Turning Brain Drain into Brain Gain:

Harnessing Pakistan’s Skilled Diaspora

by

Navroz Habib Surani

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education

University of Toronto

© Copyright by Navroz Habib Surani, 2021

ii

Turning Brain Drain into Brain Gain:

Harnessing Pakistan’s Skilled Diaspora

Navroz Habib Surani

Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education

University of Toronto

2021

Abstract

Leaders in developing nations are increasingly concerned about the economic impact of

losing highly qualified citizens to opportunities in more developed countries, particularly

countries in the West. This diaspora phenomenon, often labeled brain drain, refers to

developing countries losing intellectual capital through the emigration of highly skilled

individuals. To understand brain drain, the objective of this exploratory descriptive and

interpretive study was to explore the various conditions under which Pakistani diaspora

settled in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) would be willing to engage in knowledge transfer

activities. Theoretical frameworks of reciprocity and human capital theory grounded this

study. The guiding research question was: What are the conditions under which diaspora

members would be willing to engage in knowledge transfer activities with Pakistan?

The study used an exploratory descriptive research design with an interpretive

approach to examine leveraging diaspora engagement to convert brain drain to brain gain in

Pakistan. Interviewing diaspora was essential to determine how developing countries, like

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Pakistan, can harness the knowledge of its diaspora for developmental purposes. A total of 15

face to face interviews of Pakistani diaspora who settled in the Greater Toronto Area were

conducted for this study.

Based on the findings of the study, Pakistan has a significant opportunity to tap into

its more than seven million diaspora (Haq et al., 2013) and engage them for its capacity

building purposes. Findings from the study indicated diaspora knowledge transfer is

dependent on life stages and years spent in a new country. Individuals new to a country are

less likely to engage in knowledge transfer than those who have lived in a new country for a

longer duration.

To achieve success in engaging with Pakistani diaspora, factors like mutual trust, a

need to approach diaspora engagement in a structured manner and more importantly a need

to have a broad vision on the part of sending countries were considered essential

requirements to achieve a successful diaspora engagement strategy. There is a need and an

opportunity for Pakistan to reflect and transform its thinking about its diaspora and the

developmental role they might play beyond sending remittances.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my thesis supervisor, Professor Angela Hildyard, for her continued

support, guidance, and encouragement during the pursuit of my degree. I would also like to thank

my committee members, Professor Glen Jones, Dr. Katharine Janzen, for their ongoing advice

and insightful suggestions throughout the process.

This research would not have been possible without the help and support of the

participants from the Pakistan Professional Forum (PPF) in Toronto. I would like to thank Faisal

Khurshid for the introduction to PPF and for permitting me to utilize the PPF platform to identify

and select my research participants.

Furthermore, many individuals helped me navigate my way through the doctoral program

and dissertation process. I must acknowledge my wife Rozina Surani for her unconditional

support and encouragement on this journey. I would like to thank my daughters Reema, Seema,

and Nirma and my sons-in-law Farhan and Aziz for always serving as a sounding board to me as

I developed new concepts and ideas.

In this study, I have developed diaspora engagement model and have named it the

“WAPIS Model of Diaspora Engagement”. The word “WAPIS” (meaning giving back/repeat in

the Urdu language) is a favourite word of both my grandsons, which they picked up from a

nursery rhyme. Hearing this word repeatedly got my creative juices flowing, and I realized that it

connected so deeply with my model that I have named it the “WAPIS” model.

Thank you Riyaan Nayani and Aariz Rehmatullah!

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Table of Contents

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iv

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ v

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix

List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x

Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1

Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 1

Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................. 11

Purpose of the Research .................................................................................................... 11

Significance of the Study .................................................................................................. 12

Personal Rationale ............................................................................................................ 16

Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 17

Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 18

Study Scope ...................................................................................................................... 22

Chapter 2 Literature Review ......................................................................................................... 24

Key Terms and Concepts .................................................................................................. 25

Snapshot of International Migrants ................................................................................... 31

What Motivates Migration .....................................................................................32

Links Between Migration and Development .........................................................36

Data and Other Challenges in the Study of Migration Trends...............................42

Securitization of Migration ............................................................................................... 43

Emerging and Newer Forms of Migration ........................................................................ 44

Diaspora Communities...................................................................................................... 45

Diaspora Engagement ....................................................................................................... 48

Brain Drain and Brain Gain: An Outcome of Human Migration ..................................... 60

Why Brain Drain Occurs .......................................................................................65

Benefits of Brain Drain ..........................................................................................69

Successful Diaspora Engagement and Initiatives ............................................................. 70

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Strengthening Ph.D. Education at the University of Addis Ababa ........................72

Decoding the Jute Genome in Bangladesh ............................................................72

Upgrading the National Health Sector in Ethiopia ................................................73

Mobilizing Resources and Knowledge Transfer to Haiti ......................................73

A Medical Diaspora Network for Bangladesh .......................................................74

Water in Ethiopia ...................................................................................................74

Bilateral and Multilateral International Diaspora Engagement ........................................ 74

Engaging Diaspora as Partners ......................................................................................... 76

Examples of Government Initiated Diaspora Engagement Programs .............................. 78

Engagement of Academic Diaspora by Bangladesh ..............................................78

Diaspora Volunteering in Nepal ............................................................................80

Philippines Initiative of Diaspora Engagement .....................................................81

Initiatives by India towards Diaspora Engagement ...............................................83

Pakistan’s Human Capacity Landscape .................................................................85

Causes of Pakistan’s Brain Drain ..................................................................................... 93

Literature Review Summary ............................................................................................. 98

Chapter 3 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 101

Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................... 104

Research Design.............................................................................................................. 104

Participants ...................................................................................................................... 106

Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection .................................... 107

Chapter 4 Presentation of Findings ............................................................................................. 110

Research Question 1 asked: ............................................................................................ 110

Research Question 2 asked: ............................................................................................ 116

Research Question 3 asked: ............................................................................................ 119

Research Question 4 asked: ............................................................................................ 124

Research Question 5 asked: ............................................................................................ 127

Research Question 6 asked: ............................................................................................ 130

Research Question 7 asked: ............................................................................................ 132

Additional Findings ........................................................................................................ 135

Relevance of the Findings to the Theoretical Frameworks ............................................ 137

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Reciprocity Theory and Its Relevance to Findings ..............................................137

Human Capital Theory and Its Relevance to Findings ........................................139

Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 141

Chapter 5 Conclusion, Recommendations, and Reflections ....................................................... 144

Themes Identified in the Findings .................................................................................. 145

Safety and socio- economic Concerns .................................................................145

Giving Back .........................................................................................................146

Sharing Knowledge ..............................................................................................146

Mode of Sharing Knowledge ...............................................................................146

Trust in Sharing....................................................................................................147

Time needed for adjustment.................................................................................147

Knowledge Exchange is Two-Sided ....................................................................147

Staying Connected ...............................................................................................148

Expand a Vision ...................................................................................................148

Knowledge Sharing and Government Support ....................................................148

Diaspora Potential ................................................................................................149

A Model of Diaspora Engagement ................................................................................. 149

Stage 1: Wise Settlers ..........................................................................................150

Stage 2: Ambitious Settlers ..................................................................................151

Stage 3: Prominent Settlers ..................................................................................151

Stage 4: Influencer Settlers ..................................................................................151

Recommendations ........................................................................................................... 152

Pakistan Needs to Think Beyond Remittances ....................................................153

Create a Road Map for Diaspora Engagement - A Policy is Needed ..................155

Create a Database of Pakistani Diaspora and Seek Their Views and Opinions ..158

Identify Focus Areas - Identify Needs .................................................................159

Create Trust ..........................................................................................................161

Create Awareness about the Role Diaspora Can Play in Development of the

Country ................................................................................................................162

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Take Stock of Current Activities in Diaspora Engagement and Remove

Fragmentation in Approach - Create a Comprehensive Plan of Diaspora

Engagement..........................................................................................................163

Focus on Well-Established Diaspora and Engage Them at the Board Level ......164

Pakistani Educational Institutions Should Consider Creating Strong Linkages with

Their Alumni Abroad ...........................................................................................165

Engage Second Generation Diaspora - A Critical Need ......................................167

Either Broaden the Scope of the Pakistan Centre of Philanthropy or Create a

Similar Institution in Pakistan for Diaspora Engagement ....................................168

Research Limitations ...................................................................................................... 169

Contribution to the literature and areas of further research. ........................................... 170

Reflections ...................................................................................................................... 172

Implications of the COVID 19 crisis and the role of diaspora in supporting their

home countries . ...................................................................................................176

References ................................................................................................................................... 179

Appendix A ................................................................................................................................. 196

Appendix B ................................................................................................................................. 198

Appendix C ................................................................................................................................. 199

Appendix D ................................................................................................................................. 200

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List of Tables

Table 1 International Migrants .......................................................................................................31

Table 2 Types of Policies Relating to Labour Emigration in Asian Countries .............................37

Table 3 Main Phases in Post-WWII Research and Policies towards Migration and Development ..........39

Table 4 Views on Migration ..........................................................................................................41

Table 5 Government Roles for Diaspora Engagement ..................................................................51

Table 6 The Ideal Path of the Brain Drain Literature ....................................................................63

Table 7 Effects of Brain Drain on (Developing) Home Countries ................................................69

Table 8 Bangladeshi Academics Connect with Fellow Academics ...............................................79

Table 9 Strategic Framework on the Implementation Activities and Outcomes ...........................88

Table 10 Push and Pull Factors ......................................................................................................94

Table 11 Research Findings Summary ........................................................................................142

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List of Figures

Figure 1 The rise of diaspora institutions ........................................................................................8

Figure 2 Migration leading to brain gain .......................................................................................24

Figure 3 Top 20 destinations and origins of international migrants in 2015 .................................29

Figure 4 Proportion of migrants in the world’s population, 1990-2015 ........................................32

Figure 5 A road map for diaspora engagement ..............................................................................54

Figure 6 Pakistan: Labour Migration by Skill Level .....................................................................92

Figure 7 WAPIS Model of Diaspora Engagement ......................................................................150

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List of Appendices

Appendix A: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................196

Appendix B: Recruitment Message by Pakistani Professional Forum ........................................198

Appendix C: Ethics Approval ......................................................................................................199

Appendix D: Informed Consent ...................................................................................................200

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Chapter 1

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to determine how a developing country like Pakistan can

engage with its diaspora and what are the conditions under which diaspora members would be

willing to engage in knowledge transfer activities with their home country. In a world where

knowledge is regarded as a critical driver of development, many emerging and less developed

countries have begun to engage with their knowledge diaspora population with an endeavour to

seek their new knowledge and convert its brain drain into brain gain for developmental purposes.

In this chapter, I address the contextual and historical background that informs this

research study, the statement of the problem, and my purpose for undertaking this research,

including my rationale for conducting this study. I also present my broader research question,

theoretical framework, and the scope of the study.

Background of the Problem

Leaders in developing nations are increasingly concerned about the economic impact of

losing their highly qualified citizens to the various lucrative opportunities available in more

developed countries, particularly countries in the West. This phenomenon is popularly known as

“brain drain” and refers to the high rate of exit of those whose skills, capabilities, and

characteristics may be an asset to the countries that they leave (Giannoccolo, 2009). The term

brain drain was coined by the British Royal Society to refer to the exodus of scientists and

technologists from the United Kingdom to the United States and Canada in the 1950s and 1960s

(Cervantes & Guellec, 2002). At present, the concept typically refers to the fact that developing

countries are losing intellectual capital through the emigration of highly skilled individuals

(Giannoccolo, 2009).

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For a variety of reasons, including political instability, inferior educational and

professional opportunities, and the selective immigration policies of developed countries,

educated people and professionals from many developing countries have left their homes and

settled in the industrialized world (Jirovsky et al., 2015). The International Organization for

Migration estimated that some 300,000 professionals from the African continent lived and

worked in Europe and North America in 2009 (Shinn et al., 2009). Other studies have found that

up to 700 Ghanaian physicians were practicing in the United States alone in 2004 (Teferra &

Altbach, 2004). This number represents approximately 50% of the total population of doctors in

Ghana (Teferra & Altbach, 2004).

According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM) in 2017, there were 258

million people living in countries other than those where they were born which include

approximately 150 million migrant workers who migrated voluntarily to a new country including

engineers, scientists, physicians, nurses, academics and other highly skilled professionals

(International Organization for Migration, 2018). On the one hand, governments of more

developed countries continue to implement policies to attract the most talented and trained

professionals in an increasingly competitive market for skills. On the other hand, many

developing countries, especially those marked by comparatively low levels of human capital, are

deeply concerned about retaining their most skilled workers (Artuç et al., 2015).

Governments of developing countries complain about the decline in health care systems,

shortages of professionals in teaching and engineering, and the poaching of talent that their

national education systems had paid to train (Gibson & McKenzie, 2011). Lebanese

parliamentary speaker Nabhi Berri called brain drain “the biggest problem we face in Lebanon”

and suggested that the emigration of skilled graduates was a “transmitted disease among the

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youth” (Gibson & McKenzie, 2011, p. 2). Berri’s concern, as well as the concerns of other

leaders in developing countries, stems from the idea that the loss of skilled professionals

ultimately infringes upon a developing country’s long-term economic and political development

(Artuç et al., 2015).

In turn, many developing countries have been focused on creating policies to curb

emigration and developing methods to restrict the movement of professionals. In the 1970s, the

economist Bhagwati (1976) suggested that, in order to protect against brain drain, developing

countries should establish a tax on the brain. Its implication was that developed countries should

impose an income tax on their immigrant populations and transfer the funds to developing

countries; developing countries could then spend these funds on developmental projects.

Although, Bhagwati has continued to maintain this basic proposal, its application has not been

successful. The most significant challenge has been difficulties in the implementation process

and its associated administrative problems, but economists continue to debate this proposal (e.g.,

Massey & Taylor, 2004). Several other measures have since been suggested, including “ethical

recruitment,” which would prevent the employment of specific groups of professionals from less

developed countries or require richer countries to compensate poorer countries for “stealing”

their skilled people (Tinajero & Sinatti, 2011). The numerous restrictive interventions to curb

brain drain have not been successful, especially in the context of economic globalization, which

has created significant transnational movements across geographic boundaries (Sheffer, 1986).

The trend of professionals leaving their home countries and settling in the industrialized world

continues to persist.

For many years, the developing world could do little but watch as its most talented

citizens either went abroad to study or, having been trained at home, migrated to the West. In the

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mid-1990s, a new strand of research on skilled migration and brain drain emerged (Brzozowski,

2008). This research led to the emergence of a transnational mode of thinking, which emphasizes

the importance of global links to the human capital that is present in a country (Wescott, 2005).

The countries that, historically, suffered from emigration were now able to benefit most if they

utilized the potential of their overseas citizens. Such ideas have created among institutions in

developing countries, a growing interest in reaching out to the diaspora and making use of what

they have to offer (Gamlen, 2014).

Scholars now argue that brain drain should be viewed not as detrimental to the home

country but as an opportunity for economic development (Baubock & Faist, 2010; Faist et al.,

2011; Merz et al., 2007). More recently, scholars began to consider how knowledge transfer

through a diaspora community might benefit the country of origin. This shift in perspective is

known as "brain gain" (Brzozowski, 2008), and is promoted as a concept through which

developing countries can find ways to use the skills and experience of the diaspora to fill

knowledge and skills gaps (Agunias & Newland, 2012).

There has been an increased understanding that emigrants could lead hyphenated lives, in

that they could support their country of origin without leaving their new homes (Aikins & White,

2016). Professionals at the Global Commission on International Migration argued that countries

of origin could gain a significant advantage by utilizing the skills and resources of diaspora

communities. According to Meyer and Brown (1999), professionals who train abroad can attain a

higher skill level than those who stay in their countries of origin. Home countries have much to

gain if they can engage these well-trained members of the knowledge diaspora and use them as a

crucial resource in economic development (Meyer & Brown, 1999). Thus, it is evident that there

are many positive aspects to the idea of brain drain if it can be utilized to its full potential.

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The emigration of people from their home countries has created large and diverse

diaspora communities throughout the world. Cohen (2008) identified four types of diaspora. One

of these categories is the victim, which refers to the scattering of people from the ancestry of

their established homeland due to a decisive event. This group represents a class that has been

banished or driven from their place of origin and forced to relocate elsewhere. Cataclysmic

events and the resulting traumatic situations led to the forced dispersion of Africans, Irish people,

Armenians, and Jews, for instance. Another type of diaspora is labour, which refers to migration

from a homeland in search of work. In contrast to those in the victim diaspora, this group

represents people who, by their own choice, immigrate to different countries for work and

professional pursuits. This group also includes those individuals who leave their homeland to

pursue higher education and then decide to remain abroad upon completion of their education.

The third type is imperial, or the migration from a homeland to expand ambitions. The fourth

type is trade, the migration from a homeland in the pursuit of development and trade. People in

this group have relocated to expand their business and trade. The globalization of economies, as

well as more accessible communications and transportation, have provided opportunities for

cross-border movements of people. Labour diaspora who have freely left their home countries in

pursuit of improving their quality of life is the focus of this study.

Other scholars, such as Brinkerhoff (2009b), identified belonging to the diaspora as a

state of mind, emphasizing that it is more than just the physical emigration of a person from their

home country. Brinkerhoff defined diaspora as a sense of psychological connection to the

collective culture of the homeland. Through these various descriptions, one can envision the

many forms and experiences of the diaspora. The term diaspora in the current study is broadly

defined and refers to a group of emigrants and their descendants who live outside the country of

6

their birth or ancestry either on a temporary or permanent basis while they still maintain affective

and material ties to their countries of origin (Sheffer, 1986). The key point here is the willingness

of the diaspora to maintain ties with their home countries for the purpose of supporting their

economic development. For development scholars and the governments of developing countries,

this phenomenon is known as diaspora engagement.

Diaspora engagement is a growing trend and is being adopted as a goal by many

governments, international organizations, and policy leaders. Since the early 1990s, many

developing nations, as well as international development agencies, have attempted to take

advantage of and embrace the knowledge accumulated by citizens who now live elsewhere.

Many institutions are focusing on increasing the role of relevant diaspora in the developmental

strategies for the homeland through their networks, knowledge, and resources (Amoamo, 2015).

Developing countries are creating innovative strategies through which to connect and engage

with diaspora so they may contribute to the development of their home countries.

One of the earliest examples was Jamaica’s “Return of Talent Program” (1994-1998),

which offered an array of generous financial incentives to lure returnees (Thomas-Hope, 1999).

In 2003, following the removal of the Taliban government, the Afghan government instituted the

Return of Qualified Afghans (RQA) program (Agunias & Newland, 2012). The Migration for

Development in Africa Program (MIDA), which is like the RQA, operates in 11 African

countries (Benin, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya,

Rwanda, Senegal, United Republic of Tanzania and Uganda: Black et al., 2006). China launched

Project 111, which allows skilled diaspora to team up with domestic researchers at one of its 126

innovation bases (Cai, 2012). Other examples include Croatia's Unity through Knowledge Fund

(UKF), Thailand's Reverse Brain Drain Project, and Colombia's Red Caldas. The latter project is

7

one of the pioneers of the virtual approach to engagement and was established in 1991 by the

Colombian Institute of Science and Technology (Chaparro et al., 2004). The Philippines’ Brain

Gain Network (BGN) provides a convenient platform for members of the Filipino diaspora to

start new companies in their home countries, while also providing consultancy services for

Filipino organizations (Cervantes & Guellec, 2002).

Brain gain can be pursued in at least two ways: either the expatriates can return to their

homeland, or they can contribute to the development of their country through remote

mobilization (Wescott, 2005). With respect to the latter, several developing countries have begun

effectively forming diaspora institutions to manage diaspora relationships and engagement

(Gamlen et al., 2019). These institutions take the form of formal state offices dedicated to

emigrants and their descendants and include either full ministries, shared ministries, departments,

or inter-departmental committees within the executive branch of government. A relatively small

number of diaspora institutions existed in 1980, and the number has since grown exponentially

(see Figure 1).

Additionally, in 2013, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) held the

world's first Diaspora Ministerial Conference to share ideas and engagement strategies. At this

conference, 500 participants represented 143 international organizations and governments and

shared their experiences and good practices for engaging diaspora for developmental purposes in

their countries of origin. A key outcome of the conference was general acceptability and

recognition of the fact that, given an enabling environment, developing countries can maximize

the considerable potential of diaspora engagement (Gamlen, 2014).

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Figure 1

The rise of diaspora institutions: Percentage of United Nations Member States with formal

offices for emigrants and their descendants, by institution type, 1980-2014. 1

Much has been written about, and several attempts have been made to demonstrate how

members of the diaspora can contribute to their home country's developmental efforts. The

Migration Policy Institute (MPI) published a handbook titled Developing a Road Map for

Engaging Diasporas in Development (Agunias & Newland, 2012). This handbook is a valuable

resource for governments of developing countries, as it covers numerous policy and program

options. Although the concept of brain gain has been comprehensively illuminated in the

literature, developing countries have not yet arrived at a consensus on the broad engagement

strategies that can effectively engage knowledge workers (Yong & Rahman, 2013). Agunias and

1 Source: Alan Gamlen, Michael E. Cummings & Paul M. Vaaler. (2019). Explaining the rise of diaspora

institutions. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 45(4), 492-516.

https://doi.org.10.1080/1369183X.2017.1409163. Printed with permission by publisher Taylor & Francis: Offering

reuse of its content for a thesis or dissertation free of charge contingent on resubmission of permission request if

work is published.

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Newland's (2012) handbook highlighted various government initiatives to engage with their

diaspora populations; however, input and feedback from the diaspora are still not fully addressed

in the current literature on this subject. The scholars and international agencies who have

examined the problem of brain drain have primarily studied this phenomenon from the

perspective of governments of the host and home countries or from the perspective of

international development agencies. There is thus a need to study how to engage the diaspora and

who amongst the diaspora is more likely to be engaged from the perspective of brain gain.

Despite the considerable inroads made by the researchers on diaspora engagement, there

are two gaps in the current literature on brain drain and brain gain that require further

examination. First, as stated above, scholars and international agencies have primarily studied

the phenomena of brain drain and brain gain by focusing on governments of the sending

countries. Most studies consider the ways that government institutions directly interact with

relevant diaspora through various programs and policies. The growth of government-sponsored

diaspora institutions, as reported by Gamlen (2014), is a clear indication of the considerable

interest and involvement governments have in generating contributions from the diaspora to

support economic development. Also, one of the most influential and sought-after handbooks,

published jointly by the Migration Policy institute (MPI) and the International Organization for

Migration (IOM), Developing a Road Map for Engaging Diasporas in Development, presents a

strategic action plan. Its focus is to "create a source of information and practical guide for

governments' thinking of introducing or improving their diaspora-focused policies" (Agunias &

Newland, 2012, p. 14). However, this information is only from the perspective of governments

that are desirous of engaging more fully with their diaspora. The entire handbook considers as

relevant only those governments that have been a great resource for policymakers and

10

practitioners interested in reaching out to the diaspora. The information presented in the

handbook, though very useful, was collected through a survey administered to more than 400

governmental institutions in 56 countries. Though what the authors neglected to recognize is that

the state is "never the only stakeholder in the diaspora strategies and that state policies are often

reactive rather than proactive" (Ho, Hickey, et al., 2015, p. 143).

In various policy documents of multiple international organizations and of national

governments, diaspora strategies have become an integral part of the governmental agenda for

engaging the diaspora for development strategies (Larner, 2007). There is minimal mention of

any role that the private sector or civil society can play in this endeavour. Even scholars, when

defining or proposing a diaspora strategy, often only mention initiatives undertaken by "migrant-

sending states” (Ho, Hickey, et al., 2015, p. 139). Such efforts have yet to consider if and how

the diaspora itself can also engage with civil society organizations, the private sector, and the

educational institutions of their home countries. This possibility needs to be further explored,

particularly about how members of the diaspora can engage with non-governmental

organizations for knowledge-sharing purposes.

Second, while there is recognition of the potential contributions that the diaspora can

make to the development of their home countries, there remains a need to solicit the perspectives

of the diaspora community about what they believe they can contribute and what they might

expect in return. In most of the discussions and conferences that take place among key

stakeholders and decision-makers, international agencies usually only involve and consider

governments. For example, the Diaspora Ministerial Conference hosted 51 speakers, all of whom

represented governments or international agencies. There was not a single speaker representing

the diaspora group (International Organization for Migration, 2018). An engagement and a

11

dialogue with the diaspora should be a critical component and starting point for any diaspora

engagement policy or program initiative because it is crucial to determine who among the

diaspora are more likely to engage in giving back and how they might be engaged in that

process.

Statement of the Problem

It is necessary to find answers to key questions about diaspora engagement. These

include: Who should take the lead in a country’s diaspora engagement function and initiatives?

Should diaspora engagement solely be the responsibility of the government, or should academic

and private institutions be involved in some way? What is the diaspora's perspective on giving

back to their home country, in terms of their level of interest? How and in what way are highly

skilled members of the diaspora likely to give back to their home countries? The answers to

fundamental questions such as these can form a key determinant of effective diaspora

engagement policies. This thesis addresses these questions by soliciting the firsthand

perspectives of Pakistani diaspora who are settled in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA).

Purpose of the Research

The purpose of this study, then, was to explore how a country like Pakistan can harness

the knowledge of its diaspora and the various conditions under which diaspora members would

be willing to engage in knowledge transfer activities. In seeking the perspectives of members of

the Pakistani knowledge diaspora who have settled in the GTA, this study gathered their

perspective on diaspora engagement and their preferences about sharing their time and

knowledge with their home country. I draw on the findings from these conversations to propose a

diaspora engagement strategy that considers the diaspora itself.

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Significance of the Study

An undeniable fact of the last 50 years is that several developing countries have not been

able to catch up to the advancements of the industrialized countries in the West. One key factor,

which is usually considered a differentiator between rich and developing countries, is the

availability of talent and resources with the right skills and knowledge, which can be applied for

the progression and the economic development of the country (Beine et al., 2011). While many

other developing countries have undertaken initiatives for diaspora engagement, Pakistan, which

has such a huge diaspora population, has yet to embrace the concept of brain gain. The effective

use of the Pakistani diaspora for development purposes is not part of the mandate of the Ministry

of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development. The vision created by this Ministry is

unidirectional, which works towards making policies that promote the migration of Pakistanis for

employment abroad. The focus of the Ministry in Pakistan is to promote and facilitate the

migration of skilled and non-skilled workers to overseas destinations because the Ministry sees

migration as an opportunity to increase foreign exchange remittances. Its rationale is that if more

people migrate, the country will increase its foreign exchange earnings (Ministry of Overseas

Pakistanis and Human Resource Development).

This topic is so important globally that, in addition to governments, various international

agencies like the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank also encourage incubating

relationships between a homeland and its diaspora (Agunias & Newland, 2012). There are clear,

positive aspects to the emigration of Pakistanis, especially in terms of receiving remittances

through foreign exchange. In the fiscal year 2016-2017, the Pakistani diaspora sent

approximately $19 billion U.S. dollar (USD) to Pakistan in the form of remittances. This amount,

which is mostly sent to families, continues to grow. The largest source of remittances to Pakistan

13

is the Gulf countries, which send approximately 65% of the total remittances (Rafi, 2017). This

information makes it clear that the brain drain positively correlates with the state of the economy

because diaspora remittances contribute in high proportions towards a developing country's

Gross Domestic Product (GDP). However, to address the huge talent deficit, it is imperative for a

country like Pakistan to tap into the knowledge of its diaspora.

Pakistan is in desperate need of highly educated professionals in various fields. There are

very few reputable higher education institutions in the country and, as a result, the overall quality

of higher education does not meet global standards. Although there is a clear link between

education and a county's socio-economic development, Hoodbhoy (2009) found that none of

Pakistan's public universities comes close to be a university as the university is understood in the

industrialized West. Specifically, recent research on the quality of education in Pakistan shows a

declining trend. Science education is approaching its lowest ebb; it urgently needs to be

improved. There is an acute shortage of teachers, laboratories are ill-equipped, and the

curriculum has little relevance to present-day needs (Memon, 2007). In addition to the

knowledge gap, which persists in almost all sectors of Pakistan's economy, below-average social

indicators of health and education are pervasive in the country. A shortage of health care

professionals has had a significant effect on the lack of steady development of the country. For

example, Pakistan is ranked 79th out of 109 countries on the global food security index, and 50%

of women and 50% of children under five are malnourished (Sheikh, 2016). It is also important

to note that in order to implement by 2030 the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals,

as agreed upon by world leaders in the historic September 2015 United Nations (UN) Summit,

Pakistan will need to mobilize vast financial and capacity developers in various sectors.

14

While drawing on these concerns, expatriate Pakistanis of high accomplishment are vital

to raising the quality of the country's educational system. The Pakistani knowledge diaspora is an

immense reservoir of knowledge that can draw on the knowledge, skills, and connections that

they have gained in order to assist the country. This endeavour would facilitate Pakistan's

achievement of the goals that were agreed upon at the 2015 UN Summit. Pakistan has great

potential to grow, and while it is fortunate to have huge natural resources, what it lacks are

highly trained resources that can aid Pakistan and bring the country to a level where it can

compete on the world stage. It is here where the Pakistani diaspora can assist the country by

bringing back and sharing current knowledge and best practices, thus helping to fill the

knowledge and skills gaps in Pakistan’s economy. The challenge is to identify who would be

willing to engage with their home country on these tasks and how.

