashfloodheiscurrentlypostulatingafreakclimaticdisastertoaccountforthedemiseofCahuachi.

Asaresultoftherecentflooding,theNazcaRiverhasaltereditscoursesomewhat,comingmuchclosertothesite'seasternandwesternsectorsthis,ofcourse,hasimplicationsforsettlementpatternsatCahuachi.ExcavationandsurveyatCahuachi,aswellasthefrequencyandunpredictabilitywithwhichtheNazcaRiverfloods,suggestthatitisunlikelythatthenorthernmostterracesofthesitewerealocusofpermanentdomesticoccupationorthatmanyhabitationmoundsexistedinthevalleybottom.Furthermore,allthefarmersIintervieweddeniedeverseeingsherdscomeuptothesurfaceinthevalleybottomlandswhenfieldswereopened.Thissituationappearstobeconfirmedbythefollowing.InJuly1984RamnEliasbuiltalargecementreservoirontheedgeofthisbottomlandinfrontofCenenGuzman'shouse(fig.1.7seechap.11).DayafterdayIwatchedtheexcavationofthehugepit.Neverdidanyarchaeologicalmaterialappear,eventhoughamajorartificialmound,UnitVV,isonlyafewdozenmetersbehindthereservoir.Thisfact,combinedwiththenegativeresultsoftestpitsinsimilarlocations(chap.11),leadsmetosuspectthatthevalleybottomherewasscarcelyinhabitedandthatitwas,instead,maintainedasagriculturallandandasasourceofvariousrawmaterials(forinstance,caneforwattleanddaubstructures).ButeventheagriculturalpotentialofthelandaroundCahuachiwassomewhatlimiteduntiltherecentinstallationofelectricirrigationpumpswhichhavealleviatedthenaturallymarshyandpoorlydrainedconditionofthesoilnearthearchaeologicalsite.Todaythislandishighlyproductiveand,likemostofthelandofthedrainage,isdevotedtocommercialcottonproductionpotatoesmayalsobefarmedinsomeyearsasacashcrop,dependingonmarketconditions.

Cahuachiislocallyfamousasaplace"wherewaterappears"(seealsoONERN1971:205).Therewasalways

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water(albeitlittlesaveduringthesummerfloodmentionedabove)intheNazcaRiveratCahuachiduringthetimeIwasthere.LocalinformantsshowedmetheplaceofpermanentseepagejustabovetheleveloftheriverthisiswheretheseveraldozenresidentsofmodernCahuachiobtaintheirdrinkingwater.Myolderworkersrecalledthatintheiryouth(the1930sand1940s)thenarrowvalleyflooraroundCahuachiwascoveredbymonteincludinghuarango(Prosopischilensis),calato(Bulnesiaretamo),sauce(Salixhumboldtiana),andespino(Acaciamacracantha),aswellasriverreedssuchascarrizo(Phragmitescommunis)andcaabrava(Gyneriumsagittatum).Overtheyearsthehardwoodhuarangoshavebeencutdownandburnedforfuelormadeintocharcoalasthelandwasclearedforagriculture,withlargecommercialplotsbeinglaidoutinthe1940sand1950sduringtheheydayoftheCahuachihaciendaundertheNavasfamily(HugoVerneNavas,personalcommunication1984).Thepatternoflandusefiftyyearsagowasprobablynotmuchdifferentthanthatwhichmighthaveprevailedtwothousandyearsearlier.

Note

1.HereamajorMiddleHorizon3funerarylocuswasexcavated(Menzel1964:63Pezzia1969:127128Rowe1984)PatrickCarmichael(personalcommunication1990)recordedalargeearlyNascasiteandtwosmallEarlyHorizonepoch8(withOcucaje8typepottery)sitesatMonteGrande.

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ChapterTwoAHistoryofFieldworkintheNazcaRegion

ThehistoryofthearchaeologicalinvestigationofNascasocietyis,inlargepart,areflectionofthetrajectoryofthestudyofPeru'spast.TheearlyperiodofinvestigationsatCahuachiandelsewherewasoverwhelminglyconcernedwithcemeteryexcavationsandtheestablishmentofatimespaceframework.Themiddleperiod,motivatedandinfluencedbytheVirValleyProject,broughttothesouthcoastanewfoundinterestinsettlementpatternsandstratigraphy.Thiswasfollowedbyanintenseconcerninthe1950sthroughthe1970swiththeconstructionofafinerelativechronology.ThemostrecenteraofNascainvestigations,the1980sthroughthepresent,hasseenareturntothefieldtotackleproblemsofsocialandpoliticalorganizationandculturalchangethroughthestudyofsettlementpatterns.

Uhle:1901and1905

In1888MaxUhle,ayoungGermanlinguistwithexperienceinzoologyandethnography,begantoworkintheMuseumfrVlkerkundeinBerlin.Whilethere,hehadtheopportunitytoexaminefiveNascavesselsinthecollections(Proulx1970:89).ThebeautyofthemagnificentpolychromepotteryattractedUhleandkindledinhimadesiretolocateitssourcesincethevessels'proveniencewasnotedonlyasPeru'ssouthcoast.Uhlewassuccessfulinlocatingthenewlyrecognizedpotterystyleonhisfirstexpeditiontothesouthcoastin1901.IntheOcucajeBasininIcaheexcavatedthirtytwoNascatombswhosecontentsweresenttothemuseumattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley(seeProulx1970).Uhlecalledthestyle"ProtoNazca"(Uhle1914).

OnhissecondexpeditiontothesouthcoastofPeruin1905UhledirectedhiseffortsattheNazcavalley.HedidnotexcavatetherebutpurchasedalargecollectionofpotteryhisformerIcaworkershadlooted(Rowe1960:31).ThiscollectionwasalsosenttoBerkeley,andthevesselsfromUhle'stwoexpeditionsformthecoreoftheLowieMuseum'soutstandingcollectionofNascapottery.Generally,Uhle(1914seealsoGaytonandKroeber1927)didnotclearlyspecifyanyofthesitesintheNazcaandPalparegionsfromwhichhiscollectionswereexcavated,incontrasttothepreciserecordsofproveniencehekeptforIca,buthedidnotethatheobtainedthreepotsatCahuachithoughwecannotknowifthevesselscamefromthearchaeologicalsiteorthegeneralgroundsofthehacienda.

Itisimportanttonotethatalreadyby1912itwastheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage,ratherthantheIcavalleywherethestylewasfirstdiscovered,thatwasconsideredtobetheNascaheartland.Joyce(1912),forinstance,speaksofthe"Nascastyle"and"Nascapottery."ThisviewwaslaterexplicitlystatedbyGaytonandKroeber(1927:2),whoexplainthatthenameofthestyleis"derivedfromthefocalpointofitsregionaldistribution."

Tello:1915

In1915PeruvianarchaeologistJulioC.TellocarriedoutfieldworkintheNazcaregion"fromTierraBlancatoMonteGrande,withthepurposeofstudyingthedifferentclassesofcemeteriesthere."Hereferredoncetogold

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2.1.Kroeber'ssketchplanofCahuachi.HehasmadeanenlargedinsetofUnitA.HisfieldnotebookgivesthefollowingkeyfortheUnitAmound:(c)naturalsandterrace,6metersabovea(d)firstslopeofhill(e)firstterrace,7metersabovec(f)secondterrace,6metersabovee(g)burial

terrace,1meterbelowh(h)summitterrace,5metersabovef(i)burial(?)terrace,2metersbelowh(j)levelterrace,1meterbelowh(k)unworkedhill,connectingwithB(1)burialterrace,3metersbelowg(m)burialterrace,1meterbelow1(n,0)squarechambergrave(p)wall,

65meterslong.Lettersaandb,notshown,referredto"cultivation,3metersaboveriver"and"slope"respectively.CourtesyRobertFeldman,FieldMuseumofNaturalHistory,Chicago.

piecesfrom"acemeteryatCahuachiofdifferentstyleandepoch"(Tello1917:283mytranslation)andalsonotedthepresenceofartificialhillsormoundsatthesite.Byhisenumerationoflocationsatwhichheworked(Majoro,Ocongalla,Estaquera,LasSalinas,LasCaas,Tunga),however,wemayinferthatalthoughTellovisitedCahuachihedidnotexcavatethereatthistime.

