c11 leadership

8/6/2019 C11 Leadership

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/c11-leadership 1/32

Leadership



What is leadership? Many definitions--some examples:

�Leadership is the initiation of action to solve a problem

�Leadership is directing or controlling the activity of a group

�Leadership is influencing the activities of group as it moves toward its goals.

Leadership is power, But power is not necessarily leadership.

Power is the ability to get others to do what you want them to do.

But coercive power is not leadership.

Rather leadership is power that grows out of personal characteristics such ascharisma, expertise, and interpersonal skills.



Sources of Power and Leadership

Power from Personal CharacteristicsYES NO

Power from

The Position

YES

NO

Officer Formal Leader

Informal Leader Follower



ABrief History of Leadership Theory

I. A Trait Approach(1900-1950s): Leaders are born, not made.

The focus of early leadership research was to find personal traits that distinguished

leaders from followers.

The search was not successful--100s of studies lead to the conclusion that there was

no such set of personal characteristics that by themselves distinguished leaders

from non-leaders.A few traits such as above average intelligence,

responsibility, self confidence, and persistence were associated with leaders, but

they are not sufficient explanations.

Later studies of leadership characteristics led to the conclusion that there were a few

general traits that were associated with effective leadership such as self-confidence, stress tolerance, emotional maturity, and integrity--but again no

trait or set of traits by itself guaranteed leader effectiveness.

Both the situation and skill also have a lot to do with leadership effectiveness.



II. A Situational Approach: Leaders are made, not born.

For a short time in the 1950s sociologists tried to demonstratethat the situation determined leadership, but they too were

unsuccessful.

Like the trait approach, the situational approach was doomed tofailure because it was too narrow in its view.

Most contemporary leadership theories now subscribe to the

position that traits, behaviors, and situation interact to determine

the effectiveness of a leader.



III. A Contingency Approach

Contemporary approaches to leadership acknowledge theimportance of matching the traits and leadership behavior to

situations to maximize effectiveness.

But the thorny questions are what traits or styles with whatsituations.

What are the basic situations?

What are the basic styles?

What are the matches that lead to effectiveness?

These are the critical questions of leadership.



Three Major Sets of Empirical Studies

I. The Ohio State Leadership Studies (LBDQ-Studies)

Early studies of leadership at Ohio State, which sought to d escribe the behavior of

leaders and identify the basic dimensions of leadership. The focus was on

how people who occupied leadership positions actually behaved. The method

was survey research and descriptive questionnaire. How do you leaders

actually behave.

After extensive study, the conclusions were:

� Initiating Structure and Consideration: the two basic dimensions of

leadership.

� Effective leaders most often were high on both dimensions.� Superiors and subordinates evaluate contributions in opposite directions.

� Only a slight relation between ideal and real behaviors.

That is knowing how to behavior does not guarantee one will behave that way.

Knowing and Doing are different activities.



II. Two Michigan Studies

A. Research Center for Group Dynamics--Cartwright and Zander

Study of small groups working on tasks; the research method was to observe small

groups solve problems and accomplish tasks.

Conclusions:

� There were two basic functions need for success: GoalAchievement &

Group Maintenance.

� For a group to be effective, both functions needed to be accomplished.

B. Survey Research Center

Large-scale studies of organizations like the OCDQ studies using questionnaires todescribe behavior of leaders.

Conclusion: Two kinds of leader behavior:

Production-Oriented Behavior

Employee-Oriented Behavior



III. Harvard Studies

Laboratory of Social Relations--Bales

A pproach: Experimental study interaction pattern in groups and Interaction Analysis

Findings:

1. Not one leader in the group, but rather two leaders emerge.

2.A

task lead er to get the job done--skill at moving the group toward task

A relations lead er to care for social relations--most popular

3. As the group develops it becomes increasingly difficult for the one leader to be

both a task and relations leader.

4. ADual Leadership Model emerges



A basic conclusion from leadership studies--

Regardless of approach, there are two dimensions or functions of leadership.

Different researches label them differently, but they are the same.