There is an urgent need for a country like Pakistan, which has such a huge talent

shortage, to conceive and design innovative ways to engage the diaspora towards applying their

skills and resources towards the socio-economic development of the country. The design and

direction of this engagement pose an interesting and relevant line of inquiry for academic

research, given that those in the diaspora have, through their experiences abroad, gained valuable

skills, experiences, and networking opportunities in their respective fields. The shift in thinking

by many developing countries, that is, moving from brain drain to brain gain, along with the

rapid advancement of technology, has set the stage to unleash the huge potential of the diaspora

to contribute to their home countries. It is critical that the policymakers accept the diaspora not

only as a source of foreign remittances but as a source of knowledge transfer that can immensely

assist in filling existing skills and knowledge gaps. The findings of this study will support and

inform the generation of policy developments directed towards these objectives.

15

As noted earlier, I have not found any major evidence in the academic or policy literature

that Pakistan has undertaken any focused initiative to engage with its diaspora for knowledge

transfer purposes. Also, there is no formal diaspora engagement program in the country; instead,

the focus and thinking remain on receiving foreign remittances and donations. It is important that

the government and private sector stakeholders initiate a shift in thinking and start engaging with

the diaspora population in a systematic and planned manner to reap the various developmental

opportunities they present. The purpose of this study, then, was to explore the various conditions

under which diaspora members would be willing to engage in knowledge transfer activities. In

this study, I solicited the perspectives of members of the Pakistani "knowledge diaspora" who

have settled in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) to determine their preferences about sharing

their time and knowledge with various institutions in their home country. The findings of this

study make several key contributions to academic literature and policy development.

First, in reviewing and discussing best practices of diaspora engagement adopted by

developing countries, the study highlights the significance and importance of diaspora

engagement for Pakistan's developmental purposes. Second, in seeking the perspectives of the

Pakistani diaspora on giving back to their home country, the work considered who among those

in the Pakistani diaspora are more likely to engage and agree on giving back to the home

country. The study discloses what might motivate and excite them to participate in such an

endeavour. The results of this study can encourage key stakeholders in the Pakistani government

to think beyond remittances and focus, in addition, on the considerable reservoir of knowledge

and expertise that can be accessed through effective diaspora engagement.

A focus on the Pakistani diaspora makes sense for three reasons: a) members of the

Pakistani diaspora have come forward whole-heartedly when asked to provide financial support

16

in the form of charity or donations (Najam, 2005); b) Pakistan has the seventh largest diaspora

population in the world and as such has the potential to engage its diaspora for developmental

purposes and c) Pakistan is a resource-constrained developing country that can benefit from

harnessing the knowledge of its diaspora for developmental purposes.

Pakistan is a developing country in South Asia, with a population of approximately 190

million people and a diaspora population of approximately seven million people spread around

the world (Anwar & Rehman, 2013). A country with such a vast diaspora population has a

tremendous opportunity to leverage this resource for developmental purposes. To date, the

Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development appears to be more focused

on making policies to regulate employment overseas and has not taken visible steps to create

policy initiatives about reversing the brain drain. Specifically, the Ministry website mentions that

its purpose is to make policies for employment promotion abroad (Ministry of Overseas

Pakistanis). The findings of this research study may be an important step forward in developing

resources for the Ministry.

Personal Rationale

This topic is of particular interest to me for several reasons. I worked in Pakistan for

many years as a human resource professional and, in that role, experienced firsthand the effects

of qualified people leaving the country for better prospects. As Director of Human Resources for

a private university, I was always looking to create policies to discourage our experienced and

well-qualified employees and graduates from leaving the country. I have been in Canada for the

past nine years and engage directly with Pakistani diaspora in my work. I observe, on a regular

basis, the opportunities and possibilities that can come from harnessing the diaspora knowledge

in line with what many other countries have been doing. I recognize in my work that what is still

17

needed, however, is an awakening and awareness of the potential of diaspora engagement so that

policymakers and institutions in Pakistan can focus their efforts accordingly.

Research Questions

The overall research question I sought to answer is: What are the conditions under which

diaspora members would be willing to engage in knowledge transfer activities with Pakistan? To

answer this question, I sought the perspectives of members of the Pakistani “knowledge

diaspora” who have settled in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) with respect to their preferences

about sharing their time and knowledge with their home country and the enabling conditions

necessary for such knowledge transfer. I describe the specific research questions that drove this

study in detail in chapter three.

According to Yong and Rahman (2013), “more research is needed to understand diaspora

concerns for origin countries and their priority areas of engagement” (p. 15). Many scholars

studying the diaspora and its impact on development around the world contend that the idea of

the diaspora must be examined conceptually. They also suggest that the label "diaspora" attached

to diaspora strategies should be critically unpacked to determine who is included in or excluded

from initiatives to mobilize the diaspora population for the benefit of the homeland (Ho, Boyle,

et al., 2015). This consideration is important because not all diaspora who have the capacity to

share their knowledge and give back to their home country may be ready or willing to do so for

various reasons. The views, ideas and feedback of highly skilled members of the diaspora have

not been a central part of this scholarly and political interest in brain drain and brain gain. The

views of the diaspora have largely been overlooked as the degree to which the diaspora will be

motivated to give back to their home countries, and how and to what extent has not been

extensively researched.

18

To examine the conditions under which the diaspora might be willing to engage in

knowledge transfer activities, this study focuses on the potential and readiness of diaspora

contribution. The specific research questions that ground this study are described in chapter

three.

As noted above, most diaspora engagement efforts emanate from the governments of the

developing countries; therefore, there remains a need to explore if highly skilled diaspora

members support government-led programs and whether they might be more willing to cooperate

with programs initiated by civil society or private sector organizations. Agunias and Newland's

(2012) handbook tracked the successes and challenges of various diaspora engagement programs

across the world. They identified the government as the main actor in the engagement initiative

and offer examples of how governments of respective home countries have taken the lead in

initiating various programs. They did not, however, consider how the private sector and

educational institutions might also successfully access the knowledge and skills of the diaspora.

There is a gap in the diaspora engagement literature as the views of some key stakeholders,

especially members of the diaspora view, have not been effectively addressed.

Theoretical Framework

To study the diaspora, particularly with reference to their contribution to their home

countries, this study draws on reciprocity and human capital theories. Because this study focuses

on what might motivate overseas Pakistanis to participate in diaspora engagement endeavours, it

is important to consider why people would be willing to give back to their home country. Is there

something that excites them or compels them to give back?

In The Norm of Reciprocity, Gouldner (1960) suggested that a norm of reciprocity, in its

complete form, addresses two interconnected requirements: a) that people should aid those who

19

have helped them in the past; and b) that people should not hurt those who have helped them.

Reciprocity theory emphasizes that those who have received any form of help from an individual

or group ought to feel obligated to reciprocate. Building upon Gouldner's account, Uehara (1995)

found that there was evidence to suggest that people feel obliged to return benefits that others

have provided for them. Additionally, according to Falk and Fischbacher (2006), people act in

accordance with reciprocity if they reward kind actions and punish unkind ones. According to

reciprocity theory, people evaluate the actions of others, and this evaluation dictates their future

actions with others.

Many experimental studies indicated that people are motivated by reciprocity. For

example, Haeussler (2011) stated that reciprocity implies that the recipient of favour from

another party feels obliged to reciprocate the gesture in order to maintain the balance of benefits

and contributions. According to Takahashi (2000), the two elements necessary for information

and knowledge exchange between two parties are a) the interest in sustaining a good relationship

with the provider of the information, which increases the chances of future exchanges; and b) an

inherent sense of “quid pro quo,” which induces feelings of guilt and fear of bad reputation to

those unwilling to return a favour. In a study of knowledge sharing amongst industrial scientists

working in research and development units, Bouty (2000) found that a willingness for reciprocity

is an important element of mechanisms of information exchange. Her participants pointed to

reciprocity as a necessary condition for the disclosure of information. Drawing on this literature,

the present study will utilize the concept of reciprocity to analyze the motives and willingness of

the diaspora, sharing their time and knowledge with their home countries. The theory of

reciprocity will be applied to determine the institutions where the diaspora might be more

inclined to contribute.

20

This study focused on two major types of reciprocity: positive reciprocity and negative

reciprocity. Both types may help determine the diaspora's purpose and motivation to give back.

Positive reciprocity refers to the desire to be kind to those that have been good to us. On the

other hand, negative reciprocity occurs when an individual reciprocates an action that has had a

negative impact on an action that has an undesirable effect on the other person (Suranovic,

2001).

The second theoretical framework that informed this study is Human Capital Theory

(HCT). HCT suggests that individuals and society derive economic benefits from investments in

people (Sweetland, 1996). Human capital, a term popularized by Becker and Mincer, refers to

the stock of knowledge, habits, social and personality attributes, including creativity, that are

embodied in the ability to perform labour to produce economic value. HCT is an accepted

foundation for human resource development (Dobbs et al., 2008). It has also been defined as an

approach to studies of investments of an individual, organization or nation that accumulate skills

and cognitive or technical knowledge (Becker, 2009). There is a direct link between human

capital and the economic development of a country. It is well known that countries with

significant trained and skilled human resources have enjoyed long periods of persistent economic

growth. Countries like Japan, Taiwan, and Singapore, for example, have been able to boost

productivity and economic progress in recent decades through the growth in their human capital.

Although many of these countries were lacking in natural resources, they relied very heavily on

well-trained, educated, hardworking and conscientious labour forces and made so much progress

that they became known as Asian tigers (Becker, 2009).

Scholars agree that societies that are educated have greater human capital and thus make

more considerable progress in all spheres of human life. The role of education in human capital

21

development is thus of paramount importance. The type of human capital investments made

typically includes science, technology, and health care and nutrition (Schultz, 1981). Education

consistently emerges as a prime human capital investment that raises the overall impact and the

human capital profile of a country (Sweetland, 1996). Over the past century, the accumulation of

scientific and technical knowledge in developed countries has resulted in continued growth in

per capita income in countries like the United States, Japan, and many European countries.

During this time, intellectual knowledge, especially in the areas of scientific and technological

development, raised the output and productivity of labour through new inventions and

innovations.

Human capital theory intersects with this study because it demonstrates that there is a link

between human capital and a country's economic development. Human capital and knowledge

cannot be separated from human beings: people acquire skills and take these skills with them if

they move from one country to another. Therefore, developing countries like Pakistan are faced

with a significant dilemma. On the one hand, Pakistan has very few high-quality educational

institutions (by international standards), and many graduates of these institutions leave the

country for better prospects. The country is thus left with a substantial void in terms of its

available human capital. On the other hand, people who migrate to developed countries as

professionals acquire new skills, know-how, experience, and networks. This migration results in

a vibrant and valuable overseas diaspora that Pakistan might access as available human capital to

support its development. This phenomenon presents an opportunity for developing counties to

reach out to their diaspora population and engage them to share their knowledge with countries

that are in dire need of modern knowledge to support development.

22

The present study is based on the broader premise that countries with knowledge and

human capital make economic progress at an accelerated pace. However, no matter how much

new knowledge and education diaspora members may have acquired, their willingness to

reciprocate and share knowledge is dependent on many factors. My research sought to explore

and address the nature of these elements and dimensions. Both human capital theory, as well as

reciprocity theory, are strong theoretical frameworks through which to study how the diaspora

can help convert "brain drain" into "brain gain" for their home country of Pakistan.

Study Scope

This study considered the experiences of Pakistani-Canadians who migrated from

Pakistan to the GTA within the last three years or more and who were highly skilled

professionals, based in the GTA and currently employed in their chosen profession. Highly

skilled personnel are those professionals who have a managerial or technical background and a

tertiary education acquired either in Canada or abroad. The group may include teachers, school

principals, college and university faculty or administrators, nursing personnel, physicians,

surgeons, and business professionals. The participants in this research included those

professionals who were born in Pakistan and who had migrated to Canada, directly or indirectly.

Participants had to have migrated from Pakistan to the GTA.

The findings of this study are expected to create awareness amongst policymakers in

Pakistan about the possibilities of engaging with its diaspora for developmental purposes. The

findings may create avenues for and interest in further research. Due to the small sample size and

purposeful recruitment, the study findings are not generalizable but will still be valuable and

informative. Also, this study focused only on the views of the first generation of the diaspora

(those born in Pakistan and now living in Canada). There is a large group of second and third

23

generation diaspora (children and grandchildren of immigrants) who may have different

attachments to Pakistan and thus entirely different view than that of the first-generation diaspora.

As the focus of the study was to capture the views of the diaspora who were born in Pakistan and

had emigrated to Canada for better prospects, it was beyond the scope of the study to consider

additional generations.

A major limitation of this study is that the findings will not be generalizable beyond the

specific group addressed in this study. However, generalizability is not the goal of qualitative

research studies like this one; instead, the goal is to gain a deeper understanding of the

phenomena explored. Furthermore, the findings of this study will be of great interest to

governments and groups that seek information on how to address the mission-critical issue of

brain drain in their contexts.

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Chapter 2

Literature Review

This chapter focuses on the current state of knowledge and research on diaspora

engagement, migration, brain drain, and brain gain as they form the key components of my broad

research undertaking. The premise behind this section was to identify points of debate,

uncertainty and ambiguity in the existing research and to place these studies and approaches in

the context of their contributions towards understanding the research problem that I aim to

address in my study. Thus, keeping in view the research topic, which focuses on the engagement

of Pakistani diaspora for developmental purposes or reversing brain drain, this chapter addresses

the following areas: the meaning, scope, growth and trend of international migration and its

impact on development; the study and discussion of diaspora and diaspora engagement; the

identification of who comprises the diaspora as well as how they have grown; the current

thinking amongst scholars on diaspora engagement for development; the study and discussion of

the phenomena of brain drain and brain gain; and, the study, discussions and status of the

Pakistani diaspora.

All the above aspects are interconnected, as shown in Figure 2. International migration

led to the development of diaspora communities, which in turn resulted in the phenomena of

brain drain and brain gain.

Figure 2

Migration leading to brain gain. Source © Copyright 2021, Navroz Surani.

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Key Terms and Concepts

This study was informed by and drew on several relevant concepts from the development

literature. A migrant, is any person who is moving or has moved across an international border

or within a state away from their habitual place of residence, regardless of a) the person’s legal

status; b) whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary; c) what the causes for the

movement are; or d) the length of the stay (International Organization for Migration, 2018).

Voluntary migration. As the name indicates, is relocation according to personal desires. In this

case, individuals decide to move to a new place for many reasons, and those who voluntarily

migrate are often motivated by economic reasons and are searching for a better life. Forced

migration. Forced migration refers to the uprooting of people from their place of origin or their

homeland. It generally connotes violent coercion. Refugees are those who have been forced to

leave their country to escape war persecution or natural disaster. Currently, there are

approximately 22.5 million refugees in the world. Immigration is the action of coming to live

permanently in a foreign country. At the same time, emigration is the act of leaving one’s own

country to settle permanently in another country- moving abroad.

The movement and relocation of persons across borders create groups that have come to

be known as diaspora. Diaspora is commonly used as a generic term that denotes communities of

migrants living or settled permanently in other countries, aware of their origins and identity, and

maintaining various degrees of contact with the home country. However, the recent past has seen

the word used with many nationalities and, indeed, regions and cities and now, sometimes,

companies and organizations. These days we often hear talk of the Nigerian diaspora, the

Australian diaspora, the Jamaica diaspora, and Pakistan diaspora to go along with the more

established diaspora countries such as India, Ireland, and China (Aikins & White, 2016, n.p.).

26

In this study, the term "diaspora" is used as a collective noun to refer to a group of people

or an ethnic population who leave their traditional homelands and disperse throughout other parts

of the world. According to the International Organization for Migration, diasporas in the plural

form reflects “the diversity of populations that can be acknowledged as diaspora” (International

Organization for Migration, 2006, p. 193).

The term “brain drain” was coined by the British Royal Society to refer to the exodus of

scientists and technologists from the United Kingdom to the United States and Canada in the

1950s and 1960s (Cervantes & Guellec, 2002). At present, the concept typically refers to the fact

that developing countries are losing intellectual capital through the emigration of highly skilled

individuals (Giannoccolo, 2009). In contrast, many scholars have promoted the idea of brain

gain. Scholars argue that brain drain should be viewed not as detrimental to the home country but

as an opportunity for economic development (Baubock & Faist, 2010; Faist et al., 2011; Merz et

al., 2007). Recently, scholars have also begun to consider how knowledge transfer through a

diaspora community may benefit the country of origin. This shift in perspective is known as

brain gain (Brzozowski, 2008), and is promoted as a concept through which developing

countries can find ways to use the skills and experience of the diaspora to fill knowledge and

skills gaps (Agunias & Newland, 2012).

Home country is the country of a migrant’s origin. It is usually the country where

migrants were born and raised regardless of the present country of residence. The host country is

the country in which migrants settle; it is not their country of birth.

Migration is a complex phenomenon. It is essential to define migration, explore the

global trend in international migration, to highlight the dilemma of human mobility across

27

international borders, and analyze the debate on migration and development to determine if

migration automatically leads to development in home countries.

Human migration is an age-old phenomenon that stretches back to the earliest periods

of human history. Throughout history, people have migrated to improve their livelihood and to

increase their and their family’s safety. Mobility is a fundamental freedom and has the potential

to lead to greater human capabilities (Sen, 2001). Human mobility encourages and gives rise to

human freedom, which in turn creates opportunities for people exposed to a new environment to

learn new things allowing them to unleash their full potentials.

By creating opportunities and reducing migration restrictions so that people can move

freely and can also lead to greater economic efficiency (United Nations Development

Programme, 2009), international migration is a reality on which there is no disagreement.

According to Kapur (2010), cross borders flows of goods and services as well as financial capital

have transformed the economic landscape globally; however, scholars and academics have paid

less attention to studying the cross border flow of labour which he categorizes as the third leg of

globalization triad, the first two being the flow of products and financial capital.

In the space of international migration, three migrant streams have emerged in recent

years. First, there was forced migration resulting from civil wars in Afghanistan. Second, the

trend of semiskilled workers migrating from South Asia to the middle east and from central

America and Mexico to the United States and third is the skilled migration mostly from lower-

income countries such as Asia and Africa to industrialized countries in Europe and North and

South America (Kapur, 2010)

Also, a review of the literature indicated that the emigration and flow of people from one

country to another had been understudied by scholars as compared to studies in the areas of

28

financial flows and trade. This lack of study has been mainly attributed to the absence of reliable

data on international migration. The study of international migration and cross border

movements of people have far greater implications socially and politically as compared to the

movement of financial resources and goods and services. People crossing the borders usually

benefit most as migrants, but when goods cross the borders, it is the senders or receivers who

gain; also, people can vote, pay taxes, collect social security, and return home -goods cannot.

These situations all lead to the need to study migration and understand the diaspora capacity and

opportunities to contribute to the social, political, and economic well-being of both host and

home countries (Kapur, 2010).

Migration is one of the most complex social phenomena. In the modern era, emigration

continues to provide states, societies, and migrants with many opportunities. At the same time,

migration has emerged in the last few years as a critical, political, and policy challenge in matters

such as integration, displacement, safe migration, and border management (International

Organization for Migration, 2018). In 2015, there were an estimated 244 million international

migrants globally (3.3% of the world's population), an increase from an estimated 155 million

people in 2000 (2.8% of the world's population: International Organization for Migration, 2018).

According to one estimate, two-thirds of these migrants (i.e., about 150 million people) are

migrant workers who leave their home country for a better future, while the remaining third are

asylum seekers or refugees who take action to leave their home under duress due to a natural or

human-made crisis (International Organization for Migration, 2018).

The focus of this dissertation is on migrants who leave their home country for better

prospects. The study of refugees and the refugee experience is not a focus of this thesis.

Refugees do not form the part of this study because they are mostly dependent economically and

29

socially on the host countries and their capacity to give back to home countries, even if they

desire, is usually non-existent since they have been forced to cross national borders either due to

war, persecution or natural disaster.

Typically, migration flows are from less developed countries to more developed countries

(see Figure 3). Migration touches on the various economic, social and security aspects that affect

our daily lives in an increasingly complex world. Migration is an experience that involves a wide

variety of movements and situations that involve people from all walks of life and backgrounds.

More than ever before, migration touches all states and people in a period of globalization where

the entire world is increasingly interconnected.

Figure 3

Top 20 destinations (left) and origins (right) of international migrants in 2015 (millions). Source: IOM

(2018). P. 19. Reprinted with permission.

30

Traditional immigration countries like the United States, Australia, and Canada still base

their immigration policies on the permanent immigration of primarily male heads of the

household whose relocation to those countries will lead to permanent settlement and eventually

citizenship (Castles, 2013: see Table 1). However, the realities of migration in the 21st century

are rather different, with strong trends towards circulatory or temporary migration.

Many receiving governments prefer to have migrants come on temporary basis, the main

reason being that it is more acceptable to the population in the host countries, provides flexibility

to the host countries and can help prevent public hostility towards migration in the host

countries. The European “guest worker” policies promulgated in early 60s and 70s were key

examples (to recruit workers from overseas but not allow then to bring in families or stay

permanently). Even in many Gulf countries temporary migrants’ policies have been adopted

which allows migrants to work and stay in the host countries for few years. As a Swiss play

writer Max Frisch put it, these polices “bring in workers but not people” (Castles, 2013).

In Europe, many countries have more recently adopted temporary migration policies

under the new title of “circular migration” which essentially is a provision of repeated movement

of people between home and host countries. One example is New Zealand’s Recognized

Seasonal Employer Scheme which allows Agriculture employers to recruit workers from

overseas on seasonal basis and who can return to work every season as and when required

(Castles, 2013).

In a study conducted by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) on how the

world views migration, it was found that in every major region of the world except Europe,

immigration levels are likely to go up or at least stay at the present levels. This finding is in sharp

31

contrast to the negative perceptions of migration, which is reported in the media in certain parts

of the world (IOM, 2015).

Table 1

International Migrants

Source: IOM, 2018, p. 15. Printed with permission.

Snapshot of International Migrants

Migration provides opportunities for states, businesses, and communities to benefit

enormously. It has resulted in improving people’s lives in both home and host countries and has

offered opportunities to people worldwide to live safe, peaceful, and prosperous lives abroad.

However, one should note that not all migration is positive. Recent years have seen an increase

in migration occurring due to various negative circumstances such as conflict, persecution,

environmental degradation and change, and a profound lack of human security and opportunity.

As noted in Figure 4, the international migrant population globally has increased in size but has

remained relatively stable as a proportion of the world’s population.

32

Figure 4

The proportion of migrants in the world's population, 1990-2015.

Source IOM, 2018, p. 16. Printed with permission.

What Motivates Migration

People generally like to stay in their home countries rather than migrate voluntarily.

However, voluntarily migration continues to grow and is becoming a significant topic on the

international policy agenda. In the past few years, there has been an overwhelming interest in the

study of migration, particularly by policymakers and governments that are viewing migration

from the optic of economic development (De Haas, 2010). Several factors like the domestic

immigration policies of sending and receiving countries, the demographics of the populations,

the possibility of remittances, ease of communication and transportations, and the growth of

information and communications technology have resulted in increased consciousness about the

importance of migration as a force of globalization and economic change (IOM, 2018).

33

Human mobility is a key facet of globalization and the economic, demographic, and

political drivers of migration remain immensely powerful. The economic linkages of less

developed countries with the developed countries creates opportunities for mobility of people

(Stiglitz, 2002). Also, changing demographics in the developed countries have created newer

opportunities for people from underdeveloped countries to migrate and improve their living

conditions. The declining fertility rates in developed countries have resulted in fewer young

nationals entering the labour market. Also, as these young people have excellent educational

opportunities, they are not willing to engage in low skilled jobs. As such, developed countries

have an increased demand for both low skilled, as well as a highly skilled workforce.

Also, the growth of electronic communications makes it easier for people to know about

the various opportunities, as well as the migration routes and requirements. Once migrants move

from one place to another, they create migration networks through which the new prospective

migrants get help with information on migration possibilities, requirements, and the official rules

and regulations. The availability of such networks paves the way for increased interest in

migration (Castles, 2013).

Migration creates huge benefits for the people who migrate and for their families. The

wages earned by people migrating overseas can be many times higher of what they could earn in

their home country. According to a study conducted by IOM in 2009, the ratio of wages earned

by workers in the US to wages earned by identical workers (same country of birth) ranges from

15.45 (for workers born in Yemen) to 1.99 (workers born in the Dominican Republic) with a

median ratio of 4.11and with largest relative income gains accruing to lower skill workers. In

other words, the study showed that migrant lower skilled workers earns on an average 4.11 times

higher than what they could earn in their home countries. (IOM, 2018). The wage differentials

34

between home and host countries are phenomenal and allows migrant workers to earn wages in

multiples of what they could earn doing similar jobs in their home countries. The increase in

migrants’ earnings can also lead to improvements in the welfare and human development of the

migrants families either directly if they are with the migrants or indirectly through remittances.

(IOM, 2018).

Gallardo-Sejas, Pareja, Llorca-Vivero, and Martínez-Serrano (2006) used the gravity

model to analyze the factors that drive migration into or within Europe. The gravity model is

analogous to the Newtonian gravity equation and has been used in empirical work in economics

and population studies. The model in population studies, especially in the study of migration,

indicates that that migration is a positive function of the population size of the host and the home

country and a negative function of distance -Geographic distance has a clear negative impact on

migration.

The authors indicated that both "push" and "pull" factors are important factors that

explain migration. Various factors like an increase in the population of the origin countries, the

better economic conditions and opportunities in the destination countries, the existence of

cultural linkages, and rapid growth in information and communication technology are some of

the factors that positively affect migration.

On the other hand, geographic distance has a clear negative impact on migration.

However, with the increased means of efficient transportation, it is surprising that the authors

have found transportation and geographic distance as a barrier to migration. Mayda (2010) also

considered pull factors. She investigates the possibility of poverty constraints that may create a

weak push effect but finds that they are insignificant. She argued that migration and immigration

policies in the country of destination are very much dependent on the interactions of voters'

35

attitudes towards immigration, interest group pressures as well as the policymakers' preferences

towards migration. She also analyzed the role played by immigration laws over time by creating

an indicator variable that reflects any increase or decrease in the restrictiveness of immigration

laws within the destination country. The researcher found that when the immigration laws are

less restrictive, then the push factors of migration, such as the GDP per worker in the country of

origin, have a more pronounced negative effect and GDP per worker in the country of

destination, which is a pull factor and has a positive and more significant effect (Mayda, 2010).

Bertocchi and Strozzi (2006) while studying determinants of 19th century mass migration

studied and assessed the relevance of the economic forces which encouraged emigration out of

Europe. According to their findings, migrants left Continental Europe for the New World due to

material needs and viewed their destination as places of economic opportunity. However, it was

also found in the same study that encouraging policies in the host countries, such as immigration

and citizenship, land and education policies also played a key role in encouraging migration.

They argued that stricter entry laws have a significant negative effect on migration

(Bertocchi & Strozzi, 2006). They also found evidence of the important influence of institutions,

and migration policy, since countries with a more open citizenship policy display higher

migration rates after controlling for standard economic factors (Bertocchi & Strozzi, 2006).

According to Ortega and Peri (2009), the role of immigration laws and bilateral

agreements is critical in the determination of migration flows. They studied immigration laws,

such as entry laws and stay laws. Entry laws control the entry of a migrant into the country of

destination and policies such as quotas of temporary work permits, fees and processes to obtain

visas determine the attractiveness for migrants to enter a new country (Ortega & Peri, 2009).

Stay laws, on the other hand, consist of laws that influence the processes involved in obtaining a

36

permanent residence permit. They found that stricter entry laws have a significantly negative

effect on migration, but the effects of stay laws are not significant (Ortega & Peri, 2009). They

also found that the Maastricht treaty, which allowed free movement of labour in the European

member countries, has had an encouraging impact on migration flows (Ortega & Peri, 2009). In

addition, they verified the significance of per capita income in the destination country and other

geographical and cultural factors affecting migration flows (Ortega & Peri, 2009).

Links Between Migration and Development

Considering its potential contribution to development, there is a renewed interest from

policymakers and researchers to study migration. Mobility of people is linked to the major

transformation affecting many parts of the world and cross border movements of capital,

commodities, ideas, and people are an integral outcome of globalization (Castles, 2014).

According to Clemens, Özden, and Rapoport (2014), each migration instance has a story and is

caused by and, in turn, affects the development process. However, the causes and effects of

migration, which are especially important to determine, and the contribution of migration to

development, are poorly understood and not concurrently researched (Clemens et al., 2014).

This fundamental gap is now being addressed. Recently, migration studies have

undergone two major shifts, one in quantity and the other in focus. Based on a bibliometric

exercise undertaken by Rapoport et al. (2017), researchers who study the development of a

country have mainly focused on aspects like economic development, poverty reductions, social

advancement and socio-economic equity but are now also devoting their attention to studying

migration. Secondly, researchers have moved away from focusing their research on remittances

alone and are focusing on broader links between migration and overall development and its

37

components, thus raising the scope, purpose, and objectives of their research activities (Clemens

et al., 2014).