Farabee:1922

WilliamC.Farabee,whilecuratoroftheAmericancollectionsattheUniversityMuseuminPhiladelphia,workedintheNazcaregionfromApril13toMay20,1922.For30mileshefollowedtheNazcaRiver,"excavatingineverysitewhichofferedanypromiseofresult"(Mason1926:134).Amongthosesitesthatreceivedtheattentionofhisshovelwas"Cahuacha,"whereFarabeenoted"thepresenceofruins....Inmanyplacesthetopsofthehillshavebeenleveled,builtupwithadobeandmadeintoterracessothattheystandabovethelineofthehills.Inotherplacessmallmoundsbuiltofadobebricksofawedgeshapeareseen.Linesofadobewallsrunforhundredsofyards,butmostofthesearenowcrumbledanddisintegrated,reachingaheightoftwofeetinonlyoneplace"(Mason1926:138).

Proulx(1968)studiedsevenNasca3Band4gravelotsexcavatedbyFarabeeatCahuachiandParedones.Carmichael(1988:Appendix1)listsatotalofseventeenburialsfromFarabee'sexcavationsatCahuachitheserangefromNasca2toNasca6indate.NofurtherproveniencedatawerenotedbyFarabee,andwecannotknowifheexcavatedintheactualarchaeologicalsiteofCahuachiorinoneofthemanycemeteriesthatexistedonthegroundsofwhatwasthentheHaciendaCahuachi,whichcoveredmoreareathanthearchaeologicalsiteitself.

Kroeber:1926

ThegreatAmericanistAlfredLouisKroebercarriedoutfieldworkintheNazcaareabetweenJuly26andOctober12,1926,leadingthesecondMarshallFieldExpe

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2.2.Strong's(1957:fig.4)planofCahuachi.NotethatStrongorientsthesitewiththenortharrowpointingtothe

bottomofthepagewhereasKroeberorientedthesitewithnorthtothetop.TheareaencompassedbyStrong'smapissmallerthanthatportrayedonKroeber'ssketchmap.Whencomparedwithfigure2.4,itcanbeseenthat

Strongportraysseveralartificiallymodifiedfeaturesasnatural.

ditiontoPeru.KroeberworkedfromCahuachieasttoCantalloc,justoutsidethetownofNazca.Thepurposeofhisexpeditionwastoexamine"gravecontentsandinterrelationsoftheseasintactunits[rather]thanonsettlementsandbuildings"becausehewasdissatisfiedwiththeceramicseriationhehadworkedoutwithAnnaGayton(seeGaytonandKroeber1927)andbecause"Nazcaruinsandstructures[are]verymodestincomparisonwiththefineceramicsandtextilescontainedinNazcacemeteries"(KroeberandCollierms.:In1).ByobtaininganewsampleofNascapotteryfromcarefullycontrolledgraveexcavations,KroeberhopedtobeabletosubstantiateormodifytheGaytonKroebersequencethathadreliedonpotterywithoutgraveandotherdefinitelocalprovenience(GaytonandKroeber1927:4seealsoKroeber1956:330).

KroeberspentthelastweekofhisfieldseasonatCahuachi.DuringthattimehefocusedhisattentiononUnitA(seeKroeber'splanofUnitAinfig.2.1)withsupplementaryexcavationoftwointactgravesinarea

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Ed(thisisthenortheastsideofthefourthterraceofUnit19:seechap.12)andtwogravesathisLocationO.Kroeberkeptameticulousinventoryofthegraveassociationsofeachburialandrecordeddataontheburialsthemselves(seechap.14).ThepotteryfromthesegravesisallNasca3Aand3B(Proulx1968:table1).

InadditiontothetombexcavationsonUnitA,KroebersurveyedthesitequitewellanddrewanexcellentsketchmapofCahuachi(fig.2.1)thatisremarkablyclosetoStrong's(1957:fig.4fig.2.2)mapandournewones(figs.2.32.6).Kroeber'scampwasontheeasternsideofhismoundD(Unit22),closetoTractEd.WhatismostimportantaboutKroeber'smapisthatitindicatesthatheperceivedthesiteaslargerthanStrong'srepresentationofit.IfwesupplementKroeber'ssketchmapwithhiscommentsonthesite,wefindthathedelimitedCahuachialmostasdefinedinthisbook(seechap.5).

OntheSside[oftheNazcaRiveratHda.Cahuachi]therearenotonlycemeteries,butaseriesofartificialterracings,orpossiblyinpartnaturalriverterracesdevelopedandfacedwithadobewalls.Theseextendmoreorlessthewholelengthofthehacienda.Thoseupstreamfromthehaciendahousefor0.5km.ormore,andthosedownstreamfromitfornearly1km.,werenotexplored.ThoseworkedbytheExpeditionareinthelastkm.downstreamfromalarge5(or6)steppyramidalhillK[ourUnit1],andLandM[ourUnits2and9,respectively]behinditsetwellbackfromtheriver.FromK,similarhillsandterracesstretchwestwardondownstream,"throughthealphabet,"toBandA[ourUnitsKandA].BisapyramidbutlittlelesshighandlargerthanK....BeyondAtothewestadraworwashenterstheriverfromthesouthafterflowingbehindmostoftheMtoAseriesofpyramidsorterraces.Downstreamfromthemouthofthiswashcomesacemeteryintheplainandrunningupthenexthill[UnitCinSilverman1985a,b],whichisunterracedandjutsintothecultivationneartheCahuachiEstaqueraboundary.Thiscemetery,O,seemslargelyNazcaBfromAuptoKandL,theopenedsitesarealmostwhollyNazcaA.Atanyrate,NazcaAprevailsbothinsurfacesherdsandingraves,thoughafewNazcaBsherdswerefound.TherearealsoNazcaYandLategravesites,buttheyarelocalizedandgenerallynotassociatedwiththeterracing.(KroeberandCollierms.:III8183)

NotonlydidKroeberexhibitakeenperceptionoftheextentandchronologyofCahuachi'sarchitecture,healsounderstoodtheunusualnatureofitsmonumentalityanditsuniquenessinNascasociety.AlthoughotherNascaceremonialsiteswithartificialconstructionshavesincebeendiscovered(Silverman1989a,1990c,d),noneofthesecancomparetoCahuachi,andthefollowingstatementbyKroeberremainsessentiallytruemorethanfiftyyearsafterhemadeit.

ExceptingtheLateIcaandIncaruinsofstoneandsquaredadobeatParedonesandCurvi,andthelogpillartempleorstructureatLaEstaquera...CahuachiSouthistheonesiteinNazcavalleywheretherecanbesaidtobesystematicconstructions....TheterracingsatCahuachihavecrumbledandroundedwithtimeandatfirstseemnaturalbutadobeisoftenevident,sometimeseventotheseparatebricks,andcanregularlybeencounteredwherelinesarestraightandterraceslevel.AdvantagewastakenbytheNazcabuilderstoagreatextentofnaturallinesandcontours,asunworkedhillsfartherbackshow,andthelaborexpendedwascertainlyonlyaminutefractionofthatwhichwouldhavebeenneededtoactuallyrearthepilesfromcultivationlevel.Still,alargeamountoflaborwentintothelevelings,facings,andwallsbetween,manyofwhichextendunderground,aschambersorasnowunexplainedlengthsofwall,allofhandmadeadobes.(KroeberandCollierms.:III8183)

Tello:1926,1927

JulioC.TellowasintheNazcaregionin1926,atthesametimeasKroeber.Attimesthesetwogreatarchaeologistsworkedtogether,buttheywerenotatCahuachiatthesametime(Kroeber1944:24).Duringhis1926project,TellocarriedoutexcavationsincemeterieslocatedatOcongalla,Majoro,Cantalloc,TierraBlanca,Aja,Achaco,andSoisongo(TelloandMejaXesspe1967:145).

TelloreturnedtotheNazcaregionin1927,directinganexpeditionfromtheMuseodeArqueologaPeruana.1HeworkedintheLasTrancas,Ingenio,SantaCruz,andNazcavalleys.InNazcaheexcavatedatCahuachi,amongothernamedlocales(TelloandMejaXesspe1967:146),butitisnotclearifTellowasreferringtothearchaeologicalsiteasdefinedhereinortothelimitsofthehacienda.Tello'sfieldworkwasspecificallydirectedattheexcavationoftombswhosecontentswouldformcollectionsforthemuseum.Inall,heexcavated537tombsintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagebetweenJanuaryandSeptember1927.Ofthese,80tombspertainto"Nascaclsico"and176to"ChankaoPreNasca"(lateNasca)(TelloandMejaXesspe1967:147).

