c o m m u n i c a t i o n m i l e s t o n e s · • linguisystems ... communication development. 6...
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Communication Milestones
Lynn K. Flahive, M.S., CCC-SLPJanet R. Lanza, M.S., CCC-SLP
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Financial Disclosure Statementz Lynn K. Flahive is employed by Texas Christian University
• Financial—Lynn Flahive is LinguiSystems author and receives royalties for products and was paid a stipend for this course
• Nonfinancial—Lynn Flahive has no relevant nonfinancial relationships to disclose
z Janet R. Lanza is employed by Texas Christian University• Financial—Janet Lanza is a LinguiSystems author and receives royalties
for products and was paid a stipend for this course • Nonfinancial—Janet Lanza has no relevant nonfinancial relationships to
disclose
z This course, “Communication Milestones,” was funded in its’ entirety by LinguiSystems
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About the AuthorsLynn K. Flahive, M.S., CCC-SLP, has over 30 years experience as a speech-language pathologist. She worked in private and public schools in Wisconsin, Ohio, Illinois, and Texas for 12 years before joining the department of communication sciences and disorders at Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, Texas. Lynn has special interests in working with early childhood and early elementary-aged children with phonological and/or language delays.
Lynn is a board recognized specialist in child language. She is an ASHA fellow, past president of the Texas Speech-Language-Hearing Association (TSHA), and past executive director of the National Student Speech Language Hearing Association (NSSLHA).
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About the Authors, continued
Janet R. Lanza, M.S., CCC-SLP, has worked as a speech-language pathologist in public schools, private practice, and a university clinic in Texas since 1976. She has been on the faculty of the department of communication sciences and disorders at Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, Texas, since 1989. At the TCU Miller Speech and Hearing Clinic, Janet is an instructor and clinical supervisor for classroom settings of preschool children with a variety of communication disorders.
Lynn and Janet have co-authored numerous products for LinguiSystems. They also present workshops nationally and in Canada on the topics of practical and motivational speech and language therapy for youngchildren.
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Course Description
z This course presents information on developmental milestones for feeding, speech-sound acquisition, pronouns, morphology, mean length utterance, pragmatics, literacy, phonological awareness, concepts, vocabulary, asking and answering questions, and listening. In addition, the course includes a section on red flags in communication development.
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Learning Outcomes
z Participants who successfully complete this course will be able to:• identify communication milestones for the major areas of
childhood speech and language development.• discuss the predictable progression for childhood speech
and language development.• provide research-based information to client families in
regards to progression of childhood speech and language.
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Introduction
When should I expect my child to say two-word phrases, produce consonant clusters, or follow two-step directions? Does this client have the speech and language skills that are expected at his age? These questions are often asked of us as speech-language pathologists (SLPs) or that we ask ourselves as we work with children with communication disorders.
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Introduction, continued
Thanks to researchers and clinicians who have provided us with invaluable information over many years, we know that typical speech and language development follows a predictable progression. SLPs must familiarize themselves with the steps in this progression to provide the most effective therapy for clients and to give honest, research-based information to their families. This course will provide the information that you need at your fingertips.
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Introduction, continued
There are many different sources for communication milestones. Most sources agree with each other; some vary a bit. We drew from numerous resources to provide a snapshot of milestones for the major areas of childhood speech and language. As in all listings of milestones, the information represents an average age, at which most monolingual, English-speaking children will acquire a skill. If a child has not mastered a certain skill by a suggested age, that does not indicate a disorder.
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Introduction, continued
However, if most of the items in an age range have not been achieved, parents and professionals who work with the child should consider further investigation in that area.
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Introduction, continued
z This course contains developmental milestones for the following areas:• feeding• speech-sound acquisition
• prelinguistic speech development• phoneme development• phonological patterns• speech intelligibility expectations
• pronouns• morphology• mean length of utterance
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Introduction, continued
• pragmatics• literacy• phonological awareness• concepts• vocabulary• questions
• answering questions• asking questions
• listening
z In addition, the course includes a section on red flags in communication development
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FEEDING
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Feeding
z The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) states that “speech-language pathologists play a primary role in the evaluation and treatment of infants, children, and adults with swallowing and feeding disorders” (ASHA, 2002).
z SLPs are knowledgeable about normal and abnormal anatomy and physiology with respect to respiration, swallowing, and speech. Thus, it is appropriate for SLPs to play a role in feeding.