In 2004, Hugo et al. identified types of policies which Asian developing countries make

towards promoting and regulating migration from their respective countries. In their analysis of

these various government policies, they found three main goals of policy formulation, to promote

employment, to promote and protect the well-being of the migrants and to maximize the

potential of economic development. They also observed (see Table 2) that under the goal to

maximize the potential for economic development, the government was not just focused on

receiving remittances but had also started to view skills as talent and the diaspora as a source of

development. This view can be considered as a shift in the thinking of various governments

towards migration and the responsibilities and roles for the home countries experiencing

migration.

Table 2

Types of Policies Relating to Labour Emigration in Asian Countries

Policy Goal Government interventions

Promote employment Foreign market development

1. Establish diplomatic relations

2. Strengthen placement services, public and private

3. Undertake promotions and marketing missions

4. Gather market information and undertake research

5. Negotiate bilateral agreements

Workforce supply management

1. Create a workforce registry

2. Export corporate services

3. Implement restrictions against brain drain

38

Protect and promote

well-being of migrants

Standard setting and enforcement

1. Establish minimum standards for employment contracts

2. Implement exit control measures

3. Make arrangements for social security

4. Restrict the exit of selected workers (minors and young women)

Supervision of private recruitment

1. License recruitment firms

2. Set performance guarantees and penalties

3. Limit recruitment fees

4. Censure illegal recruitment and clandestine migration

Welfare services

1. Provide information and counselling prior to departure

2. Provide labour attaché services on site

3. Establish community centers for workers

4. Provide support services to families left behind

5. Provide returnee training and employment assistance

6. Prepare plans for emergency evacuation or repatriation

Maximize potential

for economic

development

Migrant remittances

1. Implement favourable exchange policies

2. Provide remittance policies and services

Migrant savings and investments

1. Create special financial instruments

2. Provide information and support services to small investors

3. Create special housing programs for migrants

Return of talents and skills

1. Provide special placement services and incentives

2. Negotiate bilateral training agreements

Source: Hugo & Stahl, 2004, p. 180.

39

According to De Haas and Fransen (2018), the debate on migration and development has

swung back and forth like a pendulum. An era of optimism in the 1950s and 1960s gave way to

one of pessimism over the 1970s and 1980s; more optimistic views prevailed in the 1990s and

2000s. Table 3 presents De Hass's identification of the main phases in research and policies

towards migration and development. From here, one can determine the different phases of

optimism and pessimism in the debate towards the connections between migration and

development.

Table 3

Main Phases in Post-WWII Research and Policies towards Migration and Development

Adapted from De Haas, 2010, p.2.

Scholars and experts who were optimistic in the early 1970s and again after 2001 held the

view that the free movement of labour in an unconstrained market environment would lead to the

increased scarcity of labour coinciding with the increased labour productivity and wage levels in

40

migrant-sending countries. Kindleberger (1967), for instance, was one of the first to advance

optimism on the topic and was of the view that large-scale emigration could contribute to the

best of both worlds: rapid growth in the country of immigration and rapid growth in the country

of origin. According to Djajić (1986), the optimist always thought of migrants with a narrow

focus and ruled out the possibilities that their migration could also benefit non-migrants. These

optimistic views were informed by studies that concluded that migrants were utility-maximizing

individuals. These studies, however, were soon disregarded in favour of other explanatory

motives for migration, such as family, community, and security.

Another school of thought on migration emerged during the 1970s and extended to the

late 1980s. It viewed the relationship between migration and development through the lens of

pessimism and challenged the views that were prevalent in earlier decades. Papademetriou

(1985) argued, for instance, that in sending countries, migration would contribute to an

uncontrollable depletion of their already meagre supplies of skilled labour power and dynamic

population. Migration was perceived to deprive developing countries of their scarce skilled and

professional labour resources in which states have invested many years of education (Baldwin,

1970). Table 4 summarizes the opposing views of these two schools of thought on migration and

development.

41

Table 4

Views on Migration

Adapted from De Haas, 2010, p.24.

There is, however, the third view on this aspect of migration and development. Based on

the first two views, Papademetriou and Martin (1991) argued that there is no automatic

mechanism by which international migration leads to development. Instead, for development to

occur through migration, there must be enabling context and conditions in a country's political,

economic, social, and cultural spaces (Papademetriou & Martin, 1991). Also, the migrants must

have the necessary capacities as well as a commitment to avail the benefit of the enabling

environment (political and economic stability) for contributing to the country's socio-economic

development. This view has been described in the literature as the pluralist view of the

interaction between migration and development. The vital role of governments in shaping

favourable conditions for development is crucial, and in the absence of an enabling environment,

development through migration may face various structural constraints and difficulties. Also, a

fundamental change in attitudes is a necessary step towards fairer and more effective migration

policies. It is important to see migration not as a threat to state security, but as a result of the

human insecurity that arises through global inequality.

42

Data and Other Challenges in the Study of Migration Trends

A discussion on migration trends will remain incomplete if there is no mention of the key

gaps and challenges that are associated with the collection and analysis of migration data. At

present, the scale of migration is determined from the estimates of the international migrants

living in a country other than their country of birth. According to the International Organization

for Migration (IOM, 2018), a key constraint is the availability and quality of migrant data, which

vary considerably between countries and regions due to limitations in data collection. These

include failure to disaggregate key characteristics only every decade or so. The lack of

uniformity in concepts and definitions of international migrants at international and national

levels also makes it difficult to estimate global migrant figures (IOM, 2018).

The need to collect and report data on migration continues to remain very challenging not

only for the developed and developing countries but also for international agencies like the

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA), which has compiled

flow data for only 45 countries (United Nations, 2015). Also, in the available datasets, the

duration used to define a migration event, and the coverage of the population at risk can vary,

thereby hampering analysis. The data of labour migration is primarily based on estimates

compiled by the International Labour Organization (ILO). However, these figures likely

underestimate the true range due to frequent undercounting of short-term labour migration

movements (IOM, 2018).

A key observation to be made is the lack of coordination between rich and developing

countries in managing migration globally. It appears that the entire migration space is suffering

from a lack of ownership or global governance. According to Castles (2013), there is a need for

global cooperation, especially on human rights standards for migrants, which requires

43

abandoning short-term national interest in favour of long-term cooperation between rich and

developing nations (Castles, 2013). Also, according to Castles (2013), it seems that some

confusion exists between various stakeholders about the concept of migration. Is it productive? Is

it damaging? Is it beneficial to receiving countries or sending countries? It is time that migration

is seen as a reality and not a problem to be solved through strict control. It is also time that

countries focus on the positive side of migration and decision-makers aim to minimize their

potential adverse effects. The aim should be to realize the potential benefits for the migrants as

well as for the economies of both the sending and receiving countries.

Securitization of Migration

It is crucial to note that while migration and the forces generating it are becoming more

powerful, there is another opposite aspect to all the perceived optimism of migration, which is

also a matter of concern for many developed or receiving countries. This aspect relates to

concerns about their security and the threat to prosperity in their host countries. Public hostility

towards migration exists in some receiving countries and continues to gain importance. As a

result, many countries have stringent rules about regulating the entry of foreign workers, which

they promote as a symbol of National Sovereignty. Past events of national crises such as the New

York terrorist attack in 2001, followed by bombing in London in 2005, have led to a perception

that migrants constitute a danger for the societies who receive and harbour them. The idea of

immigrants as a potential “enemy within” has always been there, and many countries have thus

moved cautiously in framing their immigration policies towards more selective approaches to the

entry of foreign workers (Castles, 2013). This aspect of securitization of migration cannot be

ignored and is based on the premise that the security of rich countries and their populations is

compromised due to migration freedom.

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Emerging and Newer Forms of Migration

In the twenty-first century, new trends and forms of migrations have emerged or have

started taking root. Many countries have created newer avenues for migration, thus moving away

from the traditional arrangements where migrants move to a new country, such as Canada, the

United States, or Australia and make it their permanent home. In this section, some of the non-

traditional forms of migration are discussed.

Temporary, Circular, or Repeat migration is the temporary movement of people between

home and host country. Temporary migration is a process that allows people to commute on a

need basis to the host countries and come back to their home countries whenever needed. The

main advantage of such an arrangement is that the migrant worker has the flexibility and

opportunity to not be away from their home for an extended period. Also, modern forms of

communication and transportation have made frequent visits possible, which eases and facilitates

the concept of circular migration. This arrangement of flexible stay in the host country also

allows an opportunity for the migrant workers to obtain the best of both worlds in that they can

earn in high-income countries and spend in their home countries, which usually have a low-cost

origin (Migration Policy Institute, 2013).

Women in migration is another trend that has been witnessed over the last few years,

especially in countries of Asia -Pacific regions. Migration opportunities have provided and

opened unique opportunities to female workers to improve their standard of living. Policymakers

in many countries, both in the host and home countries, initially believed that the out-migration

of women mostly takes place in the context of associational migration, including marriage.

However, this trend has changed, and in present times, women workers are migrating on their

own. (Castles, 2013).

45

The factors which have led to such a trend include lack of job opportunities for women in

their home countries, growth in the culture of migration, growth of export-oriented sectors where

women are perceived to have a comparative advantage (e.g., garment industry), increased

demand for domestic workers in East and South East Asia, and the increased demand in the

health care industry, especially in the nursing profession. Female migration has a significant

impact on family upbringing, as most married women must keep their children in the care of

others, and their long absences affect relationships and gender roles (Castles, 2013). In addition

to the above trends many students who go abroad for study purposes decide to remain and

become part of migrant communities. Retirees also constitute a category of migrants who move

from one country to another in search of better retirement living and climatic conditions and a

better lifestyle. However, in view of not being gainfully employed, retiree migrants may not have

substantial socio-economic and developmental implications (Castles, 2013).

Diaspora Communities

The emigration of people from their home countries has created significant and diverse

diaspora communities throughout the world. As identified by Cohen (2008), there are four types

of diaspora. Victim, labour, imperial and trade. Victim diaspora, as the word denotes, are people

who have scattered from their homeland due to a decisive event. They represent a group of

diaspora who have been forced to leave their place of origin to relocate elsewhere. Catastrophic

events and the resulting tragic outcomes and situations led to the forced dispersion of Africans,

Irish people, Armenians, and Jews. Labour diaspora are those who leave their homeland by their

own choice in search of work. As compared to victim diaspora, the labour diaspora represents

people who, by their own choice, immigrate to different countries for work and professional

pursuits. This group also includes those individuals who leave their homeland to pursue higher

46

education and then decide to remain abroad upon completion of their education. Imperial

diaspora are those people who leave or migrate to expand ambitions. Trade diaspora migrate

from a homeland in the pursuit of development and trade. People in this group have relocated to

expand their business and trade. The globalization of economies as well as more accessible

communications and transportation have provided opportunities for cross border movements of

people. Labour diaspora who of their own free will have left their home countries in pursuit of

improving their quality of life will be the focus of this study.

Other scholars, such as Brinkerhoff (2009b), identified belonging to the diaspora as a

state of mind, emphasizing that it is more than just the physical emigration of a person from their

home country. She defined diaspora experience as a sense of psychological connection to the

collective culture of the homeland. Through these various descriptions, one can envision the

many forms and experiences of the diaspora.

Globalization has created unprecedented transnational movements across traditional

political and geographic boundaries, creating new diaspora communities that retain varying

social, cultural and financial linkages with their countries of origin (Merz et al., 2007). In recent

years, there has been unprecedented growth and explosion in the activities to connect with

diaspora. Many developing countries, international agencies and policymakers have organized

conferences and conventions on this topic and have also published research reports. Examples

include the formation of the Global Diaspora Forum in the United States with the objectives of

celebrating the contributions of diaspora communities to America, furthering their relationship

with their countries of origin and fostering diaspora- centric partnerships models. In 2011 the

Secretary of State Hillary Clinton addressed the forum which was attended by over 500 people

representing 75 countries in Washington D.C. (USAID, 2011). In addition, 35 countries attended

47

the Global Villages Conference in Jerusalem (Aikins, 2013). The European Union hosted its first

Diaspora Conference in Brussels and countries such as Vietnam, Uganda, and Indonesia have

held Diaspora Conferences. Also, Portugal has announced the establishment of a Global

Diaspora Council (Aikins, 2013).

In March 2017, Harvard University, United States International University-Africa and the

Carnegie African Diaspora Fellowship Program co-hosted a conference at Harvard University

titled "Role of Diaspora in the Revitalization of African Higher Education." This conference

brought together leaders of the African diaspora in higher education to discuss how the diaspora

can be involved in helping Africa revitalize its higher education sector and achieve its agenda for

2063 of the African Union Commission (Harvard. Edu, 2017).

There is growing awareness now that there is such a concept as diaspora capital to go

alongside financial, human and social capital. Countries are coming to the realization that this is

a resource to be researched, cultivated, solicited, and stewarded. Many see this as a way of

addressing tough domestic economic challenges and as a key piece of their economic recovery.

They see it as more than just economic remittances as there are also social remittances in the

form of ideas, values, beliefs, and practices (Aikins & White, 2016).

The debate on how the diaspora can affect their home country's development has also

been gaining momentum. Many experts argued that diaspora are a key strategic asset who

possess the social, financial and intellectual capital and have the capacity and potential to

respond to the development needs of the home countries (Kapur, 2010). In the words of Mary

Robinson, Former President of Ireland,

If cherishing the diaspora is to be more than sentimental regard for those who leave our

shore, we should not only listen to their voice and their viewpoint, we have a

responsibility to respond warmly to their expressed desire for appropriate fora for

48

dialogue and interaction with us by examining in an open and generous way the possible

linkages. We should accept that such a challenge is an education in diversity, which can

only benefit our society. (Robinson, 1995, p. 20)

Diaspora Engagement

Most scholars and researchers studying these topics have highlighted the power and

potential of diaspora towards supporting the developmental initiatives of their homelands in a

significant number of ways (Brinkerhoff, 2009a; De Haas, 2006; Gamlen, 2014; Levitt, 2001;

Newland, 2010; Newland & Patrick, 2004; Terrazas, 2010). According to Kapur (2010), diaspora

engagement is a system of personal networks, shared cultures, and an imaginary relationship

with the home country of a group of migrants who live in a host country. This connection, based

on common culture and language is an opportunity for the home country to channel the

economic resources of its diaspora for developmental activities in the home country (Lucas,

2001; Reis, 2004). In view of this significant opportunity, individual studies have been

undertaken by developing countries and international developmental agencies on ways of

incorporating diaspora for development purposes, and various engagement strategies have been

implemented. The strategic initiatives employed for this process have yielded mixed results, as

some have been successful, while others have not achieved their desired objectives.

Engagement with diaspora became important, especially for the developing nations due

to attractive and robust immigration opportunities created by the developed countries to attract

the best and brightest talent of the world to meet their own needs and demands. This engagement

may be due to reasons such as their ageing populations, labour shortages, meeting intense global

competition or for their economic prosperity (Cerna, 2009). In addition, globalization has created

an opportunity for many international organizations to pick and relocate knowledge workers such

49

as engineers, managers, researchers, and other highly skilled employees anywhere in the world

(Davis & Hart, 2010).

Countries like United States, Canada, Australia, and United Kingdom have sought for

decades to draw on highly skilled workers from around the world. Countries that were

traditionally not immigrant-friendly, like Germany and Japan, have also begun to adjust to the

new realities and have created more flexible immigration policies (Hart, 2006). All this has led to

increased attention by many home (sending) countries to focus towards diaspora engagement

strategies.

Gamlen (2008) carried out a cross-country comparison of diaspora policies of 64

countries with the purpose of studying and analyzing the role of the state in the diaspora

engagement process. He identified two types of diaspora engagement policies or what he referred

to as a diaspora engagement mechanism. The two policies include a) diaspora building policies

and mechanisms, which cultivate and formally recognize diaspora members, and b) communities

and diaspora integration policies and mechanisms, which draw diaspora into reciprocal ties with

their home countries through various membership privileges and responsibilities.

Gamlen's work (2008) of studying diaspora and the role of the state from the optic of

diaspora building and diaspora integration mechanisms highlighted the different stages of

sending countries' engagement with their diaspora. For example, diaspora building measures

include

• Celebrating national holidays; honoring expatriates with awards; convening diaspora

congresses; proclaiming affinity with and responsibility for diaspora; issuing special

IDs and visas; educating on national language and history; extending media coverage

50

• Expanding existing consular units; commissioning studies or reports; improving

statistics of its diaspora population abroad; maintaining a diaspora program,

bureaucratic unit, or dedicated ministry

Diaspora integration measures include

• Political incorporation: Permitting dual nationality, dual citizenship or external voting

rights; special legislative representation; consulting expatriate councils or advisory

bodies.

• Civil and social rights: Providing pre-departure services; extensive bilateral

agreements; intervening in labour relations; supplementing health, welfare &

education services support; upholding property rights.

• Taxing expatriates; customs and import incentives; special economic zones;

investment services; tax incentives; matching fund programs; diaspora bonds and

financial products; facilitating remittances; fellowships; skilled expatriate networks

(Source: adapted from Gamlen, 2008, table 1, pp. 845-846).

Brinkerhoff (2007) identified a need for government to undertake the following measures

to improve diaspora engagement: a) improve policy, legal, and regulatory frameworks; b) build

institutional capacity across sectors and at various levels; c) seek out and respond to citizens’

needs and preferences; d) establish and maintain a range of oversight, accountability, and

feedback mechanisms, and e) mobilize and allocate public resources and investments.

In her study, Brinkerhoff (2009b) identified various government roles for diaspora

engagement and categorized them as: mandating, facilitating, resourcing, partnering, and

endorsing, creating an enabling environment for diaspora’ participation in homeland

development (Brinkerhoff, 2012). A brief explanation of each role is shown in Table 5.

51

Table 5

Government Roles for Diaspora Engagement

Mandating refers to the legal and regulatory framework that affects diaspora, all the way from

citizenship rights (e.g., dual citizenship, voting), if granted, to basic rights that allow diaspora

to initiate activities in the homeland independent of state control and laws governing the

creation and operation of NGOs (diaspora philanthropic organizations) and businesses.

Facilitating refers to, government providing incentives for diaspora; for example, recognizing

diaspora as important constituents and protecting or seeking to improve their quality of life

abroad, providing a networking function among diaspora groups, organizing diaspora summits

and diplomatic visits, and creating specialized government agencies and initiatives to interface

with the diaspora.

Resourcing refers to involving indirect public funding, as in the case of matching grants for

diaspora philanthropy or investment in diaspora business development. Beyond direct funding,

government resourcing also includes the establishment of financial incentives that encourage

diaspora contributions, such as tax and tariff policies that provide an exemption to diaspora

initiatives. The best-known example of diaspora resourcing is Mexico's three for one matching

programme, which in some areas now includes an additional match from the private sector

(Western Union).

Partnering is a role that brings the government into relationships with DOs based more on

mutual interest and shared benefits, which capitalize on the comparative advantages of the

partners. The government can establish mechanisms and procedures that allow public entities

to enter into partnership arrangements with DOs. An example would be the partnership

between the Ghanaian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ghanaian medical diaspora in the

Netherlands, and the International Organization for Migration.

Endorsing refers to actions that publicize, praise, and encourage individual diaspora and DOs.

The government's role here relates to reinforcing cultural values and influencing attitudes. In

other words, government endorsement confirms the value of diaspora to the homeland society,

enhancing their legitimacy as homeland constituents and development actors, and contributing

to their social status. For example, in 2006, Ghana’s investment promotion agency honoured

20 diaspora with “Planters of the Seed” awards for setting up business units in Ghana.

Adapted from (Brinkerhoff, 2012, Table 2, p. 85).

Due to the absence of any tried and tested methodologies of engagement, countries have

continued to experiment with different methods of engaging with diaspora. Most previous

diaspora studies have focused primarily on justifying how the diaspora can benefit the countries

52

of origin. However, there were few resources that could be used as a reference guide to provide

detailed analysis or synthesis of the various results of government interventions and engagements

with the diaspora population. Practitioners generally knew that the diaspora had the power and

potential to contribute in positive ways. However, they were looking to answer how to best

engage with them along with information on what has worked in the past and how lessons learnt

can be applied and replicated (Brinkerhoff, 2012).

Furthermore, most of the work done in this space was commenced individually by

various developing countries, and as such, there is a need for an initiative to compile and collate

the various diaspora engagement initiatives and create a reference guide for future use. In

absence of reliable data and reference guide, the popularity of diaspora engagement and its

effectiveness was being questioned by many scholars and policymakers (Mayer, 2008).

Additionally, those who were critics of brain gain phenomena and diaspora engagement and its

effectiveness expressed their concerns that many diaspora strategies were implemented

opportunistically by migrant-sending countries at the prompting of global development agencies.

A few critics even felt that in the absence of a clear direction and vision, many policymakers

were deploying engagement concepts in a careless manner, which greatly affected the

sustainability of diaspora strategies (Ho, Boyle, et al., 2015).

One of the most influential books, which was a collaboration by the MPI and

International Organization for Migration (IOM), is Developing a Road Map for Engaging

Diasporas in Development (Agunias & Newland, 2012). This text has been a great resource for

policymakers and practitioners who are interested in reaching out to the diaspora. The handbook,

which was published in 2012, is divided into three parts, each of which provides useful lessons

associated with diaspora engagements. The main purpose of the publication was to clarify

53

various concepts, share examples of successful policies, and to provide a strategic road map to

assist various stakeholders in the creation of a focused vision and direction for establishing a

mutually beneficial relationship with the diaspora community.

Part one of the handbook outlines key components and features for developing the

diaspora engagement strategy (Agunias & Newland, 2012). It provides a road map (see Figure

5), and this road map lays out four key elements of the strategy: identifying the goals of diaspora

engagement; mapping the location and characteristics of diaspora; building trust between

diaspora and government; and mobilizing diaspora to act as partners in the development of the

country of origin.

One chapter in this handbook also describes the capacity building needed for the effective

implementation of various engagement programs. It reminds the reader that developing a

program for diaspora engagement is no different from other developmental initiatives. These

programs are hugely dependent on appropriate technical know-how and the capacity of various

stakeholders for effective implementation (Agunias & Newland, 2012). Another key issue is the

need to put in place tools for monitoring progress and measuring impact before starting a

diaspora engagement program, a process that is usually neglected by many managers of the

program. A feedback loop is critical for assessing the impact of diaspora engagement (Agunias

& Newland, 2012).

54

Figure 5

A Road Map for Diaspora Engagement

Source: Adapted from Developing a Road Map for Engaging Diasporas in Development (p. 24). Agunias,

& Newland, 2012, Geneva: International Organization for Migration.

Part two of the handbook reviews the legal and institutional frameworks that various

governments have established to facilitate diaspora engagement. The authors show that since

2000, the number of countries with diaspora institutions have increased and now spans across

multiple continents. According to their findings in 2012, there were 77 diaspora engaging

55

institutions in 56 countries of the world (Agunias & Newland, 2012). This section of the book

seeks to answer some key questions such as, why governments form institutions devoted to

emigrants. Why have they become so popular? What roles do they play? Furthermore, what are

the challenges and lessons learned from such dedicated formal state offices devoted to emigrants

and their descendants?

Part three of the handbook identifies six programmatic areas in which diaspora have a

positive impact: philanthropy, remittances, direct investments, capital market investment,

tourism, and human capital transfer along with policy options and lessons relating to these areas.

This section shows how to engage diaspora as practitioners and the ways in which some

countries have achieved their diaspora engagement targets. It also shows in detail how to engage

diaspora as partners and members of scientific and technical networks. The publication also

provides guidelines and challenges that one often encounters when engaging with the diaspora

community. Furthermore, under the section “Challenges and Lessons Learned” (pp. 177-186),

the section identifies 11 key lessons for engagements:

1. Adopt a demand-driven approach while engaging diaspora

2. Map the pool of potential participants at the outset

3. Offer adequate incentives to attract the targeted population

4. Prepare for the fact that the diaspora may not be fully aware of the local conditions.

5. Create special bodies or posts to facilitate the implementation

6. Invest in an appropriate time frame

7. Ensure meaningful participation of key stakeholders

8. Invest in an effective multipronged outreach strategy

9. monitor the implementation of projects

10. Engage the private sector

11. Ensure the availability of efficient infrastructure at the point of destination.

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A unique feature of this publication is the inclusion of various country-specific initiatives

undertaken by their governments, a summary of which of those various initiatives succeeded or

failed and why those outcomes were manifested. It provides information on a wide range of

institutions that governments have put in place to work with the diaspora.

The purpose of designing the handbook, as mentioned by its authors, was to fill the gap in

the current discourse on the diaspora role in development. It is a user-friendly, accessible, and

practical guide for diaspora engagement initiatives. Additionally, it provides various policy and

program options, which are based on actual experiences from around the world. Its purpose is to

highlight good practices as well as the challenges and lessons learned. The handbook primarily

focuses on policies and programs initiated by and with governments. It has drawn heavily from

information collected directly from policymakers and practitioners through a two-part survey, in-

depth interviews, consultations, and reviews of relevant literature. It is interesting to note that the

two-part survey and in-depth interviews involved 62 countries and more than 400 institutions at

various levels of government and civil society who actively work with the diaspora. By

approaching so many states and institutions across the world, the authors were not only able to

obtain insights and examples from a very diverse group but have also produced a comparative

outcome of results from different parts of the world. Such variety has brought richness to their

findings and an appreciation of diversity amongst various diaspora and diaspora policymakers.

In part one of the handbook, the authors have shown a road map that lays out the

fundamental elements that are common for a diaspora strategy (see p.54 Figure 5: Agunias &

Newland, 2012). This road map is a very useful contribution because it is a vital resource for

those who are considering engaging with their diaspora. It has moved the thinking of diaspora

contributions from a narrow to a wider optic. The book has identified different strategies that

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practitioners and policymakers can utilize to enable diaspora to contribute to their home

countries, rather than just have them send remittances. The handbook uses real-life examples to

show how the diaspora can play a positive role in the development of their home country in all

the six programmatic areas, along with what practitioners can learn from the diaspora

engagement landscape. This work is truly remarkable as it has shown how one can convert the

theoretical ideas and knowledge on diaspora engagement into a handbook of practical ideas that

can show governments varying degrees of success and the challenges they should be prepared to

face (Agunias & Newland, 2012).

However, despite the considerable inroads made by the current literature on diaspora

engagement, there are two gaps that require further examination. First, as stated above, scholars

and international agencies have largely studied the phenomena of brain drain and brain gain by

focusing on the governments of the countries from where people have migrated (i.e., the home

countries). Most studies consider the ways that government institutions directly interact with

relevant diaspora through various programs and policies. The growth of government-sponsored

diaspora institutions, as reported by Gamlen (2014), is a clear indication of the considerable

interest and involvement governments have in generating contributions from the diaspora to

support economic development. Also, one of the most influential and sought-after handbooks,

published jointly by the Migration Policy institute (MPI) and the International Organization for

Migration (IOM), Developing a Road Map for Engaging Diasporas in Development, presents a

strategic action plan. Its focus is to "create a source of information and practical guide for

governments thinking of introducing or improving their diaspora-focused policies" (Agunias &

Newland, 2012, p. 14). However, this information is only from the perspective of governments

that are desirous of engaging more fully with their diaspora. The entire handbook considers as

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relevant only those governments that have been a great resource for policymakers and

practitioners interested in reaching out to the diaspora. The information presented in the

handbook, though very useful, was collected through a survey administered to more than 400

governmental institutions in 56 countries. However, diverse stakeholders' views in the

development of the road map is not included. The state is "never the only stakeholder in the

diaspora strategies, and that state policies are often reactive rather than proactive" (Ho, Hickey,

et al., 2015, p. 143). In various policy documents of myriad international organizations and

national governments, diaspora strategies have become an integral part of the governmental

agenda for engaging the diaspora for development strategies (Larner, 2007).

The existing research in this area focuses on the government as a key player. Even the

preface of a comprehensive publication by OECD "Gaining from Migration: Towards a New

Mobility System" literature stated that

one of the objectives of the report is to distill the lessons and recommendations from the

foregoing work and its broader goal is to shed light on the ways in which the

governments can make the emerging global mobility system work better for the benefit of

societies of both the receiving and sending countries and its migrants. (Katseli, 2007)

Generally, there is less mention in various publications and research studies of any role that the

private sector or civil society can play in this endeavour. Even scholars, when defining diaspora

strategy, often only mention initiatives undertaken by "migrant-sending states” (Ho, Hickey, et

al., 2015, p. 139). Such efforts have yet to consider if and how the diaspora can also engage with

the civil society organizations, the private sector, and the educational institutions of their home

countries. This needs to be further explored, particularly with respect to how members of the

diaspora can engage with non-governmental organizations for knowledge-sharing purposes.

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Second, while there is recognition of the potential contributions that the diaspora can

make to the development of their home countries, there remains a need to solicit the perspectives

of the diaspora community about what they believe they can contribute and what they might

expect in return. In most of the discussions and conferences that take place among key

stakeholders and decision-makers, international agencies usually only involve and consider

governments or academicians. For example, a review of the papers presented at the two-day

international conference held in Islamabad in 2012 on diaspora prospects and potentials had no

speakers representing the diaspora community. Although the conference, which was jointly

organized by the Islamabad Policy Research Institute (IPRI) and the Hanns Seidel Foundation

(HSF) Germany, was an excellent initiative to undertake an in-depth study of various aspects of

the Pakistani diaspora; however, important stakeholders views (i.e., the diaspora), appeared to be

missing. (Islamabad Policy Research Institute, 2013). An engagement and a dialogue with the

diaspora should be a critical component and starting point for any diaspora engagement policy or

program initiative because it is crucial to determine who, among the diaspora, are more likely to

engage in giving back and how they might be engaged in that process.

