c40 city potential 2015

Potential for Climate ActionCities are just getting started

December 2015

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PARTNERSHIP

This report has been delivered through a collaborative partnership between C40 and Arup, the global consultancy firm. Arup has worked with C40 since 2009 to develop strategic research that is central to progressing our understanding of how cities contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation. This is why in June 2015, Arup announced a major partnership with C40, committing $1 million of professional support over three years to help cities take meaningful action against climate change.

This partnership is founded on Arup’s independent and evidence-based approach, alongside C40’s longstanding belief in “measurement for management”. The partnership supports a strong research agenda, aggregating and analysing city data to help city actors identify opportunities, collaborate and to build roadmaps that will enable them to take meaningful climate action faster and more efficiently.

The C40-Arup partnership is supported by the City Leadership Initiative (CLI) at University College London (UCL). The CLI is a collaboration of UCL, World Bank and UN-Habitat and is geared towards providing improved understanding and advice on the role of city leadership in addressing global challenges.

C40 CITIES CLIMATE LEADERSHIP GROUP

The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, now in its 10th year, connects more than 80 of the world’s greatest cities, representing 600+ million people and one quarter of the global economy. Created and led by cities, C40 is focused on tackling climate change and driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks, while increasing the health, well-being and economic opportunities of urban citizens. www.c40.org

DONORS

Bloomberg Philanthropies’ mission is to ensure better, longer lives for the greatest number of people. The organization focuses on five key areas for creating lasting change: Public Health, Environment, Education, Government Innovation and the Arts. Bloomberg Philanthropies encompasses all of Michael R. Bloomberg’s charitable activities, including his foundation and his personal giving. In 2014, Bloomberg Philanthropies distributed 462 million USD.

The Children’s Investment Fund Foundation (CIFF) is an independent, philanthropic organisation. Our staff and Trustees combine the best of business and the best of development, bringing a wealth of experience from both sectors to CIFF’s work. We aim to demonstrably improve the lives of children in developing countries by achieving large-scale, sustainable impact. We believe that every child deserves to survive, thrive and mature into adulthood in a supportive and safe environment. However, climate change disproportionately affects children living in poverty in developing countries. A key focus for CIFF is climate-smart urbanisation.

Realdania is a modern philanthropic association that works to create quality of life and benefit the common good by improving the built environment: cities, buildings and the built heritage. Realdania grew out of a 150 year old mortgage credit association whose credit activities were sold off in 2000. Over the past 13 years Realdania has engaged in a total project value of approximately EUR 3.7 billion. Realdania’s grants accounted for EUR 1.9 billion.

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FOREWORDS

Mark Watts

This report is significant because it both analyses the most important specific actions that major cities can take to cut carbon emissions, and it identifies the barriers that need to be removed if mayors are to achieve them. The member cities of the C40 represent a combined population of over 600 million people and a quarter of world economic output. What happens in these cities will significantly dictate whether or not the world can tackle climate change.

The key findings are that, while C40 cities have already taken 10,000 climate actions between Copenhagen COP15 in 2009 and Paris COP21 in 2015, the potential for further delivery is much greater – a pool of nearly 27,000 actions. The report analyses each of these potential actions against three factors, the opportunity learn from their peers (ie has another city already done it), having mayoral power to deliver and scale of potential GHG reduction impact.

This allows us to identify over 2,300 priority actions which, if fully implemented, will cut GHG emissions by 450MtCO

2 in the next few years

and will cost $6.8 billion to catalyse. This is a relatively modest sum, but this analysis shows that access to funding is the single biggest obstacle to cities delivering greater climate action.

The report finds that fully three-quarters barriers to taking these potential actions require city leaders to partner with other actors – chiefly national/regional governments, or private companies. It provides further evidence that a collaborative approach is essential to tackling climate change – the essence of C40’s work.

Finally, it will serve as a building block from which we can engage many other partners in this endeavour. Published against the backdrop of the crucial COP21 talks, it provides a positive reminder of the significant potential for climate action in addition to that which the Paris agreement will, hopefully, unlock.

Gregory Hodkinson

I am pleased to introduce this ground-breaking report, Potential for Climate Action. Building on the findings of earlier research by the C40-Arup Partnership, this report acknowledges the tremendous number of climate actions that cities globally are delivering, but asks the critical question – how do we leverage this momentum to deliver even greater impact in the future?

Our research has shown that while cities have shown strong commitment and innovation to date, there are many valuable opportunities remaining for them to scale up their action and make even greater strides towards emissions reductions and climate resilience. Lack of leadership, regulation and financial obstacles are preventing some cities from fully realising their climate goals.

There is a fundamental role for business and civil society, as well as government at all levels, to facilitate cities’ ongoing climate leadership. Arup is committed to supporting our city partners in identifying and implementing the solutions that will enable low-carbon and resilient urban environments. As we move through the next stages of international climate negotiations, this report calls for the same commitment from other city actors. Only with a concerted, multi-stakeholder effort can the progress we’ve seen to date be sustained.

We are looking forwards to engaging with a broad spectrum of stakeholders to take this work forwards in the months and years after COP21, as city action will continue to be a central part in any global effort on climate change.

Gregory HodkinsonChairmanArup

Mark WattsExecutive DirectorC40

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CONTENTS

Executive Summary 6

1 Introduction 8

1.1 A Defining Issue For Our Time 10

1.2 Scope Of Research 11

2 The Opportunity To Build On Successful City Climate Action 14

2.1 Introduction 16

2.2 Cities Have The Track Record, Confidence And Ambition To Greatly Increase Climate Action 16

2.3 The Opportunity For Cities To Try New Things 17

2.4 Defining The Priority Actions 20

2.5 Unpacking The First Priority Actions 26

2.6 Unleashing This Potential 27

3 A Framework For Understanding City Challenges 28

3.1 Introduction 30

3.2 Challenges Types 30

3.2 Characteristics Of Challenges 32

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4 Enabling Cities To Do More 36

4.1 Introduction 38

4.2 Three Challenge Types 38

4.3 Challenges Vary By Geographical Region 40

4.4 Challenges Vary Within Cities By Sector 41

4.5 Cities Experience Challenges With Prioritising, Preparing And Implementing Action 42

4.6 Challenges Are Costly And Difficult For Cities To Overcome 44

4.7 Summary 45

5 An Absence Of Collaboration Underlies Most Challenges 46

5.1 Introduction 48

5.2 The Capacity To Overcome Most Challenges Is In The Hands Of Governments 49

5.3 Collaboration With Non-Government Partners 57

5.4 Summary 61

6 Conclusion 62

6.1 Cities Are Ready To Be Unleashed 64

6.2 There Is No Solution Without Collaboration 64

6.3 A Call To Action 65

Appendix: Supplementary Information 66

A.1 Digging Deeper: The Characteristics Of Three Dominant Challenges 68

A.2 Glossary 74

A.3 Acknowledgements 75

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In a world first, this study quantifies the huge potential for expanding urban climate action, and presents the views of cities and city experts on what the challenges are in doing so. The study culminates in a firm call for cross sector collaboration to find the solutions to remove these challenges and unlock city potential. This will form the basis of a second report, to follow in 2016.

The evidence demonstrates that cities are showing incredible leadership in addressing climate change. The Climate Action in Megacities (CAM) series of reports shows that 10,000 actions have been undertaken in C40 cities since the 15th Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change in 2009 (COP15). In 2015 almost half of actions are at a city-wide scale, an increase of 260% over that time. By 2015, cities are planning to expand four out of five of climate actions, showing that they have become confident that their actions are both effective and worthwhile.

Cities have experimented, shared, learned, gained confidence and are now pushing forward with an unprecedented, truly global wave of effective action. Confidence based on success breeds the ambition to expand.

It is crucial that cities are able to build on these strong beginnings, and that they do so quickly. As we pass C40’s 10th anniversary, this work attempts to answer two important questions for C40 cities to consider over the coming decade. One, what areas offer further opportunity for climate action, and two, how can cities unlock this potential?

There is huge potential for cities to build on successful climate action

Detailed analysis of actions reported by C40 cities between 2011 and 2015 identifies around 27,000 actions that cities have not yet attempted to implement. The potential for expansion is clearly tremendous.

To achieve the kind of transformative reduction in emissions that is necessary, in the long term most of these actions will need to be implemented across all cities. However it is not realistic to suggest that all cities should – or even could – be taking every possible action in the short term. Some actions may also be entirely inappropriate for certain cities.

It is therefore useful to prioritise those actions that can have the most impact, and which can be delivered most easily. Analysis identifies a group of 2,332 actions that have the potential to reduce emissions and could be targeted in the short term. An enormous 66% of them are within the Buildings sector.

Cities face challenges to delivering and expanding climate action

How can cities unlock this potential, and what might currently be preventing them from doing so? The research reveals an important story about the challenges cities are facing around the world.

26,820 actions in the CAM database have not yet been attempted by C40 cities.

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Of the challenges discussed in this research around 80% have been in existence for more than five years, and half of challenges have not been overcome despite cities investing resources to do so. Cities have not even been able to identify an approach to address 20% of the challenges they face. This demonstrates the extent to which challenges can become embedded in cities, and the difficulty of identifying effective solutions.

The most significant types of challenges to climate action across all regions are:

• Economic and financial challenges (representing 21% of the leading challenges experienced by cities). These relate to access to capital, limited financial independence, making the financial case for action, effective financial cooperation with the private sector, and so on. For example, Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro and Johannesburg have highlighted the shortage of funding devolved to the city from the federal level, particularly for environmental and climate related projects.

• Political and leadership challenges (20% of the leading challenges experienced by cities). These include challenges of city governance, collaboration with other partners outside the city, and so on. For example, Barcelona highlighted the difficulties of creating climate change plans for a 20-30 year horizon, using climate projections of 100 years, when governments change on a four-year cycle (for this reason Barcelona work to secure agreement of all stakeholders, including political parties).

• Institutional, regulatory and legislative challenges (17% of the leading challenges experienced by cities). A diverse group of challenges, including vertical and horizontal integration of government agencies, and inadequate legislation to support climate action. For example, in 2011 a C40 city was piloting crisis management strategies for climate adaptation, but a lack of integration between institutions has stopped this action from progressing to significant or city-wide scale.

We must act collaboratively to unlock cities’ vast potential

An overriding finding throughout this work has been that nearly three quarters of the challenges our cities are facing cannot be managed unilaterally by cities – they require collaboration with national governments, the private sector and other actors. This underscores that there is no solution to climate change without partnership and collaboration. In order to deliver effective action on climate change at all levels of government, better collaboration, coordination and communication are required.

C40 and Arup are already working to frame cities’ challenges in more detail, and crucially, to clearly outline the solutions. This work will involve a collaborative effort to convene the expertise of leaders across all sectors to establish how best to frame solutions for unlocking cities’ vast potential. We invite any organisations delivering action in cities to express an interest in being involved. Through this research we intend to identify clear programmes of work, and actionable solutions that can be taken forward together immediately, to enable accelerated growth in city climate action.

75% of the challenges cities face are the combined responsibility of government, business and civil society actors.

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1.1 ADefiningIssueForOurTime 10

1.2 ScopeOfResearch 11

Introduction

CHAPTER 1

1.1 ADEFININGISSUEFOROURTIME

Overthepasttenyears,theworldhaswatchedcitiesleadthewaytowardsaclimate-safefuture.ThroughtheClimate Action in Megacities(CAM)seriesofreports,C40andAruphavequantifiedanenormousgrowthinthenumber,scaleandimpactofcityclimateactionsovertenyears.