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Feeding Milestones
z Holds a bottle independently with one or both hands
z Mouths and gums solid foodz Opens mouth when a spoon is presented
5–6 months
z Sucks fingers when near mouthz Places hands on bottle during feedingz Recognizes a nipple or bottlez Pats a bottle with one or both hands
Birth–4 months
MilestonesAge
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Feeding Milestones, continued
z Feeds self crackersz Drinks from a cup when held by an adult—some
loss of liquidz Reaches for a spoon when presented/bangs a
spoonz Prefers for a parent to feed
6–9 months
z Holds a soft cookie in mouth (9 months) and bites through it (12 months)
z Imitates stirring with a spoonz Eats lumpy, mashed potatoesz Chews using rotary jaw action (emerging)
9–12 months
MilestonesAge
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Feeding Milestones, continued
z Gives up the bottlez Scoops food with a spoon and brings to mouth
with spillagez Drinks from a cup with limited spillage
18–24 months
z Grasps spoon with a full handz Brings a full spoon to mouth, turning spoon
over en routez Begins to drink through a strawz Holds a cup with two handsz Drinks with four or five consecutive swallows
12–18 months
MilestonesAge
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Feeding Milestones, continued
z Bites through a variety of food thicknessesz Brings a spoon/fork to mouth, palm up, self-
feeds with limited spillagez Holds a small, open cup in one hand with
limited spillage
24–36 months
z Swallows with lip closurez Self-feeds frequentlyz Chews a broad range of foodz Has precise up/down tongue movement
18–24 months, continued
MilestonesAge
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Feeding Milestones, continued
z Chews with lips closedz Chews using stable rotary jaw action
24–36 months, continued
MilestonesAge
(ASHA, 2002; Nicolosi, Harryman, & Kresheck, 2006)
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SPEECH-SOUND ACQUISITIONPrelinguistic Speech Development
Phoneme Development
Phonological Patterns
Speech Intelligibility Expectations
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Prelinguistic Speech Development
z Oller’s study (1980) is widely referenced when looking at the stages children go through in the acquisition of articulation and phonological skills.
z Though each stage has a designated time frame, there is overlap between stages.
z Each new stage features characteristics not observed in prior stages.
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Prelinguistic Speech Development Milestones
z Demonstrates reflexive vocalizations such as crying, burping, coughing, and sneezing
z Demonstrates nonreflexivesounds that are similar to syllabic nasals
Birth–1 month1—Phonation
MilestonesAgeStage
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Prelinguistic Speech Development Milestones, continued
z Uses sounds that are acoustically similar to
• back vowels• consonant-vowel (CV)
and vowel-consonant (VC) productions containing back vowels (/u, Ɠ, o, ŝ, a/) and back consonants (velars /k, g, ƾ/)
2–3 months2—Cooing and Gooing
MilestonesAgeStage
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Prelinguistic Speech Development Milestones, continued
z Gains better control of laryngeal and articulatorymechanisms during this period by engaging in vocal play
z Squeals, growls, yells, produces “raspberries”(bilabial /p, b, m/ and lingualabial trills
4–6 months3—Exploration/Expansion
MilestonesAgeStage
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Prelinguistic Speech Development Milestones, continued
z Produces vocalizations that vary daily and weekly
z Produces vowels with better oral resonance
z Begins marginal babbling with CV and VC syllable sequences
4–6 months3—Exploration/Expansion, continued
MilestonesAgeStage
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Prelinguistic Speech Development Milestones, continued
z Continues to use CV syllables with more adult-like timing
z Uses some reduplicated syllables such as /bŝbŝ/ and /mama/
z Consonant phonetic inventory may have stops, glides, nasals
7–9 months4—Canonical Babbling
MilestonesAgeStage
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Prelinguistic Speech Development Milestones, continued
z Vowel phonetic inventory may have lax vowels /Ť, ų, ƕ/
z Uses fewer velars (back sounds); increases use of alveolars and bilabials (front sounds)
7–9 months4—Canonical Babbling, continued
MilestonesAgeStage
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Prelinguistic Speech Development Milestones, continued
z Continues to use CV syllables
z Begins variegated babbling;uses different CV syllables thatresult in verbalizations such as /bŚmԥgƕ/ and /tikŚti/
z Produces adult-like intonation and prosody, resulting in utterances that sound like a real question or exclamation
10–12 months5—Variegated Babbling
MilestonesAgeStage
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Prelinguistic Speech Development Milestones, continued
z Most commonly used vowels at this time are /Ť, ƕ, Ś, Ɠ/ (Bauman-Wangler,1994)
z Most frequently used consonants at this time are /h, d, b, m, t, g, s, w, n, k, j, p/ (Locke, 1983)
10–12 months5—Variegated Babbling, continued
MilestonesAgeStage
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Phoneme Development
z Researchers use two different methodologies to determine the age of speech-sound acquisition.
z In cross-sectional studies, children of different ages are tested on their abilities to produce speech sounds at a given point in time.
z Longitudinal studies involve testing the same children’s productions over time.
z Comparing the results of the various studies can be difficult because researchers have used a variety of mastery levels and means of eliciting responses.
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Phoneme Development, continued
z In some studies, sounds produced correctly 100% of the time were considered mastered, but for others, the criterion was 75% of the time.
z Words were produced spontaneously in some studies but were imitated in others.
z Some researchers required the mastery level to be met in all word positions, whereas others were concerned only with the initial and final word positions (Flahive & Hodson, in press).
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Phoneme Development, continued
z Despite the variability in criteria, some general agreement yields a few overall conclusions about the acquisition of individual sounds.
z Nasals “m, n, ng,” stops “p, b, t, k, g,” and glides “w, y,” are acquired earliest, followed by fricatives “f, v, s, z, sh, zh,” voiced and voiceless “th,” affricatives “ch, j,” and then liquids “l, r.” (Sander, 1972)
z Sander’s analysis of previous studies also noted that voiced and voiceless “th” were generally the last phonemes to be acquired.