It is necessary, therefore, to find answers to some additional key questions about diaspora

engagement. These include: Who should take the lead in a country’s diaspora engagement

function and initiatives? Should diaspora engagement solely be the responsibility of the

government, or should academic and private institutions be involved in some way? Where, to

whom, and how are highly skilled members of the diaspora likely to give back? The answers to

fundamental questions such as these can form a key determinant of effective diaspora

engagement policies. It is, therefore, critical at the outset to understand the phenomena of brain

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drain and brain gain, which is an outcome of human migration and has become a staple of

discussions within public and academic circles.

Brain Drain and Brain Gain: An Outcome of Human Migration

This section reviews the current state of knowledge on the phenomena of brain drain and

brain gain and also outlines how the concept has been embraced by various developing countries.

As well, the initiatives undertaken by international agencies in promoting this newer concept for

the course of development for these countries will be reviewed.

In a report by the OECD (1987), brain drain was defined as a process where the flow of

expertise is heavily biased in one direction. The loss of skilled professionals who migrate to the

developed countries is a significant loss to the home country, which has invested resources

through education and specialized training, and for which it is not compensated by the recipient

countries (Avveduto, 2012). Human capital leads to economic growth by improving labour

productivity and enhancing innovation. It is a key factor of production, which can give a huge

competitive advantage to a country if it has the right number of people with the right knowledge,

and skill sets (Logan, 1999). According to Snell and Dean (1992), the concept of human capital

explains that people possess skills, experience and knowledge, and these represent capital

because they enhance productivity and add value to the organizations. According to Becker

(1992), there is a link between human capital and economic growth in a country. Human capital

is a vital ingredient in enhancing productivity in the presence of a conducive and enabling

environment. Human capital leads to capacity building, which, according to Maiese (2005),

involves building human capital stock, skill transfer and human resource management to

implement sustainable developmental strategies.

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The topic of brain drain, and its possible negative consequences for the developing world,

have been widely studied. Policy studies on the international mobility of talent have focused

mostly on the negative aspects of the brain drain problem. According to Cao (1996), many

scholars paid attention to the factors that cause a brain drain and how to control the brain drain.

This work has drawn on the push-pull model. The push-pull model takes an economical

approach to the problem of brain drain and defines the principle factors that encourage people to

leave their country of origin as push factors, and the attractions of the more developed countries

as the pull factors (Cao, 1996).

According to the findings of the 1968 Conference on International Migration of Talent,

there are seven major push factors and two main pull factors (Oldham, 1968). The push factors

consist of inappropriate educational structures, a slow rate of economic growth, ineffective

resource planning, inadequate income, unstable political environment, and a lack of

opportunities. The pull factors that motivate exodus are a high demand abroad for professionals,

and aggressive immigration laws favouring professional movements. Because of this issue,

several developing countries adopted measures to curb the movements of people, which include

increasing legal barriers and financial cost to those who wanted to leave the country. For

example, Bhagwati (1976) proposed an emulation model involving reducing incentives to the

brain drain by asking the host countries to tax brain drain migrants. Most governments facing

brain drain came up with various initiatives to curb this phenomenon, as noted earlier.

Despite the drastic measures suggested by some countries of origin, the international flow

of professionals could not be stopped or even slowed down. For instance, 23.1% of immigrants

admitted to the United States between 1976 and 1990 were highly qualified professionals from

less developed countries (U.S. Immigration, 1993). From 1990-1991, about 44,000 engineers and

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architects, 8500 doctors and dentists, and 8600 artists and journalists emigrated from the Soviet

Union to Israel alone. Some 40% of Bulgarian microbiologists were working in the West in the

early 1990s (Tinguy & Wenden, 1993). About 30% of all highly educated Ghanaians and Sierra

Leoneans live abroad, while 12% of Mexico's population with higher education is in the United

States, including 30% of its PhDs. A full 75% of Jamaicans with higher education credentials are

in the United States. Albania lost one-third of its qualified people in the decade after the fall of

communism. Half of all international students who get PhDs in the United States are still there

five years later (MPI, 2013).

I observed that there is a heavy skill bias in global migration. As such, many

stakeholders, especially in developing countries, are not only concerned about the scale of

migration but also about who migrates and their skill sets. Developing countries worry about the

emigration of high-skilled workers, whereas most receiving countries seek to attract mostly high-

skilled professionals while restricting entry of low-skilled immigrants. Due to the presence of a

skill bias in migration, most sending countries observe that their highly skilled people are three

to four times more likely to emigrate than low-skilled people. For example, in the United

Kingdom and Canada, the current share of tertiary-educated workers among immigrants is three

times as large as it would be if all immigrants were drawn at random from the population of their

country of origin (Biavaschi et al., 2018).

Based on these data, one can trace the change in thinking amongst scholars from the

1950s to the 2000s. For instance, until the 1980s, the solutions suggested with respect to

overcoming brain drain were to control the movements of people and to incentivize them to stay

or to return to work in less developed countries. Such ideas were favourable because the brain

drain was regarded as detrimental to economic growth. One can see that in the first three phases,

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from the 1950s to the 1980s, the literature primarily focused on the negative effects of brain

drain for the sending country. In his review of the literature on brain drain, Giannoccolo (2009)

reviewed more than 400 articles written on the subject since the 1950s. He proposed not only

how to interpret this phenomenon but also how thinking has evolved and shifted the views of

policymakers. Giannoccolo (2009) outlined several phases of this phenomenon and charted an

ideal path for the brain drain (BD) literature (see Table 6).

Table 6

The Ideal Path of the Brain Drain Literature (Adapted from Giannoccolo, 2009, p.16)

Legend: HC - Human Capital, LDC - Low developed country, HDC - Highly developed country.

The topic of brain drain and its possible negative consequences for the developing world

was widely studied from the 1950s to the late 1970s. It was only in the 1990s and onwards that

scholars started focusing on the potential for beneficial aspects of brain drain. Many scholars and

international agencies began to study the diaspora from different perspectives. Since then, the

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International Organization for Migration, the Migration Policy Institute, the World Bank, and

other international organizations have studied the positive impact of the diaspora on their

respective homelands. Several developing countries in South Asia and Africa have attempted to

create programs to engage the diaspora for developmental purposes. At the same time, various

diaspora groups have also formed informal groups and associations. Such groups exist primarily

for networking and philanthropic purposes. Two such groups involving Pakistani diaspora in

North America are the Association of Physicians of Pakistani Descent of North America, which

has more than 15000 members, (Association of Physicians of Pakistan Descent of North

America) and the Pakistan Professional Forum, which has more than 3,000 members (Pakistan

Professional Forum). Although several efforts have been made and associations have been

created, further investigation into this issue is warranted. It seems the real beneficiaries, such as

academic institutions, NGOs, and private sector organizations, have not been very active in

engaging the diaspora, nor do they know who of them are more likely to give back.

In the last 50 years, with few exceptions, the poorest countries and developing countries

have not caught up with industrialized countries in a meaningful way (Beine et al., 2011). Many

studies have shown that in the 21st century, cutting-edge knowledge has become the main driver

for economic growth and development. It is this reason that countries like China, Japan, Korea,

Taiwan, Singapore have invested heavily in their higher education institutions and research

establishments (Hussain, 2019).

According to David and Foray (2002), knowledge has long been at the heart of economic

growth and the gradual rise in levels of social well-being. Our interconnected and globalized

world provides significant opportunities for poor and developing countries to fill their knowledge

gaps by establishing links with diaspora communities who are settled in the developed world. As

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Brinkerhoff and Goldsmith (2005) wrote, “today, global links may be more important than the

human capital stock in a particular country” (p. 36). The remarkable growth in information and

communication technology makes it very convenient and efficient for establishing such linkages.

Knowledge is key to capacity building and development for any undertaking. Capacity

building is a process through which skills, experience, technical and management capacities are

developed within an organizational structure. This is achieved often through the provision of

training, technical assistance and specialized inputs (OECD, 2002). According to the United

Nations Development Programme (UNDP), knowledge is one of the four pillars that the UNDP

utilizes to measure capacity development, the other three being institutional arrangements,

leadership and accountability (UNDP, 2009). Knowledge can be tacit knowledge, which is

personal and hard to formulate and communicate with others. It is more complex and existing in

the mental models and expertise gained over tine. It is transferred mostly through interpersonal

communications, for example, through team meetings or mentorship. Explicit knowledge, on the

other hand, is more tangible and includes things which are recorded, written in annual reports,

stored in documents and databases (Goh, 2002). Human knowledge is crucial for capacity

building. Developing countries have a significant need for human knowledge because its absence

has left a huge gap in capacity building.

Why Brain Drain Occurs

According to UNCTAD (2013), professionals and knowledge workers relocate to

developed countries because these countries offer the favourable social conditions necessary for

professional development. Talented individuals usually do not develop in isolation; they need

interactions with colleagues to develop a new idea or a product. Scientists need peers to discuss

theories as well as present their research findings to a group that can appreciate and, in turn, can

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give ideas at that level. This type of setting is generally available in developed countries, which

attract knowledge workers who migrate and make a living there. In addition, adverse conditions

in home countries, including political upheavals, conflicts, and civil disturbances, act as push

factors on international migration. The selective immigration policies of several developed

countries combined with lower immigration costs for highly skilled people, when compared to

less skilled people, also create possibilities for movement, which results in brain drain.

In a study examining the reasons for China's highly skilled diaspora who are based in Australia

and working with an academic institution, Welch and Zhang (2007) found that the main reasons

for Chinese academics to work in Australia were better career opportunities and a better living

and working environment. Global knowledge diaspora cross border movement of people is on

the increase and inter-alia, a form of transnational human capital in the new millennium (Welch

& Zhang, 2007). The migration of qualified people is a natural phenomenon of this century and

globalization has opened many possibilities for people to move and live in a new country for

work or study (Daugėlienė & Marcinkevičienė, 2009).

What are Some Adverse and Beneficial Impacts of Brain Drain?

Brain drain, as the UNCTAD has found, has both adverse and beneficial impacts on

home countries. These countries, which have smaller pools of educated people, are considerably

impacted by brain drain. A well-known example is that of Haiti. Its population in 2012 was 10

million, yet it had the highest rate of brain drain in all the less developed countries in the world,

at more than 80%. According to a survey conducted by UNCTAD, some 200,000 people enter

the labour force every year in Haiti, but the demand does not even represent 10% of supply. In

addition, other aspects and conditions in Haiti, such as insecurity and an adverse political

situation, push skilled Haitians abroad.

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Several adverse impacts of brain drain have been identified in the literature. First,

shrinking population growth and slower economic growth and productivity have had a

considerable impact. This is a key adverse impact because of the knowledge economy and the

importance of human capital for growth and development. Given the key role played by human

capital in long-term growth and development, brain drain can slow down the economic growth

rate of a less developed country (Haque & Kim, 1995; Miyagiwa, 1991; Wong & Yip, 1999).

Second, the brain drain can create sectoral imbalance and impacts. If brain drain emerges in key

sectors of the economy, such as health, education or technology, it can create an imbalance in the

sense of demand and supply equilibrium. Lack of continuing formation of human capital can

have a very negative impact on a country's capacity to produce qualified professionals.

An additional consequence is fiscal cost and loss of revenue. When a country trains its

citizens, it incurs an expenditure with the hope that the trained individuals will work in the

country and pay taxes to offset that initial investment. Such a model allows the country to partly

recover and recoup the investments it has made in training and education. If brain drain occurs

and trained people leave or start leaving, the country suffers economically because it is unable to

recover its cost and loses out on tax revenues. To illustrate, Gibson and McKenzie (2011)

presented the results of survey micro-data for high-skilled emigrants from Tonga, Federated

States of Micronesia, Papua New Guinea, and Ghana. The developing countries in the sample

share several structural characteristics with Pacific and African least developed countries

(LDCs). They estimate the net annual fiscal cost per high-skilled emigrant is $6,300-$16,900 in

Ghana and Papua New Guinea, but much lower in Tonga and Micronesia at $500-$1,000, as both

countries have low tax rates.

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Fourth, if brain drain is significant, it can deplete the human resource capacity in the

home country and can tilt the relative focus and direction of the domestic economy towards other

factors of production. It can take a home country's specialization away from skill-intensive

sectors or activities. It may also prevent developing countries from utilizing their rich

endowment and moving to a newer economic sector, which may not be the best use of the

available resources. For example, a developing country like Pakistan is still considered an

economy dependent on agriculture rather than an industrialized economy because its talented

professionals have migrated and thus hampered its efforts to be an industrialized economy.

Fifth, an indirect consequence of brain drain is brain waste. Oftentimes, immigrants can

only find jobs in the host country that are below the skill level they possess. Sometimes known

as deskilling, this is referred to in the literature as "brain waste." There are situations where

medical graduates work as nurses or where other educated professionals or other university

graduates must work as waiters or taxi drivers. Such circumstances not only negatively impact

these individuals, but also mean they cannot be a source of brain gain to their home countries as

they are not working in the fields in which they trained.

Furthermore, brain drain impacts infrastructure development. A country's progress is

heavily dependent on its capacity for development and the presence of strong institutions.

Educated and skilled people are best qualified to build and run the institutions that are required

for nation-building. The exodus of skilled and qualified people reduces both the supply and the

demand for stronger institutions, which may result in giving rise to mediocrity and less

development. Countries facing a shortage of stronger institutions may not be able to achieve any

competitive advantages in the age of globalization.

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Benefits of Brain Drain

For many years, scholars, researchers and policymakers always considered the flow of

remittances as the most tangible benefit and a positive impact of brain drain for developing

countries. However, as stated earlier, since the 1990s, the so-called new economics of brain drain

demonstrate that brain drain can be beneficial to developing countries beyond remittances.

According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Report

published in 2013, the movement of people from developing to developed countries raises rates

of return to education in different ways. Firstly, it encourages people who remain in developing

countries to seek higher education and advancement to improve their chances of immigrating.

Secondly, those who immigrate are better equipped and qualified to raise the human capital of

the home country should they decide to return or share knowledge and networks. In both cases,

the home country benefits through migration (UNCTAD, 2013). Table 7 below presents the

potential effects of the brain drain, which generally affect the economies of sending countries.

Both the positive as well as some negative effects are presented in Table 7

Table 7

Effects of Brain Drain on (Developing) Home Countries

Adapted from UNCTAD (2013).

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Successful Diaspora Engagement and Initiatives

Efforts to measure the impact and engagement of diaspora on brain drain and brain gain

have had mixed results. These initiatives involve processes that are an outcome of social and

economic factors and are influenced by the home country’s policies on migration. According to

the report on the mobilization of diaspora published by UNCTAD (2013), developing countries

should not assume that the presence of strong diaspora communities in the developed world

would automatically result in the transfer of knowledge and other positive contributions. To reap

the benefits, home countries need some visible and overt policy action to foster or strengthen

positive diaspora contributions. Policymakers, especially in developing countries, increasingly

recognize the value that diaspora populations bring to development efforts. Some governments in

the region have taken extra steps in institutionalizing their engagement with the diaspora through

the creation of special offices within government agencies.

There are many diaspora institutions in developing countries. These almost enjoy the

status of full ministries and report directly to the highest executive body. They have an

influential position within the government. For instance, China's Overseas Chinese Affairs

Office operates two universities catering mainly to the Chinese diaspora. It is uniquely

positioned under the State Council, the country's highest executive body. The Philippines'

Commission on Filipinos Overseas (CFO) was established under the Office of the President. This

institution performs the dual role of promoting both economic and cultural ties between the

Philippines and its diaspora.

Some diaspora-engagement organizations, however, are not clearly within the realm of

government. In 1997, the South Korean government established the Overseas Koreans

Foundation, a non-profit organization affiliated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade.

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From the outset, the Foundation had a clear development mandate to "utilize the capabilities of

overseas Koreans for national development in line with its globalization policy" (Aguinas, 2013,

para. 6). However, while many governments acknowledge the importance of diaspora

engagement in development, many still lack the capacity to design effective policies and

implement them on a meaningful scale. This explains the gap between schemes that look good

on paper and truly effective policies and programs that make a difference. Indeed, effective

engagement almost always requires a concerted effort towards capacity building.

The experiences so far from countries that have taken the initiative of engaging with their

diaspora offer three important lessons. First, creating an engagement policy and institutionalizing

it requires serious homework before launching any facilitating organization. The preparatory

work should understand the diaspora needs, wants, potentials as well as learning the experiences

from other countries. Second, prior to establishing any such institution, the government must be

clear that there is complete acceptance of the idea both inside and across various government

agencies. The organizations should not have any political pressure and should have proper

legitimacy. Third, diaspora engaging organizations should invite the views of the diaspora in

setting the agenda and priorities; this will lead to mutual ownership, which is a key determinant

of success (Agunias, 2013).

A review of the literature indicates that after the 1990s, there have been quite a few

diaspora engagements programs, which either were initiated by diaspora themselves or were the

result of bilateral and multilateral programs initiated by international organizations acting in

collaboration with national governments. According to Kuschminder (2014), diaspora

contribution to capacity and knowledge transfer can occur primarily in three ways; a) through

diaspora organization in the host state; b) through government or state level diaspora engagement

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policies and programme; and c) through programs established by an international organization.

Some of these programs are described below.

Strengthening Ph.D. Education at the University of Addis Ababa

Due to a considerable exodus of tertiary-level qualified academics, Ethiopia was facing a

shortage of well-trained and qualified academics. Although the country's largest university had

several PhD-level programs in place, it lacked qualified academics to teach in those programs.

Accordingly, it decided to mobilize the knowledge of the national diaspora working in foreign

academic institutions. In 2008, Ethiopia launched a large-scale program financed by the

Ethiopian Government in partnership with Swedish and French development aid agencies. The

main overseas participants were Ethiopians active in the United States and European universities,

who, in several cases also convinced their non-Ethiopian colleagues to take part in the project.

Their engagement with the home country improved the level of research seminars, created links

between laboratories in Addis Ababa and universities and laboratories abroad, and supported

thesis supervision of locals by diaspora members. The programme has had a considerable

positive impact on several departments in the city’s universities (The World Bank, 2020).

Decoding the Jute Genome in Bangladesh

A Bangladeshi microbiologist and biochemist who studied and worked in developed

countries, learned the technique to decode the genome sequencing of rubber. To have his home

country of origin benefit from his knowledge and skills, he undertook the same type of research

for jute because Bangladesh is a jute producing country. This work was done as a joint project

with the Global Network of Bangladeshi Biotechnologists (GNOB), the Centre for Chemical

Biology, the University of Science (Malaysia), the University of Hawaii (United States) and a

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team of Bangladeshi researchers. The discovery facilitated pest control and the manufacturing of

better-finished industrial products made from jute (UNCTAD, 2013).

Upgrading the National Health Sector in Ethiopia

The People to People Association was established by Ethiopian diaspora members in the

late 1990s with the aim of mobilizing diaspora skills for the benefit of the home country. It

operates in several countries in North America and Europe and has been active above all in the

health sector. Its activities have included: participating in medical training in Ethiopia;

advocating for diaspora mobilization with international organizations and donor institutions;

mobilizing resources abroad for medical programmes in Ethiopia; setting up a telemedicine

system in the home country; restructuring university hospitals; organizing an annual conference

on health in Ethiopia; awarding a prize for medical best practice; and maintaining a blog for the

exchange of medical best practices and discussions. The association also collaborates with other

diaspora organizations (UNCTAD, 2013), NGOs active in Ethiopia and international

organizations (e.g., the World Bank, the National Institute of Health, and universities in host

countries).

Mobilizing Resources and Knowledge Transfer to Haiti

In Canada, the Regroupement des organismes canado-haïtiens pour le development

(ROCADH) is an effort to coalesce many philanthropic organizations working for the

advancement of Haitian communities in Haiti. ROCADH brings together some 47 hometown

associations. It has been active in the fields of education and capacity-building (including in

agriculture, animal breeding techniques, commodity processing, medical and tourism service

skills). ROCADH has been able to channel substantial funding through the Canadian

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International Development Agency (CIDA). To be eligible for CIDA funds, ROCADH must

contribute one-third of the value of the project (UNCTAD, 2013).

A Medical Diaspora Network for Bangladesh

Bangladeshi physicians in North America established the Bangladesh Medical

Association of North America (BMANA) in 1980. It supports the home country by organizing

visits of medical teams to provide training and technology transfer, provision of subsidized/pro

bono specialized clinical services and donation of books, computers and journals to medical

colleges and universities in Bangladesh. Its members have been participating in activities of

knowledge transfer and training in terms of cutting-edge advances in medical specialties, such as

neurology, surgery, and infection control (UNCTAD, 2013).

Water in Ethiopia

A programme of collaboration between the United States and an Ethiopian university was

put in place in 2009. It was the initiative of an Ethiopian working as a professor in a U.S.

university, with financing from the United States Agency for International Development

(USAID) under the African American Universities Partnership. The project was successful in

leveraging its official funding resources to obtain financing from the private sector in the United

States for project activities. This project foresees the establishment of a research centre on the

water in Ethiopia, which conducts academic research and participates in the formulation and

planning of the country's policies and program for water management (UNCTAD, 2013).

Bilateral and Multilateral International Diaspora Engagement

There are also several successful bilateral and multilateral international programmes of

diaspora engagement. According to an MPI report, the transfer of knowledge through diaspora

engagement falls into three broad categories:

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Practitioners who fill critical resource and knowledge gaps directly via permanent,

temporary, or even virtual return.

Partners who support local individuals in a long-term exchange of resources and

knowledge.

Members of scientific, technical, and business networks with whom potential research

businesses and investment opportunities in the origin country can be developed.

Under this scheme, the diaspora is engaged in the country of origin as practitioners filling a

position and contributing directly to fill a knowledge gap. There are many instances where

diaspora have been successfully engaged as practitioners. These include Dominica, which asked

its diaspora to support the creation of Dominica State College. A U.S.-based diaspora of

Dominica was engaged to help develop curriculum, build the school's structure, and orchestrate

its launch.

The Canadian University Service Overseas and Voluntary Service Overseas Canada

(CUSO-VSOC) started a volunteer program in 2007 to engage the Guyanese diaspora in Canada.

The program aims to build on the work of the Guyanese diaspora in Canada and encourages

retired Guyanese teachers to work in rural areas of Guyana to improve the teaching and research

standards and expand higher education opportunities. Also, Taiwan recruited scholars by

providing them with various incentives through the National Youth Commission. This scheme

proved very successful in the early 1980s, which also made it possible for the government to

open the Hsinchu Science-based industrial park. This centre has been an attractive destination for

Taiwanese diaspora. By 2000, it employed 102,000 people and generated $28 billion in sales.

U.S.-based individuals of Taiwanese descent owned 113 parks and 389 companies. Returnees

were highly educated, with nearly 500 of them holding Ph.D. degrees. Finally, Jamaica

implemented the Return of Talent program, which offered generous benefits to lure diaspora to

return to Jamaica. Similarly, China, Thailand, Croatia, Uruguay, and Argentina designed various

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schemes and set up service centres for returnees, which provide allocations for housing and duty-

free purchases of computers and automobiles. These schemes were all geared towards attracting

diaspora back to their home country (IOM, 2018).

The International Organization for Migration also established a special program for

returnees, which many countries in the developing world took advantage of. Three such projects

were Return of Qualified Afghans, Migration of Development in Africa, and the Temporary

Return of Qualified Nationals program. All these programs encourage the diaspora to return to

their respective home countries to contribute their skills and expertise. The return of talent

approach aims to identify suitable candidates for identified key posts in the country of origin.

The professions involved in these programs are wide-ranging and include medicine, engineering,

the life sciences, economics and computer science (IOM, 2018).

The United Nations Development Program called Transfer of Knowledge Through

Expatriate Nationals (TOKTEN) is perhaps the oldest formal program aimed at facilitating

diaspora volunteerism. Launched in 1977, the program facilitates short term volunteer

consultancies for diaspora and has since expanded to over 50 developing countries. It allows

professionals who have at least a master’s degree and work experience to return to their countries

for short periods of time (three weeks to six months: Agunias & Newland, 2012).

Engaging Diaspora as Partners

Engaging diaspora as partners in economic and social development involves building

partnerships between diaspora and actors in any given home country. Under this strategy,

diaspora may not directly be involved in transferring knowledge or skills, but they may become

partners in the process, regardless of whether they return. A few developing countries have

developed programs that extend the return of talent model and aim to focus on two-way

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exchanges of resources and knowledge. Examples of such programs include China's The 111

Project. Through this program, China has contributed USD 88 million to create several

innovation bases. Each base receives USD 256,000 to recruit to diaspora talent. A researcher

studying this program found that at the inception of the program, many innovation bases did not

know how to use the money since the funding was so generous (Agunias & Newland, 2012).

Thailand's Reverse Brain Drain Project and Croatia's Unity through Knowledge Fund (UKF)

programs are yet other examples of engaging with diaspora through partnerships. Thailand's

program uses the overseas connections of its diaspora for developmental purposes, whereas

Croatia's program provides grant funding to individuals in the scientific and professional

communities in Croatia and abroad (Agunias & Newland, 2012).

With the growth of technology, many developing countries have engaged with diaspora

though the formation of scientific, technical and even social networks composed of local as well

as diaspora members. The interaction is usually virtual and managed through web-based media.

Countries like the Philippines, Uruguay, Bulgaria, Colombia, Burundi, Estonia, Hungary,

Switzerland, and Ecuador that have used various virtual forums to connect with their diaspora.

For example, Colombia’s Red Caldas program, established in 1991 by the Colombian Institute

for the Development of Science and Technology, was one of the first initiatives to link the

members of a scientific diaspora with scientific and technological projects in their country of

origin. The network was successful in organizing conferences, establishing scholarships, and

various projects which helped to mobilize researchers and foster communications among them.

In addition, Columbia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, with the support of the International

Organization for Migration, created Rede Colombia, a networking platform to increase

interaction among members of the diaspora and to encourage new ideas for development. The

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government considers the development of this website as one of its most successful initiatives to

date (Agunias & Newland, 2012).

In 2006, the governments of Bosnia and Herzegovina started the Who is Who in the

Bosnia and Herzegovina Diaspora Project. The purpose of this directory project was to identify

educated scholars in the diaspora community and to establish contact with them. This program

has been successful: in the 2010 edition of Who is Who, the project was able to list over 240

individuals with doctoral degrees and researchers from the diaspora population. The Philippines

Brain Gain Network (BGN) comprises talented professionals and organizations in the

Philippines and abroad and focuses on increasing the strength of its economy. This network

currently holds the information of over 2000 members in its database, most of whom are based in

the industrialized West. The main purpose of this network is to provide a convenient platform for

the diaspora to network and start new ventures in their home county (Agunias & Newland,

2012).

The contributions that diaspora can make to their home country, as well as the developing

world’s capacity to harness the other positive effects of brain drain is currently underdeveloped.

This can be explained by the development stage of the country itself and the initiatives it puts in

place to harness diaspora knowledge and experience. Considering the many successes over the

years, mainstream academic and policy discussions have swung from a pessimistic view to a

rather optimistic position on both the role of diaspora and the brain drain and brain gain debate.

Examples of Government Initiated Diaspora Engagement Programs

Engagement of Academic Diaspora by Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a highly densely populated nation in the world, with a population of nearly

160 million of whom over 70% live in rural areas. Its Human Development Index (HDI) rating

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as per the Human Development Report issued by the United Nations Development Program

(UNDP) stands at 136 out of a total of 189 countries (UNDP, 2018).

Bangladesh has a labour surplus and adopted a policy encouraging its skilled and

semiskilled labour to migrate abroad, which can alleviate the problem of unemployment at home.

While this strategy has helped Bangladesh by reducing the burden of unemployment, it has,

however, created a huge shortage of talent in many critical areas of development such as

education, engineering, and medicine. The issue of brain drain, especially in the education sector,

has become critical for Bangladesh. It needs 22,000 PhDs, whereas the country has

approximately 2000. Bangladeshi scholars Anwar and Rehman (2013), highlighted six different

ways in which Bangladeshi academics connect with their fellow academics in their home country

as shown in Table 8.

Table 8

Bangladeshi Academics Connect with Fellow Academics

Reputation Enhancer

Strengthening

Research Tradition and

National Innovation

System in Bangladesh

Enriching Tertiary

Education Sector in

Bangladesh

Doing PhD on a critical issue about Bangladesh • Publishing books and

articles on Bangladesh issue with international publishing houses and

journals • Presenting paper on Bangladesh in international

conference/seminar.

Publishing with Bangladeshi publishing house • Co-authoring with another

Bangladeshi at home and abroad, • Sending research materials to academics

back in Bangladesh • Supervising Bangladeshi MPhil/Ph.D. students at

overseas universities • Establishing joint research/project with a

Bangladeshi university/research institution • Being instrumental in getting

Bangladeshi qualified students scholarship for doing a higher study abroad.

Making a short visit to a Bangladeshi university/spend their sabbatical in

Bangladesh • Establish a faculty/student exchange programme with

Bangladeshi university.

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Financial Support

Extended Civil Society

Sending remittances back to Bangladesh (monthly allowances for parents,

building houses for them, purchase of land and apartments in Dhaka,

Chittagong and other cities) and Philanthropy (building schools, clinics,

student hostels, giving scholarships to needy but talented students,

sponsoring close relatives for studying abroad) Travel back to Bangladesh

by Bangladesh Biman for vacation/tourism/meeting parents and relatives.

