Child Labour in the Gemstones Polishing

Industry of JaipurDeterminants of Work and Schooling Decisions

Yashodhan Ghorpade

Session C2: Schooling, Education and Work Presentation: 1

Background: Gemstones Polishing in Jaipur• Long history of gemstones and jewellery industry in Jaipur• Rajput kingdom of Jaipur promoted craft industry, used location

between Delhi, Agra, Punjab, Deccan• Political stability allowed industry to grow, specialise• Presence of Marwari businessmen and skilled Muslim craftsmen• Large industry catering to both domestic and local markets• Semi-precious coloured gemstones: ruby, emerald, garnet, sapphire

Child Labour in Gemstones Polishing in Jaipur• Historically noted presence of children as apprentices; made up 22%

of the workforce in 1991 survey by VVGNLI• Lower mechanisation meant “nimble finger” argument may have held• Child labour in gemstones polishing banned under CLPRA, 1986• Informal nature of industry, home-based work(shops) make ban less

effective • Greater focus on regulating conditions of work, providing bridge

schooling and income support• Important source of current (supplementary) income, investment in

future employability for children

Structure and Organisation of GPI

• Informal sector activity, often done in home-based workshops• Children work alongside adults, craft passed on across generations.

Some occupational mobility in recent years• Various stages of value addition – higher stages more likely to be

performed in workshops rather than at home• Brokers (dalaal) mediate exchange of gemstones at various stages,

esp. between finished stone and jeweller• Craftsmen can train to become highly skilled although a large number

of workers remain semi/low skilled workers- rise depends on talent, ability, family initiation and backing, gender

Stages of Gemstones Processing

Category Constituent Activities

1 Drilling, Sticking gem on dopping stick, stringing --- Least Skilled

2 Pre-shaping

3 Cutting, Faceting on a saan

4 Polishing: in a drum, or on a saan

5 Measurement and Calibration, Sorting, Faceting and Polishing on an Israeli Machine --- Most Skilled

Methodology

• Mixed Methods research – unique combination• 3 fieldwork sites in Jaipur city: Ramganj, Aamagarh, Badanpura (map) in July

2006 • Contact through local NGOs – Bodh Shiksha Samiti (EC) and Unique Education

Society (NCLP partner)• Snowball sampling and reliance on local informants for qualitative research• Quantitative household data analysis (descriptive and econometric) across 98

households (525 children)• Qualitative research: 25 in-depth interviews with parents, FGDs with 11

community youth, 10 boys, 10 girls, 9 gemstones craftsmen, KIIs with NGOs, teachers, craftsmen

Describing the population

Children’s Work / Schooling Outcomes by Adult per capita Income Quintiles

Adult per capita Income

QuintilesWork Only School Only Work and

Study BothNeither Work

nor Study Total

Q1 32 (28.8) 17 (15.3) 37 (33.3) 25 (22.5) 111 (100)

Q2 21 (20.8) 19 (18.8) 44 (43.6) 17 (16.8) 101 (100)

Q3 23 (25.6) 18 (20.0) 34 (37.8) 15 (16.7) 90 (100)

Q4 23 (21.1) 19 (17.4) 49 (45) 18 (16.5) 109 (100)

Q5 11 (17.2) 17 (26.6) 32 (50) 4 (6.3) 64 (100)

Total 110 (23.2) 90 (18.9) 196 (41.3) 79 (16.6) 475 (100)

What makes children go to school?Dependant: Child Currently Working ALL BOYS GIRLS

Age 0.293*** 0.343*** 0.251***

Age-Squared -0.014*** -0.017*** -0.012***

In School -0.075 -0.146* 0.016Male -0.057Oldest Sibling 0.06 0.023 0.084Youngest Sibling 0.007 0.027 -0.027Father Dead -0.144* -0.206** -0.041Mother Dead 0 0 0

Mother Illiterate -0.119** -0.062 -0.222***

Father Illiterate -0.04 -0.016 -0.057

Mother working -0.153*** -0.131** -0.218***

Father Working -0.165*** -0.174*** -0.108

Per Capita Adult Income 0.000* 0.000*** 0.000Household Size 0.018*** 0.014** 0.017***LPG stove Connection 0.102** 0.155*** -0.024Gems Polishing Machine -0.048 -0.088 -0.008Family business - gemstones -0.106 -0.238** 0.047N 465 237 228

• Inverse U-shaped relationship with age• Working reduces likelihood of school

attendance for boys, not girls• Gender does not affect likelihood of

school attendance• Mother’s literacy matters, especially for

girls’ attendance; father’s death reduces likelihood of boys’ school attendance

• Boys from gemstones business families less likely to be in school – opportunity costs

• Stable/ assured minimum incomes proxied by LPG increase likelihood of attending school

What makes children work in gems polishing?