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Phoneme Development, continued
(Sander, 1972)
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Phonological Patterns
dog ĺ /dŚgi/adding /i/ at the end of nouns
Diminutization
cat ĺ /kæ/omitting a singleton consonant at the end of a word
Final consonant deletion
banana ĺ /nænԥ/omitting a weak syllableUnstressed syllable deletion
ExampleDescriptionProcesses Disappearing
by 3 Years
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Phonological Patterns, continued
sun ĺ /zƕn/substituting a voiced consonant for a voiceless consonant before a vowel
Prevocalic voicing
bottle ĺ /bŝbŝ/repeating phonemes or syllables
Reduplication
cat ĺ /tæt/changing a phoneme so it takes on a characteristic of another sound in the word
Consonant assimilation
can ĺ /tæn/substituting a front sound for a back sound
Velar fronting
ExampleDescriptionProcesses Disappearing
by 3 Years
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Phonological Patterns, continued
ExampleDescriptionProcesses Persisting After
3 Years
run ĺ /wƕn/substituting /w/ or /j/ for another consonant
Gliding
black ĺ /bƕlæk/adding a sound, typically /ƕ/, between two consonants
Epenthesis
clean ĺ /kin/omitting one or more consonants in a sequence of consonants
Cluster reduction
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Phonological Patterns, continued
ExampleDescriptionProcesses Persisting After
3 Years
sun ĺ /dƕn/substituting a stop consonant for a fricative, liquid, nasal, or glide
Stopping
car ĺ /kԥ/substituting a vowel for a consonant
Vocalizations/Vowelization
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Phonological Patterns, continued
shy ĺ /sŚų/substituting a nonpalatal consonant for a palatal consonant
Depalatalization
ExampleDescriptionProcesses Persisting After
3 Years
bag ĺ /bæk/substituting a voiceless final consonant for a voiced consonant
Final consonant devoicing
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z We reviewed several studies to determine the age by which at least 75% of children no longer use a given process.
Phonological Patterns, continued
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Phonological Patterns, continued
3cat ĺ /tæt/changing a phoneme so it takes on a characteristic of another sound in the word
Assimilation
2.6mat ĺ /bæt/changing a nasal consonant to a nonnasal
Denasalization
Likely Age of Disappearance
ExampleDescriptionIndividual Process
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Phonological Patterns, continued
Likely Age of Disappearance
ExampleDescriptionIndividual Process
4can ĺ /tæn/substituting a front sound for a back sound
Fronting of initial velar singles
3cat ĺ /kæ/omitting a singleton consonant at the end of a word
Final consonant deletion
3sheep ĺ/tƌip/
substituting an affricative for a nonaffricative
Affrication
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Phonological Patterns, continued
4grape ĺ /gep/omitting one or more consonants in a sequence of consonants
Cluster reduction (without /s/)
4chip ĺ /sųp/replacing an affricate with a continuant or stop
Deaffrication
Likely Age of Disappearance
ExampleDescriptionIndividual Process
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Phonological Patterns, continued
5shy ĺ /taų/substituting a nonpalatal for a palatal sound at the beginning of a word
Depalatalizationof initial singles
4.6dish ĺ /dųt/substituting a nonpalatal for a palatial sound at the end of a word
Depalatalizationof final singles
Likely Age of Disappearance
ExampleDescriptionIndividual Process
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Phonological Patterns, continued
5bag ĺ /bæk/substituting a voiceless final consonant for a voiced consonant
Final consonant devoicing
5chew ĺ /tu/substituting an alveolar for a nonveolar sound
Alveolarization
Likely Age of Disappearance
ExampleDescriptionIndividual Process
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Phonological Patterns, continued
5step ĺ /tŤp/omitting /s/ in the initial position of a cluster
Cluster reduction (with /s/)
6sun ĺ /zƕn/substituting a voiced consonant for a voiceless consonant before a vowel
Initial voicing
Likely Age of Disappearance
ExampleDescriptionIndividual Process
6tan ĺ /pæn/replacing a nonlabialsound with a labial sound
Labialization
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Phonological Patterns, continued
8black ĺ/bƕlæk/
adding a sound, typically /ƕ/, between two consonants
Epenthesis
7run ĺ /wƕn/substituting a /w/ or /j/ for another consonant
Gliding of initial liquids
Likely Age of Disappearance
ExampleDescriptionIndividual Process
(Peña-Brooks & Hegde, 2007)
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Speech Intelligibility Expectations
90%–100%5+ years
75%–90%4–5 years
50%–75%2–3 years
25%–50%19–24 months
Intelligibility LevelAge
(Peña-Brooks & Hegde, 2007)
(Bauman-Wangler, 1994; Bowen, 1998; Flahive & Hodson, in press; Locke, 1983; Oller, 1990; Peña-Brooks & Hegde, 2007; Sander 1972)
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PRONOUNS
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Pronouns
z There is no clear-cut progression for the acquisition of pronouns. However, most linguists agree that I and it are the first pronouns to emerge, followed by you.
z Research also indicates that children use most subjective and objective pronouns by three years of age and possessive pronouns by age five.
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Pronouns, continued
its, our, him, myself, yourself, ours, their, theirs
41–46 months
they, us, hers, his, them, her35–40 months
herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
47+ months
your, she, he, yours, we31–34 months
my, me, mine, you27–30 months
I, it (subjective and objective)12–26 months
PronounsApproximate Age
(Owen, 1996)
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MORPHOLOGY
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Morphology
z Morphology is the study of how morphemes are put together.
z A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
z Grammatical morphemes apply inflection that signals meaning to nouns, verbs, and adjectives.