Contribute to Bangladeshi newspapers on nationally significant issues.

Source: Adapted from Anwar & Rehman, 2013, p.139.

Diaspora Volunteering in Nepal

Nepal, with an estimated population of approximately 26 million people, is a landlocked

country in South Asia. It has long traditions of emigration to neighbouring countries. Due to

various welcoming migration policies of the developed countries of the West, many

knowledgeable and skilled Nepalese have migrated to the Western countries. According to the

Non-Resident Nepalese Association, there are over 2.5 million Nepalese currently living in over

56 countries of the world (Khanal, 2013).

A review of various forms of Nepalese diaspora engagement with their home country

highlights one very significant initiative undertaken by the diaspora themselves and which is

based on the concept of volunteerism. Considering the enormous need for modern and new

knowledge and skills in Nepal, the diaspora based in the United Kingdom established a diaspora

volunteering program, thus creating an opportunity for Nepalese professionals in a different field

to help their county by volunteering their time and knowledge.

The Nepali Diaspora Volunteer Programme (NDVP), with the support of Himalayan

Development International U.K., has focused on seeking volunteering help from Nepalese

diaspora in the areas of education, health, and community development. Under this program, the

diaspora have been engaged by various health, education, and community development partners

locally to share their expertise and knowledge (Terrazas, 2010).

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As volunteers, the diaspora have been instrumental in providing training to locals to meet

identified needs; they have served Nepalese institutions as training specialists, special advisors,

development specialists, fundraising specialists organization development specialists, as well as

monitoring and evaluation specialist all in the capacity of overseas professional volunteers. The

NDVP is surely one model which has shown how the diaspora can be engaged to share

knowledge in a voluntary capacity. It surely is a win-win position. The volunteers get an

opportunity to give something back to their country of origin. Based on the experience of NDVP,

it is evident that if proper systems and mechanisms are created for diaspora volunteerism, the

diaspora community will be very willing to come forward and offer their services (Khanal,

2013).

Philippines Initiative of Diaspora Engagement

The Philippines has remained one of the top ten emigration countries of the world, and its

share in the international migrant population continues to grow. According to one estimate, over

10 million Filipinos live outside of their country of birth. This is a huge number that strategically

permits the Philippines to gain many advantages of international migration (IOM, 2018).

Over the years, the country has made interesting inroads in engaging with its diaspora

who are spread in more than 200 countries and territories worldwide. Diaspora has participated

in different ways towards transforming the Philippines society. Their contribution in terms of

remittance has been very significant. In 2018, the overseas Filipino diaspora contributed a total

of USD 33.8 billion, which accounted for almost 10.2% of the country's GPD (The World Bank,

2019). However, the government has acknowledged the growing importance of diaspora as a

source of promoting economic and social development through knowledge mobilization. Various

programs and initiatives have allowed the diaspora to fill the critical skills and knowledge gaps

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either through the virtual, permanent, or temporary return. A few initiatives undertaken are

summarized below.

Philippines Development Plan. - (PDP) 2011-2016. The PDP is the blueprint of the

country's development. The plan for 2011-2016 also incorporated over 70 policy statements,

issues and concerns all pertaining to International Migration (IOM, 2018).

Commission on Filipino Overseas. (CFO). The CFO plays the role of advisor to the

country's leadership on diaspora engagement and policymaking. The CFO has established

development councils in four regions of the country for better coordination with its diaspora.

CFO also organizes, every two years, a Global Summit for Diaspora Overseas in Manila. This

summit serves as a venue for open dialogue and discussions between many stakeholders in the

Philippines. According to the IOM (2018), one of the key outcomes of the first summit held in

2011 was the creation of Global Filipino Diaspora Council which is regarded as the first

organized network of overseas Filipinos globally which also helped in the formation of networks

of Filipinos overseas like European Network of Filipinos and the Middle East and Africa

Network of Filipino diaspora (MEANFID).

Presidential Award and Month Dedicated to Overseas Filipino. This award is for

Filipino individuals and organizations in recognition of their contributions to the country, which

is also conferred to overseas Filipinos if they meet the criteria. The Philippines has also

dedicated the month of December of every year as the month of overseas Filipinos. It is quite

evident from the above that the Philippines has taken some useful diaspora engagement

initiatives and seems ahead of many other migrant states (IOM, 2018).

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Initiatives by India towards Diaspora Engagement

India has over 30 million diaspora population and receives the most remittances in the list

of remittance receiving countries in the world. In 2018, India received $80 billion from its

overseas citizens in the form of remittances. Successive Indian Governments have developed

programs and policies to cultivate its diaspora community. Considering the importance of non-

resident Indians, during the last two decades the government has instituted several programs to

improve engagement with them and create opportunities for them to participate in the economic

development of India. For example, the information technology (IT) sector of India has

immensely benefited from its diaspora contribution. The Indian Siliconnaires IT professionals

who came to the United States and made huge progress was responsible for the information

technology revolution in India (Mishra, 2016).

Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (Diaspora Day)

In September 2000, realizing the need to engage with its diaspora more effectively, the

government set up a high-level committee and appointed an eminent jurist, Dr. Singhji to

undertake a comprehensive study of the Indian diaspora and recommend measures for building

relationships with them (Kapur, Mehta, & Dutt, 2004). The committee conducted a detailed

study and conclusively identified over fifty target areas for the government. Some

recommendations included measures like improving entry facilities and processing at

airports/port of entry for the diaspora, identifying and communicating fields of investments,

creating a focal point for diaspora dealings, and allowing dual citizenship for the Indian diaspora.

An integral part of the recommendation was to hold regular meetings with diaspora and celebrate

their achievements.

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Based on these findings, the government has implemented several measures to engage

more effectively with its diaspora, including the addition of a national holiday called Pravasi

Bharatiya Divas, which is celebrated on January 9 every year. This date was chosen as it was on

this day in 1915 that Mahatma Gandhi, the greatest diaspora, returned to India from South Africa

and led India's freedom to change their lives forever (Mani & Varadarajan, 2005).

India has benefitted greatly from its diaspora concerning the IT industry with their

contribution being one of the most successful diaspora-led development in the world. Indian

diaspora from Silicon Valley brought enhanced skills, know-how, foreign direct investment as

well as the mobility of highly skilled professionals, which provided the diaspora with the

opportunity to engage with their country (Pande, 2014). According to one estimate, the Indian IT

industry constitutes a 9.5% of national GDP and employs over 3.5 million people. In 2000,

former Indian residents in the United States managed 10 of the most successful software

companies in India (Pande, 2014).

A report by the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) has

outlined initiatives taken by the Indian government towards diaspora engagement and diaspora

partnership building some of these initiatives include (FICCI, 2013).

Public visibility of Diaspora opportunity

Ease of travel for Overseas Indians

Public recognition of diaspora contribution

Financial instruments to channel funds -Bonds

Communication with and among the diaspora

Specialized services for overseas Indians

Simplified rules for purchasing properties in India by diaspora

Developed a guidebook for business success

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Pakistan’s Human Capacity Landscape

Since my research will be focused on the Pakistani diaspora, it is important to include a

section on Pakistan and its human resource challenges. Pakistan, a federal parliamentary republic

in South Asia with a population of 190 million, is the sixth most populous country in the world,

located at the crossroads of the strategically important regions of South Asia, Central Asia and

Western Asia. The country is at the fulcrum of a regional market with a vast population, large

and diverse resources, and untapped potential for trade. Even though a large portion of Pakistan's

population falls in the young adult to middle age demographic profile, according to the United

Nations Development Program (UNDP) report on Pakistan published in 2017, Pakistan is one of

the youngest countries in the world. Sixty-four percent of the country's population is under the

age of 29, with some 30% between the ages of 15 and 29. These statistics pose challenges, as

well as significant opportunities. The report highlights three areas of intervention for youth

development (i.e., education, employment, and civic engagement).

The country is ranked 150 out of 189 in the 2017 Human Development Index, which is

an index measuring the basic human development achievements in the country (United Nations

Development Program). Pakistan's HDI ranking is below the average for countries in the

medium human development group of South Asia, including India and Bangladesh, and such a

ranking indicates that the country has not been able to make desirable progress in its various

social and economic sectors.

Access to education remains low, and the completion rate of primary education is

amongst the lowest in the world with poor quality of educational infrastructure, teaching, and

learning outcomes. Since the creation of Pakistan in 1947, higher education (HE) has been a

matter of great concern among various circles in Pakistan, especially among academics,

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government, policymakers, and the public (Isani, 2001). The country's founding father and the

first Governor-General, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, was a visionary leader who sought to reorient

the education system from colonial administrative goals to the new nation's social, economic,

and technical needs (International Crisis Group Report, 2004). In his message to the delegates of

the All Pakistan Education Conference held in Karachi on November 27, 1947; Mohammed Ali

Jinnah emphasized the role of HE by stating “Of all the economic growth initiatives available to

the government of Pakistan, perhaps none holds more promise and the possibilities of large scale

and sustainable returns than the effectiveness and expansion of the higher education

infrastructure in Pakistan (HEC annual report, 2002-2008, p. 1).”

The journey of HE stretches over 70 years, and during this time, the country's overall

education system in general and the higher education system in particular has faced numerous

challenges and hurdles. The system has gone through periods of trials, tribulations and has seen

various highs and lows. There has not been a consistent approach in managing the HE sectors

nor a commitment by various governments to allocate adequate funding to this important sector

(Isani, 2001). In 2017, the government expenditure on education in Pakistan was 2.9% of its

GDP, which is significantly the lowest in the world (UNESCO Statistical Yearbook, 2017).

The Task Force on Improvement of Higher Education in Pakistan, constituted in 2002,

identified the main issues confronting the sectors as a) ineffective governance and management

practices, b) inefficient use of available resources, c) inadequate funding, d) poor recruitment

practices, e) inadequate attention to research, and f) politicization of faculty and students (Task

Force, 2002). The poor operating conditions of universities is well summarised by Virk (1998).

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The universities in their present form are not geared to create new knowledge, nor do

their graduate-study programmes measure up to international standards.…. Rapid

expansion of the system (of higher education), limited financial input, and periodic

student unrest have eroded the teaching and learning process despite the modernization of

curricula. (para. 2.1)

It is interesting to note that despite this gloomy picture and the underperformance of HE sectors

during the first 55 years of the country’s existence, the HE sectors showed an impressive

performance during the period 2002 to 2010. This period was termed a Golden Period of HE in

Pakistan by the Senate Committee on Higher Education, Science, and Technology (Voelter,

2008). All indicators showed an impressive performance. University enrollments, which had

hardly reached 275000 in the first 55 years, almost tripled during this period, also the number of

universities and degree awarding institutes almost doubled during the same period, increasing

from 71 to 137.

The Task Force, which was stimulated by the World Bank publication of an International

Task Force report on Higher Education in Developing Countries, had a clear mandate to review

higher education in Pakistan and recommend ways of improving its quality. This move was

consistent with the government's strategic plan for the development of society. The Task Force

developed the following vision statement for higher education in the country at the very

beginning of its work:

Transformation of our institutions of higher education into world-class seats of learning,

equipped to foster high-quality education, scholarship and research produce enlightened

citizens with strong moral and ethical values that build a tolerant and pluralistic society

rooted in the culture of Pakistan. (Task Force, 2002, p. 59)

The government extended full support to the Higher Education Commission (HEC) in the form

of political will and financial resources to put the system on track. HEC prepared a reform plan

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to articulate a strategic direction for the commission. It developed a Medium-Term Development

Framework (MTDF), a five-year action plan built around seven focus areas of intervention, as

shown in Table 9 below.

Table 9

Strategic Framework on the Implementation Activities and Outcomes

Focus Area Major Initiatives/ Outcomes

1. Faculty

Development

Existing faculty shortage was made through a three-pronged

strategy. Short term initiatives included faculty hiring program,

faculty exchange program, visiting scholar program and professional

faculty program. Long term measures included overseas

scholarships, indigenous scholarships and the third strategy included

various incentive schemes like upward revision pay scales and

introduction of tenure track system for the faculty.

2. Improving access

The objective was to maximize opportunities for the acquisition of

quality higher education for the 17 to 23 years old age group

country. Various majors were introduced, which included the

promotion of distance learning, program financial assistance to

needy students, the awarding of grants and scholarship on merit and

the establishment of new higher education institutions. The strategy

worked, and the institutions went up from 59 to 124 during this

period.

3. Promoting

excellence in research

The key objective was to enhance the capacity of higher education

institutions to carry out cutting-edge research in all areas of science

and engineering, humanities, social sciences, economics, and

finance. A quality assurance framework was prepared, and an

enabling environment for research was created. The strategic

emphasis was on building a scholarly culture, authorship and

creating incentives for the researchers. Various international

collaborations were initiated.

4. Ensuring relevance

to the economy and

developing linkages

The objective was to promote interactions between the industrial and

higher education sectors to ensure alignment of the generation of

human capital with economic activities and national development

objectives. New departments and centres in universities which were

focusing on issues of direct importance were established. University

/industry collaborations were promoted. Industry experts were

involved in the university governing boards.

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5. Enhancing quality

The key objective was to enhance the standard of educational

programs offered at various institutions and to ensure cross-border

mobility of student's faculty and academics. Quality assurance

criteria, standards and processes were developed. The academics

and other stakeholders were made aware of the importance of quality

in their day-to-day work.

6. Infrastructure

development

The objective was to upgrade and equip universities in the country

with the required physical and technological infrastructure to support

the high quality of teaching and research.

7 Funding

Funds were provided to upgrade the physical infrastructure of

existing campuses. Internet facilities were extended to all public

sector universities through a fibre optic link. In addition, multi-media

conferencing facilities were provided to all public sector universities.

Funding was identified as one of the major bottlenecks in the

progress of higher education in the country. The HEC efforts to

increase government grants for higher education were successful.

During the period under review, the government provided funds to

university with annually increased allocations. Source: Adapted from the HEC reports 2002 to 2008

Government-run schools in Pakistan also have an inadequate education environment. A

little more than a dozen children, aged six or seven, sit behind desks in a crowded classroom.

Most students have no schoolbags; some have no shoes and teachers are either absent or not

qualified to teach their subjects (Stepping Up, 2018). According to a report published by the

Economist in 2018, most Pakistani children who start school drop out by the age of nine, and

only three percent of those enrolling in public school graduate from 12th grade, the final year.

Pakistan's gap between girls' and boys' enrolment is, after Afghanistan's, the widest in South Asia

(Stepping up Education, 2018). A key factor for the poor state of education in Pakistan appears

to be the dearth of well-trained teachers and the lack of availability of teaching facilities.

Research has found that the school a child in rural Pakistan attends is many times more important

in explaining test scores than either the parents' income or their level of literacy. Bau and Das

(2017) of the University of Toronto examined both the question of what makes a good teacher

and the link between wages and productivity using a unique dataset that were collected between

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2003 and 2007 from the province of Punjab, Pakistan. They studied the performance of teachers,

in the province of Punjab, who were hired on temporary contracts between 2003 and 2007. It

turned out that their pupils did no worse than those taught by regular ones, despite the temporary

teachers often being comparatively inexperienced and paid 35% less.

This research, which was geared towards the Pakistani education system in the Province

of Punjab, indicated that a school’s system improvement is dependent on good teaching and not

necessarily tied in with more salaries for teachers. They found tat there was no correlation

between teacher value addition (TVA) and their wages in the public sector and a policy change

that shifted public hiring from permanent to temporary contracts, reducing wages by 35%, had

no adverse impact on TVA, either immediately or after 4 years. This study identified that public

sector compensation could be significantly redesigned to better account for the realities of low-

income countries. Combining lower salaries (or salaries that are more strongly tied to teacher

productivity) with greater investment in other school characteristics or student incentives could

allow low-income countries to generate considerable fiscal savings (Bau & Das, 2017).

The research undertaken by Bau and Das (2017) uncovered an important opportunity

with respect to the engagement of teachers who belong to the Pakistani diaspora. If teaching

professionals from amongst the diaspora group have an opportunity to take on short-term

contractual work in Pakistani schools, this might potentially lead to significant improvements in

student outcomes in line with the above research findings. Better schooling via improved

teaching develops talent and human capital for a country, which plays a key role in the economic

and social development of that country. The new growth theory has been highly influential in

explaining the differences in the economic performance of developing countries. Those countries

that have invested in education have a high level of intellectual capital and knowledge (Husain,

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2005). Pakistan has few quality institutions of higher learning; the country has not been able to

fully utilize its human resources due to inadequate primary, secondary, and tertiary education.

Like many other developing countries, Pakistan has also experienced its due share of brain drain

due to the various push and pull factors. The first phase of international migration started in

Pakistan in the early 1950s when professionals migrated to Europe (Sajjad, 2011). In the second

phase, which started in the 1970s and continued until the early 1990s, professionals mostly

migrated to the Middle East. In the third phase of migration, people began settling in North

America. In this most recent phase, Pakistan lost many of its young engineers, teachers,

accountants, and health professionals (Sajjad, 2011).

Several studies, mostly undertaken by Pakistani scholars have documented the loss of

skilled Pakistanis to developed countries through emigration. Pakistan has not created a

conducive environment for scholars to come back after graduation abroad to join academia.

Returning scholars are sucked into the bureaucratic culture of the country. Rigid promotions

systems, lack of uniform pay policies, political interference and lack of meritocracy are few of

the main hurdles, which frustrates the returnees who either decide to leave the country or stay

back and look for opportunities outside of academia in the private sector (Hussain, 2019).

Despite having over seven million overseas Pakistani diaspora, which makes the country

the sixth largest diaspora population country in the world (IOM, 2018), Pakistan does not fully

realize the potential of its diaspora when it comes to knowledge transfer and mobilization.

However, it does realize the significance of the diaspora from the perspective of receiving

foreign exchange or remittances. In 2009, the Government of Pakistan launched the Pakistan

Remittance Initiative (PRI) aimed at facilitating the flow of remittances sent home by non-

resident Pakistanis. The PRI is comprised of multiple incentive schemes designed to make

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remittance transfer faster, cheaper, and more convenient, and to increase the attractiveness of

formal channels of the transfer relative to informal channels (Qureshi, 2016). The Pakistani

diaspora remitted to their families more than USD 16 billion in foreign exchange from July 2015

to April 2016 (Makhlouf & Mughal, 2011). The flow of workers' remittances to Pakistan has

more than quadrupled in the last eight years, and it shows no signs of slowing (Kock & Sun,

2011). The two main reasons attributed to this trend are the higher skill levels of migrating

workers and the increase in worker migration from Pakistan. This increase in worker migration is

depicted below (see Figure 6).

Figure 6

Pakistan: Labour Migration by Skill Level, January 1981-June 2009.

Source: “Remittances in Pakistan - Why have they gone up, and why aren’t they coming down?” Kock &

Sun (2011). P. 9. Reprinted with permission.

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According to the World Bank’s dataset in its Migration and Remittances Factbook 2016,

in the overall ranking, Pakistan stood third in South Asia (after India and Bangladesh) and sixth

in the world (after India, Mexico, Russia, China, and Bangladesh) for human capital mobility.

Since independence in 1947, the loss of highly skilled Pakistani engineers, doctors, teachers,

information technology specialists, computer programmers, accountants, and other professionals

from industrial, medical, educational, and constructional fields are alarming (Doghri et al.,

2006).

According to other statistics provided by the Bureau of Emigration and Overseas

Employment as well as reported in the Economic Survey of Pakistan 2015-2016, the Pakistani

emigrant stock has increased from one million in 1981 to 8.77 million in December 2016

(Farooq & Ahmad, 2017). An earlier study by Khan and Islam (2006) revealed that most skilled

migrants leaving Pakistan acquired tertiary education there. For example, in the year 2000, out of

85,000 skilled migrants who left Pakistan to settle in OECD countries, almost 65,000 (76%) had

acquired tertiary education in Pakistan. This is truly a reflection of the loss to the country.

Causes of Pakistan’s Brain Drain

In a survey of the various push and pull factors leading to migration of skilled Pakistani

abroad, Sajjad (2011) found the following reasons (see Table 10).

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Table 10

Push and Pull Factors

Push Factors Pull Factors

lack of professional opportunities availability of resources to conduct research

in destination countries

the economic crisis in the country better pay

high unemployment rate better living facilities and standard of living

lack of respect for professionals suitable opportunities and environment for the

education of children

law and order situation developed legislation with respect to human

rights

lack of research facilities/professional growth career advancement,

political instability security and pension after retirement,

lack of merit fewer bureaucratic controls

slow promotion process demand for highly qualified people in West

Adapted from Sajjad, (2011). p.38.

To date, the Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development appears

to be more focused on making policies to regulate employment overseas and has not taken

visible steps to create policy initiatives about reversing the brain drain. Specifically, the Ministry

website mentions that its purpose is to make policies for employment promotion abroad

(Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis, n.d.).

The academic literature indicates that the government of Pakistan, as a key stakeholder,

has not done much in trying to reverse its brain drain. The Ministry's vision, as stated above,

clearly shows that the main attraction for the government is to receive remittances from its

citizens abroad, which is understandable as these remittances are critical for economic

development. All successive governments have given the same message. The new Prime

Minister of Pakistan, who took office in August 2018, mentioned in his first address to the nation

that diaspora can play a significant role by sending money and bringing business to the home

country. It seems that the government has still not moved away from the focus on remittances,

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for it even formed a centre called the Pakistan Centre for Philanthropy to channel donations from

overseas people in the right direction.

However, there are some good examples of interesting initiatives in diaspora knowledge

transfer activities in Pakistan. These are mostly developed by the private sector and civil society

organizations, NGOs, or by diaspora themselves, rather than by government. For example, the

Association of Physicians of Pakistani Descent of North America (APPNA, which means ours in

Urdu) is a U.S. non-profit organization headquartered in Westmont, Illinois. It is the third-largest

medical association in the United States after the American Medical Association and the

American Association of Physicians of Indian Origin. APPNA is dedicated to supporting

scientific development and education in medicine and delivering better health care, regardless of

race, religion or gender. It was founded in 1976 and represents more than 15,000 physicians and

health care professionals of Pakistani descent in the United States and Canada. As part of its

mandate, APPNA has recently initiated projects and programs which fall clearly under the

definition of sharing knowledge and expertise with Pakistan. Currently, it runs a telemedicine

program to improve health care quality and access to specialist medical care in Pakistan for

under-served populations. Under this program, it sets up Internet-based consultations between

specialists in the United States and referring doctors from Pakistan to improve patient care

through recommendations for the latest treatments and timely access to specialist knowledge.

APPNA also runs a Medical Corps Program under which it deploys health professionals during

peacetime and disaster to conduct medical missions in Pakistan and globally. Their key mission

is to serve in countries that are in dire need of assistance (APPNA, 2018).

Under this program, the team of experts has already visited Pakistan, specifically Lahore

as well as Gujarat. On those visits, 15 physicians consisting of plastic and cardiothoracic

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surgeons, general practitioners travelled alongside specialists in emergency medicine,

cardiology, psychiatry, nephrology, and pediatrics, at their own expense, to Lahore from the

United States, Canada and Dubai to participate in the mission. The physicians volunteered their

time at the Sheikh Zayed Medical Complex and Children's Hospital in Lahore. They performed

surgeries, direct patient care and hospital rounds. More than 1000 patients were treated free of

charge during the mission. Similarly, a group of seven highly qualified plastic surgeons and

anesthesiologists visited the city of Gujarat, which is in the Punjab province, and treated patients

and performed surgeries at the Cleft Hospital. The local community received all these

interactions well (APPNA, 2018).

In addition, the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN) developed the Time and

Knowledge Nazrana (TKN) program. TKN was launched as a Golden Jubilee of the Imamat of

His Highness the Aga Khan to harness the expertise and skills of Ismaili Muslims worldwide in

helping to build institutional capacity in the AKDN institutions. TKN represents a combination

of two cherished Ismaili traditions: a) submitting to the current Imam an unconditional Nazrana

(gift) to commemorate epochal events as a gesture of love and homage, and b) offering one's

intellectual capacity to assist the Imamat's efforts for the progress of the Jamat community (The

Ismaili, 2020).

Many volunteers, followers of His Highness the Aga Khan (the 49th spiritual leader of

Shia Imami Ismaili Muslims), continue to serve with institutions globally. This service occurs

with various Aga Khan Development Agencies and in diverse professional fields and sectors,

including health care, education, financial services, audit, information technology, human

resources management, renewable energy, architecture, engineering, telecommunications,

management consulting, media, mediation, and arts and culture. The impact made by TKN

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volunteers has been enormous in helping to build capacity and achieve best practice standards as

defined by in AKDN. These experiences have also been professionally and personally fulfilling

for TKN volunteers who travel across borders to share their expertise with institutions in

developing countries. Many of the volunteers who serve their home country under this program

are part of the diaspora (The Ismaili, 2020).

Another example is The Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan, an

independent, autonomous, and constitutionally established institution that funds, oversees,

regulates, and accredits higher education efforts in Pakistan. It oversees 192 public and private

universities and degree-granting institutions in Pakistan. Tasked with developing a higher

education system that could focus effectively on research and development, the HEC has been

playing an important role in building a knowledge-based economy in Pakistan. A key focus in

the initial years of HEC was to access overseas Pakistani academics to provide initial support in

bringing higher education in Pakistan into alignment with systems in developed countries. The

HEC created various schemes to recruit overseas Pakistani academics. As a result, over 200

Pakistanis returned to the country to share their knowledge and expertise. Many overseas

scholars and academics were invited to serve for shorter durations and bridge the gap until local

faculty obtained their Ph.D. degrees. The existing faculty deficit was reversed through a three-

pronged strategy. In the short term, a faculty hiring program, a faculty exchange program, a

visiting scholar program and a professional faculty program were implemented. In the long-term,

recruitment measures included overseas scholarships and indigenous scholarships. The third

strategy included a series of incentive schemes like upward revision pay scales and the

introduction of the tenure track system for faculty (HEC).

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Literature Review Summary

This literature review undertaken to study the current state of knowledge about brain

drain, brain grain and diaspora engagement clearly shows that in today’s global economy,

intellectual capital has become the most important productive factor underlying a nation’s ability

to innovate, remain competitive, and foster economic growth (Stewart, 2007).

According to one estimate, there are approximately 240 million migrants in the world,

which constitutes 3.3% of the global population (IOM, 2018). The three countries receiving the

most migrants are the United States, Germany, and Russia, while the three countries from which

the most migrants originate are India, Mexico, and Russia (Pakistan ranks 6th in the world in

terms of sending migrants overseas, with around seven or eight million Pakistanis settled abroad:

IOM, 2018). Since late 1990, a transnational mode of thinking has emerged. It recognizes that in

the current era of globalization, global links may be more important than the human capital in a

country. A professional thus may contribute more value to the home country by residing

overseas than by returning permanently (Wescott, 2005, p. 22).

Although diaspora populations have long existed, there is now a new inflection to the

emerging focus on the potential presented by diaspora to assist in the development of a country

(Geoforum, 2014). The perception of brain drain as detrimental for home countries is changing

in the context of today's realities where migrants are considered to possess new knowledge and

networks, which can greatly help the home countries if channeled in an appropriate direction.

To reap the benefits of diaspora knowledge, all parties and key stakeholders should have

incentives. Inputs from the diaspora should be culturally sensitive, responsive to real demand,

and in consonance with national priorities (Lopez & Theisohn, 2003, p. 22). The advancement in

information and communications technology (ICT) has created new opportunities for knowledge

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sharing between members of diaspora and individuals in the home country (Grossman, 2010).

Newer terms such as intellectual diaspora networks, diaspora knowledge networks, knowledge

transfer networks, e-diaspora and knowledge networks abroad are used to describe the emerging

mode of knowledge transfer (Grossman, 2010).

Restricting skilled nationals' ability to leave their countries of origin has not shown any

additional or new benefits. Therefore, reducing migration flows will not alleviate the shortages

of skilled workers in developing countries. It appears the world needs to know more about

migration and its benefits. Skilled migration will continue and will maintain a persistent trend.

Countries of origin, especially the developing countries, are at a different stage of diaspora

engagement. Policymakers are trying different strategies of engagement with diaspora with

varying degrees of success. Diaspora are generally keen to forge a link with the homeland and

contribute towards its development.

Realizing the contributions that diaspora can make, especially to countries with extensive

diaspora populations, have led host countries to connect to their extended diaspora communities.

India, China, the Philippines, Mexico, and many African countries are good examples of such

engagement initiatives. Pakistan has not systematically engaged with its diaspora for knowledge

mobilization, and the Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis is focused on helping people who are

leaving the country and facilitating the receipt of remittances.

The demographics of Pakistan with significantly large young populations (two -thirds of

population under 30 years) poses unique challenges and opportunities. Youth engagement should

be its topmost priority, which includes youth education, youth employment, and youth civic

engagement. Youth “bulge” can prove to be a dividend for Pakistan if managed well. As noted in

this review of the literature, developing countries are increasingly recognizing the value of the

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diaspora population not just as senders of remittances but also as sources of new knowledge,

connections, and expertise. Individually countries have tried to create engagement strategies,

although several efforts have been made; they still appear to be insufficient to sustain attention

over many years. It has also been identified in the literature that as key stakeholders, diaspora

views and involvement have not been considered as one would expect. Pakistan, as a developing

country, needs to do a lot in the diaspora engagement strategy. This study attempts to seek the

views of Pakistani diaspora on the conditions, which will excite and encourage them to share

expertise and knowledge with their home country.