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2.3.NewmapofCahuachi:theeasternmostpartofthesite.KroeberrecognizedthisareaasarchaeologicalandpartofCahuachi.ThenewCahuachimapisbasedonServicioAerofotogrficoNacionalseries17570,

photos23702375and2534andtheMinisteriodeAgricultura'sCastastroRural1:10,000mapsNazcaPalpa25andNazcaPalpa26,sheet184858360.Aerialphotogrammetricinterpretationby

architectJosPinedagroundreconnaissancebyJosPinedaandHelaineSilverman.

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Doering:1932

TheGermanarchaeologistHeinrichUbbelohdeDoering(Doering1958Neudecker1979)workedintheNazcaregionduring1932,concentratingontheSantaCruzvalleybutalsoexcavatingatCahuachi.Doering'sfieldworkaroseoutofhispreviousstudyofNascaceramics.Doeringwantedtodeterminethekindsofgravesinwhichtheceramicswerefound,thetypesofpotterythatwerefoundtogether,andthekindsofweavingsthatwereassociatedwiththeceramics.Inall,heexcavatedaboutfiftygraves,onlysomeofwhichpertaintoNasca.

DoeringexcavatedtwoNascagravesatCahuachiinhisMorrolocus(Doering1958).Grave1isthetypelotforNasca8Grave2datestoNasca3A(Proulx1968:table1).Thepreciselocationof"Morro"isunknown(seechap.14).

Hiatus:19331952

AfterDoering'sexcavationsin1932,therethenensuedalonghiatusofarchaeologicalfieldworkatCahuachiandonthesouthcoast,punctuatedonlybycontinuedandcontinuouslooting.ThelonedatedexceptionistheexcavationconductedatChaviain1943byMrs.E.B.LothropandMrs.A.McK.Thompson"inthecourseofafewhours.Neitherwasaprofessionalarchaeologistbutbothtooknotesindependently,somemeasurementswererecordedandphotographysecured"(LothropandMahler1957:4).Despitethewomen'slackoftraining,moreinformationhasbeenpublishedfortheselateNascaburialsatChaviathanformanyaprofessionallyexcavatedNascatomb.

Strong:19521953

ThehiatusinNascaresearchwasbrokenin1952whenWilliamDuncanStrongledaColumbiaUniversityexpeditiontothesouthcoastofPeru.Strong(1957:13)clearlydescribedtheprimarypurposeofhissouthcoastinvestigationsasthedeterminationofthetemporalrelationshipbetweentheParacasandNascaculturesand,concomitantly,thestudyofsettlementpatternssoasto"selectthemostpromisingsitesforsondage"(Strong1957:3).Hecorrectlynotedthatpriorto1952nostratigraphicexcavationsorsettlementpatternstudieshadbeenundertakenintheregion.

Strongsetabouttosolvethequestionsheposedthrough"detailedsurveyandstratigraphictechniquesalongthelinesalreadyinauguratedinCentralandNorthCoastalPeru"(Strong1957:2).HereinweseethesourceofthefirstmajorproblemwithStrong'sfieldworkatCahuachi:excavationwascarriedoutbyarbitrarylevelswhosecontentswereanalyzedthroughtypefrequencyseriation(seeDunnell1970ontheproblemsofthetypefrequencymethod).ThemethoddeterminedStrong's

Page20Page21

2.4.NewmapofCahuachi:theeasternandcentralzones.StrongignoredthemajorarchitecturalfeatureseastofUnit10.BythetimethisnewmapofCahuachiwaselaborated,Unit7,themoundonwhichStronghadexcavatedhisCut5,hadbeenbulldozed.ThenewCahuachimapisbasedonServicioAerofotogrficoNacionalseries17570,

photos23702375and2534andtheMinisteriodeAgricultura'sCastastroRural1:10,000mapsNazcaPalpa25andNazcaPalpa26,sheet184858360.AerialphotogrammetricinterpretationbyarchitectJosPinedagroundreconnaissancebyJosPinedaandHelaineSilverman.

Page22Page23

2.5.NewmapofCahuachi:thewesternzone.Asdelimitedinthisstudy,CahuachiextendsonlytoUnitH.AllculturalfeaturestoEstaquera,however,havebeenlabeled.ThenewCahuachimapisbasedonServicioAerofotogrficoNacionalseries17570,photos23702375and2534andtheMinisteriodeAgricultura'sCastastroRural1:10,000mapsNazcaPalpa25andNazcaPalpa26,sheet184858360.AerialphotogrammetricinterpretationbyarchitectJosPinedagroundreconnaissancebyJosPinedaandHelaineSilverman.

Page24Page25

2.6.NewmapoftheareaaroundthearchaeologicalsiteofEstaquera.TheareashownonthismapisnotpartoftheCahuachisite(seefigs.2.32.5).ThemapisbasedonServicioAerofotogrficoNacionalseries17570,photos23702375and2534andtheMinisteriodeAgricultura'sCastastroRural1:10,000mapsNazcaPalpa25andNazcaPalpa26,

sheet184858360.AerialphotogrammetricinterpretationbyarchitectJosPinedagroundreconnaissancebyJosPinedaandHelaineSilverman.

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fieldstrategy.Excavationbyarbitrarylevelsledtothepersistentmixingoftheceramiccollectionsthatweresupposedtoprovideanempiricalchronologicalsequence(seechap.4).

CahuachiwaschosenfortestingbecauseStrongbelievedhewouldgetadeeplystratifiedsequenceatthesite.Priortoexcavation,then,someofCahuachi'sarchitecturewasalreadyinterpretedas"housemounds"inassociationwithtemplesandcemeteries(seeStrong1957:table1).Theimplicationwasthatsuchmoundswereformedbythesequentialaccumulationofkitchenmidden,domesticrefuse,andabandonedstructuresthatthenbecamestratifiedinsituandovertime.ThisviewwasexplicitlyrepeatedbyRowe(1960:41)andMatosMendieta(1980:488).Figure2.2showsthelocationofallofStrong'sexcavationsatthesite.

Afterexcavation,Strong(1957:28)describedUnit7(seechaps.4,5)asan"occupationalandresidentialarea[that]consistsofaseriesofheavywalls,perhapsusedaswalks,andaseriesofwellconstructed,nicelyfinishedwattleanddaubwallsandfloors,theformerstrengthenedbybothsmallandlargealgarrobaposts."Unit6(seechaps.4,5)wasinterpretedasanareaofa"LateParacasdomesticdwelling"thatwasfilledinovertimeandusedas"thenuclearcoreonwhichpeopleoftheMiddleNazcaculturephaselaterbuiltatemple"(Strong1957:13).Unit5(seechaps.4,5)wasnotspecificallydescribed.

Concomitantly,someofCahuachi'sarchitecturewasdeterminedtobeceremonial,asisthecaseofUnit2,Strong's"GreatTemple"(seechaps.4,5).Strongalsonotedthepresenceofvastcemeteriesatthesite,manyofwhichheattributedtoCahuachi'sheyday.

Strong(1957:32)concluded,onthebasisofhisresearch,that"Cahuachiwasthegreatest,andprobablythemaincapitalsiteoftheNazcacivilizationinthetimeofitsownpeculiarhighestflorescence."DuetoStrong'sdeath,afinalreportofhisCahuachiresearchwasneverpublished,althoughitwasinpreparation.Apreliminaryreportdid,however,comeoutin1957(Strong1957),precededbyashortarticle(Strong1954)andanoticeinAmericanAntiquity(seeRowe1953).

TwootherexcavationscarriedoutbyStrongintheNazcadrainagewillbementionedbrieflyhere.ThesearehisworkatthesiteofHuacadelLorointheLasTrancasvalley(Strong1957:3641),whoseassociatedceramiccollectionsspantheNasca7through9period(Paulsen1983,ms.),andthestratigraphictrenchheexcavatedatEstaquera,which"revealedsherdtypeswhichweremainlyofLateNazca(B)typebutalsoincludedthoseoftheHuacadelLorocultureofthesucceedingepochofFusion.Earlierorlatertypeswereabsent"(Strong1957:34).Strong(1957:34)decidedthatEstaquera"isreallyanextensionoftheCahuachisite,"aconclusionwhichisdisputedinchapter5ofthisbook.