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Morphology, continued
socksbaby crying
gonna, gotta, wannaI runned.girl’s hatcan, will, be, do
z Regular plurals –sz Present progressive –ing without
auxiliaryz Semiauxiliariesz Overgeneralization of past tense –edz Possessive –sz Present tense auxiliary
29–38 months
cryingz Present progressive –ing19–28 months
ExampleGrammatical MorphemesAge
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Morphology, continued
He kicked.She ate.He drinks.
a boy, the tree
z Regular past tense –edz Irregular past tensez Regular third-person-singular,
present tensez Articles
43–46 months
could, would, should, must, mightThe baby is crying.
z Past tense modals
z“Be” verb + present progressive –ing
39–42 months
ExampleGrammatical MorphemesAge
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Morphology, continued
The boy’s talking.It is big.He is swimming.She has it.She was dancing.
z Contractible auxiliary z Uncontractible copulaz Uncontractible auxiliaryz Irregular third person singlez Past tense “be” verb
47–50 months
ExampleGrammatical MorphemesAge
(Bowen, 1998; Brown, 1973; Haskill, Tyler, & Tolbert, 2001; Retherford, 2000)
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MEAN LENGTH OF UTTERANCE
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Mean Length of UtteranceBased on Brown’s Stages of Language Development
z For English-speaking children, the mean length of utterance (MLU) is a fairly reliable predictor of the complexity of their language.
z MLU typically increases 1.2 morphemes per year from 18 months to five years of age (Owens, 1996).
(Bowen, 1998; Brown, 1973; Nicolosi, Harryman, & Kresheck, 2006; Owens, 1996)
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Mean Length of Utterance, continued
z Uses one-, two-, and three-word utterances
z Uses intonation to ask yes/no questions
z Uses limited wh- questions
1.0–2.012–26 monthsl
MilestonesMLUAgeBrown’s Stages
of Language Development
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Mean Length of Utterance, continued
z Increases in length due to use of auxiliaries
z Increases use of wh-questions
z Uses interrogative reversals
2.5–3.031–34monthslll
z Begins to use grammatical morphemes
z Uses in and on
2.0–2.527–30 monthsll
MilestonesMLUAgeBrown’s Stages
of Language Development
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Mean Length of Utterance, continued
z Coordinates simple sentencesz Uses locatives (e.g., up, down)z Uses and as main conjunctive
3.75–4.541–46 monthsV
z Uses object-noun-phrase complements
z Uses indirect or embedded wh- questions
3.0–3.7535–40monthslV
MilestonesMLUAgeBrown’s Stages
of Language Development
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Mean Length of Utterance, continued
z Adds negative interrogativesz Adds indefinite forms, such as
nobody, no onez Has some difficulty with double
negatives
4.5+47+ monthsV+
MilestonesMLUAgeBrown’s Stages
of Language Development
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PRAGMATICS
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Pragmatics
z Pragmatics is the study of speaker-listener interactions, and all elements in the environment surrounding the message.
z It is often referred to as social language skills.
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Pragmatics, continued
z Startles to loud soundsz Responds to voice and soundz Turns head toward sound sourcez Watches speaker’s face when spoken toz Discriminates between strangers and familiar peoplez Stops crying when spoken toz Varies responses to different family membersz Smiles when spoken to
Birth–6 months
MilestonesAge
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Pragmatics, continued
z Has a social smilez Uses babbling for gaining attention and expressing
demandz Establishes eye contact
Birth–6 months, continued
MilestonesAge
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Pragmatics, continued
z Responds to “no”z Responds to name and pats image of self in mirrorz Points to learn new vocabularyz Tries to “talk” to listenerz Coos and squeals for attentionz Laughs when playing with objectsz Tries to communicate by actions and gesturesz Smiles at self in mirror
6–12 months
MilestonesAge
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Pragmatics, continued
z Plays pat-a-cake and peek-a-boo gamesz Copies simple actions of othersz Shouts to attract attention
6–12 months, continued
MilestonesAge
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Pragmatics, continued
z Follows simple directions, especially with a gestural cue
z Waves bye-byez Indicates wet pantsz Repeats actions that made someone laughz Engages in parallel playz Pairs gestures with words to make wants known
(e.g., “more” and “up”)z Imitates adult behaviors in play
1–2 years
MilestonesAge
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Pragmatics, continued
z Refers to self by namez Exhibits verbal turn-takingz Protests by vocalizing “no”z Engages in simple pretend play, such as talking on
a telephonez Says “bye” and other social words, such as “hi,”
“thank you,” and “please”z Talks to self during playz Practices intonation, sometimes imitating an adult
1–2 years, continued
MilestonesAge
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Pragmatics, continued
z Watches other children and briefly joins in playz Participates in associative playz Requests permission for items and activitiesz Begins to use language for fantasies, jokes, and
teasingz Makes conversational repairs when listener does
not understandz Engages in longer dialoguesz Begins to play housez Participates in simple group activities
2–3 years
MilestonesAge
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Pragmatics, continued
z Defends own possessionsz Carries on “conversations” with self and dollsz Engages in simple, make-believe activitiesz Begins to control behavior verbally rather than just
physicallyz Holds up fingers to tell agez Looks for missing toysz Helps put things away
2–3 years, continued
MilestonesAge
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Pragmatics, continued
z Follows two-step directions without cuesz Takes turns and plays cooperativelyz Relates personal experiences through verbalizationz Separates from primary caregiver easilyz Frequently practices conversation skills by talking to
selfz Begins dramatic play, acting out whole scenesz Shows frustration if not understoodz Expresses ideas and feelings
3–4 years
MilestonesAge
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Pragmatics, continued
z Follows three-step directions without cuesz Uses requests with justification (e.g., “Stop that.