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Chapter 3

Methodology

This study took a qualitative approach to the phenomenon of brain gain in order to

examine how brain gain might be examined with respect to the support of diaspora engagement

strategies. A qualitative methodology allowed me to study and seek the diaspora perspective on

giving back to their home country in a way that captured context, personal interpretation, and

experience of the phenomena under investigation. To gather the perspectives of members of the

Pakistani diaspora, I conducted semi-structured interviews with members of the Pakistani

diaspora who reside in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). The participants were asked to share

their views about giving their time and knowledge to their home country. Interviewees were

asked how much time they might give and to whom or to which organizations. All the interviews

were audio-recorded (with the informed consent of participants), transcribed, coded, and

analyzed.

This aim of this study was to understand the motivation of diaspora to give back to their

home country Pakistan. Since this type of research demands an understanding of the perspectives

of individuals and has an exploratory basis, it was most appropriate to apply a qualitative

research method to seek answers to the research questions. This study was simultaneously

interested in the ways Pakistani diaspora maintain ties with their home country, the reasons why

they may or may not be interested or motivated to engage in reciprocity, and the types of

participation they envisioned. As such, it is an exploratory descriptive-interpretive study

(Creswell & Poth, 2016).

In order to be eligible for the study, participants had to have migrated from Pakistan to

the GTA within the last three years or more than three years ago. Given that immigrants typically

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acquire citizenship status after three years, these inclusion criteria were important in order to

measure different levels of integration and attachment to the GTA and Canada. Since the study is

aimed towards harnessing the know-how and expertise of skilled and educated diaspora,

participants were also required to have, at a minimum, an undergraduate degree or a professional

certificate or qualification from an accredited university or college in Canada or Pakistan. Some

also received supplementary credentials in other countries such as the United States. All were

employed in the GTA as professionals, businesspersons, or independent consultants. Most of the

respondents-maintained ties with Pakistan, through philanthropy or existing family ties.

Considering the lack of precise data on the Pakistani diaspora settled in the GTA, I used a

purposive sampling technique to collect the data. Purposive sampling is the most important kind

of non-probability sampling that can be used to identify primary participants (Welman & Kruger,

1999). In this method, the researcher intentionally selects individuals and tries to study a

phenomenon (Creswell & Poth, 2016). I identified potential participants by contacting the

Pakistan Professionals Forum (PPF) in Toronto, a not-for-profit organization devoted to the

advancement of Pakistani professionals who reside in Canada. This group, which has over 2,600

members, is active on social media and meets at least twice per year by arranging social events in

Toronto. In the entire GTA, this is the only organized group of Pakistani professionals that I was

able to identify. They have an active presence on LinkedIn: they organize annual events where

Pakistani professionals participate along with their families, and they celebrate Pakistan day and

other Pakistani festivals. The PPF sent a recruitment message to its members via LinkedIn (see

Appendix B).

Qualitative analyses typically allow for a smaller sample size than quantitative data,

although the sample size should be enough to obtain feedback for most or all the research

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questions. Creswell (1994) recommended long interviews with up to 10 people for a qualitative

study. Thus, I started with an initial sample of 10 participants and continued to add participants

until the amount of variation in the information started levelling off and it appeared that

saturation point had been reached as no new explanations, ideas, or perspectives were coming

from the participants. This point was reached after interviewing 15 participants. Of the total

initial 10 participants, five participants had migrated to Canada within the past three years, and

the remaining 10 had migrated to Canada more than three years ago. This was established by

reviewing their LinkedIn profiles

The intention of this selection criterion was to determine if newly arrived diaspora have

different perspectives than those who may be more firmly established in the GTA, and what

implications these differences may have for diaspora engagement initiatives and policies.

With the consent of the participants, the interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed

by me. No participants declined to have their interviews recorded. Each participant was assigned

an interview number, and the findings were coded accordingly.

To analyze the data, I conducted a narrative analysis (Creswell, 2002). Qualitative

research is interpretive, in that the researcher makes a personal assessment of a description that

fits the situation or themes that capture the major categories of information. I analyzed my data

based on the six steps in analyzing and interpreting qualitative data, as suggested by Creswell

(2002). This process entails judgments and interpretations (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). Every

effort was to be made to ensure that there were minimal discrepancies between intended

meanings and the interpretation of interview transcriptions.

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Once the interviews were transcribed, I read the transcripts thoroughly to obtain a general

sense of participants' views and observations. The coding process allowed me to identify

emergent themes and patterns.

Ethical Considerations

This study was approved by the Research Ethics Board at the University of Toronto (see

Appendix C). All participants gave their voluntary informed consent (see Appendix D: in verbal

or written form, as appropriate). The participants were informed via the informed consent

process and accompanying consent form that they had the right to decline to answer any

questions, and that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time without explanation

simply by terminating the interview or contacting me by any means. They were informed that if

they withdrew before data aggregation began, all the information provided by them would be

deleted and not included in the study findings; after data aggregation began, it was no longer

possible to remove their data. The only data collected from participants was consent-driven data

given during the interview; no non-consent identification of participants was sought.

With the consent of the participants, the interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed

by me. No participants declined to have their interviews recorded. The audio recordings were

stored on a password-protected laptop and were erased immediately following transcription of

the interviews. All participants were given a pseudonym to obfuscate their identity in all

reporting of the data.

Research Design

This research was an exploratory descriptive and interpretive research design of how to

leverage diaspora engagement to convert brain drain to brain gain in Pakistan. The specific

research questions that drove this study are as follows:

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1. What are the reasons for migrating to Canada, and what are the conditions under

which highly skilled members of the Pakistani diaspora who have settled in the GTA

might be willing to engage and share their time and knowledge with Pakistani

institutions?

2. What factors might motivate members of the Pakistani diaspora to give back time and

knowledge to their home country?

3. With whom might the diaspora consider engaging?

4. In what ways might those in the Pakistani diaspora like to be engaged?

5. What are the primary conditions and prerequisites that will encourage members of the

Pakistani diaspora to consider relocating back to their home country on a permanent

basis?

6. What recognition or remuneration would members of the diaspora expect for their

contributions?

7. How do the perceptions of diaspora engagement of members of the diaspora who left

Pakistan less than three years ago (and are thus still of permanent resident status),

compare with those of those who left Pakistan more than three years ago and have

become Canadian citizens?

Creswell and Poth (2016) shared that an exploratory research study is appropriate when

little is known about the topic. Since I found no research addressing the specific focus of this

research, that is, the perceptions of members of the diaspora, an exploratory, descriptive study

was appropriate. To enhance our understanding of the phenomenon, and the focus of this study,

an interpretive design was also appropriate.

The purpose of the study was to develop an in-depth exploration of a phenomenon - here,

leveraging Pakistani diaspora for brain gain - in terms of how it unfolds and why it appears. In

deciding what methods to employ, it became clear that current trends in studies of movements

and collective organizing tend to prefer qualitative techniques that focus on lived experiences.

Qualitative methods are also best suited for an intensive examination of movements with the

intention of identifying patterns, linkages and organizational structure.

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Staggenborg (2010) stated that in the exploration of contextualized knowledge,

qualitative methods are more favourable than quantitative methods. The topics and issues

addressed in this study required insight from the community of people who form the Pakistani

diaspora. According to Holloway (1997) and Creswell (1994), a researcher's epistemology is

based on self-theory of knowledge, which helps in deciding how a phenomenon will be studied.

This research led to an understanding and a reality that needed to be interpreted and which

cannot be empirically measured. In terms of research paradigms, this study approached the

subject from the constructivist viewpoint, which relies heavily on the participants' views of the

phenomena they are experiencing (Creswell & Poth, 2016). The constructivist approach mainly

focuses on the meanings ascribed by the participants in the study. This paradigm emphasizes the

views, values, beliefs, feelings, assumptions, and ideologies of individuals over an interest in

gathering facts or describing acts (Creswell & Poth, 2016).

Participants

In this qualitative case study, potential participants were selected using purposive

sampling. The participants of this study were 15 Pakistani individuals currently residing in the

Greater Toronto Area (GTA). All the participants were Pakistani diaspora who have used their

education to gain employment outside of their home country. This sample was information-rich

because detailed information can be collected from them (Bogdan & Biklin, 2007).

As the aim of the study was to examine the phenomenon of leveraging Pakistani diaspora

for brain gain in terms of how it unfolds and why it appears, purposive sampling allowed the

researcher to identify participants that fit the criteria of the Pakistani diaspora. Lodico et al.

(2010) noted that a purposive sample for qualitative studies allows the researcher to examine a

specific set of characteristics relevant to the focus of the study. A purposeful sampling strategy

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(Creswell & Creswell, 2017; Guest et al., 2006) was utilized to recruit 15 participants. Of the 15

participants, one was female and 14 were male. The participants represented a variety of business

industries, including education, engineering, and science. Smaller sample sizes are acceptable in

qualitative studies. Faulkner and Trotter (2017) note that saturation of data is often reached when

no new information is presented, and information from the participants becomes repetitive and

redundant. As this research is specific to the Pakistani diaspora in the GTA, the small sample

size was appropriate to acquire data saturation. The specific sample population is also a

limitation to the study. Findings will not be generalizable to all diaspora; the information is

limited to a specific region and a specific diaspora.

Procedures for Recruitment and Participation

Recruitment for participants began with contacting identifying potential Pakistani

candidates within the GTA. Potential participants were solicited with the approval of the

University of Toronto Research Ethics Board, and each participant received information on the

purpose of the study. All the 2600 plus members of the Pakistani professional Forum were sent

an invitation to participate in the research via e mail through their website. The purpose of the

study and its voluntary participation was fully explained and those interested were asked to

respond to the invitation. My email address and contact numbers were provided in the invitation

letter. Initially approximately 25 members reached out to me showing their willingness to

participate in the study. I reviewed the members’ LinkedIn profiles on the website and used their

online public information to select initially 10 participants for this study. However, I continued

to invite more participants in the study until I reached saturation which was reached when I

interviewed the 15th participant in the study.

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Data Collection and Recording

In-depth interviews are essential for gathering in-depth information from study

participants. According to Marshall and Rossman (2014), in-depth interviewing allows the

researcher to foster face-to-face interactions with participants, which allows for uncovering

participants' perspectives; it also allows data gathering in a natural setting and facilitates

immediate follow-up for clarification purposes. An interview protocol guided the interviews such

that responses could be analyzed in a consistent manner (see Appendix A). The purpose of

developing an interview protocol was to systematically and consistently collect the information

from the participants. Developing an interview protocol provides a means of structuring the

interviews for the collection of pertinent information (Creswell, 2002).

Participants were reminded of the study procedure and that participation was were also

voluntary. All participants before the start of the interview were explained the entire purpose of

the study and were asked to sign an informed consent form.

Seventeen open-ended questions were prepared in advance and, on a needed basis,

additional questions and probes were used, as appropriate, to increase the understanding of the

responses. The questions were arranged in an order, which aligned with the seven key research

questions of this study. Also, efforts were made to make the participant relax and motivate them

to talk. All efforts were made to ensure that participants understood the questions and they were

given time to allow them to reflect before responding.

The interviews lasted 60-90 minutes and were mostly held at places which were

convenient for the participants (coffee shops, school libraries, participant homes, and community

centers). Individuals who agreed to participate in the study signed a consent form before

interviews began. With the explicit consent of the participants, the interviews were audio-

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recorded so that the recordings could be transcribed. The primary data for this study which

came from the audio recordings of the interviews, were also augmented by field notes which

were prepared immediately after the interviews. During the interview, participants shared their

views about giving their time and knowledge to their home country.

A key requirement in a qualitative study is to ensure that participants must be able to

identify important facts and perspectives related to the phenomena which is under study. My

own Pakistani background was useful in establishing the initial rapport and mutual trust with the

participants which made them feel comfortable to share their views, opinions, and feelings

openly with me. This, I believe, greatly helped in enhancing understanding of the phenomena

under study and the participants were better able to inform the research questions.

During the interviews, I made sure to make participants feel comfortable, create a

comfortable space for them, and I gave ample time to respond to my questions. I informed

participants in advance on my research topic and the purpose of my research, and assured them

that the information collected during the interview which would be audio-recorded would be

password protected and that their name as a participant would remain anonymous, only non-

identifiable participant codes would be used in any reporting of the findings. The participants

were also assured that the plan of this study had been reviewed and approved by the University

of Toronto Research Ethics Board (Appendix B).

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Chapter 4

Presentation of Findings

In this chapter I analyze the information gathered during the interviews of participating

Pakistani diaspora based in the GTA. The main purpose of interviewing the diaspora was to

determine how a developing country like Pakistan can harness the knowledge of its diaspora for

developmental purposes, what are their views on engagement and what were those conditions

which will make it possible for enhancing Pakistani diaspora engagement with their home

country. The information sought was intended to answer the specific research questions of this

study as articulated below.

With these objectives and related questions in mind, I explored the conditions under

which diaspora members would be willing to engage in knowledge transfer activities and

gathered their perspectives on diaspora engagement and their preferences for sharing their time

and knowledge with their home country. The interviews helped me determine how much time

they might give and to whom or what organizations they might prefer to support. The

information gathered during the interviews, along with the questions that ground this study and

the responses received are presented below. Conclusions and Recommendations are presented in

Chapter 5.

Research Question 1 asked:

What are the reasons for migrating to Canada, and what are the conditions under

which highly skilled members of the Pakistani diaspora who have settled in the GTA might

be willing to engage and share their time and knowledge with Pakistani institutions?

As a background for this question, participants were asked to identify the reasons for

initially leaving the country and the conditions that compelled them to migrate. The goal was to

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determine why people left the country and what conditions might be necessary for them to re-

engage with Pakistan. When answering the first aspect of the question (i.e., why they left the

country), an overwhelming majority of the participants were consistent in their responses. Most

interviewees articulated three main reasons for leaving their country:

1. Law and order situation – safety concerns.

2. Better quality of life and education for their children in the host country.

3. Greater economic and professional opportunities in the host country based on merit.

Since the formation of Pakistan in 1947, the country has faced a challenge of internal

insecurity, ethnic and sectarian division, and external aggression. Throughout its entire history,

Pakistan has unfortunately faced the challenges of a law and order situation (Khan, 2017). As a

result of various law and order challenges, many educated people from Pakistan have availed

themselves of opportunities to leave the country and settle abroad with their families. As noted

by the participants, their key concern was safety for their families. An overwhelming majority of

the respondents expressed safety and security as their main reason for leaving the country and

deciding to migrate.

I wanted to raise my children in a safe and secured society - I studied Canada and was

amazed to read about its society and, more importantly, its value systems. Law and order

are 99% of the reason for people coming to Canada and leaving their home country.

(P12)

We left in 1997, and we came to Canada. My father was not happy and allowed me to

leave the country for only six months. He was not happy in those six months. I said to

my wife; we are not going back. Canada is our new home. This is our country. Because I

had kidnapping attempt on me, there was law and order situation in Karachi; you know

what was going on in 1996-97. I, like many other people, had to move around with armed

security guards in our cars. (P5)

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We made the move given the political climate and the level of insecurities, political and

social unrest, especially in Karachi, right. So, day in, day out, it gets on to you. that’s the

battle we were fighting and then the time came we took the decision. (P6)

Not all cited security and law and order as the main motivation to emigrate, as one participant

stated his reason to move was due to lack of job security in Pakistan. He addressed security from

the perspective of job security.

After the fall of the USSR, the world opened, and knowledge is without any barriers.

Since then, many professionals from developing counties have moved to developed

countries. Many factors are compelling. Not one reason. Security is one of the aspects in

the context of job security. Here in Canada, government provides more security. It's a

very tragic aspect of the society in Pakistan. There are no legal rights if you are a layman,

there are bureaucratic structures which does not allow new people to enter the system.

(P7)

I passed (the) civil service exam and came on merit. I became like a gazette officer, and I

became a lecturer. I had the opportunity, but my colleagues had none – within system

exploitation is too much. (Because of) less salary, you can't save anything. Its

exploitation and politicians are corrupt. (P7)

According to other respondents:

The security situation in the home country is very poor, and there is no rule of law, There

have been regular suicide bombings, civilians are being targeted, and forces have arrested

terrorists, but they are (hardly ever) sentenced, There is an overall insecurity which

compelled us to leave the country. The crime rates, particularly in cities like Karachi,

have reached high proportions, mobile snatching is very common, and so is kidnapping

for ransom. (P9)

The political situation in the country had gone from bad to worse. It happened that India

had detonated a nuclear bomb, and we, in response, did the same. The country was put

under sanctions. A lot of uncertainty in the country. I had applied earlier on as part of the

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fact that most of my colleagues and friends were applying for immigration. I'd applied

but had no intentions of coming to Canada. I thought I'd just see what happened, but

when that happened, and then country went into sanctions, it was a very uncertain

political environment. So, I talked to my family - I was not married - I talked to my

brother and my father and said, should I be going? I was expecting them to say, don't go,

nobody wants a family member to leave, but to my surprise, both said go. But I said, you

guys are not going, only I am going. They said one of the family members should go

because we don't know what's going to happen now. So, a lot of political uncertainty,

violence, stuff like that. (P13)

Somebody tried to snatch my car - once, I was stuck in a procession or something, and

my car was stolen, and the headlights were gone in no time. I have gone through all that.

I have seen the murder and mayhem in Karachi of the late 1990s when you know, finding

bodies every day (on) the streets. So yes, when I am talking about how the society is

changing, I am basically referring to all those things. Why are people killing each other

when we are living together, the same people are living together for the past hundreds of

years, why are we killing each other? What makes the difference between saying, ‘Oh, he

belongs to a different sect, I'm a different sect,’ or ‘She speaks a different language, I'm

different because I speak a different language.’ I never liked (that). I just wanted to get

out of that. (P12)

Well, the way Pakistan was being governed and managed, there was no hope for a better

future there just because of the 20 years of continuous political instability and bankruptcy

in the institutions who were not doing anything for the next generation. Basically,

Pakistanis had no choice but to - the ones who were aware were to leave the country and

go to other opportunities, and I think I was not the only one because the institutions,

which I studied with, they showed that around 40-80% of people left the country after

graduation and there (was) no government or university or a combination of efforts to

regain brain drain. They were saying to leave the country if you have a better

opportunity. (P11)

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A common theme emanating in response to this question was the lack of security,

including incidents of kidnapping for ransom, concerns of safety for family and fears of militant

groups. There were both internal and external issues, including adverse relations with

neighbouring India. Similarly, better education and improved quality of life were also cited as a

reason for moving to Canada. Almost all participants were of the view that Pakistan's education

system requires radical changes. There are issues with the allocation of funding, infrastructure,

faculty hiring process, shortage of teachers, poverty, low attendance, insecurity, and

politicization. The entire education system, except for a few institutions of learning, is not geared

toward preparing students for the 21st century. According to one respondent:

The education system in the country is in miserable shape, which has resulted in poor

socio-economic disparities and quality of life. The dearth of international quality

education is the single most reason for people moving out of Pakistan and settling abroad.

(P10).

The focus to leave was to secure better future for our children. The major decision was -

it was a kind of Pakistan was at the time going through a little bit of a tough time. But the

focus was our children. We have two kids. Our daughter, she was five and our son was

four. I think we thought it would be a good time for us to go there - it would be good for

them, education. So, basically, I would say it was because of the kids because

professionally we were doing very well, jobwise and in every other aspect. (P9)

In answering the second aspect of the question about the conditions necessary to re-

engage with the country, almost all interviewees showed a keen desire and readiness to share

their knowledge and time and expressed their willingness to do so. However, most of them felt

that for this to happen, the establishment of mutual trust and respect between givers and takers

was necessary.

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We are a fragmented community, but with great potential and a drive to contribute and

serve - anything I can do; I am open to. Emotionally, people are generally attached. We

need trust, transparency, accountability, and accessibility. Trust is the key. (P6)

Participants felt that there is currently a trust deficit between both sides; trust might need

to be established. They also felt there is virtually no connection between the diaspora and the

home country government or its institutions. Something formal is missing. One participant

indicated that the Pakistani Government had not approached the engagement based on mutual

trust. "It's like a partnership. A successful partnership requires mutual trust and respect. Pakistan

has unfortunately viewed its diaspora as cash cows or cash producing machines. I never felt we

are respected” (P4).

Participant (P2) observed that there was no platform or a plan for diaspora engagement.

I would like to contribute, but there are no avenues in Pakistan. There is a huge vacuum.

As an example, there are over 250 Pakistani business school graduates in the GTA, but I

don't think anyone is contributing back to Pakistan. We are not taking our experience

back to our motherland. Diaspora should be considered as true partners, and such a

relationship needs to be established between diaspora and the institutions back home.

Government should, at the outset, be clear what it wants from its diaspora. Only money

or knowledge as well? More consultations are necessary with (the) diaspora. (P2)

One respondent was not very optimistic about sharing knowledge unless the entire society makes

a change.

It's a societal issue, it's not –The entire society needs to change. There are issues in

Pakistani society, which is taking it backwards - crime, lack of meritocracy, poverty,

corruption, religious fundamentalism, and lack of women empowerment are just a few

ills of Pakistani society. (The) diaspora can only contribute if the entire society changes.

(P7)

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Also, one respondent raised the question of how you can even think about sharing knowledge

through the diaspora when the country does not even have a proper count of diaspora based

internationally.

There is no database and even the Pakistan Consulate in Toronto (has) no proper figures.

We must go to basics first before embarking on knowledge transfer. We need reliable

data. Our government is not very serious on this issue. It's a lip service. (P3)

Responses to this first question highlighted the main causes of migration and conditions

that are necessary for the diaspora to re-engage. However, even after leaving the country and

spending many years in Canada, these respondents expressed a high affinity for Pakistan and a

keen desire to give back. They indicated they need a trustworthy avenue or platform, and that

will allow them to share knowledge in a value-added manner.

Research Question 2 asked:

What factors might motivate members of the Pakistani diaspora to give back time

and knowledge to their home country?

The purpose of asking this question was to understand the motivation for the Pakistani

diaspora to give back. Most respondents considered giving back as their duty. They explained

their altruistic motivation for giving back was that they found real joy in sharing and giving

back, and it made them feel good. One respondent stated:

Sharing knowledge is my biggest happiness and joy. I feel very good and contented.

Where I was and where I am today is because of people who helped me and didn’t ask for

anything in return. Now it’s my time. If they helped me, I could help others who may

then help others. (P1)

Respondents generally felt that they owed their country something, especially because

most of them received a highly subsidized education. Some also talked about their desire to give

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something back to their local community in Pakistan. Most participants expressed a desire to

serve, and no one mentioned seeking monetary benefit. Self-fulfillment appeared to be the core

purpose of sharing knowledge with homeland organizations and its people. It is regarded as a

realization of one's desires and capacities. According to one participant: "We are all nationalists;

we want to contribute in whatever way we can. Only if shown that it benefits the country - not

for any personal gain for anyone” (P1).

One participant made the interesting observation that he would like to give back where he

can add value. Participants mostly mentioned their gratitude and indebtedness for all that their

home country had given to them. They mentioned the reciprocity. As I approached the question

of motivation, respondents said that their love for their homeland and emotional ties led them to

want to generously do good and pay back their homeland. As one respondent stated:

Yes, there are people in Pakistan who are so talented, but they are, you know, deprived of

that exposure that people like us may have gotten by (this) chance. It is very crucial that

somehow this must come back to the homeland, for sure. (P8)

The responses to this question reinforced the point that the participating Pakistanis are a

generous, giving, and active community. There is a strong desire to give back without

expectation of any material reward or material gain. People consider giving back as their duty.

They are motivated through a feeling of reciprocity and are keen to give back.

The findings also highlighted that most respondents would like to direct their contribution

and are motivated by issues that they hold dear, like poverty alleviation, education and health,

community development, and civil liberties. As one respondent stated:

Well, I would say that my thoughts are positive in that regard. Very constructive. It is

very crucial; Pakistan does not provide you all the opportunities. You need another side

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of the world’s exposure. Once you have the exposure, you must give back to your

homeland. (P8)

A few of the participants noted that giving back also helps them personally in improving their

own self-worth and self-esteem. "I get a sense of increased self-esteem and a feeling of greater

and enhanced self-worth. If someone needs my services, I get the feeling that I am needed. That

is an amazing feeling”, said (P15).

By giving I can also learn, so it is a two-way street, my motivation will be to help

Pakistan but, in the process, also learn and establish new connections I will grow as a

person and simultaneously fulfill my duty. It’s a win-win. (P5)

In the same vein, one participant observed that:

My motivation is primarily to create a culture of giving back so my family - specially my

children - can learn the habits of giving back. Incorporating giving attitudes and belief

can be highly effective in creating a culture of giving in the family, which means you are

training your children a value which can bring them happiness in the future. “I would like

my children to know and learn giving habits. Giving can be both money as well as

knowledge. (P2)

An interesting observation was made by a few participants on their motivation to help the

Pakistani diaspora in the GTA compared with helping Pakistanis back home. These participants

viewed their motivation was to forge connections with new Pakistani immigrants and first help

them settle down in a new country. They felt their first duty is to assist Pakistanis who immigrate

and are in need here in Toronto. This is also a service to fellow Pakistanis and should precede

before embarking or thinking about helping Pakistan. In a way, they felt this is also helping

Pakistan in an indirect manner. One participant said, "I think that once we get there and we are

settled, and we have done enough for our children and ourselves, it's time people like us should

consider giving something back” (P8). Others put it this way:

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Since the time I came to Canada, my juniors and other industry fellows, when they were

moving to Canada, they contacted me, you know that how I could mentor them or help

them? And, having my contacts in the Canadian industry, which I had built up very

strongly, has been my kind of contribution that I have been (making). (P14)

What I can tell you very proudly is that since the time I came to Canada, I cannot count

the number of Pakistani professionals that I have helped to settle in. This is my part-time

giving back to community that I mentor, I (inform) them for getting ready for the

interviews, and I help them connect with the resources, recruiters, and things like that.

Because what I realized when I came here was that even if I had been to different

countries - like I was working with a Norwegian company and I had worked in Norway

as well - but what I realized after moving to North America was this a very different

market. You cannot just sort of claim the experience from back home that it is exactly

replicable or could have the same values, so you must do a full transformation. (P 14)

It's time, and I think some of my colleagues talked about (it), because the age bracket we

are getting into, I think we all feel we should give back because we have been good about

our life, our children's life, what we have done now, we should be trying to give back.

(P9)

Research Question 3 asked:

With whom might the diaspora consider engaging?

The purpose of this question was to understand the respondents’ views about engaging

with different institutions in Pakistan. The literature review highlighted that many countries did

not consider the diaspora's views when designing diaspora engagement policies. The

governments of migrant-sending countries have taken the lead in assuming that the diaspora

would be willing to engage with only its sponsored programs and initiatives. As a result, society

organizations and private sectors have not formally launched any significant diaspora

engagement programs. Most such initiatives in developing counties have originated from the

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government sector. However, almost all respondents were open to sharing their knowledge with

any economic sector, either government or non-government, if the program was credible, and

there was a real opportunity for the diaspora to add value. In this regard, one respondent stated,

“I have contacts and, if they are interested, they call me. It is mostly self-initiated through

personal contacts. I am open to any sector if my skills and strengths match with the need” (P6).

One respondent observed that academic institutions should run diaspora engagement

programs, as the government always has a political agenda in such initiatives. This respondent

stated that government-run diaspora programs could only be successful if there are no political

agendas, and they run such programs in a systematic and professional manner.

Well, I think that with what I have seen other countries doing, because I do have an

integration - I teach an international level program in Toronto – I see western

governments working with their students. Diaspora programs and engagement should be

run by academic institutions and not by the government because the political government

disappears once their election is over…it should not be run by the government. It should

perhaps be run by public-private partnership. If I am approached by a government

institution, and there is no political agenda, I will surely consider giving back. I will not

give blindly and waste my time. (P11)

One respondent even preferred giving back to his alma mater. His views were based on

reciprocity, as he stated: “It’s my duty to give back to my alma mater – it is due to my university

back home which has made me what I am today” (P15). Another respondent made an interesting

observation: “Whoever wishes to use my skill sets and knowledge, I am ready to give back. It is

a social responsibility. If my children see me doing something for the country, they would like to

do the same” (P9). The respondent who made this comment believed that there is a connection

between family values, family connectivity, and giving back to a community. He felt that if his

children saw him doing something for the country, they might learn the concept of giving back,

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which will make their lives better. Another respondent felt that he would give back to those who

could use his knowledge for capacity building.

I will give back to those institutions which can prepare people to stand on their own feet.

I passionately believe that diaspora can contribute and share their knowledge. I am very

eager to do that – I can do online training. I will be open to give back to any institutions. I

would be open because I will find—I will review each individual insertion that you offer,

and I see if it fits with my worldview. I will be willing if the contribution is made, and a

few people are helped, I am willing to teach a primary school, third-grade student if there

is a need to do that…So why not? So, platform is not important, but it is extremely

important; whom are we helping? And I am a strong believer in enabling people to get on

their feet. Also, there is one area that is a personal passion. I think positive mindset

change is a huge, huge issue in countries in the third world. (P13)

Another respondent stated:

I will be open to any institution – every sector has played a part in my life, government or

private, so I will give back to anybody and everybody. However, it will not be blindly; I

will see their vision and purpose. (P11)

When it comes to the government, I think they are not ready to accept any foreign advice.