NorthofNazca

Between1954and1955JohnH.RowedirectedtheFourthUniversityofCaliforniaArchaeologicalExpedition,alarge,areallyextensiveprojectthatcoveredthevastsouthernportionofPeru(seeRowe1956).DuringthecourseofthisprojectLawrenceDawsoncontinuedrefiningtheseriationoftheNascastylethathehadbegunin1952usingthecollectionsintheLowieMuseumatBerkeley.WhileinPeruDawsonstudiedPeruviancollectionsofNascapotteryanddidsurveyworkinIca,duringthecourseofwhichyetmoredataweregatheredfortheNascaseriation(Rowe1956:146).

During1954and1955DavidRobinson(1957)carriedoutasurveyintheNazcadrainage.RobinsonwasconcernedwiththeelucidationofthepostNascastylesintheNazcaarea.Helocated111sites,almostallofwhichareidentifiedascemeteries.AtCahuachiRobinsonidentifiedninecemeterieswhichhenumberedIthroughIX.Thefirstandeasternmostofthese,CahuachiI,islocatedabout1kilometereastoftheCaminodeLeguainotherwords,itissubstantiallyeastofUnitZZ,theeasternmostunitatthesite(seechaps.5,6).ThatcemeteryhasNascaEpigonalandCarrizalpottery.CahuachiIIisacemeteryofunknownculturalaffiliation.Robinsonlocatedit100metersduewestofCahuachiI.CahuachiIIIisaNascaEpigonalcemeterythatis150meterssouthwestofCahuachiII.CahuachiIVhasNascaEpigonalandCarrizalpotteryandis60meterswestofCahuachiII.CahuachiVisaNascaEpigonalcemeterythatis60metersduewestofCahuachiIII.CahuachiVIIis2kilometerseastofHda.Cahuachialongthevalleyedge.IthasNasca,NascaTransitional,andNascaEpigonalpottery.CahuachiVIIIisonthenorthsideoftheNazcaRiver,onahilloppositeHda.Cahuachi.HereRobinsonfoundNascaandNascaEpigonalpottery.CahuachiIXcorrespondstotheextensivecemeteriesonthenorthbankoftheNazcaRiveroppositeCahuachi.RobinsonfoundpotteryrunningthewholesequencefromNascatoPoroma.WecanseethatRobinson'suseoftheterm"Cahuachi"correspondedtothelegalagrarianlimitsofthehaciendainthe1950s.

RobinsonidentifiedthearchaeologicalsiteofCahuachiwiththeCahuachiVIcemetery.Hereportedthatthe"eastendofthesiteisallcemeteryarea"(Robinson1957:50)with"ParacasTransitional"(Nasca1),Nasca,"NascaTransitional"(Nasca8),and"NascaEpigonal"

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(localMiddleHorizon)pottery.Althoughmonumental(andnotsomonumental)constructionsexistintheeasternarea,Robinsoniscorrectthatthisisthemostmassivelylootedareaoftheentiresite.

UndertheauspicesoftheFulbrightProgramofEducationalExchange,DorothyMenzel,JohnRowe,DwightWallace,andLawrenceDawsoncarriedoutextensiveandintensiveinvestigationsintheIcavalley(seeRowe1963Menzel1971Wallace1962),someofwhichprovidedimportantnewinformationontheNascaoccupationofthevalley,particularlyforEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch7(seeMenzel1971:8692).TheIcavalleywassurveyedagainalmosttwodecadeslaterbyarchitectCarlosWilliamsLenandarchaeologistMiguelPazosRivera(1974)forthepurposeofmakingasiteinventoryfortheInstitutoNacionaldeCultura,andtheupperIcavalleywassurveyedforathirdtimeseveralyearslaterbySarahMassey(1986)forherdissertationproject,whichconcentratedontheoccupationsdatingtothelateEarlyHorizonandearlyEarlyIntermediatePeriod.

SouthofNazca

AspartoftheFourthUniversityofCaliforniaArchaeologicalExpedition,DorothyMenzelandFrancisRiddellcarriedoutfieldworkintheAcarvalleyduring1954and1955(MenzelandRiddell1986seealsoRowe1956,1963).TheretheydocumentedanimportantNasca3(aswellasInca)occupationatthesiteofTamboViejo,thelargestandmostcomplexsiteintheAcarvalley.InadditiontomappingandexcavationsatTamboViejo,asignificantsurveyoftheAcarChala,andYaucavalleyswasconductedbyMenzel,Riddell,Rowe,andWallace(seeRowe1956:139).Asaresultofthatsurvey,Huarato,Chocavento,andAmatowereidentifiedasNasca3habitationsitesofareputedlyintrusiveandfortifiednature(Rowe1963:1112).

Hiatus:19561983

FollowingStrong'sexcavationsatCahuachi,Robinson'ssurveyinNazca,andtheCaliforniateam'sinvestigationsinIcaandAcar,thereensuedanearlythirtyyearhiatusinNascafieldresearchasattentionshiftedtotheelaborationofafinerelativechronology.MyincipientsitesurveyintheRoGrandedeNazcaregionin1983andOrefici'sexcavationsatBajadadeSanJos(unpublished)andPuebloViejo(seeIslaetal.1984)in1983werethefirstscientificallyconductedinvestigationsintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageafterthatlongbreak.

Silverman:1983

WhilestudyingatColumbiaUniversity,IhadtheopportunitytoworkwithStrong'scollectionsfromCahuachi.ThatresearchledmetoquestiontheprevailingculturalreconstructionofearlyNascasocietyasakindofshortlivedempire(e.g.,Rowe1963).Instead,itappearedthatcertaincommonattributesofstatehoodweremissinginearlyNascasociety(Silverman1977).But,clearly,onlysettlementpatternfieldworkandnotmoreceramicanalysisofexistingcollectionscouldresolvethemanyquestionsaboutNascaculture.

In1983IbeganfieldworkonNascaintheNascaheartlandwithalimited,leapfrogreconnaissanceofthemiddleNazcaandAtarcovalleysandtheCoyungooasisofthelowerGrande.2Thatessentially"looksee"surveyrevealedfewNascahabitationsites(andfewerstillthatwerecontemporarywithCahuachi)cemeteries,however,abounded(fig.2.7).The1983surveyledtothefor

2.7.Histogramshowingthequantityandtypeofsitesidentifiedontheincompleteandpreliminary1983surveyoftheNazcadrainage.In1983thediscrepancybetweenNascacemeteriesandNascahabitationsiteswasinterpretedasindicatingthatCahuachihadabsorbedmuchofthevalley'spopulation.IntensivesystematicsurveyoftheIngenio,middleGrande,Palpa,Viscas,andupper

GrandevalleysconductedbyHelaineSilvermanandDavidBrownebetween1987and1989hassinceyieldeddatathatconfigureintoamorebalancedNascasettlementpattern.TheskewingoftheMiddleHorizonsitesisdiscussedbySilverman(1990c,d).TheLateIntermediatePeriodsettlementpatternshowsaparity

betweenhabitationsitesandcemeteries.

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mulationoftheworkinghypothesesthatguidedtheprogramofinvestigationsdescribedinthisbook(seechap.8).

Orefici:1983tothePresent

In1983anItalianarchitect,GiuseppeOrefici,launchedamassive,multiyearprogramoflargescaleexcavationsatvarioussitesintheNazcaarea.InadditiontotestexcavationsconductedattheLateIntermediatePeriodsiteofCiudadPerdidadeHuayurinSantaCruz,OreficiandhisCentroItalianoStudieRicercheArcheologichePrecolombianeteamhaveexcavatedatthemulticomponent(includingNasca)sitesofPuebloViejoonthesouthbankoftheNazcaRiver(seeIslaetal.1984)andBajadadeSanJosinthemiddleIngeniovalley,aswellasatCahuachiitself(BuenoMendozaandOrefici1984Orefici1987,1988Isla1990).ExcavationsatCahuachicontinueandareplannedforatleastanotherfiveyears.PublicationsbytheItalianprojectarefewandextremelypreliminary.However,Oreficihasgenerouslydiscussedhisresearchwithme,anditisonthebasisoftheseconversationsandexaminationofCahuachiwithhimthatIbasethefollowingremarks.