You’re hurting me.”)z Uses words to invite others to playz Uses language to resolve disputes with peersz Plays competitive exercise gamesz Has good control of elements of conversationz Speaks of imaginary conditions, such as “What if . . .”
or “I hope . . .”
4–5 years
MilestonesAge
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Pragmatics, continued
z Begins to use word playz Uses threats and promisesz Asks meanings of wordsz Likes to complete projectsz Makes purchases at storesz Asks questions for informationz Chooses own friendsz Takes more care in communicating with unfamiliar
people
5–6 yearsMilestonesAge
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Pragmatics, continued
z Engages in cooperative play, such as making group decisions, assigning roles, and playing fairly
z Announces topic shifts
5–6 years, continued
MilestonesAge
(AutismInfo, n.d.; Brooks & Engmann-Hartung, 1987; Child Development Institute, n.d.; Communication Works, n.d.; KidTalk, n.d.; National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2000; Nicolosi, Harryman, & Kresheck, 2006; Shulman, 1991)
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LITERACY
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Literacy
z SLPs’ knowledge of normal and disordered language acquisition, and their clinical experience in developing individualized programs for children and adolescents, prepare them to assume a variety of roles related to the development of reading and writing.
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Literacy, continued
z Appropriate roles and responsibilities for SLPs include, but are not limited to (a) preventing written language problems by fostering language acquisition and emergent literacy; (b) identifying children at risk for reading and writing problems; (c) assessing reading and writing; (d) providing intervention and documenting outcomes for reading and writing; and (e) assuming other roles, such as providing assistance to general education teachers, parents, and students; advocating for literacy practices; and advancing the knowledge base (ASHA, 2001).
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Literacy, continued
z This table lists reasonable expectations of literacy skills in children from infancy through seven years of age.
z Likes to chew and pat booksz Can focus on large and bright pictures in a bookz Shares books with an adult as routine part of life
3–12months
MilestonesAge
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80
Literacy, continued
z Recognizes certain books by their coversz Listens to simple stories, songs, and rhymesz Likes to turn pagesz Attends to a book or a toy for two minutesz Points to and labels pictures independentlyz Pretends to read books
1–2 years
MilestonesAge
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81
Literacy, continued
z Begins to pay attention to specific print, such as the first letter of his name
z Recognizes logos and other environmental print and understands that print carries a message
z Identifies some letters and makes letter/sound matches
3–4 years
z Likes to listen to books/stories for longer periods of timez Holds a book correctlyz Begins to recognize logos (e.g., McDonald’s Golden
Arches)z Begins to show a difference in writing versus drawing
2–3 years
MilestonesAge
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82
Literacy, continued
z Participates in rhyming gamesz Talks about characters in a bookz Likes to “read” stories to herself and othersz Protests if an adult changes the storyz Produces some letter-like forms in scribbles that
resemble letters
3–4 years, continued
MilestonesAge
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83
Literacy, continued
z Understands story sequencez Understands the purpose and function of printz Knows many letter namesz Uses more letter-like forms than scribbles
4–5 years
z Recognizes letters and letter-sound matchesz Understands that print is read left to right and top to
bottomz Retells simple storiesz Begins to write simple letters and some words heard
often
Kindergarten
MilestonesAge
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84
Literacy, continued
z Begins to write stories with some readable parts with assistance
z Tries to spell words when writing
Kindergarten, continued
z Understands that spoken words are made up of sounds
z Recognizes some words by sightz Identifies and writes uppercase and lowercase lettersz “Reads” a few picture books from memoryz Prints own first and last name
End of kindergarten
MilestonesAge
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85
Literacy, continued
z Identifies an increasing number of words by sightz Begins to decode new words independentlyz Uses a variety of reading strategies such as rereading,
predicting what will happen, asking questions, or using visual cues or pictures
z Reads and retells familiar storiesz Reads aloud with easez Decides independently to use reading and writing for
different purposes
Beginning of first grade
MilestonesAge
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86
Literacy, continued
z Sounds out and represents major sounds in words when trying to spell
z Tries to use punctuation and capitalization
Beginning of first grade, continued
MilestonesAge
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87
Literacy, continued
z Identifies letters, words, and sentencesz Has a sight vocabulary of 100 wordsz Understands what is read z Creates rhyming wordsz Reads grade-level material fluentlyz Expresses ideas through writing z Prints clearlyz Spells frequently used words correctly
End of first grade
MilestonesAge
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88
Literacy, continued
z Begins sentences with capital letters and attempts to use punctuation
z Writes a variety of stories, journal entries, or notes
End of first grade,continued
MilestonesAge
(ASHA, n.d.; United States Department of Education, 2003; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, n.d.)