1. Task Relations

2. Initiating Structure Consideration

3. Production-oriented Employee-oriented4. Task Social

5. Goal-oriented People-oriented

6. Concern for production Concern for people

7. Instrumental Expressive



Leadership Styles

Task

Relations

High +

High +

Low -

Low -

Dynamic

Leader

Relations

Leader

Task

Leader

Passive

Leader



ContingencyA pproaches to Leadership

Effectiveness depends on matching the style to the situation

1. Fiedler¶s ContingencyA pproach2. Hersey and Blanchard¶s SituationalA pproach

3. Hoy¶s Complementary Model

4. Hoy & Reed¶s Enabling Model--in development



Fielder¶s Contingency Theory of Leadership

BasicAssumption: The effectiveness of a group is contingent upon the relationship

between the lead ership style and the degree to which the situation enables the leader to

exert influence.

� Effectiveness--is the degree to which the group accomplishes it task.

� Lead ership Style--the underlying need structure that motivates behavior; there are two

basic need structures or leadership styles:

�Task-oriented- leader gets basic needs gratified by accomplishing the task.

�Relations-oriented- leader gets needs gratified by achieving good personal relations

**Note: leadership style in this theory is not behavior, but rather need structure.

�Situational Control (Favorableness of the situation)--is the degree of power and

influence that leaders have to implement their plans, decisions, and strategies.



Conclusions for Contingency Theory

1. In high-control situations, task-oriented leaders are

more effective than relations-oriented leaders.

2. In moderate-control situations, relations-oriented

leaders are more effective than task-oriented leaders.

3. In low-control situations, task-oriented leaders are

more effective than relations-oriented leaders.

4. Avoid situations where you are likely to fail.

5. Match your leadership style with the appropriate situation;

seek situations where you will likely succeed and know

when it it time to move on. Situations change.



Hersey and Blanchard--Situational Theory

BasicAssumption: Leader effectiveness depends on the appropriate matching of

leadership behavior with the situation.

**Note the theory applies to both individuals and groups and hierarchical and

colleague relationships.

Readiness of the group or person is the key situational variable.

Readiness of Group or Person Readiness of Group or Person

Sets realistic goals Sets unrealistic or no goals

Assumes responsibility Avoids responsibility

Has ability and technical knowledge Lacks ability and knowledge

Has self-respect and self-confidence Lacks self-respect and self-confidence



Readiness of the Group

High Low

High Moderate Low

R 4 R 3 R 2 R 1

Readiness is the capacity of the individual or group to set high but

attainable goals, to show willingness and ability to take

responsibility, to have experience and knowledge, and to have self-

confidence[A ble, willing, and confident].



Four Leadership Styles

Task Behavior

Relations

Behavior

HighLow

High

Low

Participating

Delegating

Selling

Telling



Matching Style and Situation

High Moderate Low

R 4 R 3 R 2 R 1

Participating Selling

Delegating Telling

Relations

Low

High

HighLow



Conclusions

1. Effectiveness depends upon matching leadership

behavior style with the maturity of the group in a

specific situation.

2. Remember knowing and doing are different things.

3. Leaders must develop flexibility to change style.4. Matching style and situation is not the only leadership

role; group development is another important role, that

is, moving the group to readiness and responsibility is

also an leadership role.



Hoy¶s Complementary Model of Leadership:

Some Theorizing

BasicAssumption: Leadership effectiveness depends on providing both leadership

functions for a group--goal achievement and group maintenance. Thus, the

leader must ensure that both functions are met and match his/her style with the

strengths and weaknesses of the group.

Basic Group Functions:

� GoalAchievement

� Group Maintenance

Leadership Behavior Styles�Task-oriented Style

�Human-relations Style

�Dynamic Style

�Delegative Style



M atch Style and Situation by Complementary Behavior

Human

Relations

Style

Dynamic

Style

Delegative

Style

Task-

Oriented

Style

Fostering

InterpersonalRelations

Low

High

HighLow

Accomplishing the Task

Group Functions

Goal Achievement

Group Maintenance +

++

+ - -

--



Conclusions

1. Effective leadership is dependent on the group meeting

both of its basic functions--goal achievement and group

maintenance.

2. The role of the leader is to read how well the group is

meeting these needs and then complement the activitieswith the appropriate style.

3. The leader has to be flexible and able to perform all four

leadership behavior styles.

4. The leadership process is developmental; that is, as the

group becomes able to perform leadership functions on itown in a given situation, the leader delegates the

responsibility to the group.



New Leadership Perspectives: Retreat or Advance?

1. Charismatic Leadership2. Transformational and Transactional Leadership

Contemporary discussions of leadership and research on leadership

have been concerned with the related notions of charismaticleadership and transformational leadership.