Orefici'sworkatCahuachihasthegoalofrevealingthesite'sarchitectureandarchitecturalgrowth.BeginningwithexcavationsonUnit10in1984,theItalianprojecthassinceexcavatedatanumberofmoundsatthesite.Thusfar,Oreficireportsthathisteamhasfoundnoevidenceofdense,permanenthabitationatthesiteorstratifiedhabitationrefuse.Tothecontrary,allremainsandarchaeologicalcontextsindicateceremonial/ritualratherthandomesticactivities.Forexample,ontheeastsideofthenorthfaceofUnit8,Oreficidiscoveredalargeclaystepmotiffriezeonamassivenorthcontentionwall(seecoverofOrefici1987).ThisNasca1templeconstructionphasewasintentionallyburiedtobuildalater(Nasca3?)temple.Inaddition,in1992Oreficifoundawallonwhoseplasteredfacean"orcamarina"hadbeentraced.InoneofthelowerroomsonthenortheastsideofStrong'sGreatTemple(Unit2),Orefici'steamdiscoveredacacheofhundredsofbrokenpanpipesontheflooroftheroomthesearecurrentlyunderstudybythePeruvianmusicologistCesarBolaos.Thispatternofritual/ceremonialremainsiscontinuinginOrefici's1991fieldseason:themultipleburialofmorethansixtysacrificedcamelidswasdiscoveredtothesoutheastoftheUnit19mound.Orefici'sexcavationsonUnit10,themoundmostintensivelyexcavatedbytheItalians,haverevealedamazeofroomsandcorridorswithrepeatedarchitecturalmodifications(accessesblocked,roomsfilledin),muchlikeourowndataforUnit19(discussedinchaps.12,13).Inaddition,Oreficihasrecoveredvariousburialsatthesite,atleastoneceremonialdrum,andotherelaboratepottery.

Oreficiisnowinagreementwithmethatthereisoftenaceremonialaspecttomanyoftheconstructionfillswehaveexcavated.Thisconsistsofapatterneddepositionofpotteryandbotanicalremainsinthefills.

AlthoughOrefici(1987:7)reportedfindingevidenceofceramicproductionintheformofanoven,hetoldme(personalcommunication1989)thathehadnotfoundanyfiringareasorwastersatCahuachiandthathisevidenceofceramicproductionconsistedofpigmentsandfinehairedpaintbrushes.Myprojectrecoveredthesesamekindsofmaterials.Inaddition,bothofushavefoundabundanttextileremainsandartifactsrelatedtotextilemanufacture.

Overall,thenatureandpatternsofOrefici'sremainscorrespondtothoseencounteredbymyproject.Orefici'scolleaguesawaitpublicationofarchitecturalplansandacomprehensivesitereportonthestratigraphyandassociatedremains.

ProjectsinProgress

AneweraoffieldworkisunderwayonthesouthcoastofPeru.SomeofthisresearchisdevotedtothestudyofancientNascasocietyortothecollectionofdataonNascasocietyaspartofadifferentthrust.IcallattentiontoDavidBrowne'ssurveyinthePalpa,Viscas,andupperGrandevalleys(seeBrowneandBaraybar1988Brownen.d.),AnitaCook'ssurveyinthelowerIcavalley,KatharinaSchreiber'ssurveyoftheNazcavalleyproperandTarugaandLasTrancas,PatrickCarmichael'ssurveyofthelittoralzonebetweenAcarandtheBahadelaIndependencia,theCaliforniaInstituteofPeruvianStudies(henceforth,CIPS)projectinAcar(Kowta1987a,bRiddellandValdezCardenas1988Riddell1985,1989),andmyownsurveyoftheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleys(Silverman1989a,1990c,d).Thusfar,preliminarydataareavailablefromtheCIPSproject,3Browne'sproject,4andmysurveyproject(seechapter23).

Notes

1.ThenationalmuseumofPeruconcernedwitharchaeologywasoriginallytheMuseodeArqueologaPeruana(TelloandMejaXesspe1967).ThatmuseumwasformedaroundtheprivatecollectionsofVictorLarcoHerrera.OnApril9,1931,anewinstitutioncalledtheMuseoNacionalwascreated.OnJanuary29,1945,

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thenationalmuseumsofPeruwerereorganized,andtheMuseoNacionaldeAntropologayArqueologacameintoexistence.

2.Thesurveyareasin1983weredeterminedbytransportationconstraints.Itraveledaroundthedrainagewiththearea'sbreaddeliveryman,DonPedro,surveyingwhereverhewent.SometimesIreturnedwithhimtoNazcainthelateafternoonandsometimesIremainedandwaspickedupthenextday.ArealcoveragewasspottybutsufficienttogetanideaofwhatNascaresearchcouldandshouldbedoneforadissertationproject.Nosurfacecollectionsweremade.ThetransectsIwalkedwere:MalpasotoLasBrujasinthelowerGrande,UsacatoLasCaasandPachecotoOcongallaonthesouthsideoftheNazcaRiver,EstaqueraAltatoAyapanaonthenorthsideoftheNazcaRiver,andtheareaimmediatelyaroundAtarcointheQuebradaAtarcoduesouthofCahuachi.OnedayIrapidlydrovefromNazcatoPircaonthenorthsideoftheAjaRiver,examiningseveralsitesvisiblefromtheroad.

3.TheCIPSprojectisdirectedbyFrancisRiddellandhaditsinceptionthirtyyearsagowhenRiddellandDorothyMenzelparticipatedintheFourthUniversityofCaliforniaArchaeologicalExpeditiontoPeru.ThenewCIPSprojecthasconfirmedmanyofthefindingsoftheearlierCaliforniaexpeditionandthepreviousworkconductedatChaviaandhasaddedvariousNascasitestothevalleyinventory.SitesdatingtoNasca3arethelargestintheAcarvalley(Kowta1987a:54).ValdezCardenas(1989:30,34)reportsonfiveotherNascasitescalledCancino,Coquimbo,LomasIandII,andBocadelRo,allofwhichwereabandonedattheendofEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch3.Thusfar,sitesdatingtoNasca4and5havenotbeenidentifiedinAcar,butamajorNasca7occupationisrepresentedbytherichChaviacemetery(LothropandMahler1957)andChaviafishingvillage(ValdezCardenas1990:2728),theinlandsettlementatGentilar(ValdezCardenas1989),andthesitescalledOroya,CancianoAltoA,andCancianoAltoB(ValdezCardenas1989:30).SomeNasca6potteryissaidtobefoundatGentilar,CancianoAltoB,thecemeteryatChavia,andacemeteryatTamboViejo(RiddellandValdezCardenas1988:98).ThereisamajorNasca8andMiddleHorizonoccupationintheAcarvalley.

ValdezCardenas(1989:34)alsomentionsaNascasitecalledMontegrandeAltowhichconsistsofarchitecturalconstructionsandagroupofburials.SherddrawingsfromthissitesuggestaNasca1to2date(seeRiddellandValdezCardenas1988:fig.36).Nasca1(see,e.g.,RiddellandValdezCardenas1988:fig.39)andotherearlyNascapotteryisfoundattheBocadelRositeontheeastsideoftheAcarRiver.Nasca1and2potteryisalsofoundatTamboViejo(see,e.g.,Riddell1985:fig.7band7g,respectivelyRiddellandValdezCardenas1988:fig.38,toptwosherds)butnotinthequantitiesofitsmajorNasca3occupation.

4.WithregardtotheEarlyIntermediatePeriodinthePalparegion,DavidBrowne(n.d.)reportsamajorexpansionofsettlementduringNasca1times.Hehasdiscernedahierarchyofsettlementsizesandrecordedafewcivicceremonialcenters.ByNasca3,hereports,"thetrendsbeguninNasca1werefullydeveloped,inparticulartheapparentimportanceofcivic/ceremonialcentresinthesitehierarchy."HenotesamajorchangeinsettlementpatternsfortheperiodoftimecorrespondingtoNasca4,andbyNasca5theearliercivicceremonialcenterswerealmostcompletelyabandonedorconvertedtocemeteries.Hehaslimitedsettlementevidenceforthetimecorrespondingtophases6to8oftheNascaceramicsequenceandpositsasubstantialdropinlocalpopulationlevels.