Since 2011, C40 cities have taken nearly 10,000 climate actions. Over half of actions taken in 2015 have been at a city-wide scale, up from just 15% in 2011.1

Ascitiescontinuetodelivermoresuccessfulclimateactions,ambitioncontinuestogrow.Asillustratedbytheyear-on-yeargrowthinmembershipofC40andothercitynetworks,togetherwithemissionsreductionpledgesmadeviatheCompactofMayors,2itisclearthatcitiesarecommittedtotakingactiononclimatechangeataglobalscale.Furthermore,in2014,228globalcities,representing436millionpeople,setgreenhousegasreductiongoalsandtargetsamountingtoacumulativereductionof13GtCO

2eby2050.3

Itiscrucialthatcitiesareabletobuildonthesestrongbeginnings,andthattheydosoquickly.RecentresearchbyC40incollaborationwithSEIshowsthatbasedoncurrenttrendsofconsumptionandinfrastructuredevelopment,withinfiveyearstheworldwillbe“locked-in”tosufficientfutureemissionstoexceedthegloballysafecarbonbudget.Infact,theresearchindicatesthatathirdoftheseemissionswillbedeterminedbycities,demonstratingthattheclimateproblemcannotbesolvedwithoutcitymayorsandcitizens.

1 Climate Action in Megacities 3.0,C40/Arup/UCL,2015.2 http://www.compactofmayors.org3 Working Together: Global Aggregation of City Climate Commitments,C40andArup,2014.

9,831climate actions have been taken by C40 cities since 2011.

MeasuringCityClimateAction

“Climateaction”asitappearsinthisreportreferstospecificactivities,programmes,procurements,andpoliciesundertakenbyacitygovernmenttodelivereitheremissionsreductionsoradaptationtotheimpactsofclimatechange.Exampleactionsincludetheimplementationofacongestioncharge,abuildingretrofitscheme,orenergy-from-wastefacility.EverytwoyearsC40citiesreportontheactionstheyaretaking,withreportingcyclesnowcompletedin2011,2013and2015.ThisdataiscompiledintotheC40ClimateActionDatabase.

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Thisinvitesapivotalquestionforourtime:Couldtheworld’sleadingmegacitiesbetakingmoreclimateaction,andifso,whyaren’ttheyandwhatmusthappentoallowthemtounlockthispotential?

ItisthisquestionthatledC40,ArupandtheCityLeadershipInitiativeatUniversityCollegeLondon(UCL)toexploreindetailthechallengesthatpreventcitiesfromtakingclimateaction.Implicitinthisworkisarecognitionthatonlybyunderstandingthechallengescanweidentifythemosteffectivesolutionsandunlockthehugelatentpotentialforactionincities.

Throughthisresearch,weintendtospuracross-sector,globalconversationtomobilisekeyactorsaroundtheinterventionsneededtoenablecontinuedandacceleratedgrowthincityclimateaction,tobringtogetherthosewhoareinvolvedindeliveringclimateactionincities,andtostartidentifyingthechallengesfacedwhendoingso.Adeeperunderstandingofthechallengesandtheirpossiblesolutionswillbethesubjectofasecondreporttobepublishedearlyin2016.

1.2 SCOPEOFRESEARCH

1.2.1 TWODRIVINGQUESTIONS

AswepassC40’s10thanniversary,thisworkattemptstoanswertwoimportantquestionsforcitiesoverthecomingdecade:

1. WhatarethepotentialopportunitiesforfurtherclimateactioninC40cities?ThisresearchaddressesthepotentialforC40citiestoexpandontheircurrentsuccessandincreasetheirclimateactionoverthecomingdecade.Thiscanthenhelpframethelevelofambitionourcitiescouldaspireto,andguidewheretheymightconsideractingnext.

2. Howcancitiesunlockthispotential?Thisresearchfocusesonidentifyinganychallengesthatmaycurrentlybehinderingaction.ThisreportisonlythestartofC40’seffortstoaddressthisproblem,andoffersahigh-levelanalysisofthechallengesourcitiesarefacing.

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1.2.2 EVIDENCEUSEDFORANALYSIS

Chapter2addressesthefirstoftheabovequestions.Theresearchinthischapterisbasedonself-reporteddatafromC40’smembercitiesbetween2011and2015aspartoftheClimate Action in Megacities(CAM)seriesofreports.4ThedatahasbeenanalysedandreportedinCAMintermsofthenumberandscaleofclimateactionsthatcitiesaretakingandhowtheyaredeliveringthem.Forthepurposesofthisreport,welookatthedatafromtheoppositeperspective,assessingtheclimateactionscitiescould betaking,butcurrentlyarenot.Theworkalsoconsidersthedifferentpotentialemissionsreductionimpactsoftheseremainingactions,aswellastheireaseofdelivery.Thesefactorsareusedtoprioritisetheremainingactionsfordelivery.

FromChapter3onwards,thereportshiftstothesecondquestion,takingstepstounderstandwhatarethemainchallengesourcitiesfacegloballythatmaybeinhibitingthemfromprogressingfurtherclimateaction.Thisworkisbasedonanextensiveliteraturereviewofrelevantworkinthisfield,togetherwithacomprehensivequestionnairetoC40staffworkingdirectlywithmembercitiestodelivertheirclimategoals.ThisworkhasprovidedC40staffwithspecificinsightsintothechallengestheyhaveencounteredinthecitieswheretheywork.Thisdataissupplementedbyone-to-oneinterviewswithofficialsin13C40cities,andArupspecialistsengagedinthedeliveryofcityprojects.

TheresearchmethodologyispresentedintheTechnicalPaperthataccompaniesthisreport.Pleaserefertothispaperfordetailedbackgroundtotheapproach,datausedforanalysis,andclassificationsusedinthechallengesframework.

4 Climate Action in Megacities 1.0: C40 Cities Baseline and Opportunities, C40andArup,2011;Climate Action in Megacities 2.0, C40andArup,2014;Climate Action in Megacities 3.0, C40,ArupandUniversityCollegeLondon,2015.

Sharing10YearsOfExperience

Together,cityofficialsandC40staffhaveover10yearsofexperienceincollaboratingtodeliverurbanclimateaction.Thisreportdrawsontheexperienceandideasofthosestafftostartunravellingthecomplexwebofissuesthatourcitiesmustwrestlewithwhenidentifyinganddeliveringclimateaction.Thisreportpresentstheinitialhigh-levelfindingsofanextensiveconsultationonthechallengescitiesface.Moredetailedfindings,alongwithpotentialsolutions,willfollowin2016.

Themaingroupswhohavecontributedevidencedirectlyare:

C40 City officials –StaffinC40citiesandofficersofvariouspositionsanddisciplineshavebeeninterviewedtoprovidecity-specificperspectives.

C40 Regional staff –C40staffoperatingatastrategiclevelwithcitieswithinaspecificregionwhohaveaholistic,crosssectorunderstandingofthepriorities,successesandchallengesofC40citiesatacity-widescale.

C40 Initiative staff –C40staffleadingonthematicorsector-focusednetworksofC40citieswhohavedetailedprojectandtopic-specificexperienceinsupportingcitiestodeliveractioninvariousareas,suchaselectricvehicles,orbuildingenergyefficiency.

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1.2.3 REPORTSTRUCTURE

Thereportisstructuredasfollows:

Chapter2:Theopportunitytobuildonsuccessfulcityclimateaction.Highlightingtheenormouspotentialthatstillremainsforcitiestoexpandtheirclimateaction,andprioritisingthoseactionsthatcouldbetakennext.Chapter3:Aframeworkforunderstandingcitychallenges.Presentingastructureforunderstandingandanalysingchallenges,whichisinformedbywiderresearchandappliedthroughoutthereport.Chapter4:Enablingcitiestodomore.Highlightingthekeyfindingsofthechallengesanalysisanddrawingoutwherethefocusshouldlieifchallengesaretobeovercome.Thischapteralsohighlightsthatcitychallengesaredominatedbythreeparticulartypesofchallenges.Chapter5:Anabsenceofcollaborationunderliesmostchallenges.Drawingattentiontoandexploringtheoverridingimportanceofcross-sectorandcross-governmentcollaborationinworkingaroundthechallengescitiesface.Chapter6:Conclusion.Bringingtogetherthemainthreadsofthereportandchartingoutthenextsteps.

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The Opportunity To Build On Successful City Climate Action

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Introduction 16

2.2 CitiesHaveTheTrackRecord,ConfidenceAndAmbition

ToGreatlyIncreaseClimateAction 16

2.3 TheOpportunityForCitiesToTryNewThings 17

2.4 DefiningThePriorityActions 20

2.5 UnpackingTheFirstPriorityActions 26

2.6 UnleashingThisPotential 27

5 Climate Action in Megacities 3.0,C40/Arup/UCL,2015.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The Climate Action in Megacities 3.0reporthasestablishedcities’tremendoustrackrecordofclimateaction,andshowsthattheyintendtoexpandontheirsuccess.Itisnowappropriatetoconsiderthescopeforsuchexpansion,andwherethefirststepsmightbeindoingso.

2.2 CITIES HAVE THE TRACK RECORD, CONFIDENCE AND AMBITION TO GREATLY INCREASE CLIMATE ACTION

C40andArupresearch5hashighlightedthatcitiesarenotonlyadoptinganincreasingnumberofclimateactionseachyear,but,evenmoreinterestingly,areincreasingthescaleoftheactionstheyaretaking.In2015,ahigherproportionofactionsisunderwayatthecity-widescalethaneverbefore,whilefeweractionsareunderwayatapilotscale.Thissendsaveryclearmessagethatcitieshavetriedandtesteddifferentsolutions,establishedthemosteffectiveactionsandarefocusingonthesetodelivertransformativechange.

Theresearchconfirmsthatcitymayorshaveplanstoexpandmorethan75%oftheclimateactionsthatarealreadyinplace,demonstratingtheircommitmenttocontinuedrivingchange.Thisisatremendousincreasefrom45%in2011,showingthegrowingconfidencecitieshaveintheactionstheyarecurrentlyimplementing,asshowninFigure2.01.Citieshavelearnedwhatworksandintendtobuildonit.

Citieshaveexperimented,shared,learned,builtconfidenceandarenowpushingforwardwithanunprecedentednumberofeffectiveactions.Confidencebasedonsuccessbreedstheambitiontoexpand.

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75% ofclimateactionscurrentlyunderwayinC40citiesareplannedforexpansion.

6 CAM 3.0,C40/Arup/UCL,2015.

2.3 THE OPPORTUNITY FOR CITIES TO TRY NEW THINGS

WhiletheClimate Action in Megacitiesreportsdemonstrateexampleswherecitiesaretakingaction,thisreportfocusesonactionscitiesareyet to undertake.Detailedanalysisofactionsreportedbycitiesbetween2011and2015showsthataround26,820actionshavenotyetbeentaken.Whilecitiesaretakingextraordinarystepstoadvancetheirclimateactionandmakingever-greatercommitmentsforthefuture,77%ofactionsareyettobeattemptedbycities.Giventheunprecedentedwaveofurbanclimateactionweseetoday,thisshowshowthepotentialforexpansionisvast,withsignificantscopeforgreaterambition.

Figure2.02showstheproportionofactionsyettobetakenoutofthoseavailableforeachC40cityregion.Theabsolutenumberofactionsyettobetakenisincludedonthefrontofeachbar(thisisinfluencedbythenumberofcitiesineachregion,withsomeregionscontainingmoreC40citiesthanothers).Thevariationbetweenregionsissmall;inallregions,morethan70%ofpossibleactionshavenotyetbeenstarted.Typicallycitiesfromregionsintheglobalsouthhaveaslightlygreateropportunitytodelivernewclimateaction.

Figure 2.01. Proportion of actions being taken each year by C40 cities, which they state they plan to expand.6

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7 Climate Action in Megacities 1.0: C40 Cities Baseline and Opportunities, C40/Arup,2011.

Figure2.03showstheproportionofactionsyettobetakenbysector,aswellastheabsolutenumberofactionsremainingforeachsector.Theabsolutenumberisaffectedbythefactthatinsomesectors,suchasBuildings,therearemanymorepossibleactionsforcitiesthaninothersectors,suchasOutdoorLighting.

AlmostathirdofalltheactionsthatcitiesarenotyettakingareintheBuildingssector(32%).Thisissignificantgiventhat,asoutlinedinCAM1.0,7buildingstypicallyaccountforonaverage45%ofgreenhousegasemissionsacrossC40cities.AfurtherthirdofuntakenactionsismadeupofactionsfromthePrivateTransport,OutdoorLightingandAdaptationsectors,meaningthatjustfoursectorsoutofelevenmakeuptwo-thirdsoftheactionsthatareasyetuntakenbyC40cities.