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89
PHONOLOGICALAWARENESS
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90
Phonological Awareness
z Phonological awareness is the ability to manipulate the structure of an utterance independently from its meaning.
z It is an auditory task that requires an individual to manipulate the utterance of a word, syllable, or sound level.
z According to the National Center on Education and the Economy, “Children who readily develop phonemic awareness in kindergarten will probably learn to read easily” (Goldsworthy, 2001, p. 3).
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91
Phonological Awareness, continued
z Phonological awareness skills develop from syllable, to onset-rime, to phoneme.
z These skills begin at age three and continue through the development of early reading skills at ages six and seven.
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92
Phonological Awareness, continued
What word do you hear when I say cow boy?
blends syllables into a word after they are given separately
Syllable blending
Which word rhymes with mat; star or hat?
identifies words that sound alike or rhyme
Rhyming
How many syllables do you hear in butterfly?
counts the number of syllables in a word
Syllable segmentation
Sample TaskDefinitionSkill
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93
Phonological Awareness, continued
Which word ends with /b/; dog or tub?
identifies the last sound in a word
Final alliteration
Which word begins with /t/; toad or boat?
identifies the beginning sound in a word
Initial alliteration
In the word sun, is the /s/ at the beginning, middle, or end of the word?
identifies whether a given sound occurs at the beginning, middle, or end of a word
Phoneme isolationSample TaskDefinitionSkill
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94
Phonological Awareness, continued
Say top; now change /t/ to /h/.
replaces a specific sound in a word and says the new word or syllable
Sound substitution
Say cup without the /k/.
deletes a given sound from a word and says a new word
Sound deletion
What do you hear when I say /b/ … /a/ … /t/?
blends sounds into a word after they are given separately
Sound blendingSample TaskDefinitionSkill
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95
Phonological Awareness, continued
What letters say /k/?identifies grapheme(s) associated with individual sounds
Sound grapheme matching
Sample TaskDefinitionSkill
(Gillon, 2004; Goldsworthy, 2001; Flahive & Lanza, 2004)
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CONCEPTS
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Concepts
z Knowledge of basic concepts is an essential component of language development.
z Basic concepts include terms that describe position, time, equality, quantity, and comparisons.
z These terms are commonly included in directions at home and especially in educational settings.
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98
Concepts, continued
z Follows simple spatial directionsz Understands anotherz Uses simple directional terms, such as up and
downz Uses two and three prepositions, such as on, in,
or under
1–2 years
MilestonesAge
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99
Concepts, continued
z Distinguishes between in and under, one and many
z Understands number concepts of one and twoz Understands size differences, such as big/littlez Understands in, off, on, under, out of, together,
away fromz Begins to understand time concepts of soon,
later, waitz Selects three that are the same from a set of
four objects
2–3 years
MilestonesAge
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100
Concepts, continued
z Selects the object that is not the same from four objects with three of them identical
z Begins to use adjectives for color and size
2–3 years, continued
z Follows quantity directions empty, a lotz Follows equality directions same, bothz Understands next to, besides, betweenz Identifies colorsz Matches one-to-onez Points to object that is different from othersz Uses position concepts behind, in front, around
3–4 years
MilestonesAge
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101
Concepts, continued
z Understands comparative and superlative adjectives, such as big, bigger, biggest
z Understands time concepts yesterday, today, tomorrow, first, then, next, days of the week, last week, next week
z Understands different, nearest, through, thin, whole
z Identifies positional concepts first, middle, last
4–5 years
MilestonesAge
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102
Concepts, continued
z Understands opposite concepts such as big/little, over/under
z Understands left/rightz Understands number concepts up to 20z Answers “How are things the same/different?z Uses adjectives for describingz Uses comparative adjectives such as loud,
louder
5–6 years
MilestonesAge
k
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103
Concepts, continued
z Uses yesterday and tomorrowz Uses adverb concepts backward and forwardz Uses prepositions through, nearest, corner,
middlez Names ordinal numbers, such as first, second,
third
5–6 years, continued
MilestonesAge
k
(AutismInfo, n.d.; Child Development institute, n.d.; Nicolosi, Harryman, & Kresheck, 2006; Touhy, Brown, & Mercer-Moseley, 2001)
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104
VOCABULARY
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Vocabulary
z A child’s expressive vocabulary grows rapidly from the time of his first word at approximately 12 months, through first grade. Vocabulary increases throughout an individual’s lifetime due to education, reading, and life experiences.
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Vocabulary, continued
1,00036 months (3 years)45030 months200-30024 months (2 years)5018 months1015 months
2 to 6 words other than mamaand dada
12 months (1 year)
Approximate Words in Expressive Vocabulary
Age
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107
Vocabulary, continued
2,200-2,50060 months (5 years)2,600-2,7006 years50,00012 years
1,90054 months1,60048 months (4 years)1,20042 months
Approximate Words in Expressive Vocabulary
Age
(Child Development Institute, n.d.; Nicolosi, Harryman, & Krescheck, 2006; Owens, 1996)
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QUESTIONSAnswering Questions
Asking Questions
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Questions
z In language development, a child must be able to ask and answer questions in order to navigate a conversation and to seek and relay information.
z When assessing a child’s ability to ask and answer questions, it is important to separate her content knowledge from her ability to ask or answer questions.