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ChapterThreeNascaChronology

RelativeChronologyoftheNascaStyle

NascapotteryisfoundinalargeareaofthesouthcoastofPeru1duringtheperiodoftimecalledtheEarlyIntermediatePeriod,c.200B.C.toA.D.600(fig.3.1).Shortlyafterthediscoveryofthepottery,variousresearchersrealizeditwaspossibletodistinguishtwoprincipalmodalitiesintheNascaceramicstyle(Rowe1960:29).Uhle(1914:9)describesthedifferencesbetweenthetwomodalitiesintheseterms."Itiseasytodistinguishcertainvarietiesamongspecimensofpotteryofthesameculture.Somewillshowagreatervarietyofcolors,othersareplainersomeshowsevereoutlinesintheirfiguredesigns,whileothersaremarkedbyafreeandflowingtreatment,whichoftendegeneratedintoamassofmeaninglessstafforarrowlikepointsandscrollsaroundtheoriginalnucleusofthedesign.Itappearsthatthosedesignswhicharedistinguishablebythemoreseveretreatmentofthefigureornamentinunisonwiththerichestharmonyofitscoloring,mustbeconsideredasrepresentingtheearliertype."

Asisobviousinhisanalysis,Uhlethoughtthatrepresentationaliconographyprecededconventionalizeddesigns.Thisdecisionwasbasedonhisbeliefintheexistenceofalawofartisticdevelopmentfromrealismtoconventionalism(seeRowe1960:29).Tello(1917seealsoRossellTruel1960),ontheotherhand,arguesthatconventionalizedNascapottery("PreNazca")precededthereferentialcorpus.Yacovleff(1932b)alsooffersastylisticdevelopmentalorderingofNascaartandconcludes,likeUhlebeforehim,thatNascaartevolvedfromrepresentationalmotifstoabstractones.YetathirdpositionistakenbyJuniusBird,whomaintainsthatthetwostrainswerecontemporary(seeRowe1960:38).Fromthebeginning,then,weseethatresearchersrecognizedtheexistenceoftwomodalitiesinNascaartandtriedtoplacetheminchronologicalorder.

InanattempttodealinamoresystematicandlessspeculativewaywiththeinternalchronologyoftheNascastyle,GaytonandKroeber(1927)devisedaquantitativemethodoforderingwhichtheyconsideredsuitableforcollectionsofunassociatedpotterysuchasthatpurchasedbyUhleinNazca.Theyestablishedthreeattributesshape,color,anddesignand,"onthebasisoftherelationshipexistingbetweencertainshapesandcertaindesignandcolorpreferences"(GaytonandKroeber1927:6),theyproposedtheexistenceoffourchronologicalphasesor"substyles"intheNascastyle.ThesewereA,theearliestX,transitionalB,thelatestandY,amiscellaneouscategoryencompassingwhattodaywewouldcallNasca8aswellassundrypiecestheywereotherwiseunabletophase.

Kroeber(1956:327)laterexplainedtheirmethodology."Wedividedthecollectioninto26classesofshapes,andselectedbyinspectionfortypainteddesignswithnameslargelytranslatedfromSeler(1923)andthentabulatedthecooccurrenceofshapesanddesigns.Thecooccurrencesshowedadefinitetrend,inthattheylumpedorclottedalongadiagonal.Thedirectionofthistrendweinferredfromvariantformsofthesamedesignofwhichoneseemed`naturally'derivablefromtheother,butthereversewasnot.Inbriefweestablished4classes[A,B,X,andY]."NotethatthedirectionofchangeintheGaytonKroeber

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3.1.RelativechronologyforthesouthcoastofPeru.

BasedonRoweandMenzel1967:chronologicaltable.

schemewasbasedsolelyontheirbeliefthatthestylehaddeveloped,asUhlesaid,frommorerealistictomoreconventionalized.

TheGaytonKroeberschemewasuseduntilRowe(1960:3840)publishedinpreliminaryformtheseriationLawrenceDawsonhadworkedoutonthesamecollectionofpotteryin1952.DawsonsubdividedtheNascastyleintoninesequentialphases,Nasca1through9(seefigs.3.23.8foranoverviewoftheseriatedphasesandthestyleseeRowe1960Pezzia1969:129140Roark1965Proulx1968,1983Blagg1975).Thesequencewassubsequentlyfurtherrefinedintosubphases(e.g.,Silverman1977forNasca2Proulx1968forNasca3Wegnerms.forNasca6Paulsen1983andms.forNasca8Menzel1964forNasca9)butwithlittleifanystratigraphicsupport.Inlayingouttheearlypartofthesequence,Rowe(1956:146)notedthattheBerkeleyarchaeologistshadtraveledtoColumbiaUniversitytostudyStrong'scollectionssothattheywouldnotmakeinterpretationsoftheirowndata"whichconflictedwiththedatagatheredbytheColumbiagroup."Clearly,independentconfirmationofStrong'ssequencewouldhavebeendesirable.

Rowe(1960:29)coinedtheterm"Monumental"todescribethevarietyormodalityofNascaartthatexhibitsrelativelyrealisticdesigns.ThetermspecificallyreferredtoNasca3and4pottery(Rowe1960:41)androughlycorrespondstoGaytonandKroeber'sNazcaA.Roweusedtheterm"Proliferous"toindicatethemoreconventionalizedmotifshavingvolutes,rays,andpoints.Nasca5istransitionalbetweenMonumentalandProliferous(seeRoark1965Blagg1975)butshouldnotbeconfusedwithGaytonandKroeber'sNazcaXwhichhasnoselfdefiningpropertybut,rather,mixesvesselsofvariousphases.ProliferationbeginsoncertainbizarreinnovationpotteryofNasca5(Roark1965:26Blagg1975)andischaracteristicofNascaphases6and7(Rowe1960:41)itcorrespondsroughlytoGaytonandKroeber'sNazcaB.Nasca7,acrucialphaseforunderstandingtheeventsoftheMiddleHorizon,remainsverypoorlydefinedbeyonditsProliferousaspect.Nasca8wasfirstdefinedbyStrong(1957),whocalleditHuacadelLoroafterthetypesite(seealsoSilverman1988b)DawsonhascalledNasca8"Disjunctive"(Proulx1968:1)itmoreorlesscorrespondstoGaytonandKroeber'sNazcaY.

TheindependentBerkeleyseriationdeterminedthat

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3.2.DiagnosticNasca1potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethisphase.

CourtesyLawrenceDawson.

3.3.DiagnosticNasca2and3potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethesephases.CourtesyLawrenceDawson.

NotephotographoftheHaeberlipanpipewhichwasDawson'skeypieceforthedefinitionofNasca2.Nasca3potteryislocatedtotherightoftheNasca2material.

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3.4.DiagnosticNasca4and5potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethesephases.

CourtesyLawrenceDawson.

3.5.DiagnosticNasca5potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethisphase.CourtesyLawrenceDawson.Clearlyseenare

examplesoftheBizarreInnovation,ProgressiveMonumental,andConservativeMonumentalstyleswithinNasca5(seeBlagg1975).

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3.6.DiagnosticNasca6and7potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethesephases.

CourtesyLawrenceDawson.DawsonhasrecognizedsignificantMocheIVinfluenceonNasca7pottery.

3.7.DiagnosticNasca7potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethisphase.CourtesyLawrenceDawson.

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3.8.DiagnosticNasca8and9potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethesephases.CourtesyLawrenceDawson.Ontheextreme

rightisaMiddleHorizon2pieceofNieverapottery(thedoublespoutandbridgebottle)fromthecentralcoastinsertedbyDawsonamongthisgroupofNasca9potterytoshowthesocalledWariStingerAnimal.Ihaveargued(Silverman1988b),following

Strong(1957:3641),thatNasca8isnotaNascastyle.Knobloch(1983)andI(Silverman1988b)regardNasca9asChakipampa.

theMonumentalstrainofNascapotterywasantecedenttoProliferousbasedonthecontinuityseenbetweenearliestNascaandParacas(seeMenzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:251)andthesimilarityseenbetweenlatestNascaandWari.Rowe(1960:41)emphaticallystatesthatalthoughDawsonreachedthesamebasicconclusionashadUhle,GaytonandKroeber,andYacovleff,theDawsonseriationabsolutelydidnotjustifythemethodologyusedbytheearlierresearcherstheconcordancebetweentheseveralschemeswaspurechance.