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Figure 2.02. Proportion of actions started versus those not yet started in each region.

Figure 2.03. Proportion of all actions in each sector that have potential to be taken further.

Asaproportionofactionsthatcouldbetakenwithinasector,thereisverysignificantuntappedpotentialremainingwithinFinanceandEconomicDevelopmentandFoodandAgriculture.Thesearerelativelysmallsectorscomparedwithothers,however97%and89%ofactionswithineachrespectivelyarecurrentlyuntaken.EvenonaproportionalbasisBuildingsisstillasectorwithbelowaverageactionuptake.

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32% ofclimateactionsthathavenotyetbeentakenareintheBuidingssector.

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97%

ofpossibleactionsintheFinanceandEconomicDevelopmentsectorhavenotyetbeentaken.

2.4 DEFINING THE PRIORITY ACTIONS

Thevolumeofuntappedactionistremendous.Toachievethekindoftransformativereductioninemissionsthatisnecessary,inthelongtermmostoftheseactionswillneedtobeimplementedacrossallcities.Howeveritisnotrealistictosuggestthatallcitiesshould–orevencould–betakingeverypossibleactionintheshortterm.Someactionsmayalsobeentirelyinappropriateforcertaincities.

Toidentifytheactionsthatcitiescouldbetakingasatoppriority,threecategoriesofactionhavebeenconsideredtohelpidentifythemostattractiveactionsfromamongstthoseyettobetaken.Theseare:

• Actions where cities can learn from their peers:actionsthataresuccessfullyimplementedbysimilarcitiesbutarenottakeninthecitybeingconsidered.Thisimpliesthattheactionmaybesuitableforconsiderationinthatcity.

• Actions which cities have strong power to deliver:actionsthatarewithinsectorswherecitieshavestrongpowers,meaningthatcitiesshouldhavecontroloverthem,butwhereactionisnotbeingtaken.TheevidenceusedtoundertakethisanalysiswasreportedbyallC40citiesonthepowersexercisedover70+assetsandfunctionswithinthecity,forinstancethepoweroverbusesorelectricutilities.ThisdataisdiscussedandpresentedinaseparateC40report8andinCAM2.0.9

• Actions that will have a high impact: actionsthathaveahighpotentialtoreducecityemissions,10meaningthattheycouldmakeabigimpactoncities’climategoals,butneverthelessarenotbeingselectedforimplementation.TheevidenceusedinthisanalysiswasdevelopedbyC40,buildingonworkundertakeninpartnershipwithStockholmEnvironmentInstitutein2014onthepotentialimpactofurbanclimateaction.11

ThesecategorieshavebeenusedtounderstandtherelativepriorityofthedifferentactionsyettobetakenbyC40cities.Theselectionisactionandcityspecific,sincewhileanactionmaybehighimpactinseveralcities,onlyasmallnumberofcitiesmayhavestrongpowertodeliverthataction.Theactionwouldonlybeprioritisedforthosecitieswithstrongpowerinthiscase.

Itisthereforeimportanttoprioritisethoseactionsthatcanhavethemostimpact,andwhichcanbedeliveredmosteasily.Thiswouldgiveanappreciationofthegrowthofactionthatmightbeexpectedorencouragedincitiesintheshortterm.

8 Powering Climate Action: Cities as global changemakers,C40/Arup/UCL,2015.9 Climate Action in Megacities 2.0,C40andArup,2014.10 AllactionsintheCAMdatabasehavebeenevaluatedfortheiroverallpotentialtoreducegreenhousegasemissions.Actionshavebeengroupedaccordingtotheir‘high’,‘medium’or‘low’emissionsreductionpotential.11 http://c40-production-images.s3.amazonaws.com/researches/images/28_SEI_White_Paper_full_report.original.pdf?1412879198

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Itisrecognisedthattheremaybecasesofspecificprioritisedactionsthatforlocalreasonsarenotinfactsuitablefordeliveryinthestatedcity.Forinstanceanactionmaybehighimpactandthecityhashighpowertodeliver,buttheactionisnotappropriateforclimaticreasons.Itishoweverbeyondthescopeofthisworktoundertakeindividualfeasibilityassessmentforthemanythousandsofactionsconsideredhere.Thesenumbersarethereforenotpresentedasthebasisforcityspecificactionplanning.Theyareratherintendedforuseasaguidetotheshapeandscaleofpotentialfutureaction.

Theprioritygroupingsthathavebeenidentifiedareasfollows,listedinorderofimportance(seepages22-23and24-25fortwoinfographicsthatrelatethecategoriesofactionandthedifferentpriorities):

1. First Priority Actions – High GHG Impact And Highly Accessible.Theseactionshavethehighestimpactintermsofreducingemissions,andaretypicallyactionsforwhichacityhaseitherstrongpowertodeliverormanyoftheirpeersaretakingthataction.Theyarethereforethegroupofactionswhichshouldbeprioritised,andwhichmightbeexpectedorencouragedincitiesinthenextonetotwoyears.ThetotalnumberofC40firstpriorityactionsis2,332.Since2011C40citieshaveworkedondelivering9,831actions,andsothiswouldrepresentanincreaseof24%.

2. High Priority Action – Medium To Low GHG Impact, Yet Highly Accessible. Thoseactionsthatarenotthehighestimpact,butwherecitiesareconsideredabletodeliver(haveeitherhighpowerorareabletolearnfromtheirpeers)wouldrepresentthesecondprioritygroup.Theserepresent3,502actions.Thesewouldbethenextactionstotargetbecausetheywouldlikelybethemosteasilydelivered.

3. Medium Priority – Remaining High GHG Impact. Alltheremaininghighimpactactionswouldbethenexttoprioritise.Theseactionshavenotbeenhighlightedasreadilydeliverable,howevertheyhaveahighimpactandsoshouldbethenextpriorityafterthehigherpriorityactions.Thesemaybemorechallengingtodeliverbutarehighreward.Thiswouldrepresent9,402actions.

4. Moderate Priority – Remaining Action.Finally,theremaining11,584actionswouldthenbedeliveredinthelongertermasappropriatetoensuremaximumclimateimpact.Theseactionshavenotbeenidentifiedashighimpact,norasactionsoverwhichacityhashighpowerorwhichpeersarealreadydelivering.

3,502 actionsarehighlyaccesible,withmediumtolowGHGreductionpotential.

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Low Impact15,086

Total Actions Not Started = 26,820

Total Actions Started = 9,831

Learning From Peers

High Power

Third most urgent actions = 9,402Actions that are high impact but low power and not learning from peers

Most urgent actions = 2,332Actions that are high impact but either high power or learning from peers, or both

Second most urgent actions = 3,502Actions that are low impact and either high power or learning from peers, or both

Fourth most urgent actions = 11,584Actions that are lowimpact but low power or learning from peers11,584

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HighImpact11,734

A bird’s eye view of actions underway in C40 cities, and potential for more

The actions C40 cities have embarked on since 2011, compared to the actions that could yet be taken. This is from an action list of 444 actions in 11 sectors, for 66 responding cities across 7 global regions. Of those actions yet to be taken, highlighted are those that are high GHG emission reduction impact, those where a high number of similar cities are taking action and those over a which a given city has high power (See Section 2.4 for more detail).

Fourth most urgent group of actions.11,584 actions

Second most urgent group of actions.3,502 actions

Most urgent group of actions.2,332 actions

Third most urgent group of actions.9,402 actions

The way forward is clear

There is tremendous potential for more action, and large volumes of readily accessible, high impact actions available to target in the short term. Most action should eventually be taken in all cites to deliver the level of transformative change needed, however it is not feasible for cities to target all actions in the short term. So while cities would ideally take all actions that are appropriate and practical, it is helpful to outline the next steps. This image highlights the priority of various groups of action on prior page (See Section 2.4 and previous page for explanation of below action grouping).

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Some sectors are not included in this graph because use of effect on GHG emissions to measure impact is not appropriate (such as in adaptation or finance actions).

The sectors outlined for the most urgent action are the building sector, along side mass transit, with mass transit the most significant second priority sector also.

Community scale development and Private Transport are both significant sectors to address from the outset, but become even more so as a second priority group.

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Per region, the proportion of action remaining to be taken by order of priority.

The region with the most high priority actions yet to be taken is East Asia. East Asia and Europe have the highest volume of first and second priority actions. This implies that these regions have strong power to deliver many of the remaining action, and that they are already making progress with these actions providing ample opportunity to learn from best practice.

Africa has a large proportion of third priority actions, those that are high impact but not picked out as uniquely easy to deliver. This is a similar split to South and West Asia.

2.5 UNPACKING THE FIRST PRIORITY ACTIONS

Thefirstpriorityactionscompriseagroupof2,332actionsthatshouldbeachievableandcouldhaveahighimpactonclimatechange,butwhicharenotbeingwidelyimplemented.Thisincludesactionsfromeightcitysectors;an enormous 66% of them are within the Buildings sector.

WhenweanalysethegeographicdistributionofactionopportunitiestheBuildingssectorisdominantinthepriorityactiongroupacrossallregions,particularlyinSouth&WestAsia,whereBuildingsactionsrepresent85%ofthepriorityactions.TheBuildingssectorrepresentsmorethan50%ofpriorityactionsincitiesinEastAsia,EuropeandNorthAmerica.

ActionsfromtheMassTransitandPrivateTransportsectorsalsocontributetothepriorityactionsinallregions;inAfrica,Europe,LatinAmericaandNorthAmerica,MassTransitaloneaccountsforaround20%ofofuntakenaction.EnergySupplyactionsformasmallproportionofuntakenactionsinallregionsexceptLatinAmericaandSouth&WestAsia,whileCommunity-scaleDevelopmentactionsarebeingmissedinallregionsexceptSouth&WestAsia.

2.5.1 IMPACT OF DELIVERING THE FIRST PRIORITY ACTIONS

Thefirstpriorityactionsetof2,332actionscouldbedeliveredintheshorttermandhasbeenselectedspecificallytodeliverthemaximumimpact.BasedonamodellingapproachusedinClimateActioninMegacities3.0,12weestimatethatthecarbonemissionsthatcouldbesavedbyimplementingtheseactionswouldbe450MtCO

2ecumulatively

by2020.ThisisroughlyequivalenttotheannualemissionsoftheentireUnitedKingdom.

12 Climate Action in Megacities 3.0, C40/Arup/UCL,2015.

Figure 2.04. Sector breakdown of first priority actions.

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450 MtCO2e

couldbesavedby2020ifthehighestpriorityactionswereimplemented.

26

2.5.2 INVESTMENT REQUIRED TO UNLOCK THE FIRST PRIORITY ACTIONS

Analysishasbeencarriedouttoestimatetheinvestmentrequiredbycitiestotakethefirstpriorityactions.13Itisestimatedthat$6.8bnisrequiredtounlocktheactionswithinthefirstpriority.ThetwosectorsrequiringthelargestinvestmentareBuildingsandMassTransit.

Wherecitiesreportedthecostsofclimateactionstheywerenearlyalwaysfinancedbythecitythemselves.

13 Itshouldbenotedthatthedataprovidesindicativecoststothecity,butisnotnecessarilyrepresentativeofthetotalactioncapitaloroperationalcost,andsoallnumbersderivedbasedonthisevidencearepurelyindicative,andnotaclearstatementofexpectedinvestment.Ratherthisisinvestmentcitiesrequiretounlockaction,byforinstanceleveragingmoreprivatesectorcapital.

Figure 2.05. Sector breakdown of the estimated cost of implementing priority climate actions (US$ millions).

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$8

$6.8 BILLION is needed to enable delivery of the highest priority actions.

2.6 UNLEASHING THIS POTENTIAL

Theexistenceofuntaken,yethighimpactandachievable,actionimpliesthatthereareunderlyingfactorsthatinfluenceacity’sabilitytotakeanyparticularaction.