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Answering Questions
z Looks in the appropriate place when asked a simple question, such as “Where is Daddy?”
z Chooses an object with intentionality when asked about a choice of two, such as “ Do you want milk or juice?”
z Answers “where” questions such as “Where’s the ball?” by pointing to the pictured item in a book
z Answers “What’s this?” questions about familiar objects or pictures such as cookie or baby
z Answers “yes/no” questions, possibly with a head nod or shake
1–2 years
MilestonesAge
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111
Answering Questions, continued
z Points to objects when described, such as “What do you wear on your head?”
z Answers simple wh- questions logicallyz Answers critical thinking questions, such as,
“What do you do when you are cold?”z Answers questions such as “Where . . .?,” “What’s
that?,” “What’s . . . doing?,” “Who is . . .?”z Answers or understands “Can you . . .? questions
2–3 years
MilestonesAge
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112
Answering Questions, continued
z Answers more complex questions logically, such as “who,” “why,” “where,” and “how”
z Answers “If . . . what?” questions, such as “If it starts raining, what would you do?”
z Answers questions about functions of objects, such as “What are spoons for?,” “Why do we have shoes?”
3–4 years
MilestonesAge
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113
Answering Questions, continued
z Answers “when” questionsz Answers “how many” questions (in which the
answer does not exceed four)
4 years
MilestonesAge
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Asking Questions
z Starts to use question forms, beginning with “What’s that?”
z Uses rising intonation.
1–2 years
z Asks simple egocentric questions, such as “Where cookie?”
z Asks “Where . . .?,” “What . . .?,” “What . . . doing?”questions.
2–3 years
z Asks one-word “why” questions.z Uses “what,” “where,” “when,” “how,” and “whose”
when asking questions.
3–4 years
MilestonesAge
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115
Asking Questions, continued
z Asks “is” questionsz Inverts auxiliary and subject in wh- questions, such
as “Where is dad going?”
3–4 years, continued
z Asks the following types of questions using correct grammatical structure:
• Early Infinitive: “Do you want to . . . ?”• Future: “Are we going to . . . ?”• Modal can/may: “Can you . . .?”
4 years
MilestonesAge
(AutismInfo, n.d.; Child Development Institute, n.d.; Nicolosi, Harryman, & Kresheck, 2006; Touhy, Brown, & Mercer-Moseley, 2001)
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LISTENING
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Listening
z Listening to something is not the same as hearing it.z Listening skills involve a child’s ability to attend to
and process what he hears. z These skills are integral components to a child’s
speech and language, social, and academic development.
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Listening, continued
MilestonesAge
z Discriminates speech from non-speech soundsz Startles to loud soundsz Quiets or excites in response to novel soundsz Recognizes a primary caregiver’s voicez Smiles or quiets when spoken toz Decreases or increases sucking behavior in
response to sounds
Birth–3 months
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Listening, continued
MilestonesAge
z Moves eyes in direction of soundsz Discriminates friendly and angry voicesz Reacts to change in tone of voicez Attends to music and toys that make soundsz Listens to a speaker and watches a speaker’s
face when spoken to
3–6 months
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Listening, continued
MilestonesAge
z Responds to a sound when a source is not visible
z Responds physically to musicz Stops an activity when name is calledz Recognizes words for common itemsz Listens with increased interest to new wordsz Begins to respond to simple requests, such as
“sit here”
6–12 months
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Listening, continued
MilestonesAge
z Follows one-step directions with cuesz Understands simple questions, such as
“Where’s Daddy?”z Points to named pictures in a bookz Follows directions to find two similar objectsz Listens to simple stories
1–2 years
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Listening, continued
MilestonesAge
z Responds to commands involving body parts, such as “Show me your foot.”
z Follows two-step directions, such as “Get your cup and bring it to me.”
z Follows directions that include action + adverb or action + adjective, such as “Walk slowly” or “Give me the red ball.”
z Demonstrates understanding of several verbs by selecting corresponding pictures.
z Recognizes family labels such as baby, grandpa.
2–3 years
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Listening, continued
MilestonesAge
z Attends to name being called from another room
z Understands simple wh- questionsz Understands most simple questions pertaining
to her activities and environmentz Improves listening skills and begins to learn
from listening
3–4 years
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Listening, continued
MilestonesAge
z Attends to a short story and answers simple questions about it
z Hears and understands most of what is said at home and in school
z Repeats four digits when they are given slowlyz Readily follows simple commands involving
remote objects
4–5 years
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Listening, continued
MilestonesAge
z Repeats sentences up to nine words in lengthz Follows three-step directionsz Responds correctly to more types of sentences
but still may be confused at times by more complex sentences
5–6 years
(AutismInfo, n.d.; Child Development Institute, n.d.)
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Red Flags in Communication Development
z Parents often ask about warning signs of speech and/or language problems.
z The following table provides some warning signs that parents can refer to when observing their children’s speech and language skills.