TheBerkeley(Dawson)Seriation

TheBerkeleyseriationofNascapotterywasachievedthroughanontypologicalandnonquantitativemethodofceramicanalysiscalled"seriationbycontinuityoffeaturesandvariationinthemes"(seeRowe1959,1961).Itsgoalistocreatearelativeceramicsequencewithwhichtotracechange.Asachronologicalschemeitcanbecontrastedwithothertechniquesthathavebeendevisedtocreatearelativechronology.Theseotherschemeshaveallinvolveduseofthetype,whetherintypefrequencyseriation(e.g.,FordandWilley1949)ortypevarietyanalysis(Wheat,Gifford,andWasley1958Phillips1958Smith,Willey,andGifford1960Gifford1960SabloffandSmith1969interaliaseeSmith1979forascathingcritiqueofthetypevarietymethod).Rowe(1959:318319)explicitlyrejectsthetypeasabasisforchronologicalordering,arguing,amongotherthings,thatthetypescreatedbyarchaeologistsgenerallyhaverelativelylonglifespans,thatitisimpossibletounambiguouslyclassifyallsherdsaccordingtoarbitrarytypedefinitions,andthatadateobtainedbytypefrequencyseriationisbutameandateforthesample.Inotherwords,thetypeisaninappropriatebasisforpreciselytracingchange.TheappropriatenessofRowe'srejectionoftypefrequencyseriationissupportedbyDunnell's(1970,1971)criticismsofthefallaciesofthismethod(seealsoBennyhoff1952Lathrap1962).

Inlieuofthetype,Rowe(1959:320)proposesusingsignificantfeaturesastheunitofstudy.Thefeaturecouldalsobecalledanattributeandhasnoculturalconnotationwhatsoever(versusRouse1972).Afeatureisdefinedas"anycharacteristicordetailofanobjectwhichcanbeobservedandisolated,whetherofmaterial

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orworkmanshipordecoration"(Rowe1959:320).Rowe(1959:320)statesthatnotallfeaturesareuseful,andsignificantfeaturesarethosewhose"patternofoccurrenceenablesustomakechronologicaldistinctions."NoteagainthatRoweisconcernedwithchronology,notculture.Accordingly,the"mostusefulfeaturesfordatingpurposesarethosewhichoccurfrequentlyduringarelativelyshortspanoftimeandarenotfoundearlierorlater"orwhich"occuratthebeginningoftherecordbeinganalyzed,haveacontinuousexistence,andgooutbeforetheendoftherecord...[or]whichcomeinafterthebeginningoftherecordandlastuntiltheend"(Rowe1959:320).

Seriationbycontinuityoffeaturesandvariationinthemesusespresenceabsenceratherthanfrequencytoestablishtemporaldifferences.Thus,itinvolvesfewerofthesamplingproblemsthatplaguetypefrequencyseriation,anditcanalsobeappliedtounassociatedpiecessuchasthoseinmuseumsitisespeciallyappropriateforgravelots.Themorefeaturesandthemesidentified,themoreconfidencewecanhaveintheproposedseriation.Rowe(1959:329)suggeststhataminimumofahundredfeaturesisnecessaryforasolidseriation.

Featureswhichareconsistentlycombinedformthemes(Rowe1959:328).AnexampleofonesuchthemeonNascapotteryistheAnthropomorphicMythicalBeing(seeProulx1968:figs.1820).Researchers(e.g.,Proulx1968Roark1965)havearguedthatvariationinsomeofitsfeatures,suchastheforeheadornament,haschronologicalsignificance.Vesselshapeisalsotreatedasatheme,andthereforethefeatures(ordesigns)onspecificshapesarekeptanalyticallyseparate(Rowe1959:328329).Rowedoesnotdiscuss,however,howthesemorphologicalthemes(shapes)arearrivedat,and,intermsofculturalclassificationofvesselshape(see,e.g.,Lathrap1962:236DeBoerandLathrap1979),onemaybalkatsomeoftheoverlyfineshapediscriminationsmadebyProulx(1968).TheBerkeleyseriationcannotgetatthekindsofculturalinformationLathrap(1962),forinstance,obtainsfromhismodifiedmodalanalysis,norisitconcernedwithdoingsoitsgoalischronology.Rowe'soneexplicitstatementofculturalconcernisfoundinhiscontentionthatstylisticchangeistypicallygradualabruptand/orrapidchangeisduetoculturalupheaval,whosecausescanbeindependentlyinvestigated(Rowe1959:329).ThisgenerallackofculturalconcernismanifestedintheinclusionofNasca8withinthegradualdevelopmentalsequenceoftheNascastyle(seeSilverman1988b).Ontheotherhand,andinstrongdefenseoftheBerkeleyseriation,apreciserelativechronologyistheprimarytoolintracingculturalchangeinthearchaeologicalrecord(see,e.g.,Menzel1964).

Rowe'sseriationmethodoperatesatthelevelofthestyle,butBlagg(1975)cogentlyarguesthattheNascastyleis,infact,composedofsevensequentialandconcurrentNascastyles.Blagg(1975:6)acceptsthevalidityoftheexistenceofthetwomajorstyles,MonumentalandProliferoussherecognizestheexistenceofthree"minor"styles,"ProtoNasca"(Nasca1and2),"ProgressiveMonumental"(Nasca5),and"BizarreInnovation"(Nasca5seeRoark1965:2526),andsheidentifiesa"closingdecadentstyle"(Nasca8and9).Shealsodefinesa"ConservativeMonumental"Nasca5style,whichgivesatotalofthreeconcurrentNasca5styles.

IlaudBlagg'srevisionsbutwouldmodifyherstylisticcategoriessomewhat.Blagg(1975:6)callsNasca1and2"ProtoNasca"andrestrictsMonumental(EarlyMonumental)toNasca3and4followingRowe(1960).IagreewithBlaggthatNasca1canbeseparatedoutasanindividualstyle,whatStrong(1957)originallycalledProtoNazca,butIthinkNasca2shouldbeconsideredpartoftheMonumentalstylebecauseitexhibitsmuchoftherepresentationaliconographycharacterizingMonumentalwhereasNasca1doesnot.TheNascastylesIsee,then,areNasca1,MonumentalorEarlyMonumental(Nasca2through4),ConservativeMonumentalorLateMonumental(Nasca5through7encompassingBlagg'sConservativeMonumentalNasca5andnonProliferousNasca6and7),ProgressiveMonumental(Nasca5),BizarreInnovation(Nasca5),andProliferous(Nasca6and7).Nasca8shouldbecalledLoro(followingStrong)andisarguablynotaNascastylecertainnonNascalookingNasca7wouldbeplacedintheLorostyle(seeSilverman1988b).Nasca9isChakipampa(Knobloch1983Silverman1988b).

RecognitionoftheexistenceofcontemporaryNascastylesuseschronologyasatoolnotasanendinitselfandopensthedoortosignificantculturalandsocialinterpretation.WecanseektoanswerBlagg's(1975)questionofwhatcausedtheBizarreInnovationandwhatitmeant.WealsocanaddressnewquestionssuchaswhatwastheroleofceramicartinNascasociety,whatwasthesocialandeconomicorganizationofNascaceramicproduction,whywerethereseveraldifferentcoexistingNascastylesatparticularmomentsoftime,anddoalloftheproposedNascaphaseshavetemporal/settlementreality?

UnderthetermsoftheBerkeleymethoditisdifficulttotalkaboutsmallerunitsoftheNascastyleexceptas

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allencompassingchronologicalunitscalledphases.Forinstance,Nasca1,theearliestphaseoftheNascastyle,actuallyiscomposedofseveraldistinctkindsofpottery,eachonepresumablywithitsownhistorythatcanbeelucidatedthroughmorefieldworkandbyusingotherkindsofanalyticalprocedures.Strong's(1957)distinctionofceramictypessuchasCahuachiPolishedBlackIncised,CahuachiStylusDecorated,CahuachiPolychromeIncisedandModeledThin,andCahuachiPolychromeIncisedThickremovestheunmanageablemonolithicqualitythateachoftheNascaphasescurrentlyhas,althoughthesetypesarepooranalyticalunitsgiventheabsenceofcorrelationwithvesselshape,paste,andotherattributes.Ideally,itshouldbepossibletoidentifyallthedifferentkindsandstylesofpotterythatweremadebyNascapeopleandtodeterminetheirorigin,culturalrelationships,use,date,andfate.AmethodsuchasLathrap's(1962)modalanalysiscombinedwithafinerelativechronologyderivedfromstratigraphiccontextsandcreatedbysimilaryseriationbasedoncontinuityoffeaturesandvariationofthemesisneeded.WhileitisofthegreatestvaluetobeabletorecognizethatastratumorahabitationsitedatestoNasca1orNasca3,itisequallyimportanttobeabletotalkabout,conceptualize,andinvestigatetheroleofpotteryandpotterystyleinsociety.