Thesefactors–the challengestoclimateaction–maydelay,limit,divertorcompletelypreventanactionfrombeingtaken,thereforecompromisingacity’seffortstoreducegreenhousegasemissionsandbecomeclimateresilient.Inordertounderstandthesechallengesandfindsolutions,wemustunderstandwhattheyareandhowtheywork.Thefollowingchapterestablishesaframeworkfordoingso,andtheremainderofthereportwillfocusonanalysingthechallengesthatmightaffectclimateaction.

27

A Framework For Understanding City Challenges

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Introduction 30

3.2 ChallengeTypes 30

3.3 CharacteristicsOfChallenges 32

29

30

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Forthepurposesofthisresearch,achallengeisdefinedasan obstacle that hinders a city’s ability to deliver climate action.Theobstaclemaybepermanentortemporary,originatewithinoroutsidethecity,andmayprevent,delay,limitordivertacity’simplementationofclimateaction.Thischapterpresentsthechallengesframeworkthathasbeendevelopedtostructureunderstandingandanalysisofchallengesand,inlaterresearch,todevelopproposalsfortheassociatedsolutions.14Understandingthespecificelementsofachallengethathinderacityfromdeliveringactioniscrucialtoshapethesolutionsrequiredtoovercomethem.

3.2 CHALLENGE TYPES

Theframeworkconsistsofseven‘challengetypes’,whichbroadlydescribethespecificchallengesthatcitiesrecogniseintheirday-to-dayexperience.Thechallengetypesarenamedaccordingtothecontextinwhichthespecificchallengesarise.ThechallengetypesaredescribedinTable3.01,togetherwithexamplesoftherelevantchallengesforeach.

Challenge type Description Example challenges

Political and leadership

Challengesrelatedtoprevailingpoliticalideologiesorpriorities,governancetypologies,orthestrengthofleadershipfromkeyactors.

• Climatechangescepticismininfluentialpoliticalparties

• Shortmayoralterms/electoralcycles

• Civilsocietyinterestsnotrepresentedincitydecision-making

• Businesslobbiesrallyagainstclimateaction.

Institutional, regulatory and legislative

Challengesthatresultfromconflictinginterestsbetweengovernmentagencies,policiesandlaws,includingdifficultieswithcoordinatingunitaryclimateactionacrossgovernment.

• Fragmentedor‘silo-ed’workingbycityagencies

• Short-termpolicycyclesmisalignedwithprojectdeliverycycles

• Nationalpolicy/legislationfailstopromoteclimateactionatcitylevel

• Unclearroles/responsibilitiesforclimateaction,includingacrossjurisdictionalboundaries.

Table 3.01. Overview of challenge types.

14 ThewiderresearchthatunderpinsthisframeworkisoutlinedintheaccompanyingTechnicalPaper.

31

Challenge type Description Example challenges

Resources and funding

Challengesrelatedtoacity’sabilitytosecurefundingforclimateaction,ortoaccessappropriatestaff/expertisetoshapeanddeliveraction.

• Citybudgetdefinedbynationalgovernment

• Inabilitytocollectlocalrevenues

• Economicevaluationsdonotincorporateco-benefitsofclimateaction

• Inabilitytoaccessinternationalfinancialmechanisms

• Inabilitytoattractexpertstafftogovernmentroles.

Information and knowledge

Challengesthatrelatetoacity’sabilitytoaccessinformationandacquireknowledgerequiredtotakeeffectivedecisionsaboutclimateaction.

• Poortransferofknowledgebetweendecision-makersandscientificinstitutions

• Inabilitytocommunicatetheimpactsofclimatechangeinanon-technicalway

• Weakevidencebasetoexplainthelocalimpactsofclimatechange

• Inabilitytoidentifyeffectivesolutionstolocalclimaterisks.

Social and cultural

Challengesthatrelatetotheacceptednorms,practicesandbehavioursofacity’sinstitutions,businessesandcitizensthatmayconflictwithclimateaction.

• Desiredlifestyleincompatiblewithemissionsreductions

• Deeplyembeddedsocialsystemrejectschange

• Pervasivemediadistributesnegativemessagingaboutclimatescience.

Technology and infrastructure

Challengesrelatedtotheavailabilityandcompatibilityofappropriate,functionalorproventechnologiesorinfrastructuresrequiredtodeliverclimateaction.

• Ageingorinadequatecriticalinfrastructure(e.g.railways,powerlines)

• TelecommunicationsnetworkscannotsupportmodernICT

• Cityishesitanttoinvestin“new”technologiesthatarenotwellproven

• Incompatibilitybetweennewandexistingtechnologies.

Physical and human context

Challengesthatrelatetoacity’sgeographicallocationanddemographiccharacteristicsthatcanaffecttheviabilityofclimateactions,includinghistoricallanduseplanning.

• Physicalconstraintsofacity,e.g.topography/climate,thatprohibitaction

• Lock-intoanurbanformduetohistoricalplanning

• Uncontrolledpopulationgrowthduetoexternalforces(e.g.refugees)

• Significantlow-incomepopulationmakesprovisionofbasicneedsahigherpriority.

32

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHALLENGES

Toallowcitychallengestobecharacterisedandmeasured,aframeworkfordescribingthemhasbeendeveloped.Thiswasusedtoguideandformulatethedatacollectionprocess.Thechallengeshavebeencharacterisedaccordingtosixprincipalcomponents,whicharecriticaltodeterminingthepotentialoptionsfornavigatingaroundthem.

• Actors,describingthepartyorpartieswhotypicallycreateachallenge.Thisincludeslevelsofgovernment(city,regional,national),theprivatesector,financialandinternationalinstitutions,andcivilsociety.Often,theactorsthatcreateachallengearealsothosethatmustresolveit.

• Timing,referringtothestageintheprojectdeliverycycle(seefigure3.01)atwhichagivenchallengeistypicallyencountered.Byunderstandingtiming,actorsarebetterabletoforeseeachallengeandmakeinterventionstoavoidorremoveit.

• Interconnectedness,whichconsidersthedegreetowhichchallengesareintegraltooneanother(seefigure3.02),eithercausingormutuallyreinforcingeachother,orco-occurring.Interconnectedchallengesareoftenmoreentrenchedanddifficulttoresolvethanthosethataremorediscrete.

• Cost,whichdescribestheresources(humaneffort,time,financialresources)thataretypicallyrequiredtoovercomeachallenge.Inevitably,high-costchallengestendtobemoredifficulttoaddress.

• Longevity,referringtothetypicallifetimeofachallenge.Whilesomechallengesarepermanent,othersmaybetemporaryorrecurringonacyclicalbasis.Thelongevityofachallengeinfluenceshowthecitychoosestorespond.

• Impact,whichfocusesonthedegreetowhichachallengedelays,limits,divertsorprohibitsacityfromdeliveringclimateaction,andtheemissionsreductionsthataremissedasaresultofactionnotbeingtaken.Impactisinfluencedbyothercharacteristics,includingtheinterconnectednessandlongevityofchallenges.Thescaleoftheimpactmaycatalyseacitytofindsolutionstothechallenge,ornot.

Thefollowingchaptersummarisesthekeyfindingsfromtheanalysisofchallenges,whichwasunderpinnedbythisconceptualchallengesframework.Appendix1outlinesthefullframeworkofcharacteristicsforthreeparticularlyprevalentchallengetypes.

33

Figure 3.01. Climate action delivery cycle (adapted from Moser and Ekstrom, 2010).

4. Monitor and evaluate impactAcitymonitorstheoutcomeofthedeliveredaction,evaluatestheimpactandadjustsitsclimateactionplanaccordingly.

E.g.Acityexperiencesachangeofgovernmentatthisstageinprojectdelivery,leadingtoareviewofpoliciesandchangeinpoliticalpriorities.

2. Prioritise, select and prepare climate actionAcitydevelopspossibleoptions,assessestheoptionsandselectsthemostappropriateactiontoaddressitschallenges.Itthenpreparestheactionfordelivery,establishingviabilty,fundingandsoon.

E.g.Acityishesitanttoprogresswithparticulartechnologiesbecausetheyarenotsufficientlyprovenorfinanciallyviable.

1. Understand local climate change prioritiesAcitydetectsandunderstandsaclimatechangechallenge,anddecidestotakeaction

E.g.Acityfaceschallengesinconnectingwithnon-governmentgroupstounderstandclimatechallengesindifferentsectorsandcommunities.

3. Implement climate actionAcitydeliverstheactionselectedthroughappraisal.

E.g.Acityhasencounteredchallengesrelatedtoweakprivatesectorbuy-inorleadershiponclimateaction,whichchallengesimplementation.

Figure 3.02. Interconnections between challenge types identified in the challenges research. The thicker the connecting line, the more often the challenge types have been linked to each other in responses to questionnaires and interviews for this study.

Political & Leadership

Institutional, Regulatory & Legislative

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34

Resources & Funding

Physical Context

Technology & Infrastructure

Information & Knowledge

Thestrongestconnectionsexistbetween:

• Political and Leadership,andTechnologyandInfrastructure

• Resources and Funding,andSocialandCultural

• Political and Leadership, andResourcesandFunding

• Resources and Funding, andInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislative.

ThelinkbetweenInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislative,andPoliticalandLeadershipchallengesisstrongerthanaverage,duetotheirinherentlinktothecitygovernancestructuresandprocesses.Thesignificanceofthesechallengetypesisillustratedfurtherinchapter4andAppendix1.

35

Enabling Cities To Do More

CHAPTER 4

4.1 Introduction 38

4.2 ThreeChallengeTypes 38

4.3 ChallengesVaryByGeographicalRegion 40

4.4 ChallengesVaryWithinCitiesBySector 41

4.5 CitiesExperienceChallengesWithPrioritising,Preparing

AndImplementingAction 42

4.6 ChallengesAreCostlyAndDifficultForCitiesToOvercome 44

4.7 Summary 45

37

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Thereisenormousremainingpotentialtoexpandcityaction,whichpaintsanencouragingpictureofthefuturerolethatcitiescanplay.

Thenextandobviousquestionis how can cities unlock this potential, and what might currently be preventing them from doing so?

Thischapterpresentsuniqueinsightsintothechallengesthatareaffectingcities’abilitytodeliverandprogressclimateaction,highlightingthetrendsacrossC40cities,regionsandcitysectors.

ThedataunderpinningthisanalysishasbeengatheredthroughdetailedquestionnaireswithC40’sRegionalDirectorsandInitiativeStaff(seeChapter1fordetails).Thequestionnairesfocusedonunderstandingthechallengetypesthataremostcommonandsignificant,togetherwiththecharacteristicsofthosechallenges.Thedatawerequantifiedforanalysis.Importanttrendswereidentifiedanddatapointswerecross-checkedagainsttheactiongaptofindsignificantconnections.

Specificfindingsfromtheanalysiswerevalidatedbyin-depthinterviewswithcityofficials,whichdrewoutthenuancesofhowchallengesoccurandareexperiencedontheground.Theinterviewshavebeenusedheretoillustratethedataandcontextualisethefindingswithreal-worldexamples.

Furtherinformationaboutthemethodologyforthisworkispresentedintheaccompanyingtechnicalpaper.

4.2 THREE CHALLENGE TYPES

Citiesineveryregionarefacingchallengestotakingtheactiontheywantorneedtomitigateoradapttoclimatechange.Challengesaffectallsectorsfromsustainablecommunitydevelopmentthroughtoenergyefficiencyandadaptation.

Themostsignificantchallengetypesacrossallregionsare:

• Resources and funding challenges(representing21%ofthechallengesconsideredtoberelevanttoC40cities)

• Political and leadership challenges(20%)

• Institutional, regulatory and legislative challenges(17%)

Thesethreetypesarealsothemostprevalentwhenviewingchallengesonasectorbasis.PhysicalContextchallengesrepresentonly7%ofallchallengesmentionedinC40cities,likelybecausecitiesareaccustomedtoworkingwithintheirphysicalconstraintsanddonotviewthisasachallengeperse.

21% of the challenges cities face are related to Resources and Funding.