With the advocacy of charismatic and transactional leadership, there is a

tendency to think of the ³one best style again.´ Some of the

contemporary advocates of these styles seem to suggest the return tosuch a perspective, but others acknowledge that the situation that

these styles are facilitated by some situations and hindered by

others.



Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic leadership has its origins in the analyses of Max Weber.

Some leaders have an extraordinary personality; in fact,their personality

is so strong the people in large part to the power of their

personality. But leading is not effectiveness. Getting others to

follow is successful leadership, but it is not necessarily effectiveleadership; that is, effective leadership depends on the

accomplishment of tasks and goals of the group.

Successful versus Effective Leadership

Kennedy, Clinton, Regan as well as Hitler and Mussolini were all

charismatic leaders.



Transformational Leadership

James McGregor Burns first developed the ideas of transactional and

transformational leadership.

T ransactional lead ership involves exchanging rewards for services rendered. It is a

form of contingent reinforcement with the leader rewarding and reinforcing desired

behavior.

T ransformational lead ership, in contrast, goes beyond exchange inducements for

desired performance. Transformational leaders transform the organization by

developing vision, building commitment, and empowering followers.

Bass in industry and Leithwood in schools have popularized the concept of

transformation leadership and have developed frameworks and measures that haveled to a body of research on transformational leadership.



Bass views transformational leadership as an expansion of

transactional leadership that goes beyond simple exchange and

agreements by employing the one or more of the four I¶s:

�Idealized Influence

�Inspirational Motivation

�Intellectual Stimulation

�Individualized ConsiderationIdealized Influence--represents building trust and respect that as

a basis for radical and fundamental change. Idealized influence

results from leaders behaving a role models:

�Demonstrating high standards of ethical and moral standards.

�Sharing risks with followers

�Considering the needs of others over their own

�Using power to move individuals or groups toward

accomplishing their mission and vision, but never for personal

gain.



Inspirational Motivation--gets the group to believe that the

organization¶s problems can be solved. Team spirit,

enthusiasm, optimism, commitment, and shared vision arisewithin the work group.

Intellectual Stimulation--stimulates followers to be

innovative and creative. Encourages criticism, openness,

flexibility, and develops a climate in which people are notafraid to make mistakes. Everything can be contested and

changed.

Individualized Consideration--attention is paid to individual

needs for achievement and growth.After determining thestrengths and needs of individuals, the leader uses the knowledge

to act a mentor helping followers and colleagues to develop their

potential and take responsibility for their own development.



�Idealized influence and inspirational leadership more satisfying and

effective than intellectual stimulation and individualizedconsideration (Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1990).

�Transformational leaders receive higher ratings, are perceived tolead more effective organizations, and have subordinates that exertgreater effort than transactional leaders (Yukl, 1998; Bass, 1998)

�Transformational leadership in schools directly influences teacher perceptions of student goal achievement, and student grades(Leithwood, 1994)

�Positively influences three psychological characteristics of staff: perception of school characteristics, commitment tochange, and organizational learning

�Depends upon attending to all four ³I¶s´, with individualizedconsideration as a base

�Support for Leithwood¶s claims from other studies: Silins

(1992), Marks & Printy (2003)

Conclusions



�Transformation leadership needs further specification: that is,

what aspects of transformation leadership are most effective indifferent situation?

�The evidence suggests that the situation mediates theeffectiveness of transformation leadership; it is no panacea.

�Does transformational leadership influence student

achievement? Little support for the conclusion that it does.

Conclusions



Key Assumptions and Principles

1. A number of personality and motivation traitsincrease the likelihood that individuals can and willengage in effective leadership efforts to influenceothers.

2. Leadership skills help individuals formulate andimplement solutions to complex social and technicalproblems and to accomplish goals in an effectivefashion.3. Leadership and situational factors displaystrong reciprocal relationships. Leaders exerciseinfluence through situational variables while situationalvariables support and limit leader influence.

Summary




4. Neglecting task behaviors limits leader influenceon performance outcomes, while discountinginterpersonal relations reduces the satisfaction of followers.

5. A general proposition of contingency models of leadership is that leader traits and skills combine withcharacteristics of the situation to produce leader behaviors which in turn impact performance outcomes.6. Transformational leaders expand ontransactional relationships to manage meaning, toemphasize the importance of the followers¶ emotionalresponses, and to achieve unusually high performanceoutcomes.

Summary




7. Leading includes not only instrumental andbehavioral activity, but symbolic and cultural actionas well.

Summary

c11 leadership

Documents