Dependant: Child Currently Working ALL BOYS GIRLS

Age 0.160*** 0.191*** 0.120***

Age-Squared -0.005*** -0.006*** -0.003

In School -0.068 -0.129*** 0.006

Male 0.077** - -

Oldest Sibling 0.109* 0.071 0.136

Youngest Sibling -0.074* -0.148*** -0.024Father Dead -0.055 -0.067 -0.045Mother Dead 0 0 0Mother Illiterate 0.041 -0.005 0.128*

Father Illiterate -0.016 -0.052 0.02Mother working 0.160*** 0.142*** 0.200***

Father Working 0.035 0.007 0.047Per Capita Adult Income 0.000 0.000 0.000Household Size -0.005 -0.017** 0.000LPG stove Connection -0.062 -0.067 -0.022Gems Polishing Machine 0.009 -0.004 0.022Family business - gemstones 0.032 -0.014 0.052

N 465 237 228

• Boys 7% more likely to work than girls

• Over the range, income not significant

• Being in school reduces likelihood of working for boys, not for girls

• Mothers working increase likelihood of children’s (esp. girls’) work

• Birth order matters; oldest siblings more likely to work, youngest male less

What determines duration of work?• Work hours increase with age,

inverse U-shaped• Boys on average work longer hours• Shorter duration of work for children

in school, esp. boys• Higher-skill activities have longer

working hours• Mothers working increases sons’

work hours: complementarity • Income, LPG, gemstones machine,

family business do not affect duration

Dependant: Child Work Hours ALL BOYS GIRLSAge 1.482*** 1.692*** 1.343***

Age-Squared -0.045*** -0.052*** -0.041**

In School -1.819*** -2.178*** -1.492***

Male 0.720**

Oldest Sibling 0.098 0.347 -0.258Youngest Sibling -0.362 -0.686 -0.149Category 2 activity 4.957*** 4.857*** 5.177***

Category 3 activity 4.562*** 3.931*** 5.171***

Category 4 activity 4.604*** 4.286*** 3.829***

Category 5 activity 6.715*** 6.025*** - Father Dead 0.108 -0.477 0.913

Mother Dead -0.58 -1.960** 0.036Mother Illiterate 0.207 -0.102 0.488Father Illiterate 0.068 0.116 0.11Mother working 0.811* 1.115*** 0.435Father Working 0.513 0.47 0.701Per Capita Adult Income 0.000 0.001 0.000Household Size -0.062 -0.084 -0.052LPG stove Connection -0.204 -0.059 -0.33Gems Polishing Machine -0.197 0.193 -0.522Family business - gemstones -0.476 -0.586 -0.387N 466 238 228

Gender differences in children’s work

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 180

1

2

3

45

6

7

89

Duration of working children's work (Avg daily hours) by age

Working Boys Working Girls

1 2 3 4 50

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

22

65

2840

3

22

100

183

0

Share of Boys/ Girls by Activity Category: Working Children

Boys Girls

1 2 3 4 50

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10

25

614

0

12

40

22

26

3

Work site for working boys

Home Workshop

Parental Expectations and the Wider Social Environment• Majboori – helplessness cited as immediate reason for children working;

combined with poverty• Early entry in gemstones processing cited to be important for becoming

craftsman; learning business/soft skills• Problems with schooling: access, quality, academic support, bullying/

punishment, fear of failure, costly private schooling• Training, apprenticeship and future employment prospects• Little confidence in children being able to complete high enough level of

schooling to secure high-paying jobs; gemstones is a safe fallback• Lower access to girls’ schooling at secondary level, unsafe to travel distances

Parental/ Children’s own expectations/ aspirations

Boys

• Study, complete higher education• Stable jobs in formal sector• Gemstones less preferred but

practical choice, available as source of future employment, possibility to rise over time

• Financial independence and supporting present/future families, sisters’ dowries, settling household debt

Girls

• Attain education and teach siblings, educate children in the future

• Look after present/ future families

• Contribute to family income, including through gemstones polishing – but not continue in the future

Experiences of Work and SchoolingGems Polishing Work

• Transformational effects on personality, confidence, communication skills, discipline, respect for elders - BOYS

• Learning new skills (boys – NOT girls)• Contributing to household income• Camaraderie with siblings, family,

elders• Injuries, reprimanding and physical

abuse• Lesser time to play with friends

Schooling • Confidence in social interactions,

improved social standing• Friends, social life • Benefits in daily life – newspapers,

calculations, accessing services, letters• Girls become aware, independent –

able to claim rights/ access police• Reinforced gemstones careers –

geometry, maths, physics, chemistry, English language

• Bridge schools had no space for playing

Summary of Key Findings• Unique setting of child labour which offers prospect of acquiring skills and

employment but not for all – not a general case• Boys more likely to work, for longer and acquire higher skills – but girls’

participation is significant• Work and school compete for boys’ time, but not for girls: higher

opportunity cost for boys schooling – foregone training in a craft• Gender plays a significant role in parental/ societal expectations and

children’s aspirations and outcomes• Mismatch between poorly accessed and low quality formal schooling and an

imperfect informal process of skills acquisition• Reason that keeps girls in low skills occupations is also why their education

is not threatened by work – mobility and skills deficit

Policy Implications• Skills acquisition as well as current poverty important drivers of child

labour• Schooling system must improve access, quality – benefits of education

understood and expressed by parents, children alike• Education system must account for the demand to improve children’s

future employability – gemstones polishing partly fills this space, and can be integrated into schooling at appropriate age

• Girls’ mobility and access to education important gaps that should be addressed

Thank You