38

15 ‘Countofchallenge’referstothenumberoftimesachallengefromeachtypewasidentifiedinthesurveyasexistinginthecitiesthatrespondentswereworkingwith.Respondentswereaskedtonamethecitiestheywerereferringtointheiranswers.

Table 4.01. Most frequent challenges within each of the dominant challenge types, based on survey data from C40 Regional Directors.

Resources and funding challenges

Political and leadership challenges

Institutional, regulatory and legislative challenges

1. Gapbetweeninvestmentrequiredtodeliveranactionandbudgetavailable(19%)

2. Perceivedconflictbetweeneconomicgrowthandclimateaction(17%)

3. Inabilitytoaccessfinancialresourcesforclimateaction(15%)

4. Inadequateeconomicevaluationtoquantifyandprioritisethebenefitsofclimateaction(15%)

1. Weakleadershiponclimateactionfromtheprivatesector(14%)

2. Failureofcitygovernmenttoconnectwithcivilsociety,privatesector,orotherstakeholdergroups(14%)

3. Climateactionsnotseenaspoliticallycompelling(13%)

4. Unabletoarticulateco-benefitsofclimaterelatedactivitiesandotherurbanpolicies(10%)

1. Poorinteractionandcoordinationacrosssectorsandinstitutionstodeliverclimateaction(27%)

2. Poorlanduseplanning(18%)

3. Existinglegislation/regulationinhibitsimplementationofclimateaction(14%)

4. Absenceofplanningcodes,regulationsandstandards(12%)

Figure 4.01. Frequency with which challenges are relevant to cities and sectors for C40 cities.15

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16 AshighlightedinPowering Climate Action,citiesinSouthandWestAsiatypicallyexhibitaFacilitatinggovernancetypology.ThefullsetofcitygovernancetypologiesisoutlinedinPowering Climate Action: Cities as Global Changemakers,C40/Arup/UCL,2015.

Thethreemajorchallengetypesarenotonlyhighlyprevalentintheirownright,buttheyarealsoheavilylinkedtotheoccurrenceofotherchallenges(seefigure3.02).Addressingthesechallengetypesisthereforecentraltounlockingcityclimateaction.FurtheranalysisofthesethreechallengetypesispresentedinAppendix1.

Theremainderofthischapterwillfocuslargelyonthesethreedominantchallengetypes.Thisisbecauseithasbeenconsideredusefultounderstandspecific,significantchallengesinmoredetail.Itdoesnotmean,however,thattheremainingfourgroupsarenotimportant.C40willlooktoexploretheseotherchallengesinmoredepthatalaterdate.

4.3 CHALLENGES VARY BY GEOGRAPHICAL REGION

Citiesindifferentregionsfinddifferentchallengetypesmoresignificant.Forexample,PoliticalandLeadershipchallengesprevailinEuropeancities(38%ofallchallengesmentionedforthisregion).ThisisalsotheonlyregioninwhichSocialandCulturalchallengesarenotdeemedtobeanissueatall.

Institutional,RegulatoryandLegislativechallengesarethemostdominantinSouth&WestAsia(39%ofchallengesforthisregion).Citiesinthisregiondonottypicallyhavethepowerstosetandenforcepolicyorlegislationthemselves,andarethereforereliantonotherlevelsofgovernmenttosetthepolicycontextforclimateaction.Ifthispolicyisnotforthcoming,citiesareunabletofacilitateactionwiththeirdeliverypartnersleadingtoagapinaction.16

ResourcesandFundingchallengesarethemajorinhibitorofclimateactioninNorthAmerica(34%ofchallengesfortheregion),wherecitiestypicallygovernthroughimplementation,andthereforedependonaccessingthefinancialresourcesrequiredtodeliver.

38% of challenges in European cities are related to Political and Leadership issues.

40

Figure 4.02. Frequency with which challenge types are connected with cities in each region.

4.4 CHALLENGES VARY WITHIN CITIES BY SECTOR

Evenwithincities,thedominantchallengetypesvarydependingonthespecificinitiativeacityistryingtodeliver,orsectorinwhichtheyaretryingtotakeaction.WhileResourcesandFundingchallengesarehighlyrelevantacrossallinitiatives,thereareimportantdifferencesbetweenthem.

TheotherC40initiativesandnetworkshaveidentifiedawiderarrayofrelevantchallengetypes.Intuitively,SocialandCulturalchallengesaremostrelevanttoinitiativesthatrequireanelementofbehaviourchange,includingBusRapidTransit(BRT)andSustainableSolidWasteSystems.Likewise,TechnologyandInfrastructurechallengesaremorerelevanttoinitiativesthatcallformoreinnovativesolutions,suchasLowEmissionVehiclesandWaste-to-Resources.

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41

4.5 CITIES EXPERIENCE CHALLENGES WITH PRIORITISING, PREPARING AND IMPLEMENTING ACTION

Thethreedominantchallengetypesoccurmostfrequentlyduringthefirstthreestagesofprojectdelivery.PoliticalandLeadershipchallengesarethemostcommonchallengetypewhencitiesareseekingtounderstandtheirclimatepriorities(24%ofallchallengesexperiencedatthisstage)anddevelopoptionsforclimateaction(23%atthisstage).ResourcesandFundingandInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislativechallengesbecomemoreinfluentialwhencitiesareimplementingclimateactions,eachrepresenting23%ofchallengesatthisstage(seefigure4.04).Thisshowsaclearshiftfromchallengesthatoccurearlier

Figure 4.03. Frequency with which challenge types are connected with initiatives in cities.

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AROUND 65% of challenges faced by cities in the Climate Change Risk Assesment Network are related to Information and Knowledge.

42

intheprojectcycleatthestrategic/planninglevel,suchasinadequatepoliticalleadershiponclimateissues,tochallengesthatoccuratamorepracticaldeliverylevelatlaterstages.Obstructiveregulations/legislationandgapsbetweenrequiredfundingandcitybudgetswerefrequentlymentionedinrelationtoimplementationofactions.

Only4%ofchallengesarefacedatthestageofmonitoringandevaluation,suggestingeitherthatthisisarelativelysmoothinternalprocess,thatmonitoringandevaluationisnotastandardpracticeforcities,orthatfewactionsprogresstothisstage.

Figure 4.04. Frequency with which challenges are connected with each stage in the project delivery cycle across all regions, including count of challenges.


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43

4.6 CHALLENGES ARE COSTLY AND DIFFICULT FOR CITIES TO OVERCOME

Ofthechallengesdiscussedinthisresearch:82%havebeeninexistenceformorethanfiveyears;48%havenotbeenovercome,despitethecityinvestingresourcestodoso;andcitieshavenotbeenabletoidentifyanapproachtoaddressafurther19%ofchallenges.Thisdemonstratestheextenttowhichchallengescanbecomeembeddedincities,andthedifficultyofidentifyingeffectivesolutions.Thelongerachallengeremains,thegreaterthemissedopportunityforthecityintermsofmitigatingoradaptingtoclimatechange.

ResourceandFunding,InformationandKnowledge,andInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislativechallengeshaveprovedparticularlydifficultforcitiestoovercome.

Figure 4.05. Scale of resources cities have invested in addressing challenges across regions and sectors, split by challenge type.

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4.7 SUMMARY

Thischapterhashighlightedthedominanceofthreechallengetypesinaffectingcities’abilitytotakeclimateaction.Regionalandsector-basedanalysisalsoshowedthenuancesbetweenchallengetypesthataremorerelevantincitiesineachregion,andinsectorsineachcity.Thechapterhighlightsthatchallengesmostoftenoccurascitiesseektounderstandtheirclimatechangechallengesanddevelopoptionsforclimateaction.Furthermore,thedataemphasisesthedifficultyofovercomingchallenges,particularlythosetypesthatfundamentallyaffectthecoreassetsofacity;itspolitics,leadership,fundingbase,andphysicalcontext.

Whathasnotbeendiscussedhere–whichiscrucialtoaddressingcities’challengesandenablingcitiestomoveforwards–aretheactorsandrelationshipsthatcausethesechallenges.ThiswillbethefocusforChapter5.

45

An Absence Of Collaboration Underlies Most Challenges

CHAPTER 5

5.1 Introduction 48

5.2 TheCapacityToOvercomeMostChallengesIsInTheHands

OfGovernments 49

5.3 CollaborationWithNon-GovernmentPartners 57

5.4 Summary 61

47

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Thischapterinvestigatestheactorsandrelationshipsthataremostoftenattherootofchallenges.Thiswillbethekeytoovercomingchallengesandenablingcitiestomoveforwards.

Theevidencecollectedtodateaboutthechallengestoclimateactionpointsclearlytothefactthatcommunication,coordinationandcollaborationarecentral.

Citieshaveshownthattheyarewillingandabletoact,butstrongerrelationshipswithinandbeyondthecitygovernmentwillbepivotaltoenablethemtounlocktheirfullpotential.

CAM3.0hasprovidedevidenceofcities’incredibletalentandappetiteforcollaborationwitheachother.Complementingthis,otherresearchhasshownthatcitiescandeliverfarmoreclimateactionswhentheycollaborate.17Thisisencouragingwhenconsideringtheneedforthewider

collaborationsthatthischapterpointstowards.

5.2 THE CAPACITY TO OVERCOME MOST CHALLENGES IS IN THE HANDS OF GOVERNMENTS

Governments,particularlythenationalandmunicipallevels,areidentifiedgloballyashavingthemajorresponsibilitypreventingcitygovernmentsfromtakingstrongeraction.Ofthechallengesfacedbycities,65%areassociatedwithgovernmententities.Thisisapowerfulfinding,indicatingthatcitypotentialisnotbeingheldbackbyfundamentalandunchangeableforces,butbythewayinwhichweorganiseandoperate.Theseareproblemsthatcan,andhopefullywill,beaddressed.

17 Powering Climate Action: Cities as Global Changemakers, C40/Arup/UCL,2015.

65% of challenges are due to government actors.

48

5.2.1 VERTICAL INTEGRATION: COLLABORATION BETWEEN CITY, REGIONAL AND NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

NationalgovernmentsareperceivedbyC40andcitystaffasacentralactorincreatingchallengestocityclimateaction,identifiedbycitiesinallregionsandresponsiblefor7%ofallchallengesoccurringacrosscityinitiatives(seefigure5.01.).

Figure 5.01. Frequency with which challenges are connected with each group of actors across C40 Initiatives.

6%

19%

7%

1%19%

11%

3%

6%

International/Inter-governmental Agencies

Government (all levels)

National Government

Regional Government

City Government

Private Sector (inc.lobbyists)

Public-Private Partnerships

Civil Society

7% of challenges are due to national government actors.

49

COORDINATION OF NATIONAL AND CITY INTERESTS

Thesurveyhighlightedthatnationallevelpolicyandpoliticalinterestscanhaveamajorimpactoncityclimateaction.Together,Institutional,RegulatoryandLegislative,andPoliticalandLeadershipchallengesrepresent26%ofchallengesoriginatingfromnationalgovernmentactors(seefigure5.02).Cityinterviewssuggestthatwhilecompetinginterestsareinevitable,acertainlevelofconsistencyandcomplementarityinnationalpolitics–especiallyclimatechangepolitics-isessentialtocreateasupportiveenvironmentforcitylevelclimatepolicyandtocreateinvestorconfidenceforotheractors.Manycitieshavebeenaffectedbychangingoruncertainleadershiponclimatechangeatanationallevel.Forexample,forMelbournenationalfundingcutsandchangingprioritieshavemeantthatneitherbusinessnorinvestorshadcertaintyonthefuturepolicyenvironment,makingitdifficulttoinvestorprogresslowcarboninitiatives.

Figure 5.02. Frequency with which challenge types are linked to national government actors, across regions and initiatives.

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26% of challenges due to national governments are Institutional, Regulatory and Legislative.

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EFFECTIVE ALLOCATION OF FUNDS BETWEEN NATIONAL AND CITY GOVERNMENT

ResourceandFundingchallengesareoneofthecriticalchallengetypesattributabletonationalgovernment,representing17%ofchallengesarisingfromnationalgovernmentactors(figure5.02)andillustratedfurtherbyrealstoriesfromanumberofcityofficials.