They treat us like foreigners, not as one of their own. It's difficult to change that

mentality. At least, I sit over here, I won't be able to change, and It won't happen

overnight. Maybe the old generation won't benefit, but the next generation will benefit.

These are long term things, but we must take gradual steps now. (P1)

One respondent expressed frustration due to the nonexistence of any reliable platform to give

back knowledge. They considered the lack of trust with government institutions. As one member

observed, "we have no confidence in the systems in place with governments. I don't know where

to give back, how to start, and who to contact" (P1). Most participants were in favour of

collective and organized efforts as compared to ad hoc and individual activities. One participant

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noted that "it is no brainer, it’s possible and doable. Pakistan should look beyond remittances and

engage with us for knowledge sharing and transfer. (P6)

I prefer connecting with private sector. I would love to. I have seen government sector

things, and frankly they do not impress me a lot. The thing is I do not want to say that, if I

can—I have always been open to anybody and everybody. But the thing is, are they

willing to take my advice or are they much open and receptive? I don't know. But if

anybody, even I would say the government or private sector, if they come with the right

intentions, I am willing to help. (P12)

Any institution that values my skills. I do not want to talk about, let’s say, I know a little

bit about health, but I don’t want to give anything, I don’t want to participate in that kind

of forum. I would rather use my skills in risk management, project management,

education—I teach courses over here, so I have a lot of material to teach over there. (P9)

I don't know if you want to include this, it's about, even my children, I will want to have

them contribute. If they see me doing it, they will want to do it. I think the first point, to

start, is they should be non-political. Because I think in Pakistan when the government

changes every 3-4 years and that's happened for the last three decades, and there's

uncertainty of who's leading the country, I think the academic institutions should take a

neutral role and establish channels which are, I would say, underwritten by a very strong

organization, so they are not done just for once or twice, and then the election campaign

is done, and the political party says we've got so many people engaged. It should be non-

political and should be totally based on merit, and it should be done in a way that is more

ethical and more bringing back to the country knowledge which the country has lost.

(P11)

Well, I think that with what I have seen other countries doing, because I do have an

integration with—I teach that international student level program and I see Western

governments working with their students here in Canada. That should definitely be run by

educational institutions, not government and whether these educational institutions are

government-funded or not doesn't matter, but the leadership should come from

educational institutions because that's where we lag behind is we let political institutions

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do the part, and then they take the agenda, and then they disappear once the election is

over. I think that for a long-term basis, it is important that it should be not run by

government; it should be run by the public and private sector, educational institutions.

(P11)

One participant explained that the

Best way to do this is to utilize educational institutions. Aga Khan or King Edward can

provide a bridge and say we need to do the following -use educational institutions. I

deliberately did not mention Medical Council, because it is politicized. Use agriculture

university for agriculture issues. Go to GIK Institute for technical issues and go to

Business school or Institute of Chartered Accountants for Pakistan (ICAP) or Lahore

University of Management Sciences (LUMS) or the Institute of Business Administration

(IBA). Academics can be a bridge and a wavelength, and they may be help full in proper

capabilities development. (P10)

One participant was of the view that Pakistan has failed to produce any viable engagement

strategy. "We need to create a plan, a program a strategy with consultation with key

stakeholders" (P6). Two participants were of the view that as the first step there is a need to

identify the needs of the country before embarking on any diaspora strategy

To me, the first step is to identify the needs. At times people have gone to Pakistan to

find that the other side is not ready to receive and accommodate diaspora knowledge in

absence of needs identification. This creates frustrations. (P4)

It's a given that for any training or knowledge transfer assignment, the first step is the

needs assessment. Unless you know what is needed, how can you decide who should go,

and where they should share their know-how and expertise. (P1)

The various responses to this question can be summarized as follows:

a) Generally, respondents were open to giving back to any institution in Pakistan.

Overall, there was no choice or preference between the government and the private

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sector, in spite of the fact that few respondents expressed lack of trust in the

government.

b) Respondents wanted to know more about the institution to which they planned to give

back to and engage with, particularly its purpose and mission.

c) Some respondents were of the view that diaspora engagement policies and initiatives

should fall with the ambit of academic institutions, as governments might not be able

to mobilize support from the diaspora for various reasons.

d) Respondents were in favor of an organized effort to mobilize diaspora and a need for

a comprehensive engagement policy and program. Many felt a road map is needed for

engaging Pakistani knowledge diaspora for developmental purposes.

Research Question 4 asked:

In what ways might those in the Pakistani diaspora like to be engaged?

The purpose of this question was to identify the diaspora's preference and mode of

engagement. The explosive growth of digital technologies has radically changed how knowledge

is acquired and has opened new alternatives for the transfer of knowledge. The use of online and

virtual learning continues to grow. Many organizations have embraced online learning in some

capacity, and students and professionals across almost all sectors are demanding increased access

to online learning.

While many workers and professionals return home after getting an education and

working abroad, much of the discussion about brain drain has traditionally revolved around the

mobility of workers and the impact of returnees. However, the growth of information and

communications technology (ICT) has opened new opportunities for knowledge sharing between

members of the diaspora and people of the homeland.

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This question sought views of how the diaspora would like to be engaged. Most

respondents preferred sharing knowledge virtually or though short-term visits. Respondents were

of the view that the depletion of human capital has a profound effect on Pakistan’s economy and

most traditional strategies of reversing brain drain have not been very successful. Most

respondents were of the view that the growth of technology has provided an excellent

opportunity for the diaspora to contribute and participate in Pakistan’s economic and social

development by sharing knowledge.

In summary, the respondents were of the view that the huge expansion of ICT has

provided the diaspora with an opportunity to engage more effectively with their home country

than ever before. Respondents were not very keen on considering a permanent return to Pakistan,

citing law and order, children's education, and safety concerns. As one respondent stated:

"technology is a better way of sharing knowledge. It should be two ways. Pakistani students in

Canada can be mentored by Pakistani diaspora, and I would like to give back virtually” (P 13).

Another participant shared,

I would be eager to do that. The only thing is that because of the nature of my work; I

may not be able to physically travel to Pakistan. I can support the efforts in helping you

with a website and information. I can also support in term of imparting knowledge if

there is online training. If online is offered, I can sit here and - but going to Pakistan may

or may not be an option for me. (P13)

Another respondent stated: "Physically, I go once a year to teach at university - short courses.

People from industry would attend these courses. I initiated this idea of a lecture series 20 years

back and continue to visit Pakistan for short courses" (P9). Participant P1 stated:

For sure. Diaspora, I think they can assist young generation because they all need

someone to guide them to the right direction. They have got all the knowledge, but they

are missing the experience. So, the new generation, someone with the experience of the

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old generation, is going to be a lethal combination. It is happening all over the world; it's

happening in Canada as well. There are so many mentorship programs in Canada. I have

not heard of any mentorship program at least when I left Pakistan back in 2006 -7. There

was no guidance given to the fresh graduates or even the people who did post graduate

studies, like what is good for you? What kind of discipline you should adopt based on

your interest and hobbies? Youth guidance is an area where diaspora contribution can

make huge difference. All this is possible through online mentoring.

The explosive growth of internet and digital technologies has radically opened newer ways of

learning and sharing of information.

When our children living and studying in Toronto can take online course, we can easily

create platforms for students living in Pakistan to learn via online sources, it all requires a

shift in thinking and a mindset to accept learning via technology. There is a huge scope in

this space of online transfer of knowledge and Pakistan should move fast and avail this

opportunity. It’s doable and I am keen to participate. (P5)

One respondent had a different view. He felt that online learning might have limited scope as it

requites certain fundamental infrastructure in place to be successful. A requirement is the

availability of efficient internet services. Moreover, he felt online training is boring and may lead

to frustration. Another response was of the view that while the online transfer of knowledge is a

good idea, but the different time zones will make it almost impossible and inconvenient.

Pakistan is in an entirely different time zone. It is 10 hours ahead of Eastern time. If

knowledge sharing and transfer must work, in that case, both sides will have agreed on

time, which is either too early or too late in the day, which may be bit inconvenient and

not sustainable. (P5)

On the question of permanent relocation to Pakistan, there were wide-ranging responses from the

participants - from "ready to go if nice opportunity is presented” (P15) “will never go back”

(P12) type responses. For instance, one respondent stated, "If a suitable role is offered to me, we

are ready to make the move permanently, my family is ready” (P4).

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Respondent P2 stated:

My main issue with permanent relocation is safety for me and my family. I can go and

support my countrymen on a temporary short visit but cannot consider moving forever.

Even if I can make more money and live better-quality life in Pakistan, I will still prefer

living in Canada due to safety reasons.

One respondent (P4) brought an interesting twist into the discussions of permanent relocation.

According to him, even if men decide to go back, their spouses may not consider moving back,

mainly due to freedom and the comfort of living in a relatively pluralized and open society in

Canada.

I think we in Pakistan have a dysfunctional society, in my opinion even if the male

member wants to go back; female member does not want to go back. It is a big

disconnect. Females have more freedom and no interference in laws as we in Pakistan

have a joint family system which has its own issues, and the kids are safer here. (P4)

However, according to one participant

I think I can do better in Pakistan in terms of my career. Here people are well trained and

capable, so I find my self a small fish in a big pond – I want to be a big fish. I am ready to

move back to Pakistan if a nice job is offered to me. My family is ready, and kids are also

excited to move back. (P5)

Research Question 5 asked:

What are the primary conditions and prerequisites that will encourage members of

the Pakistani diaspora to consider relocating back to their home country on a permanent

basis?

While trying to understand and seek an answer to this question, respondents were asked

why they initially decided to leave their homeland to move to a new country and make it their

permanent home. This is an important question because people generally prefer to live in their

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homeland. It is expected that, in a normal situation, people might not like to move to a new

country. There must be underlying factors that made them move to a new country. To determine

what it would take to encourage them to move back permanently to Pakistan, it was important to

understand why they moved to Canada. The main reasons that were consistent among all

participants were the law and order situation in Pakistan, poor quality of education at all levels,

religious extremism, corruption, and lack of economic growth opportunities. These were all the

push factors which compelled then to leave Pakistan and settle in Canada. According to one

respondent: "The main hurdle Pakistan faces is corrupt leaders who themselves break the law of

the land (P7). Another respondent observed: "I went to Pakistan for a short visit, and twice my

cell phone was snatched. I do not feel safe in my homeland. Forget about going permanently”

(P12).

It became clear that if Pakistan is keen to attract its knowledge diaspora back

permanently, it will have to provide safety, law, and order that is acceptable to the diaspora.

Another prerequisite for permanently moving back is the overall improvement in the quality of

education. Respondents were of the view that Pakistan’s educational system at all three levels

(i.e., primary, secondary, and tertiary) requires a huge reform. They noted that the system is not

geared toward preparing youth to compete in the global market. The education vision is narrow

and inwardly focused. The country has developed many educational reform plans, but the

situation has worsened. Factors include low enrollment rates, shortage of trained teachers,

outdated syllabus, poor planning, and poor classrooms. In fact, the entire system is based on

different mediums and divides the students into segments. Some schools teach religious

education; at some schools, the medium of instruction is Urdu (local language), while private

schools provide instruction in English. One respondent stated, “To move back, one would expect

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a safe future for children, good quality education as per international standards, and economic

opportunities” (P13). One responded summed it up by saying Pakistan can attract its diaspora

back if it assures the same quality of life which is available in Canada.

All respondents mainly stated that their reason for moving was the political climate,

better prospects in the host country, insecurities in the country, and social unrest. One respondent

ably summarized their common feeling: “Day in and day out, it gets to you” (P6). One

respondent felt that Pakistan has not taken any major initiative to encourage its diaspora to return

to Pakistan. In fact, the government is keen on sending people out of the country so that its

foreign exchange remittances can keep increasing. The government of Pakistan must set up

conditions to welcome back its diaspora. Many people might consider going back to their

homeland. As one respondent stated:

The biggest success factor for any professional, in my humble opinion, is to go and serve

a community to a point where the community gets an impact which applies their

knowledge and understanding and gives them the resources. Create an environment -

change can happen. Countries have done it. Pakistan too can do it. (P11)

One responded considered security as the main factor in attracting back overseas Pakistani

professionals

Security is (number) one. Absolutely top concern. Nobody will go to Pakistan with their

children if the personal security is at risk. That is number one condition any family will

think about. The second thing is what stage of life they are at. If they are still in working

years if they are still in their working lives, will they have something to do in Pakistan?

Will they have an opportunity to work? Imagine a guy who is making $100k in Canada,

and you say, would you like to go back? He'll say, 'what am I going to do there? At this

stage, at 45-50, will I get a job? Will I start a business?' So, security (is) number one.

Secondly, the economic situation. If you are retired and you are economically and

financially independent, it does not matter. (P13)

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To me, it clear - the day I am financially independent and do not have to work anymore, I

might relocate. I do not want to go to Pakistan and work anymore. At this age, I do not

want to go start working again. Finding a job and starting again. (P13)

One respondent who was preparing to go back permanently gave family reasons for his decision.

People don't believe that I am leaving Canada and permanently relocating to Pakistan. If I

am being honest with you, I am going back because of my parents; otherwise, I don't

have any problem over here. I have a great life here. My kids are happy, my wife is

happy, everyone is happy. But people don't believe it. They think maybe there is

something else, and I say, no there is nothing wrong, I just want to come back to be with

my parents, nothing else. (P15)

It appears that parents and family ties are the biggest factor which has kept diaspora

attached to Pakistan. Diaspora members visit Pakistan to meet parents and family

members. “My parents are alive by the Grace of God. So, my ties are strong we almost

visit every year, my wife, and kids accompany, and we also invite our parents to Canada

and spend time with us.” (P14).

Similarly, P12 stated.

I go to Pakistan for not more than two to three weeks every year. I have fun, I

meet my parents, my grandmother, and I have got friends over there. We have

good time where we sleep hardly five hours in the night then come back.

Research Question 6 asked:

What recognition or remuneration would members of the diaspora expect for their

contributions?

This question was included in the study to understand what recognition diaspora would

expect in return of giving their time and knowledge to their homeland. It was designed to

identify the most significant variables in diaspora motivation to provide a viable appeal for

soliciting and engaging with the diaspora in the future. Thus, the purpose was to first understand

whether the diaspora would be willing to share their knowledge with the homeland for either a

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monetary reward or purely philanthropic reasons. If it was philanthropy, was it due to ego

satisfaction, joy, religious duty, a strong belief in the mission or cause, recognition seeking,

overcoming guilt or a desire to reciprocate? Gouldner (1960), who had addressed reciprocity

theory, suggested that the norm of reciprocity makes two interrelated minimal demands:

1. People should help those who have helped them.

2. People should not injure those who have helped them.

There is ample evidence in the literature that suggests that people feel obliged to return

the benefits they receive from others (Gouldner, 1960). This was evident in the findings of this

study. The respondents were unanimous in saying that it is their duty to give back to their

motherland because everything they have achieved is due to the initial education and support,

they received from their country of birth. No participants mentioned expecting a monetary

reward in return for knowledge sharing, nor did anyone hint about getting any other form of

material gain or recognition.

This finding is consistent with the framework used in this study, which is clearly based

on the premise that the entire phenomenon of giving knowledge to the home country rests on the

concept of reciprocity. This concept is based on the premise of mutual exchange and highlights

that a feeling of gratitude or need to repay kindness motivates the diaspora to give time and

knowledge back to the homeland. One respondent stated: "It's my duty to give back to my alma

mater – it is due to my university back home, which has made me what I am today" (P1).

Another respondent stated:

Giving money did not give me the same satisfaction, which I am getting through service

to patients. It's an amazing experience. Giving money is the easy way out. We have so

much brainpower we should consider giving and sharing knowledge. It's my duty. (P14)

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You know what? I’m not Mother Theresa, to be honest. But the thing is that when I was -

where I was and where I am today, a lot of people helped me and didn’t ask for anything

in return. So, this thing should go on. This change should go on. That’s my only

motivation. If I help them, they may help someone else. (P12)

One respondent, though not expecting any monetary reward for sharing his knowledge,

emphasized the need for recognizing contributions to keep up the momentum.

For any such activities, recognition is the key to success. When you ask people to share

time and knowledge and specially if they did it voluntarily, there has to some recognition

it should be an award, a note of thanks, or even a name in the leading newspapers in

Pakistan. (P4)

Research Question 7 asked:

How do the perceptions of diaspora engagement of members of the diaspora who

left Pakistan less than three years ago (and are thus still of permanent resident status),

compare with those of those who left Pakistan more than three years ago and have become

Canadian citizens?

The purpose of the question was to determine who amongst the diaspora were more likely

to engage with their home country, Pakistan, for the purpose of giving back. I assumed that

relatively new immigrants who are still in their first three years in Canada might have a different

viewpoint than those who were a more established citizen in Canada. New immigrants might

have set their priorities on settling in a new country and adjusting to a new lifestyle. They may

have regard for the homeland, but their circumstances may not allow them to consider such an

engagement.

The assumption proved correct as most participants in this group while acknowledging

the need to give back, suggested that new immigrants need more time in Canada before

venturing into giving back activities. Their primary focus was on establishing themselves in a

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new country, but such activities are not solely dependent on citizenship status. It is, on the

contrary, dependent on the life stages of the diaspora members. As one respondent, who was new

to Canada stated:

We would like to give back to the community from where I am. The community is still

there. But we also must see where we are in the stage of life. That's very important. If

somebody will ask me that you go to Pakistan and serve for Pakistan for five years, but

it's not earning the bread and butter, and it's not running my family, then I will not opt for

it. (P10)

I need to see the financial situation as a family matter very much number one. Number

two, there are many mediums which we can do, and we can incorporate other things. I

just want to give an example where I work so you can relate. So, one person was born

around 1975, and she graduated from Aga Khan University in the early 1990s, and she

came to the U.S., and after so many years in the U.S. she got a Ph.D., and after going

back to the same university from where she graduated, she enhanced their knowledge and

brought the expertise from the West to the East, you know. (P8)

So, this is quite common to hear this kind of story where I work. I have seen people doing

it. It is not a problem; you can do it. For a month, for six weeks, for two weeks, it’s

doable. And in any form. Either it is a remote base, or you go on-site and get it done, or

it's a combination. (P8)

Where I work, I have seen people doing it. And the communication of doing from my

side is very hard. I also want to do it, yes, I want to see where I am standing right now

because we are very new here, we want to establish ourselves, we want to be experts in

our field. So right now, if I am saying that I want to give back, what must I give back?

Well, if, let’s suppose everything is fine, I achieve something, I am expert, the

dependability is very low, yes, 200% I will go back and give back to my country when I

am ready. (P8)

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One respondent described diaspora giving perhaps as related to the settlement stages of

individuals. According to him,

People who are new to a country are busy settling in, and they may not be able and even

ready to contribute. It is only after five to seven years of settlement that they have a

chance to venture into such activities. (P3)

Another interviewee related giving back trend in the same vein

To me, everyone coming to a new country has a love and passion for the home country. It

doesn't go away; on the contrary, it increases. Most people are keen to give back, but they

need time to settle and learn new skills. (P11)

One participant viewed diaspora giving back not based on having a permanent residency or

citizenship.

You cannot measure the passion of giving back on the basis of legal status of an

individual in a host country.it is actually based on the age profile of the immigrant and

the time one has spent in a new country, When you are a young immigrant and new to a

country, you are in a different frame of mind and mainly focused on your self. Once you

are established in the middle age, you ready to make connections and network and when

you are in the retirement or near retirement phase of your life, you have deep passion to

do some thing for the society, and you are looking for opportunities to contribute and be

recognized. Giving back is about your life cycle stages and not dependent on your legal

status. (P13)

Summarizing the answers to this question, I conclude for the participants that diaspora

giving back was not dependent upon the legal status of individuals (permanent residents vs

citizens); rather, it was dependent on the life stages and years spent in a new country. Beginners

were less likely to engage, and those who have been for longer duration outside their country and

had reached the semi-retirement stage of their life were more likely to contribute.

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Additional Findings

One unanticipated aspect that was generally highlighted during interviews, and forcefully

pointed out by respondents, was that the diaspora should be patient and not expect to transfer

knowledge until the recipients establish trust and feel that diaspora knowledge will provide real

value. There was general awareness amongst respondents that they must be mindful of local

customs and expectations while sharing knowledge and that they should approach knowledge

transfer activities with a humble attitude. They should avoid being perceived as an arrogant

"know it all" who is trying to transfer knowledge to satisfy their ego. This aspect highlighted the

fact that merely having new knowledge will not help diaspora transfer even if they have the right

intentions. For successful knowledge transfer, the diaspora must display the behaviour of

appreciating and acknowledging that, in the process of knowledge transfer, they will face

obstacles and hindrances. They should be ready to handle those obstacles with tact, patience, and

diplomacy, and remain persistent because new knowledge transfer might take time to be

accepted, appreciated, and applied. As one respondent stated: "You have to give the locals

confidence that you are there to help and not for competition. You must be humble and work as a

team member with locals” (P5). A few respondents raised concerns about Pakistani youth and

their lack of direction. One respondent felt that the diaspora has the capacity to assist youth in

many ways, stating the following: “The youth population in Pakistan can be a source of

competitive advantage for the country if steered in the right direction” (P11).

The interviews also provided interesting insights related to how are Pakistani diaspora

connected amongst themselves while living in the GTA? Specifically, there was heterogeneity

reflecting different motivations and life stages of the individuals.

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Some interviewees had been in Toronto for several years, and their children are grown up

and settled. These people are well involved in networking events and are highly active in

community work. Then there are those who show their presence at community events but are not

very actively involved and do not engage within the community. Finally, there are newcomers or

beginners who are involved in seeking connections and networks. These newcomers are

basically striving to settle in a new country and are seeking to make connections. Similar

observations were made by participants with respect to when those amongst the diaspora are

more likely to engage in knowledge transfer activities. As one respondent stated

It is obvious that newcomers will not be able to participate. They must first meet their

own obligation and settle their families, and if they participate, their main purpose is to

seek connection and network to settle down in a new country. (P 8)

One participant noted that middle-aged people are less likely to engage as they create a life for

themselves and their families, and they are ambitious. Many immigrants enrol in the new

country's educational system for either a full-fledged degree program or to obtain a professional

licence and certifications in their field of specialization. A young participant was very candid and

stated,

We would like to give back to the community from where I am. The community is still

there. But we also must see where we are in the stage of life. That's very important. If

somebody will ask me that you go to Pakistan and serve for Pakistan for five years, but

it's not earning the bread and butter, and it's not running my family, then I will not opt for

it. (P8)

One might conclude from these comments that giving back is dependent on the life stages of the

immigrant, which is a very interesting finding, as it relates directly to the question of who is

likely to give back to the community. Most of the respondents were passionate about giving back

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to the home country; one respondent (P14) discussed how he and his wife had already set up a

clinic in Islamabad to help needy patients.

Back home, we have a lot of charity, so I had been doing that, but it was not giving me a

satisfaction in a way because I was only helping somebody who I knew, that he or she

was in need, but there was no way where I could open it to everybody. I thought, well,

this is not something sustainably right. After moving to North America when I looked at

the health care system here, I decided that in 2017 when my mother-in-law passed away,

I really realized that the system is not working back home, so I decided to set up a health

care kind of set up back home. We picked a nice location in Islamabad. I did also some

market research through the community, and we found that there was no not for profit set

up in that area, so we opened a clinic. With the support of an IT developer, we developed

an online patient management system. Our own registration system, it's an exact replica

of the Canadian system. We applied all the learnings of the Canadian system. A local

doctor runs the clinic plus three volunteers who serve as support people at the clinic. Our

goal is to invite overseas physician volunteers to visit Pakistan and spent some time at

our clinic. This is a small beginning, and we hope to expand and open more clinics in

future. (P14)

Relevance of the Findings to the Theoretical Frameworks

This section summarizes and highlights the connection between the theoretical

framework and the findings of this study. More specifically, this section discusses how the

frameworks of reciprocity theory and human capital theory which grounded this study, were

found to relate to the research findings.

Reciprocity Theory and Its Relevance to Findings

Reciprocity theory is used to understand the brain drain phenomena through how

Pakistani diaspora might consider giving back to their home country. In The Norm of

Reciprocity, Gouldner (1960) suggested that a norm of reciprocity, in its complete form,

addresses two interconnected requirements: a) people should aid those who have helped them in

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the past, and b) people should not hurt those who have helped them. Reciprocity theory stipulates

that those who have received any form of help from an individual or group ought to feel

obligated to reciprocate. Building upon Gouldner’s account, Uehara (1995) found there was

evidence to suggest people feel obliged to return benefits that others have provided for them.

Additionally, according to Falk and Fischbacher (2006), people act in accordance with

reciprocity if they reward kind actions and punish unkind ones. According to the reciprocity

theory, people evaluate the actions of others, and this evaluation dictates their future actions with

others.

The findings of this study on diaspora engagement unfolds the essence of the reciprocity.

Participants in this study felt a need to give back to their county as a gesture of reciprocity. There

was a general feeling among participants of "we owe it to our country." As one participant

explained:

Sharing knowledge is my biggest happiness and joy. I feel very good and contented.

Where I was and where I am today is because of people who helped me and did not ask

for anything in return. Now it is my time if they helped me. I can help others and may

then help others. (P1)

Most of the respondents generally felt they owed their country something, especially because

most of them received a highly subsidized education. Also, there was no mention by any

participant to seek any monetary benefit for giving back their time and knowledge, which

correlates with Haussler's (2011) findings. Haussler noted reciprocity implies that the recipient of

a favour from another party feels obliged to reciprocate the gesture to maintain the balance of

benefit and contributions. Phrases like "we need to give back," "its time to give back," "we owe

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it to our motherland," and "what we are today is because of our country" were common refrains

from the participants.

Human Capital Theory and Its Relevance to Findings

Human capital theory (HCT) can be described as a scaffolding for my research. HCT

suggests that individuals and society derive economic benefits from investments in people

(Sweetland, 1996). The term human capital was popularized by Gary Becker and Jacob Mincer.

The term refers to the stock of knowledge, habits, social and personality attributes (including

creativity) that are embodied in the ability to perform labour to produce economic value.

HCT is an accepted foundation for human resource development (Dobbs, Sun, &

Roberts, 2008). Bassi et al. (2001) stated that the success and failure of an organization may

depend on how well the organization leverages the knowledge of its people. For many years,

organizations and governments mainly focused on financial structures, buildings, and products

that they can sell to customers. The human potential was not given any significance as it was

difficult to quantify the contributions that of human skills and knowledge made towards growth

and economic development. Watson Wyatt Worldwide Human Capital developed a measurement

instrument that supported the assumptions that steadfast people management practices were

imperative to organizational success (Watson Wyatt Worldwide, 2002). This Human Capital

Index (HCI) designed by Watson Wyatt showed a direct correlation between human capital and

the shareholders values -the better human capital is engaged by an organization, the better its

shareholders value.

HCT is based on the premise that countries with knowledge and human capital make

economic progress at an accelerated pace. Pakistan is faced with huge shortage of trained and

experienced human resources. The country's development is dependent on trained manpower,

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which is in short supply due to migration and the poor quality of education available within the

country. The country is facing a huge void in terms of available educated and skilled human

resources; however, educated Pakistanis who have settled abroad, especially in developed

counties like Canada, have acquired new skills, knowledge, experiences, and networks. There is

an opportunity for Pakistan to engage with its diaspora and access available human resources to

support its development.

Considering the Pakistani diaspora of this study, HCT is linked to the research findings in

many ways. Almost all participants in the study were of the view that Pakistan needs human

knowhow for developmental purposes. As one participant observed, "the education system in the

country is in miserable shape, which has resulted in poor socio-economic disparities and quality

of life. The dearth of international quality education is the single most reason for people moving

out of Pakistan" (P10). It is worth noting that despite great significance for human capital and its

role in enhancing socio-economic development, a country like Pakistan, with over seven million

diaspora across the world, has not made any visible efforts to engage them and seek their

expertise. The government has treated diaspora, as stated by one respondent, as "Cash Cows."

This participant meant the focus of Pakistan had been on securing foreign exchange remittances

from its diaspora population.

Some researchers may ask; Is it difficult to engage with diaspora? The Pakistani diaspora

from this study would answer no, it is not. The findings reveal that pockets of institutions like

Aga Khan Development Network, LUMS, GIK, and a few other private sector institutions have

created programs to engage with Pakistani diaspora and seek their expertise and know-how.

There are a few success stories. Also, many participants, on their own initiative, have created

opportunities to share their knowledge with their home country. For example, one participant

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established a small medical centre in Islamabad, which he manages from his home in Toronto.

Another participant shares his expertise by helping and mentoring new students to Canada from

Pakistan. One participant, P9, travels to Pakistan every year and conducts a high-level seminar

course at a local university. So, there are these sporadic initiatives that have shown that it is all

doable but requires a systematic and planned approach and a coordination between all the key

stakeholders. It appears that in many instances, diaspora on their own initiatives have created

opportunities to give back. The receiving side i.e. Pakistani institutions and government agencies

need to take proactive steps to engage with its diaspora. The government, to streamline its

remittances and financial donations, has set up an organization called Pakistan Centre for

Philanthropy (PCP). This initiative has helped in improving financial, philanthropic activities. A

similar venture for streamlining human capital and knowledge transfer was recommended by

participants. It appears that overseas diaspora from Pakistan, who were interviewed for this

study, were unanimous in their understating of the critical importance and need of new

knowledge and trained manpower for Pakistan’s future development and the participants could

see a connection between human capital and socio-economic development.