OtherproblemscanbecitedinthemethodologyandassumptionsunderlyingtheBerkeleyseriation.Theceramicsampleencompassedonlythefanciest(andhencemost"featureful")pottery.Thesequencewasdevelopedlargelyonthebasisofwholeceramicvessels(withandwithoutprovenience)frommortuarycontexts(seeRowe1962a)littleofthesequenceisbasedondepositionalrelationshipsalthoughitisalogicalconstruct.UtilitarianNascawareshaveyettobedefinedandstudied.VesselsdecoratedbylessskilledartistsmaynotconformtotheidealNascacanons,makingphaseattributiondifficult.Inaddition,thecreationoffinedivisionsbetweenphases(andwithinphases)didnottakeintoaccounteccentricitiesofindividualartistsorregionalvariationaspotentialnonchronologicalcausesofstylisticvariation.Finally,aparticularlyelaborateoruniquevesselmayhavebothconservativeandinnovativefeatures(i.e.,rareassociations),makingitsphaseplacementdifficult.

TheNascaSequenceatCahuachi

OnlypartoftheNascasequenceisdemonstratedinmyexcavations(seechaps.913,16),butexcavationappearstoconfirmStrong'sresults(seechap.4)andtheBerkeleyarchaeologists'interpretationofthem.Bearinmind,however,thatthisisatautologysinceitonlyprovestheunproventheveracityoftheseriationhasnotbeenindependentlyestablished.Iftheseriationworks,thenStrongandIhavecertainevidenceinsupportofit.Thisisnotthesamethingasdoinganindependentseriation.TheprincipalreasonwhyIwasunabletodoanewseriationonthebasisofthe19841985fieldworkatCahuachiisthatmostoftheexcavationsdidnotencounterdeep,undisturbed,primarydepositioncontextsbutratherconstructionfill,disturbedcontexts,sterilecontexts,andevenpostNascacontexts(seechaps.913).

NoParacassherdswererecoveredinexcavationcontextsduringmyinvestigationsatCahuachi2StrongfoundonlyahandfulofParacas103sherdsalwaysmixedwithNasca1(seechap.4).ThereisahintofNasca1to2superpositioninExcavation11.TheNasca2to3sequenceisclearlydemonstratedinExcavations11and12.FromExcavation9camethedemonstrationthatNasca3antecedesNasca5(seechap.12).ThestratigraphicsequenceofTestPit8appearstoshowNasca4overlyingadepositwithNasca2and3sherds(seechap.11).

Independently,Strong(1957)andI(fig.16.50)reachedtheconclusionthatEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch3wastheapogeeofCahuachibasedonthefrequencyofNasca3potteryanditsassociationwitharchitecture.Nasca1and2arerepresentedtoalesserdegreebutaresignificantlypresentatthesite.PotteryoflaterNascaphasesisveryscarce.Orefici's(personalcommunication1989)resultsfromCahuachiconfirmStrong'sandminewiththeimportantcodathathehasfoundamajorNasca1ceremonialconstruction,his"StepMotifTemple,"atUnit8(seecoverofOrefici1987).IstronglysuspectthatasmoundexcavationscontinueatCahuachi,otherNasca1and,presumably,Nasca2ceremonialconstructionsunderlyingtheNasca3apogeeconstructionphasewillbeidentified.SuchNasca1ceremonialconstructionswouldexplainthesignificantlygreaterquantityofNasca1finewares(e.g.,CahuachiPolychromeIncisedThickandThin,CahuachiPolychromeIncisedandModeledThin,CahuachiStylusDecorated,CahuachiPolishedBlackIncised)atCahuachithanispresentonthesurfaceofthemanyNasca1habitationsitesidentifiedonsurveyinthenorthernvalleysoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage.

ReexaminationofStrong'scollectionsisnecessarytodetermineifherecoveredNasca4potteryinhisexcavations.DawsonsawnoNasca4sherdsonthesurface

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ofCahuachi(Proulx1968:98),andKroeber'sgravelotsfromCahuachidatetoNasca3,notNasca4(seechap.14).Nasca4isrepresentedinmyexcavationcollections,thoughnotinquantity.TwodiagnosticNasca4sherdswerefoundwithNasca3sherdsinthefillbetweenthesouthwalloftheRoomofthePostsandthecontentionwallofUnit19whichwascoveredtobuildtheroom(seechap.13).Nasca4potterywascollectedonthedisturbedsurfaceofUnit19andinexcavationsthere.ButNasca4isnotamajorconstructionphasesinceitappearsthatotherareasofUnit19werebeingclosedwhiletheRoomofthePostswasbeingbuilt.Nasca4wouldbeinterpolatedbetweenNasca3and5onthebasisofstylisticarguments.Tothebestofmyknowledge,thereisnopublishedreportofaNasca3to4to5stratigraphicsequence.PreliminaryanalysisofmysurveydatarevealssignificantlylessNasca4potterythanNasca3inthenorthernvalleysoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage.EitherNasca4isaveryshortphaseoroneinwhichtherewassignificantculturalupheaval(seeProulx1968:98)oronewhichvariesregionally,oritlackstemporalreality.

Nasca5and6potteryrarelyisfoundatCahuachi.StrongexcavatedaNasca5and6cemeteryatthesite,hisBurialArea1(seeStrong1957:figs.4,13CE,14B,D,E,GJseechap.14),butrecoverednoNasca5or6potteryinhisexcavations(Proulx1968:98).AsmallamountofdiagnosticNasca5potterywasrecoveredinourexcavationsatUnit16(seechap.9)andUnit19(seechap.12).Furthermore,arayedfacedesignonthewestwalloftheRoomofthePostscanbedatedtoNasca5onthebasisofitsiconographicsimilaritytosimilarfacesonNasca5pottery(seechap.13comparefig.13.10tofig.3.5backrowpots).ApossibleNasca6sherdwasfoundinstratum2intheUnitFexcavations(seechap.10).

VerylittleNasca7potteryisknownfromCahuachi.StrongrecoverednoNasca7sherdsinhisstratigraphiccuts(Proulx1968:98).Nasca7sherdswereobservedatUnitNinthewesternzoneofCahuachi(seechap.5).OneNasca7sherdwasrecoveredinthedirtfillingRoom3onUnit19(seechap.12).Aspout(Silverman1986:fig.313),tentativelydatedasNasca7,wasrecoveredasasurfacefindinExcavation17itisasherdfromabottlewithasingletallandnarrowspoutandawide,archingstraphandleattachedtothebody(seefig.3.7forexamples).TwoofthevesselspurchasedbyUhle(Berkeleycatalognumbers8542and9094,seeGaytonandKroeber1927:fig.9C,pl.10Fseechap.2)datetoNasca7,thoughitisimportanttorepeatthatwedonotknowiftheCahuachiproveniencereferstothearchaeologicalsiteorthelegalagrarianlimitsofthehacienda.

TheRoomofthePostsonUnit19containedalargecacheofNasca8pottery(seechap.13).Nasca8sherdswerefoundinthesurfacelevelsofTestPits15and20(seechap.11)andinstratum5ofExcavation12atUnit19(seechap.12).Doering'sGraveIattheMorrolocusatCahuachidatestoNasca8andisthetypelotofthatphase.Orefici(personalcommunication1989)alsohasexcavatedNasca8burialsatthesite.

IhaveseennoNasca9potteryatCahuachi,butUhle'sthirdCahuachivessel(Berkeleycatalognumber8543)isNasca9instyle(GaytonandKroeber1927:fig.17D).Menzel(1964:25)reportsthatPezziaexcavatedaNasca9burialatCahuachifortheMuseoRegionaldeIca.Sawyer(1968:65),inhiscatal