MexicoCity,RiodeJaneiroandJohannesburghavehighlightedtheshortageoffundingdevolvedtothecityfromthefederallevel,particularlyforenvironmentalandclimaterelatedprojects.Often,whenfundingisallocatedtocities,nationalgovernmentsstipulatehowitcanbeused,whichpreventscitiesfrominvestinginlocalinterests.Cities’limitedfundsarefurthercompoundedwhencitiesdonothavethepowertocollecttaxesorraiserevenuesinotherinnovativeways,forinstancethroughissuinggreenbonds.Forexample,inAmmanthecityfaceschallengesinsecuringinternationalfundingastheirincomefromtaxrevenuesisaffectedbytaxescontrollednationally,makingithardtoforecasttheamountofpublicfundingtheycanmatchtointernationalfunds.Inaddition,internationalfundersoftenrequestsovereignguarantees,effectivelymeaningthecityhastohavenationalapprovalforfunding.Anumberofdifferentfundingrelatedchallengestogetherhaveacompoundingeffect,worseningtheoutcomeforcitiesintermsoftheirabilitytoaccesssufficientfundsforclimaterelatedactions(seefigure5.03).

Melbourne

“Wehadthreeyearsinthewildernessastheonlyvoice,andnottheloudestorstrongestvoice,soit’sdifficult.”

OverthepasttenyearsAustralianclimatepoliticshavebeeninastateofcontinuouschange…AfocusonMelbournehighlightsthechallengesthatthisturbulenceandlackofnationalpolicycontinuitypresentstoclimateactionatthecitylevel.Despitethecity’swilltoinvestinclimateactions,Melbournehaslimitedabilitytoinfluenceorcriticisenationalgovernment,andcannotachievelocalgoalswithoutalignedpoliciesatthestateandfederallevel.Withoutapositivenationalpolicycontext,notonlywillthecityfacefurtherchallengesindrivingforwardsitsclimategoals,butthereisalsonoincentivefortheprivatesectortobuyintoapro-climateagenda.Nationalinstabilitymaythereforeleadtostagnationincitylevelclimateaction,despiteastronglocalpoliticalwill.

17% of challenges due to national government are related to Resources and Funding.

51

5.2.2 HORIZONTAL INTEGRATION: COORDINATION WITH METROPOLITAN AUTHORITIES

Throughinterviews,citieshavealsoacknowledgedthebarriersrelatedtopartnershipswithneighbouringauthoritiesinthewidercity-region.InMexicoCity,themetropolitanareaiscomposedof59municipalities,only16ofwhicharecontrolledbythecitygovernment;theotherauthoritiesarepartofdifferentstates.MexicoCityhascontroloverpolicyforthe16municipalitieswithinitsjurisdiction,butthereisnooverarchingframeworktoensurealignmentacrossmunicipalboundaries.Thismeansthatactionsrequiringcoordinationonalargerscalethanthecityitselfmaybecompromised.AsimilarbarrierhasbeenidentifiedbyAmman,wherelackofcontrolandcoordinationoverregionaltransporthasprovedchallengingandcouldpotentiallyhampercityeffortstobetterorganisepublictransportservices.

Figure 5.03. Compound challenges can worsen the outcome for city climate action.

Outcome: Cityhas

insufficientfundstoinvest

inclimateaction.

Compounding challenge:

Centralgovernmentfundsareallocated

forpre-definedusesonly–notfor

climateaction.

Compounding challenge:

Citiesdonothavepowertocollectlocalrevenuestosupplement

budgetsfromcentralgovernment.

Challenge: Inadequatebudgetallocationsceded

fromnationalgovernmenttocitylevel.

52

5.2.3 COLLABORATION WITHIN AND BETWEEN CITY GOVERNMENTS THEMSELVES

Ofthechallenges,19%haveaconnectionwithcitygovernmentsthemselves.ThesearemostoftenPoliticalandLeadership(31%)orInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislative(22%)issues.

COLLABORATION BETWEEN CITY AGENCIES

AparticularlycommonchallengeidentifiedbyC40staffrelatestofragmentedorconflictingactionstakenbyindividualinstitutionswithinthecitygovernment,whichpreventunitedactiontowardssharedclimategoals.Thisissuewashighlightedinthesurveydatainrelationtocitiesinallregions.Forexample,in2011aC40citywaspilotingcrisismanagementstrategiesforclimateadaptation,butalackofintegrationbetweeninstitutionshasstoppedthisactionfromprogressingtosignificantorcity-widescale.

Figure 5.04. Frequency with which challenge types are connected with city government actors, across regions and initiatives.

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19% of challenges are due to city governments themselves.

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COORDINATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE EXPERTISE WITHIN CITY INSTITUTIONS

Therelativelyrecentappearanceofclimatechangeasacityissueleadstochallengesrelatedtotheabsenceofinstitutionalandstaffknowledgetoinformeffectivedecision-making.Thischallengewasidentifiedfromthesurveydataasacommondifficultyforcities,whichwascorroboratedthroughtheinterviews.

OfficialsinHoChiMinhCityandJohannesburghavehighlightedthedifficultiesoffindingandbringingtogetherappropriatelocalskillsandcapacitytounderstandtheclimatechallenge,orrelevantguidanceontheoptionsforclimateaction.Johannesburgstartedaclimatechangeprogrammein2003,whichhasmaturedovertheyears.Whilsttherearestrategiesforadaptationandmitigationofclimatechange,thechallengeofmainstreamingclimatechangeintodecisionmakingremains.Johannesburgcompeteswithotherstatedepartmentsforskillsandhasexperiencedlossofexpertstaff,butcontinuouslystrivestobuildcapacityacrossthecity.

HoChiMinhCityhavealsostartedaclimatechangeprogrammein2009supportedbyaClimateChangeBureauandsteeringcommittee.ThisisthefirstcityinVietnamtodevelopaclimatechangeactionplan;asanewfocusforboththecityandthenationtheyfacechallengesintermsofstaffknowledgeandalsopublicawareness.TheadvantageisthattheskillsandcapacitythatHoChiMinhCityisgainingcanbespreadtothewholecountry–forexampledevelopmentofpoliciesforPublic-PrivatePartnerships(PPPs)canbesharednationally.

COMMUNICATION OF THE INVESTMENT CASE FOR CLIMATE ACTION

Inexperienceandlackofexpertknowledgealsochallengecitiestodevelopapersuasiveinvestmentcasetojustifyclimateaction,takingintoaccountco-benefits(theotherbenefitsthataccruefromclimateactions,beyonddirectclimatechangemitigationoradaptation).Thischallengewasemphasisedbyquestionnairerespondentsinthisresearch.Difficultieswithunderstandinganddemonstratingthebenefitsofclimateactionwerenamedasoneofthemostcommonandtaxingchallengesforcities.Followingonfromthis,theabsenceofastrongbusinesscaseisanobstacletocitiesattractingfundingforclimateaction,especiallywherethereisunfamiliarityormistrustwithnewandinnovativeurbansolutions.Theselinkedchallengesdemonstratetheinterconnectionsbetweenchallenges–particularlywhereonechallengecausesothers-thatmustbeunderstoodiftherootoftheproblemistobesolved(asillustratedbyfigure5.05).

31%of challenges related to city government are due to Political and Leadership issues.

Figure 5.05. Challenges can cause other challenges, leaving the root of the problem difficult to trace.

Lack of expertise

about climate change

and climate actions.

Inability to quantify the (co-)benefits

of climate action

Absence of a persuasive

business case for climate

action

Inability to attract

funding for climate action

54

COORDINATION OF CLIMATE ACTION WITHIN EXISTING POLITICAL CYCLES

Theresearchalsohighlightsthechallengeofshort-termelectoralandplanningcyclesincities,whicharediscordantwithlong-termclimateprojections,deliveryprogrammesformajorprojects,andthetimescalesoverwhichtheimpactofclimateactionscanbeobservedandvalued.Thistensioncanmeanthatclimateactionsarenotprioritisedbycityleaders.Intheirinterview,Barcelonahighlightedthedifficultiesofcreatingclimatechangeplansfora20-30yearhorizon,usingclimateprojectionsof100years,whengovernmentschangeonafouryearcycle-forthisreasonBarcelonaworktosecureagreementofallstakeholders,includingpoliticalparties.

5.2.4 DESPITE THE DOMINANCE OF GOVERNMENT ACTORS, THESE CHALLENGES REMAIN DIFFICULT FOR CITIES TO OVERCOME

Thereissubstantialopportunityresultingfromthefactthatmanychallengesoriginateeitherinlackofcoordinationwithincitygovernments,orbetweencityandothergovernmentinstitutions.Thereisachancetounleashthefullpotentialofthepublicsectoriftheseblockagescanberemoved.

Infact,citieshaveallocatedrelativelyfewresourcestoaddressthechallengesthatarecreatedbygovernmentactors.Theyareinvestingdisproportionatelyinresolvingthechallengesarisingfromcivilsocietyandprivatesectoractors.Citieshaveinvestedinresolving95%ofthechallengescreatedbycivilsocietyactorsand90%ofchallengesemergingfromtheprivatesector,albeitwithpoorresults.

Ontheotherhand,citieshavenottriedorhavenotbeenabletoidentifyanapproachtoaddress21%ofchallengesarisingfromgovernmentactors.Itappearscitieswouldbenefitfromrefocusingtheirresourcestoaddresstheirmostcommonchallenges.

Rio de Janeiro

“WebuilttheMadureiraParkinaneighbourhoodthatwasaconcretejungle.Ithasloweredthetemperatureinthesurroundingareaby2oC,whichhasastrongimpactonenergyconsumptionforcooling,localhealthandwellbeing,andrecreation.Thishashadalotofco-benefits,whichwerenotclearintheoriginalfundingproposalorevaluationoftheproject.It’shardforpeopletoseethewiderbenefitsbeforetheprojectisdelivered.”

21% of challenges related to government actors have not been addressed at all.

55

5.2.5 BY OVERCOMING GOVERNMENT CHALLENGES, CITIES WILL BE BETTER ABLE TO PROGRESS ACTIONS AT ALL STAGES OF THE DELIVERY CYCLE

Challengesarisingfromgovernmentactorsmakeupmorethantwo-thirdsofchallengesateachstageinthedeliverycycle.Thisfindingshowsthatbyaddressinggovernmentchallenges,citiesmaybebetterabletoprogressclimateactionatallstages.

Thedatashowsthatchallengesfromnationalgovernmentsaremostsignificantattheearlieststageofthedeliverycycle(35%ofchallengesatthisstage),whencitiesaretryingtounderstandlocalclimatechangepriorities.Nevertheless,nationalgovernmentisalsosignificantincreatingchallengesatthestagesofprioritisingandpreparingaction,andimplementation.

Challengesfromcitygovernmentaremoresignificantthananyotheractoratallstagesinthedeliverycycle,particularlywhenunderstandinglocalpriorities(43%ofchallenges)andduringimplementationofselectedactions(43%).Whilerelativelyfewchallengeshavebeenidentifiedoverallatthestageofmonitoringandevaluation,citygovernmentisalsothedominantactoratthatstage(67%).

Nevertheless,theroleofotheractorscannotbeoverlooked.Challengesfromprivatesectorandcivilsocietyactorsareparticularlypervasivewhencitiesareprioritising,selectingandpreparingclimateactions,whentheyjointlymakeup22%ofthechallengesarising.Thisisacriticalstageintermsofcitiesworkingoutwhatisappropriateandgainingthebroaderbuy-inthatwillsecuresustainedsuccessforanyintervention.Privatesectorandcivilsocietychallengesarealsoevidentduringtheimplementationofclimateaction(14%)–thestageatwhichcitizensandbusinesseswillbeaskedtotransformtheirday-to-daychoicesduetothecity’schosenclimatecommitments.Privatesectorandcivilsocietyactorswillbediscussedfurtherinthefollowingsections.

Figure 5.06. Scale of resources cities have invested to address challenges, split by actor responsible for the challenges.

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Significant resourceinvested with poor resultsin overcoming challenge

Significant resourceinvested and overcame this challenge

Minimal resource investedand overcame challenge

20%of challenges related to civil society actors have been overcome.

