cactus conservation in the u.s.-mexico borderlands: case ... › cci › library › mt ›...
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Cactus Conservation
in the U.S.-Mexico
Borderlands:
Case Studies
Martin Terry
Cactus Conservation Institute
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Two Vulnerable Species
Astrophytum asterias Lophophora williamsii
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Similarities: A. asterias & L.
williamsii
• Small, hemispherical, spineless cacti
• L. williamsii – often has eight ribs.
A. asterias – always has eight ribs.
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Two L. williamsii with eight ribs
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A. asterias: always eight ribs?
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Valued by collectors
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Medicinal use of L. williamsii
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Conflicting National Legislation
• Controlled Substances Act (CSA) of 1970
banned the use, possession, and sale of
Lophophora williamsii, which is legally
classified as a hallucinogen in Schedule 1.
A drug is put into Schedule 1 if the Drug
Enforcement Administration (DEA)
determines that it has a high potential for
abuse and has no accepted medical use.
• Religious use of Lophophora williamsii by
native Americans only is protected by an
exemption to the CSA.
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Conflicting National Legislation
• Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. The Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates
pharmaceutical compounds according to
the central criteria of safety and efficacy,
based on scientific evidence. If you
wanted to obtain FDA approval for
therapeutic use of a drug found in
Lophophora williamsii, you would need to
conduct medical research to generate the
scientific data. But human research
protocols with Schedule 1 drugs are
difficult to get approved due to DEA
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Irrelevant National Legislation
• The Endangered Species Act (ESA) of
1973 is of no help in protecting native
populations of Lophophora williamsii, as
the latter is not (yet) an endangered
species.
• One of the unintended consequences of
the Controlled Substances Act is that at
least in theory the general prohibition of
possession and use of peyote discourages
harvesting from wild populations by non-
native Americans
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Anthropogenic Threats
to
Lophophora williamsii
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Religious use of L. williamsii
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Religious sale of L. williamsii
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Wholesale religious commerce
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The Problem of Diminishing
Returns
• NAC membership: Unknown.
250,000-400,000 members?
• Demand for peyote exceeds the supply.
• Demand appears to be increasing while
the supply is decreasing.
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The Problem of Diminishing
Returns
• Peyote occurs only on the periphery of
Texas, along the Mexican border.
Commercially harvestable quantities occur
only in four counties: Starr, Zapata, Webb
and Jim Hogg. This small area of habitat
in the South Texas borderlands supplies
the peyote needs of the NAC across the
entire continental United States and
Canada.
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The Problem of Diminishing
Returns
• The DEA-registered distributors of peyoteare under pressure to harvest as muchpeyote as possible to satisfy their NACcustomers.
• The result is that the distributors return toharvest previously harvested populationstoo soon – before the newly regeneratedbuttons are mature.
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The Problem of Diminishing
Returns
The results of harvesting too frequently:
(1) Average size of harvested buttonsdecreases, which results in consumptionof greater numbers of buttons to achievethe desired psychic effect. (Vicious circle.)
(2) Seed production of plant populationdecreases, so that harvested plants arenot sufficiently replaced by seedlings.
(3) Some harvested plants never growback. (Harvest-related mortality.)
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Peyote Scarcity is Not
Geographically Ubiquitous
• Many ranchers exclude peyote harvesters
from their ranches and actively protect
their peyote populations from poachers.
• Where peyote is protected from
harvesting, the populations are healthy.
• But this fact does not help the NAC or the
peyote distributors.
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Possible Solutions
• Better harvesting techniques through education
(1) Most harvesting by DEA-registered peyote
distributors and their usual employees is
performed correctly and sustainably (cutting the
button off at ground level to promote regrowth).
(2) Some harvesters cut too deep on the
underground part of the stem or into the root,
rendering regrowth unlikely or impossible.
(3) Others are digging up entire plants by the
roots, eliminating any possibility of regrowth.
(4) Behavior modification is a long-term process.
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Possible solutions
• Increasing peyote yield in natural habitat
(1) Involves using conventional agriculturaltechniques, e.g., supplying optimalamounts of water, shade and nutrients(fertilizer), to increase kg of peyoteproduced sustainably per hectare per year(or lb/acre/year).
(2) No regulatory approval required
(3) Low-tech, low-cost inputs
(4) High cost of land is a majorimpediment.
(5) Natural habitat is geographically
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Possible Solutions
• Greenhouse cultivation of peyote
(1) Requires regulatory approval by DEA,
and this means creating new policy. At
least one petition for greenhouse
cultivation by a Native American Church is
currently under consideration by DEA.
(2) Requires acquisition of a greenhouse
and following a learning curve to optimize
greenhouse horticultural production.
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Possible Solutions
• Greenhouse cultivation of peyote
(3) Requires no huge investment in land.
(4) Security in a greenhouse is easier to
maintain than security on rural land in
South Texas.
(5) Can be done at any latitude and in any
climate.
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Possible Solutions
• Greenhouse cultivation of peyote
(6) Would provide NAC groups with the
opportunity to supply their own sacramentusing techniques that they themselvesdetermine to be in harmony with their religiousrequirements for their sacrament.
(7) Would make the self-providers independentof the currently permitted sources of peyote thatare limited to South Texas.
(8) Would reduce the harvesting pressure on thewild populations of South Texas, allowing theremaining ones to recover.
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Natural Threats
to
Astrophytum asterias
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Is the legislation working?
• National legislation (such as the ESA)and
international conventions (such as CITES)
are intended to protect endangered plants
from extirpation by commercial collectors.
• But the same legislation makes it
technically illegal for cactus growers to
produce and sell endangered species
grown from the seed of cacti that have
been in cultivation for many generations.
Is that helping to protect the remaining
wild populations of the species?
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QUESTIONS?
COMMENTS?