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Red Flags in Communication Development, continued
z Does not point to objectsz Does not use gestures such as waving or
shaking head
12 months
z Has limited or no babblingz Does not indicate when happy or upset
9 months
z Does not laugh and squealz Does not look toward new sounds
6 months
Red FlagsAge
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Red Flags in Communication Development, continued
z Does not use at least six consonant soundsz Does not follow simple directions
20 months
z Does not use at least six to ten words consistently
z Does not hear well or discriminate between sounds
18 months
z Has not used first wordz Does not respond to “no” and “bye-bye”
15 months
Red FlagsAge
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Red Flags in Communication Development, continued
z Strangers have difficulty understanding what the child is saying
z Does not use simple sentences
36 months
z Has a vocabulary of less than 50 wordsz Has decreased interest in social interactions
24 months
Red FlagsAge
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z Other concerns• Is a very picky eater (willing to eat only four or five foods,
gags on certain textures)• Has difficulty with transitions• Shows no interest in communicating• Drools excessively• Stutters more consistently and for longer than six months
(BabyCenter, n.d.; KidTalk, n.d.)
Red Flags in Communication Development, continued
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ReferencesAmerican Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2001). Roles and responsibilities of speech-
language pathologists with respect to reading and writing in children and adolescents [Position Statement]. Available from http://www.asha.org/policy
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2002). Roles of speech-language pathologists in swallowing and feeding disorders [Position Statement]. Available from http://www.asha.org/policy
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). How does your child hear and talk? Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/chart.htm
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Welcome to ASHA’s literacy gateway. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://www.asha.org/about/publications/literacy/
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Your child’s communication: Kindergarten. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/kindergarten.htm
Arvedson, J.C. (2006). Swallowing and feeding in infants and young children. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://www.nature.com/gimo/contents/pt1/full/gimo17.html
AutismInfo. (n.d.). Developmental sequences of language behavior. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://www.autisminfo.com/milestones.htm#C
AutismInfo. (n.d.). Social skills milestones. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://www.autisminfo.com/milestones.htm#B
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References, continued
BabyCenter. (n.d.). Warning signs of a language/communication developmental delay. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://www.babycenter.com/0_warning-signs-of-a-language-communication-developmental-dela_6734.bc
Bauman-Wangler, J. (1994). Normal phonological development. In R.J. Lowe (Ed.), Phonology: Assessment and intervention application in speech pathology (p. 93). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
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Bowen, C. (1998). Brown’s stages: The development of morphology and syntax. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://members.tripod.com/Caroline_Bowen/?BrownsStages.htm
Bowen, C. (1998). Typical speech development: The gradual acquisition of the speech sound system. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://www.speech-language-therapy.com/acquisition.html
Braintree Rehabilitation Hospital. (n.d.). Speech and language developmental milestones. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://www.braintreerehabhospital.com/pdf/speechand-language-milestones.pdf
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References, continued
Brooks, M., & Engmann-Hartung, D. (1987). Speech and language handouts. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.Brown, R. (1973). A first language: The early stages. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.Child Development Institute. (n.d.). Language development in children. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from
http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/language_development.shtmlCommunication Works. (n.d.). Play and pragmatics for school aged children. Retrieved from
http://www.cwtherapy.com/pragmatics2.htmlFlahive, L., & Hodson, B. (in press). Speech sound disorders: An overview of acquisition,
assessment, and treatment. In B.B. Shulman & N.C. Capone (Eds.), Language development: Foundations, processes, and clinical applications. Boston: Bartlett & Jones.
Flahive, L.K., & Lanza, J.R. (2004). Phonological awareness cards. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems, Inc.
Gillon, G.T. (2004). Phonological awareness: From research to practice. New York: The Guilford Press.
Goldsworthy, C.L. (2001). Sourcebook of phonological awareness activities Vol. II: Children’s core literature. San Diego, CA: Singular.
Haskill, A., Tyler, A., & Tolbert, L. (2001). Months of morphemes: A theme based cycles approach. Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications.
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References, continued
KidTalk, Inc. (n.d.). Speech-language milestones. Retrieved from http://www.kidtalk.org/milestones.html
Locke, J.L. (1983). Phonological acquisition and change. New York: Academic Press. National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (April 2000). Speech and
language developmental milestones. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/speechandlanguage.asp
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (April 2000). Speech and language developmental milestones. Retrieved 02/28/2008 from http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/speechandlanguage.asp
Nicolosi, L., Harryman, E., & Kresheck, J. (2006). Terminology of communication disorders (4th ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Oller, D.K. (1980). The emergence of the sounds of speech in infancy. In G. Yeni-Komshian, J. Kavanagh, & C.A. Ferguson (Eds.), Child phonology: Vol. 1: Production. New York: Academic Press.
Owens, R.E. (1996). Language development: An introduction. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Peña-Brooks, A., & Hegde, M.N. (2007). Assessment and treatment of articulation and phonological
disorders in children. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
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References, continued
Retherford, K.S. (2000). Guide to analysis of language transcripts. Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications.
Sander, E. (1972). When are speech sounds learned? Journal of Speech & Hearing Disorders, 37(1), 55-63.
Shulman, B.B. (1991). Pragmatic development chart. Tucson, AZ: Communication Skill Builders.Stoel-Gammon, C., & Dunn, C. (1985). Normal and disordered phonology in children. Austin, TX:
PRO-ED.Touhy, J., Brown, J., & Mercer-Moseley, C. (2001). St. Gabriel’s curriculum for the development of
audition, language, speech, cognition. Castle Hill, Australia: St.Gabriel’s.United States Department of Education. (2003). Typical language accomplishments for children, birth
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Wilkes, E.M. (1999). Cottage acquisition scales for listening, language & speech. San Antonio, TX: Sunshine Cottage School for Deaf Children.