56

Figure 5.07. Frequency with which challenges are linked with each actor at each stage in the delivery cycle, across regions and initiatives.

5.3 COLLABORATION WITH NON-GOVERNMENT PARTNERS

Citiesthatcollaboratewithotheractorsareabletodelivertwiceasmanyclimateactionsasthosethatgovernthroughalesspartnership-basedapproach.24However,thisresearchshowsthatcitiesarefacingarangeofchallengestoforgingthepartnershipsthattheyneedwiththeprivateandcivilsocietysectors.FailureofcitygovernmentstoconnectwithprivatesectorandcivilsocietystakeholdersonclimateissuesisthemostfrequentchallengeexperiencedbycitiesinthePoliticalandLeadershiptype.

Melbourne

“Wedon’tdoanythingalone,wealwaysworkinpartnership.Youcan’tdoanythingalone.”

18 Powering Climate Action: Cities as Global Changemakers, C40/Arup/UCL,2015.


Government (all levels)

National Government

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changepriorities

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Implementclimateaction

22%of challenges arising when selecting climate actions are due to private sector and civil society actors.

57

5.3.1 COLLABORATION BETWEEN CITIES AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR

Thedatashowsthat11%ofchallengestoclimateactionaredirectlyassociatedwithprivatesectoractors,andafurther3%originatefrompublic-privatepartnerships.Thechallengetypesattributabletoprivatesectoractorsarealmostexclusivelyofthreetypes:ResourcesandFunding(34%),PoliticalandLeadership(30%)andTechnologyandInfrastructure(25%)(seefigure5.08).ThesignificanceofResourcesandFundingandPoliticalandLeadershipchallengesdemonstratestheimportanceofprivatesectoractorsinhelpingcitiestoscope,leadandfinancetheirclimateactions.

OftheResourcesandFundingchallengesthatarisefromtheprivatesector,themostprevalentisthechallengeofcitiesfindingsufficientfundingtopayforservicesthattheprivatesectorisabletoprovide.Thisisfollowedcloselybythechallengeofinsufficientengagementbetweencitiesandtheprivatesectortounlocksupportforclimateaction.Thischallengepointsstronglytowardstheoverallthemeofcollaboration.

WithinthePoliticalandLeadershipchallengetype,75%ofchallengesarisingfromtheprivatesectorarerelatedtoalackofstrongleadershipfromprivatesectoractorstodriveclimateaction.

Figure 5.08. Frequency with which challenge types are linked to private sector actors, across regions and sectors.

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64%ofprivatesector-ledTechnologyandInfrastructurechallengesoccurduringthedevelopmentofoptionsforclimateactions,whencitiesareidentifyingthebestcoursetotaketoaddresstheirclimatepriorities(seefigure5.09).Citiesoftenlooktotheprivatesectorforleadershiponappropriatecityinnovations,andtodemonstratetheeffectivenessorviabilityofsolutionswithwhichcitiesthemselveshavelittleexperience.ThedatashowsthatcitiesinNorthAmericaandSoutheastAsiahaveallfacedchallengesinworkingwiththeprivatesectorasaresultofpoorinformationandevidenceaboutthesolutionstheycoulddeliverinpartnership.InBogotá,lackofconfidenceinnewtechnologieshaspreventedthecityfromintroducingsmartstreetlighting–anactionproposedin2011thatcouldhavehadahighimpactonthecity’semissions,butwhichwasnotprogressed.

Figure 5.09. Frequency with which private sector Technology and Infrastructure challenges are linked with each stage in the project delivery cycle, across regions and sectors.

Understand local climatechange priorities

Develop options for climate action

Implement climate action

Monitor and evaluate

27%

64%

0%

9%

64% of private sector Technology challenges affect cities’ ability to develop options for climate action.

59

6%ofallchallengesidentifiedintheresearchemergefromcivilsocietyorganisationsandcitizens(figure5.01).19AlmostathirdoftheseareSocialandCulturalchallenges(figure5.10),particularlythoserelatedtoaperceivedincompatibilitybetweendesiredlifestylesandclimateactions,whichmeanscitizensareunsupportiveofclimateaction.Thissentimentinfluencesgovernmentactors,whoarereluctanttoagreetoactionsthatvotersmaynotlike.Inthisrespect,SocialandCulturalchallengesarecloselylinkedwithPoliticalandLeadership,andInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislativechallenges.

Forexample,SocialandCulturalchallengeswerehighlightedinaninterviewwithHouston,acitywhere74%oftripsaremadebyprivatecar.20BustravelinHoustonhasbeenviewedasalow-incomeandundesirablemodeoftravel,aperceptionthathasleadtonegativeresponsestotransitexpansionproposals(includingbusrapidtransit,lightrailandlocalbus)fromsomestakeholders,delayingeffortstoachievemodalshiftandcurboverallcityemissions.

Perceivedconflictsbetweenlifestylesandclimateactionwereidentifiedinthesurveyasoneofthemostdifficultchallengesofalltoresolve;ithasnotbeensuccessfullyovercomeinanyofthecaseshighlightedbytheresearch.ThisishigherthanSocialandCulturalchallengesasawhole,83%ofwhichhavenotbeenovercomeevenwhensignificantresourceshavebeenallocatedtoaddressthem.

5.3.2 COLLABORATION BETWEEN CITIES AND CIVIL SOCIETY ACTORS

Figure 5.10. Frequency with which challenge types are linked to civil society actors, across regions and sectors.

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19 Itisimportanttonotethatthisfindingisbiasedbytheselectedgroupofrespondents.20 CAM 3.0,C40,ArupandUCL,2015.

6%of challenges are due to civil society actors.

60

32% of challenges related to civil society actors are due to Social and Cultural issues.

Vertical Integration Study

AreportbytheStockholmEnvironmentInstitute(SEI),inpartnershipwithBloombergPhilanthropies,explorestherelationshipbetweencityauthoritiesandotherlevelsofgovernmentinachievingdramaticcutsinurbangreenhousegasemissions.Thestudybuildsuponearlierworkthatfoundthataggressiveurbanactioncouldreduceglobalgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsbyupto15%ofthereductionsneededtokeepwarmingwithin2degreesCelsius.Thenewreportidentifiesidealrolesofnational,state,andcitygovernmentsinundertakingtheseaggressiveurbanGHGabatementactions.Keyfindingsofthestudyinclude:

• Forapproximately20%ofurbanGHGabatementpotential,cityshouldbepolicyleadersandarchitects.Thegreatestopportunitieshereareinthepassengertransportsector,andincludeimprovedspatialplanning,promotionofwalkingandbicycling,enhancedtransitsystemdevelopment,andmoreefficienttransportationmanagement.

• Foranother40%ofurbanabatementpotential,theidealroleforcitiesistobecriticalimplementersofnationallyappliedpolicies.Opportunitiesherearegreatestintheresidentialandcommercialbuildingssectors.

• Fortheremaining40%ofurbanabatement,citiescanbestrategicpartners,takingcrucialindependentactionstoenhancetheeffectivenessofpoliciesenactedathigherlevelsofgovernment.Forthesediverseopportunities,citiescouldenhancenationaleffortsthroughincentives,education,permitting,andinfrastructuredevelopment.

5.4 SUMMARY

Thischapterhashighlightedthethemesofcollaboration,coordinationandcommunicationasbeingcentraltothechallengesthatcitiesfacetoadvancingclimateaction.Byfocusingontheactorsinvolvedincreatingchallenges,itisevidentthatthesethemesareprevalentinthechallengescreatedwithincitygovernmentsthemselves,andintherelationshipsthatcitiesholdwithotherlevelsofgovernment,theprivatesector,andcivilsociety.ThesefindingsbegintoframethechallengesfacedbyC40cities.Thisframingwillbesignificantlydeepenedinastudytofollowin2016,whichwillalsoaddressthesolutionsthatcanbetakentoovercomethesechallenges.

61

ConclusionCHAPTER 6

6.1 CitiesAreReadyToBeUnleashed 64

6.2 ThereIsNoSolutionWithoutCollaboration 64

6.3 ACallToAction 65

63

6.1 CITIESAREREADYTOBEUNLEASHED

Inaworldfirst,thisresearchhasestablishedthepotentialforcityaction,andcitedthebynowextensiveevidencefromtheClimate Action in Megacitiesresearch,showingthatcitiesintendtorealisethatpotential.Tounderstandhowthispotentialcanbeunlocked,inasecondworldfirst,acomprehensivesurveyhasbeenstartedlookingatthechallengescitiesarefacing.Thissurveydrawsonthelearning,experienceandideasofbothC40cities,andC40staffwhohaveover10yearsofexperienceincollaboratingtodeliverurbanclimateaction.Indoingso,aframeworkhasbeendevelopedforunderstandingchallengestoclimateactionincities.

Theresearchhasshownthatcitiesworldwideareexperiencingchallengesthatdelay,limit,divertorpreventthemfrombuildingontheirexistingclimateactionandadvancingfurthertowardsaclimate-safefuture.ThesechallengesatleastpartlyaccountforthegapsinclimateactionthatareidentifiableinC40’sdatabaseoncityaction.

Whiletheimpactofchallengesmaybegreatintheshortterm,theresearchhasshownthatonlyinaminorityofcaseswillchallengescompletelypreventclimateaction;foraround90%ofchallenges,theeffectistodelayorlimitthescopeofactions.Thisgivesconfidencethatchallengescanbesuccessfullynavigatedinordertoaccelerateandexpandclimateactionincities.

Whileallcitiesencounterdifficultiesatsomelevel,thedominantchallengetypesvaryindifferentcitiesandtheactors,timing,costandothercharacteristicsarelocallyspecific.ResourcesandFunding,PoliticalandLeadership,andInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislativechallengetypesaregloballythemostcommon,andthemostconnectedtootherchallengetypes.ThefirstandforemosttaskinunlockingthevastpotentialforactionoutlinedinChapter2istobetterunderstandthemainthreadsandthemesamongstthesethreegroupsofchallenges,andtostartunpickinghowtheymightbemanaged.

6.2 THEREISNOSOLUTIONWITHOUTCOLLABORATION

Theprocessofunpickingthesechallengeshasbeenthoroughlystartedinthiswork,thoughwithmuchstilltobedone,inparticularindevelopingpracticalsolutionsforhowtomitigatethem.

Howevertheevidencehereclearlyhighlightsthatnothingshortofacrosssectorcollaborativeeffortcanhopetosucceed.Thismustbringtogethernational,regionalandcitygovernments,theprivatesectorandcivilsociety.

Inalmostthreequartersofcasesthechallengesidentifiedcannotbeaddressedunilaterallybycities.Thereisnosolutionwithoutpartnershipandcollaboration.Itnolongermakessensetowaitforleadershipfromnationalgovernments,orinnovationfromtheprivatesector,oracriticalmassofcivilsocietyactivity.Allmustbeconvenedtogethertounderstandwhatisneededfromandforoneanother.Thisisparticularlytrueforgovernment,withbettercollaboration,coordinationandcommunicationrequiredacrossalllevels.

90%of challenges have the effect of delaying or limiting the scope of climate actions.

64

Thisisapotentmessageforthe21stConferenceofthePartiestotheUnitedNations’FrameworkConventiononClimateChange(COP21),asummitofnationalgovernmentshopingtoworktogethertodeliverthecollectiveactionneeded.ItisalsopotentafterCOP,however,becausewhateverthesuccessofinternationaleffortstoforgeatreatyonclimatechange,itisthisbroadchurchofstateandnon-stateactorsthatwilldelivermanyoftheactionsrequiredtoestablishaclimatesafetrajectoryfortheworld’seconomy.AsdemonstratedinanotherC40pieceofwork21thiscannotbeachievedwithoutcities,anddoingsowillsavetheworldeconomyUS$16.6trillionby2050.22

6.3 ACALLTOACTION

C40,ArupandUCLhavetakenadeliberatedecisiontoendthisreportontheseopenquestions:howdothethreemaintypesofchallengemanifestincities,andwhatarethesolutionsthatwillenablecitiestomanagethemandtakeadvantageofthehugepotentialforclimateaction?

Wepresentthisevidencebaseaboutchallengestoclimateactionwiththeobjectivetoinvitecontributionsandstimulateaproductiveconversationbetweenactorsacrossgovernment,businessandcivilsociety.Asweobservetheincrediblecontributionthatcitiesaremakingtoaddressclimatechangeglobally,wearecallingforactorstoidentifyandunitearoundthesolutionstohelpcitiesdomore.

C40seekstoestablishaTaskForceofpartnerswhoworkwithcities,fromallsectors,tocollaborateonthisexerciseoverthecomingmonths.Andtoexplorechallengeshighlightedinthisreport,suchasthosepreventingcitiesandprivatesectorworkingtogether,toaccessingcapital,tomakingthecaseforaction,andsoon.

Thisprocesswillculminateinasecond,moredetailedreportdeeplyanalysingthethemeswithinthethreemaingroupsofchallengesidentifiedinthiswork,andcruciallythesolutionstothem.Theaimistodefineandultimatelydelivereffortstoovercomechallengesandunlocktheremainingpotentialincities.

Decisive,high-impact,globalandcollaborativeactiononclimatechangeispossible;citieshavedemonstratedthat.C40andAruplookforwardtoworkingwithcitiesandpartnerstoensurethissuccessgrowsandgrows.

21 http://c40-production-images.s3.amazonaws.com/researches/images/40_The_Decisions_We_Make_Today_Will_Shape_Tomorrow.original.pdf?144423997622 http://2015.newclimateeconomy.report

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AppendixSupplementary Information

A.1 DiggingDeeper:TheCharacteristicsOfThree

DominantChallenges 68

A.1.1ResourcesAndFunding 68

A.1.2PoliticalAndLeadership 70

A.1.3Institutional,RegulatoryAndLegislative 72

A.2 Glossary 74

A.3 Acknowledgements 75

67

A1: DIGGING DEEPER: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE DOMINANT CHALLENGES

Chapterfourhashighlightedthreechallengetypesthataremostcommonincitiesglobally,andwhicharestronglylinkedtotheoccurrenceofothertypesofchallenge.Thefollowingsnapshotsdigdeeperintothesethreeintractablechallenges.

A1.1 RESOURCES AND FUNDING

Prevalence MostfrequentlyoccurringchallengetypeacrossC40cities(21%ofallchallengesmentionedinsurvey).

Most frequently occurring challenges

1. Gapbetweeninvestmentrequiredtodeliveranactionandbudgetavailable(19%ofallResourceandFundingchallengesmentionedinsurveydata)

2. Perceivedconflictbetweeneconomicgrowthandclimateaction(17%)

3. Inabilitytoaccessfinanceresourcesforclimateaction(15%)

4. Inadequateeconomicevaluationtoquantifyandprioritisethebenefitsofclimateaction(15%)

Actors ResponsibilityforcreatingResourceandFundingchallengesliespredominantlywithnationalandmunicipalgovernments.IntheChineseleaders,nationalgovernmentsaretheonlyactorsnamed.Emergingeconomiesandboomcitiesaretheonlycitygroupsthatfacechallengeswithfundingfrominternationalagencies.Moreestablishedeconomiesseeagreaterroleforprivatesectoractorsincontributingtofundingchallenges.

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Timing 39%ofResourceandFundingchallengesariseduringtheimplementationstageofclimateaction,ascitiestrytodelivertheiragreedactions.ResourceandFundingchallengesarealsosignificantatthestagesofunderstandingpriorities(21%)anddevelopingoptionsforaction(35%),whencitiesneedtoaccessexpertstaffandinformationtoguidetheirdecision-making.Forexample,difficultieswithmakingabusinesscaseforclimateactionaremainlyencounteredinthefirststageofprojectdelivery.

Interconnectedness ResourceandFundingchallengesarethemostembeddedofallchallengetypes.TheyhaveextremelystrongconnectionswithPoliticalandLeadershipchallenges,TechnologyandInfrastructure,InformationandKnowledge,SocialandCulturalandInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislative.

Cost of addressing challenges

For35%ofResourceandFundingchallenges,citiesareinvestingminimalresourceswithpoorratesofsuccessinovercomingthechallenge.Citieshavebeenunabletoidentifyanapproachtotackle21%ofResourceandFundingchallenges.Citieshavesuccessfullyovercome17%ofResourceandFundingchallenges.

Longevity Mostlylastlongerthan5years.

Impact Mostlythoughttodelayclimateaction,withnoexamplesmentionedofResourceandFundingchallengescompletelypreventingaction.Thismaybeapositivesignforcities’achievementofclimategoalsinthelongerterm,providedchallengescanbeovercome.

Minimal resource investedand overcame barrier

Significant resourceinvested and overcame this barrier

Significant resourceinvested with poor resultsin overcoming barrier

Not tried any approaches to overcome barrier

Minimal resource investedwith poor results inovercoming barrier

Unable to identify approachto overcome barrier

6%

11%

21%

6% 35%

21%




Monitor and evaluateimpact

21%

35%

39%

5%

69

A1.2 POLITICAL AND LEADERSHIP

Prevalence Thisisthesecondmostprevalentchallengetype,afterResourcesandFunding(20%ofallchallengesmentionedinsurveydata).


1. Weakleadershiponclimateactionfromtheprivatesector(14%ofallPoliticalandLeadershipchallengesmentionedbyC40regionalstaff).

2. Failureofcitygovernmenttoconnectwithcivilsociety,privatesector,orotherstakeholdergroups(14%).

3. Climateactionsnotseenaspoliticallycompelling(13%).

4. Unabletoarticulateco-benefitsofclimaterelatedactivitiesandotherurbanpolicies(10%).

Actors TheactorresponsibleforPoliticalandLeadershipchallengesismorevariedthantheothertwointractablechallenges.ThenationalgovernmentdoesnotcompletelydominateastheactorprimarilyresponsibleacrossanyoftheGDPtypologies.Theresponsibleactorisusuallythecityitself,withsmallernumbersofveryimportantchallengesarisingfromtheprivatesector.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

sreirr

ab f

o %

GDP typology

Lobbyists for Business

Private Sector


Civil Service

Specific Political Party

Mayor's office


Regional Government

National Government

70

Timing Politicalandleadershipchallengesarethemostimportantchallengesattheearlieststagesofprojectdelivery,withpotentialtopreventactionbeforeithasevenstarted.32%ofthesechallengesoccurascitiesaretryingtounderstandtheirclimatepriorities,and35%ascitiesdeveloptheiroptionsforaction.Challengesremainsignificantbutdecreaseinimportanceasthecycleprogresses.

Interconnectedness Strongconnectionswithallotherchallengetypes,potentiallyacausalrelationship.StrongestconnectionswithTechnologyandInfrastructureandResourcesandFundingchallengetypes.


30%ofPoliticalandLeadershipchallengeshavebeenaddressedbycitiesusingminimalresources,withapoorsuccessrateinovercomingthem.

However,thesuccessrateforovercomingPoliticalchallengesishigherthanotherchallengetypes;34%ofchallengesinthistypehavebeenovercome.


Impact Mostlythoughttolimitanddelayclimateaction,andonlycompletelypreventactioninaminorityofexamples.Again,thismaybeapositivesignforcities’achievementofclimategoalsinthelongerterm,providedchallengescanbeovercome.


Develop options forclimate action



32%

35%

29%

4%


Significant resourceinvested and overcame this barrier


Not tried any approachesto overcome barrier



20%

15%

5%

12%

30%

18%

71

A1.3 INSTITUTIONAL, REGULATORY AND LEGISLATIVE

Prevalence Thisisthethirdmostprevalentchallengetype,afterResourcesandFunding,andPoliticalandLeadership(17%ofallchallengesmentionedbysurveyrespondents).


1. Poorinteractionandcoordinationacrosssectorsandinstitutionstodeliverclimateaction(27%ofallInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislativechallengesmentionedbyC40regionalstaff)

2. Poorlanduseplanning(18%)

3. Existinglegislation/regulationinhibitsimplementationofclimateaction(14%)

4. Absenceofplanningcodes,regulationsandstandards(12%)

Actors NationalandcitygovernmentsarethedominantactorresponsibleforInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislativechallenges,andtoalesserextentregionalgovernment.Citygovernmentactorsareparticularlydrivingthesechallengesinestablishedcitiesandglobaleconomies.Incitiesatanearlystageofdevelopment(boomcities,Chineseleaders,emergingeconomies),nationalgovernmentplaysamoresignificantpartincreatingInstitutionalchallenges.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

sreirr

ab f

o %

GDP typology

Citizens

Civil Service


Regional Government

National Government

Government

72

Timing Institutional,RegulatoryandLegislativechallengesarerelativelyevenlydistributedacrossthefirstthreestagesoftheprojectdeliverycycle,particularlyduringthedevelopmentofoptionsforclimateaction(37%)andimplementation(34%).Differentinstitutionalchallengesaremorecommonatdifferentstages.

Interconnectedness MoststronglyconnectedtoResourcesandFundingchallenges,aswellasPoliticalandLeadershipandTechnologyandInfrastructurechallenges.


Citieshavebeenunabletoidentifyapproachestoaddress22%oftheirInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislativechallenges–ahigherproportionthantheotherintractablechallengetypes.Only20%ofchallengesinthisgrouphavebeensuccessfullyovercome.


Impact NoexampleshavebeenuncoveredofInstitutional,RegulatoryandLegislativechallengesthatcompletelypreventedclimateaction.Thischallengetypetendstodelayactionfromtakingplace.





28%

37%

34%

1%


Significant resourceinvested and overcamethis barrier


Not tried any approachesto overcome barrier



7%

13%

13%

18%

27%

22%

73

A2: GLOSSARY

Challenge Anobstaclethatchallengesacity’sabilitytodeliverclimateaction.Theobstaclemaybepermanentortemporary,originatingwithinoroutsidethecity,andmayhavetheeffectofpreventing,delaying,limitingordivertingacity’simplementationofclimateaction.

Solution Aninterventionthatcanbemadetoremove,avoidorreducetheeffectsofachallenge.Thismayincludeatargetedinvestmentoftime,fundingorskillsbyagivenactororgroupofactorstodirectlyaddressachallenge.Asolutionmayalsobeindirect,asaresultofeffortstoaddressanotherrelatedchallenge.

Climate action Definedasthemeasuresandinitiativescitiestaketoreducetheseverityofclimatechange(mitigation),ortheirexposuretotheeffectsofclimatechange(adaptation).

Sector Individualsectorsofactivityinwhichclimateactionisbeingtakenbycities.Thisincludes:Adaptation,Buildings,Community-scaleDevelopment,EnergySupply,Finance,Food&Agriculture,MassTransit,OutdoorLighting,PrivateTransport,Waste,Water.

Scale Identifiestheextenttowhichanactionisintroducedacrossthecity.Thescalesare;

-Transformative(city-wide)-Significant-Pilot-Underconsideration

Power Thedegreeofcontrolorinfluencemayorsexertoverassets(suchasbuses)andfunctions(suchaseconomicdevelopment).

74

A3: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors:

C40

MarkWatts

AndreaFernandez

SethSchultz

TomBailey

JamesAlexander

KatieVines

RachelHuxley

Arup

PaulaKirk

LauraFrost

AnnieGibbons

TaniaSmith

ThomasHurst

AlexandraClement-Jones

AndrewPeterman

HarrietO’Brien

JuliusMcGillivray

AlperOzmumcu

UCL

Dr.MicheleAcuto

Dr.ElizabethRapoport

Dr.JyotsnaRam

KatrienSteenmans

HueyYeeYoong

Contributors:

Design

Harrybarlow.com

Unreal-uk.com

75

76

C40

NorthWestEntrance,City-GateHouse

39-45FinsburySquare,Level6

London,EC2A1PX

UnitedKingdom.

[email protected]

ARUP

13FitzroyStreet,

London,W1T4BQ

UnitedKingdom.

[email protected]

c40 city potential 2015

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