Chapter Summary

The overwhelming majority of the participants of this research were very passionate

about the topic and took a keen interest in discussing the issues of brain drain and brain gain

during the interviews. As the interviews progressed, several interesting themes emerged. This

section (see Table 11) briefly summarizes the research findings based on the outcome of the

interviews in order of the research questions.

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Table 11

Research Findings Summary

Question Themes Key Responses

Reasons of migrating to Canada An overwhelming majority of the participants articulated

three main reasons for migrating to Canada

Law and Order-safety issues

Better quality of life for the family and education for

their children

Greater economic and professional opportunities

What will motivate them to give

back to Pakistan?

Most respondents considered giving back their duty

They explained altruistic motivation for giving back

Some respondents mentioned immense joy which they

get via contributing

People owed to their country -many respondents

termed it as “reciprocity”

Other motivating factors mentioned were -increased

self-esteem, pride, and increased self-worth, family

values, creating a culture of giving at home,

Two respondents mentioned their prime motivation is

to help Pakistani immigrants in Toronto before

extending help to Pakistan.

With whom would the diaspora like

to engage?

Almost all respondents were open to sharing their

knowledge with any sector of the economy.

The main requirements as discussed by the

respondents were:

o The program must be credible; the needs have

to properly identified, there has to be a trust

and a partnership, diaspora knowledge

sharing should add value.

o Two respondents preferred and recommended

that such initiatives are best and successful if

undertaken by academic institutions.

o One respondent observed that he would prefer

to be engaged with his Alma Mater, but the

overwhelming majority were open to any

institution which has a real need and where

the diaspora can make a difference.

Ways of engagement- Virtual. Short

visits or Permanent relocation

Majority of the respondents were willing to share

knowledge virtually.

Some respondents supported possibilities of short

visits.

Most respondents mentioned growth of technology

and ease of communication as a major factor to share

knowledge virtually.

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Most respondents emphasized availing the benefit of

information and communication technology for

knowledge transfer.

One respondent had a different view and felt virtual

knowledge transfer may not work because of 10

hours’ time difference between Canada and Pakistan.

Most participants were averse to idea of permanent

relocation unless law and order improves, and the

country is free from corruption and other social

problems.

One respondent saw that Pakistani women in Toronto

are well settled and they may not move because of

freedom and comfort of living in a pluralized and

open society.

Conditions necessary for permanent

relocation to Pakistan

Generally, the respondents were not in favor of

permanent relocation.

Most respondents narrated their personal experiences

of how in secure the place was when they left the

country. Kidnapping, snatching of cell phones, and

killing was common.

A few respondents mentioned poor quality of

education at all levels. Their children would never be

able to adjust in that uncertain environment where the

education vision is narrow.

There are many negatives and the main pull factor is

family and parents. Those who continue to visit

usually go to see their parents.

The above summary of the findings uncovers the real feelings and sentiments of Pakistani

diaspora on their motivations of giving back their time and knowledge to their motherland. The

findings lead to some very important conclusions and recommendations which are given in the

following chapter.

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Chapter 5

Conclusion, Recommendations, and Reflections

The primary purpose of this study was to determine how a developing country like

Pakistan can harness its diaspora in support of filling the homeland's knowledge and skills gap.

Many developing countries have begun to engage their diaspora by creating diaspora

engagement policies to convert brain drain into brain gain.

Many studies undertaken during the early 1990s suggested that brain drain, which was

previously viewed as detrimental, can immensely benefit the home country if it utilizes the

potential of overseas citizens. Scholars argued that brain drain should be viewed as an

opportunity for economic development in the home country. Instead of viewing brain drain as a

negative, many developing countries have created ways to use the diaspora’s skills and

knowledge. Educated people leaving the county, who were once viewed as traitors and defectors,

are now viewed as national heroes.

As a Pakistani Canadian, I became interested in this topic because I have seen and

experienced the effects of qualified people leaving the country. During the early 1990s, I

oversaw the human resources function at a private university. Having lived in Canada for more

than nine years, I realized that overseas Pakistanis could be a good source for knowledge

transfer, and there is a critical need for harnessing their knowledge. My key intent, which excited

me to undertake this research study, was to understand the conditions under which the Pakistani

diaspora would be willing to engage in knowledge transfer activities with their home country.

I was also curious to understand the Government of Pakistan’s efforts to harness the

enormous knowledge reservoirs of its diaspora. More specifically, I focused on the seven

research questions that drove this study, as described in chapters three and four.

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Themes Identified in the Findings

To address these questions, I used a descriptive and interpretive qualitative study for

collecting data through a semi-structured interview with Pakistani professionals residing in the

Greater Toronto Area. The theoretical foundation of the Reciprocity as well as HCT helped with

the creation of questions to explore and examine the Pakistani diaspora. Throughout the

interview process, the focus of the data collection was to solicit the views of Pakistani diaspora

on sharing their knowledge with their home country. Based on the interviews, and their

subsequent analysis and interpretation, many interesting and pertinent themes emerged from the

findings.

Safety and Socio- Economic Concerns

In answering the question about leaving their home country and migrating to Canada,

many participants mentioned safety concerns, poor educational systems, and lack of economic

opportunities as their top three reasons considered as main push factors that compelled them to

leave Pakistan and migrate to Canada. These observations are the push factors for migration, as

identified by Sajjad (2011). As per the current literature, people prefer to stay in their home

countries rather than migrate voluntarily. However, voluntarily migration continues to grow and

is becoming a topic of discussion among scholars and policymakers, particularly in the

developing countries. (Haas, 2010). Pakistan, as a country, has many socio-economic problems.

The country's education system remains poor, and the completion rate of primary school

education is amongst the lowest in the world. The quality of education is very poor (Isani, 2001).

The country was ranked 150 out of 189 in the 2017 Human Development Index, which is an

index measuring the basic human development achievements. The challenging law and order

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situation and the constant political upheavals have contributed to migration as citizens leave their

country for better prospects.

Giving Back

On the motivation for sharing knowledge with the home country, participants in the

interviews considered giving back to their country their duty and responsibility. Pakistani

diaspora identified self-fulfillment as their key motivation, and it is no surprise that monetary

gain was not a consideration for sharing their time and knowledge with the home country. These

observations confirm the findings of Najam (2005). Najam described Pakistani diaspora as a

generous and giving community. He even titled his book Portrait of a Giving Community.

Overall, Pakistani diaspora’s giving nature was demonstrated in their feedback on contributing

and giving back without expectations of personal or monetary gain.

Sharing Knowledge

When asked about the sharing of knowledge, diaspora participants were open to sharing

knowledge with any organization (government or private) if their knowledge added value, and

the recipients were keen to adapt and change with the access to new knowledge. Just as Bouty

(2000) found a willingness for reciprocity was an important component of information exchange,

I observed that some participants included the aspect of value addition and readiness for change

by the recipients. This observation opens opportunities for the government, as well as the private

sector, of Pakistan to engage with its diaspora since there is an openness concerning sharing of

knowledge.

Mode of Sharing Knowledge

Regarding the mode of giving, most respondents preferred to share their knowledge

through technology or via short visits. However, respondents were not favourably inclined to

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make a permanent move back to Pakistan. This outcome is in line with the growth of technology

in which many developing countries have engaged with their diaspora through the formation of

scientific, technical, and even social networks. The interactions are usually virtual and managed

through web-based media. Many developing countries (i.e., Philippines, Uruguay, Columbia,

Burundi, Estonia, and Hungary) have used technology to connect and engage with diaspora. The

advancement in information technology and communications (ITC) has created new

opportunities for knowledge sharing between members of the diaspora and individuals in their

home country (Grossman, 2010).

Trust in Sharing

Trust in sharing also became evident through the findings that Pakistani diaspora believes

that for the successful transfer of knowledge, there should be mutual respect, trust, and sharing of

responsibilities from both sides. The participants were of the view that without mutual trust,

things may not move forward and may lead to frustration.

Time Needed for Adjustment

Davis and Hart (2010) explained that globalization had created opportunities for the

relocation of knowledge workers (i.e., engineers, managers, and researchers) anywhere in the

world. However, the newly arrived diaspora must settle into a new lifestyle, work environment,

and community before considering giving back.

Knowledge Exchange is Two-Sided

Diaspora engagement is a two-way street, and both sides must accept responsibility for its

success. Many diaspora integration measures include considerations of civil and social rights.

Gamlen (2008) noted that extensive bilateral agreements are important to the knowledge transfer

of diaspora.

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Staying Connected

Brinkerhoff (2009b) noted that the diaspora has a sense of psychological connection to

the collective culture of the homeland. This connection was evident in the findings as

participants shared their connections with their homeland. Despite being out of Pakistan for

many years (in some cases, more than 20 years), respondents are well connected with the

homeland and make regular trips to Pakistan.

However, the sharing platform is lacking. Sheffer (1986) noted that a willingness of the

diaspora to maintain ties with their home country is essential to the support of their country's

economic development. However, the sharing of information and knowledge must be efficient.

My study participants expressed a readiness to share their knowledge and connect with their

counterparts in Pakistan; however, an avenue or platform through which to connect is missing.

Expand a Vision

Participants observed that Pakistan should look beyond remittances and consider

knowledge as a key driver of economic growth. Participants were of the view that Pakistan has

not made any strategic plan to engage its diaspora for knowledge mobilization. There is a need

for developing a road map of diaspora engagement.

Knowledge Sharing and Government Support

Cerna (2009) noted that engagement with diaspora as important for developing nations

due to opportunities created by the developed countries to attract talent from around the world.

However, knowledge sharing should have government sponsorship. Brinkerhoff (2007)

identified a need for governments to improve diaspora engagement. In my study, participants

shared that the Pakistani government has not formally approached the diaspora for help. What

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little exchange happens in knowledge transfer is mainly due to initiatives taken by the diaspora

themselves. This means there is fragmentation, and it should be consolidated.

Diaspora Potential

Castles (2013) expressed concerns over the confusion that exists between various

stakeholders about the concept of migration. Individual stakeholders are indecisive about the

effectiveness and benefits of diaspora potentials. There is a need for enhanced awareness

amongst many countries, including Pakistan. Participants shared that people's mindsets must

change and more openness is needed in Pakistan toward diaspora potential.

A Model of Diaspora Engagement

During interviews, a very interesting concept of diaspora engagement and readiness to

give back was uncovered. It became very evident that diaspora engagement is dependent on how

long the diaspora has been outside of their country, as well as their life and family cycle stage.

Young and relatively new migrants were less excited and less ready to give back as compared to

those who were well established and had spent several years in Canada. This is an interesting

phenomenon of the diaspora's giving back, and I have attempted to arrange various phases as a

hierarchy (as shown below in a pyramid, see Figure 7), which shows different lifecycle and

settlement stages and the diaspora's abilities and readiness to give their time and knowledge to

their home country. I have named it the WAPIS model of diaspora engagement, as shown below

(Hierarchy of Diaspora Engagement -A Model).

This diagram is known as the WAPIS model of diaspora engagement; the first letter of

each stage makes up the word WAPI; S denotes settlers. In Urdu, (the national Pakistani

language) WAPIS means to give back.

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Stage 1: Wise Settlers

In this stage, people are new to a country; they have left their homeland for better

opportunities for themselves and their families. They are focused on settling down and

understanding a new culture in a new country. They are ambitious and have the drive to achieve

something in life, but they make every move cautiously and wisely. They are looking for support

and establishing themselves, which includes looking for jobs for themselves and their spouses.

They must handle various issues, including looking for schooling, housing, and jobs, finding

home country groceries and restaurants, and making cultural and lifestyle adjustments. As one

respondent had stated:

It is obvious that newcomers will not be able to participate. They must first meet their

own obligation and settle their families, and if they participate, their main purpose is to

seek connection and network to settle down in a new country. (P10).

Figure 7

WAPIS Model of Diaspora Engagement

Settlers in a new country

Source: © Copyright 2021 Navroz Surani.

Wise

Ambitious

Prominent

Influencer

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Stage 2: Ambitious Settlers

Once the diaspora has navigated Stage 1, they are now better informed about life in a new

country and have established jobs and other necessities of living. They might find themselves

secured, have made new connections and friends, and are gradually learning about their new

country, its politics, and norms of behaviour. During this stage, they create a life for themselves

and their family, and they are ambitious. Many immigrants enrol in the new country’s

educational system for either a full-fledged degree program or to obtain a professional licence

and certifications in their field of specialization. The diaspora attempts to join networks and

alliances of their chosen profession.

Stage 3: Prominent Settlers

This is the peak and most prominent stage of the diaspora’s life in a new country. Their

children are growing and may have begun attending university. The diaspora is well integrated

into the host society. Many of its members are deeply involved in the host country’s socio-

political activities. During this stage, middle-aged people begin thinking about giving back to

society. Those who have done well start thinking about giving back, and ideas like volunteering

and philanthropy begin to emerge. People reimagine their life and the purpose of living.

Stage 4: Influencer Settlers

During this stage, the diaspora has acquired a rich repository of experiences they can use

to help guide others. They have raised families, have established themselves in their work-life,

and are ready to contribute to the good of society. During this stage, they look for volunteerism,

mentorship, and other forms of philanthropy. They are most likely to have a maximum affinity to

their home country and passionately look forward to engagement opportunities; they also have

time to imagine new ventures and explore outside opportunities.

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Each stage is important for individuals and possesses unique opportunities, motivations,

and challenges. From the perspective of diaspora engagement, policymakers and the government

should consider the diaspora's stage within the hierarchy. It might be inadvisable to approach

wise and ambitious settlers (Stages 1 and 2) because the chances are very low that the diaspora

will be able to contribute their knowledge to the homeland. Policymakers should approach those

in Stages 3 and 4 who show readiness and a keen desire to share their knowledge and participate

in the socio-economic development of their home country.

This is a unique and interesting finding which has not been tested. Though this finding is

based on small sample size, it creates a good guideline for policymakers who are keen on

engaging with the diaspora. The WAPIS model built upon the data collected in this qualitative

study, clearly shows that diaspora giving back is dependent on the settlement stages of diaspora

and that policymakers and governments should focus on prominent and influential diaspora (i.e.,

those who have reached a certain stage in their life and have achieved enough standing in the

community). There is little research available concerning diaspora engagement or how diaspora

should be effectively acclimated. There is little research on diaspora and guidance for who

amongst the millions of diaspora should be approached for knowledge sharing. This model

provides information, direction, and a focus on the policymakers and the practitioners who are

involved in diaspora engagement. This model can be regarded as one of the earlier ideas on

which future research may be conducted.

Recommendations

Researchers, policymakers, and multilateral organizations have tried to gauge how

migration and economic development are interrelated. This nexus between migration and

development has been studied for years; however, there is an unprecedented intensity of interest

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in the subject of brain drain and brain gain. This is proven through the growth of institutions for

diaspora engagements (Sriskandarajah, 2005).

The diaspora has a wealth of knowledge and know-how. They are aware of the dire need

for new knowledge in their home country. They generally have a keen desire to give back.

Technology is helping in the process. Many developing countries have successfully availed the

services of diaspora. Developing countries need to get new knowledge. Governments can

implement brain gain in two keyways: either emigrants can go back to their home country, or

they can support development using information technology without physically relocating

(Wescott, 2005). Additionally, Gamlen (2014) found that a significant number of developing

countries have started to form diaspora institutions to manage their relationships and engagement

with the diaspora abroad to overcome the negative impacts of brain drain.

A review of the measures taken by various governments to encourage brain gain revealed

a lot of variation and diversity in their strategies and programs. Each diaspora community

engages with their home countries in different ways due to varying history, time, and context

(Yong & Rahman, 2013). In addition to diaspora institutions, several governments have

implemented more aggressive and forward-thinking programs due to the diaspora’s potential to

address knowledge and skill gaps. Many developing countries have taken initiatives to engage

with their diaspora and are making progress. As an outcome of this study, the following

recommendations are presented for Pakistan to initiate a diaspora engagement strategy.

Pakistan Needs to Think Beyond Remittances

Remittances by a worker from a foreign land to their home country play a significant part

in a country’s economic development. For some smaller countries, remittances make up more

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than a quarter of their total Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Countries like Nepal, Lebanon,

Haiti, Kyrgyz Republic, Tonga, and Liberia fall into this category.

According to a World Bank Report (2017), Migration and Remittances, remittances

flowing to developing countries exceeded $400 billion in 2017. In 2016, Pakistan received about

$20 billion in foreign exchange through diaspora remittances (about seven percent of GDP),

which is a significant amount supporting economic development in the country (The World

Bank, 2019). Due to the scale and potential of remittances in economic development, researchers

and policymakers have mostly viewed diaspora as a source of remittance only and not as a

source of knowledge transfer for developmental purposes. Because of the ease of administration,

remittances have attracted more attention from researchers, and policymakers have paid less

attention to other aspects of migration development.

The Government of Pakistan has followed a similar trajectory and has focused mostly on

ensuring that remittances keep coming and increasing. They have not realized that remittances

may be a short-term benefit because the money sent is equal to aid flow to a country.

Remittances cannot and should not be considered as a source for development; they cannot drive

development. Knowledge is the main driver of growth and shared prosperity in the 21st century;

knowledge is at the heart of economic development and Pakistan’s knowledge diaspora can be of

immense use in this regard. There is a need to look beyond remittances (Qureshi, 2016).

The literature review has shown with clear evidence that skilled migration can benefit

countries of origin if correctly structured. Knowledge is at the heart of economic growth and

development. The speed at which knowledge is created and disseminated has created a host of

challenges for developing countries. Pakistan must understand that its knowledge diaspora has a

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significant knowledge base; they have acquired new knowledge, made new connections, and

achieved recognition in many ways while staying outside Pakistan.

According to Zaidi (2013), it would be difficult to find the names of Pakistani economists

or other policy experts in the government who were not part of the extensive Pakistani diaspora.

However, these individuals are few in numbers; they were already invited to join as ministers or

advisors or even function as Prime Minister. These few people returned from abroad on their

own and not through a well-established diaspora engagement program. According to Zaidi

(2013), there is a need to expand further research in the area of diaspora engagement, which has

remained a low priority amongst scholars and policy makers in Pakistan. The government and

civil society must realize the significance of its diaspora and its potential for contribution. The

findings of this study indicated that the diaspora is keen to engage and give back. They are

looking for a conducive environment and a platform. The study and literature review have not

identified any serious efforts by Pakistan's governments to tap this large and important reservoir

of knowledge. The government should step in before the brain drain becomes unmanageable, and

its reversal becomes difficult.

Create a Road Map for Diaspora Engagement - A Policy is Needed

The developmental impact of migration depends on the capacity of the sending country to

avail of its benefit. This capacity rests on the ability to engage with migrants as well as with the

institutions and policies of the sending countries (OECD Gaining from Migration). Many

developing countries view their diaspora as an essential source for development; as a result, they

have developed policies for engaging with them over the last two decades. The objectives of

diaspora policies vary from encouraging overseas populations to return to their home countries to

collecting information and seeking assistance from the population settled abroad. Some

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developing countries have approached diaspora policies from the perspective of creating a

connection and cultural bond between the homeland and diaspora. They also consider overseas

workers as national heroes and celebrate their national pride and accomplishments (Jiménez et

al., 2010). China and India are examples of countries where the diaspora are actively regarded

with great respect.

Most respondents in this study have identified a need for Pakistan to create opportunities

and conducive environment, which can facilitate knowledge mobilization from the diaspora

community. Participants felt a need to create a road map for diaspora engagement through a clear

diaspora policy. In 1979, the Government of Pakistan established the Overseas Pakistanis

Foundations (OPF) through an Emigration Ordinance, with a vision to strive toward the

economic and social welfare of Pakistanis working or settled abroad and to look after their

families and dependents living in Pakistan. However, a review of the OPF’s vision, mission, and

purpose statement up to 2018 reflected a substantial focus on facilitating remittances to the

country and looking after the migrant population’s family members. It emphasized either

assisting migrant workers with settling abroad or supporting their families who were left behind

in Pakistan. The OPF’s main activities included housing schemes for families left behind in

Pakistan, schooling for workers' children in Pakistan, health clinics for migrant families in

Pakistan, assistance in crises for families in Pakistan, vocational training to prepare workers for

going overseas, workers’ foreign exchange remittance cards to ensure remittances are channelled

through normal banking channels, and airport facilitation for incoming overseas Pakistanis.

There was no mention of engaging knowledge diaspora for skills and knowledge mobilization.

The newly formed Pakistan Tehreek Insaf (PTI) Government, which came to power in

August 2018, made an interesting addition to the OPF’s activities and mission in 2019 under the

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title “Naya Pakistan Calling” (Naya means new in English). In his first address to the nation, the

prime minister invited notable overseas Pakistani professionals to contribute to the making of

Naya Pakistan. It appears that the new Pakistani leadership fully recognizes the diaspora

potential, however, it should consider both aspects of potential i.e. remittances as well as

knowledge.

Given the present government's interest in diaspora engagement, it is time to revisit the

OPF's activities and broaden its vision to include the diaspora as partners. The diaspora should

simply be a source of remittance but also include important contribution to skills and knowledge

transfer activities, which can help the government realize its dream of creating a Naya Pakistan.

The need to broaden the vision of the Overseas Pakistan Foundation and to create a platform for

knowledge mobilization from Pakistani diaspora were expressed by all the participants of the

study.

Based on the findings of this study, OPF’s possible new vision could be: To partner with

members of the overseas Pakistani community and create opportunities for them to participate in

the economic, social, and cultural development of the country. The guiding principles to achieve

this vision could be:

a) Inclusiveness – considering diaspora as ours

b) Respect and realization of their potential for development (both via remittances and

knowledge)

c) Protecting their rights as Pakistanis settled abroad and supporting family members

who may still be residing in Pakistan.

d) Ongoing and continuous engagement

e) Open and two-way communication

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f) Ongoing appreciation and recognition for contributions

Create a Database of Pakistani Diaspora and Seek Their Views and Opinions

Engaging with the Pakistani diaspora requires accumulating the information of its people

settled abroad. At present, there is no reliable database. This requires the adoption of a

significant data collection strategy, which should include mapping the location and compilation

of the skills and experience of individuals.

Pakistani Consulates and High Commission offices abroad can be a good source of

compiling this inventory if the matter is given focused attention. Data collection is a difficult

task, and while there have been many studies undertaken on what factors drive international

students to study abroad and where they decide to study, relatively less research has examined

where these international students choose to locate upon completing their education. Data is

missing on whether they return to the home country or do they stay back and continue their life

overseas (Lee & Kim, 2010).

The entire diaspora engagement program depends on the availability of information on

"who is who" in the Pakistani diaspora. Technology can help achieve this task. In addition to

collecting information and data on overseas Pakistanis, it is crucial to consider their views while

creating engagement programs. All respondents in this study have forcefully stated their utter

surprise that no ministers or government institutions from Pakistan have approached them for

help in any way.

There is a dire need to consider the diaspora as partners in progress, which can be

achieved through a listening exercise to understand what they have to offer and what they expect

from the government in return. This step is crucial because they feel that they have not been

involved in any such initiatives taken by the Pakistani Government. If the government involves

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the diaspora in discussions, then new and fresh ideas will emerge, and the diaspora will feel

elevated and important as true partners.

In this study, although only a few members of the diaspora were approached, they all

demonstrated excitement to give back their knowledge to their home country. As a researcher, I

saw enthusiasm and pride when they were approached for interviews and participation. There is

a need to understand the diaspora’s views and concerns as well as their preferred areas of

engagement. This step should be made a formal part of diaspora engagement policies.

Identify Focus Areas - Identify Needs

The pressing challenge is to identify where and when the brain drain is causing the

damage. Sriskandarajah (2005) identified brain strain, an acute shortage of skilled workforce,

and migration of qualified people from the country. Pakistan has a huge need for both human and

financial resources for its development in virtually all sectors of the economy. To meet this skill

and knowledge shortage, the Pakistani diaspora can be a significant resource. Since Pakistan has

not yet initiated a formal diaspora engagement policy, it might be useful first to identify focus

areas where diaspora help is needed.

Pakistan has a significant young population that needs improved education. The country

is facing huge challenges in its education system, including a shortage of qualified teachers and

academics. The diaspora can be of significant help in making improvements to the country’s

educational system. There are several ways to engage the Pakistani diaspora in improving

educational systems:

a) Appoint diaspora academics to the boards/councils of schools and colleges and

universities in Pakistan. Appointing them at the highest levels will allow them to

make an impact.

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b) Connect Pakistani academics abroad with academics in the home country. Using

technology can make this possible.

c) Arrange a mentorship program for students and connect them with academics abroad.

This will allow students to familiarize themselves with newer ideas and open their

horizons and thinking.

d) Enter into partnerships with educational institutions abroad where the diaspora can

play the roles of connectors and facilitators and use their connections to facilitate

partnerships.

e) Create an online network of Pakistani diaspora working in different fields who could

be a good source of guidance to students in Pakistan.

f) Create awareness of educational opportunities for bright Pakistani students overseas

and direct them to financial assistance/scholarship avenues.

g) Encourage diaspora teachers to make short visits to Pakistan and teach courses in

schools and colleges during their visit.

h) Form a high-powered diaspora academic group to serve as advisors to the Ministry of

Education in Pakistan. This group can facilitate and advise key stakeholders like the

Higher Education Commission in various key projects, starting with creating an

educational reform plan for the country.

The education sector is a recommended starting focus area for diaspora engagement

because Pakistan has more than 60% of its population under 30 years of age; one-third of the

population is 15 to 29 years of age. Pakistan needs to create an enabling environment for its

young people because they hold the key to its future success. Any efforts to provide better

education will go a long way toward improving the quality of life for all Pakistanis. All

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respondents identified education as one key factor that is holding back Pakistan socially and

economically. People have migrated due to the country's unacceptable education system.

Create Trust

Respondents considered trust and the creation of a trusting environment to be key

requirements for the successful transfer of global knowledge. Trust creates a belief of reliability,

confidence, and respect, and removes any element of suspicion. It is a two-way street, and both

sides must create trust. The diaspora must create trust and inspire confidence in the other side

(i.e., the receivers- governments or institutions) that their intentions to contribute are pure, and

there is no personal agenda or gain involved; the diaspora expects the same from the other side.

If those benefitting from the diaspora's contributions do not show trust, then the purpose might

not be achieved. The long-term goal of building partnerships is more likely to succeed if it is

based on mutual trust and respect. All parties must believe and feel that they are deriving value

from the relationship and that mutual objectives are aligned.

My interviews have confirmed that the diaspora can bring value-added knowledge, and

they are keen to share this knowledge. Many respondents were worried about a trust deficit, as

they had heard depressing stories about the diaspora experience in Pakistan when they ventured

on their own to share their knowledge. Building trust is a key requirement; most respondents

agreed that it is a two-way street. In terms of building mutual trust, respondents identified certain

criteria for both sides.

How the diaspora can build trust and mutual respect

Make a genuine effort to fully integrate with the receiving

organization/individuals/teams.

Keep a humble and positive attitude while sharing knowledge.

Have empathy.

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Avoid being arrogant.

Be persistent - it takes time to transfer knowledge.

How receivers can build trust and respect:

Be open to new ideas - accept change.

Embrace the diaspora and their knowledge with open arms if adding value.

Facilitate - do not create obstacles.

Appreciate contributions.

Provide feedback.

Stay connected.

To create trust, the Government of Pakistan might have to re-energize its Ministry of

Overseas Pakistanis. It might need to create policies and programs that recognize diaspora

engagement and contributions. One respondent suggested an annual event for diaspora in major

cities of Pakistan where they can be recognized.

Create Awareness about the Role Diaspora Can Play in Development of the Country

Many respondents stated that there is a need to communicate with various Pakistani

stakeholders about the important role that the diaspora can play in Pakistan’s economic, social,

and cultural sectors. Respondents felt that overseas Pakistanis are perceived as cash cows and

that the people of the country do not effectively understand their potential and contributions.

A review of the literature has confirmed the respondents’ assertions. The Ministry of Overseas

Pakistanis has focused its activities on remittances and has not considered other areas and

opportunities where the diaspora can contribute and add value.

The International Organization for Migration (2011) prepared a report that highlights

other contributions that diaspora makes to the homeland. In addition to remittances, these

contributions include direct investment, the return of talent, brain gain, virtual return,

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philanthropic contributions, capital market investments, and diaspora tourism. However, it

appears that the government and policymakers in Pakistan still view diaspora as a source of

remittances and have not given enough attention to other beneficial aspects of diaspora

engagement. Participants provided several suggestions, including organizing a diaspora day,

making diaspora contribution and engagement part of the college curriculum, publishing

newspaper articles on diaspora engagement initiatives, arranging diaspora talk shows, and

creating diaspora TV channels.

Take Stock of Current Activities in Diaspora Engagement and Remove Fragmentation in

Approach - Create a Comprehensive Plan of Diaspora Engagement

Respondents were of the view that there is a need to take stock of all current relationships

and engagements with Pakistani diaspora. Most agreed that it would not be correct to assume that

the Pakistani diaspora is disengaged. Many things may be happening both in the private and

public sectors that need to be identified and analyzed for further expansion.

A few respondents mentioned diaspora contributions in the field of health and education.

Aga Khan University (AKU), Association of Physicians of Pakistani Descent of North America

(APPNA), Indus Hospital (TIH), Citizen Foundation (TCF), and the Higher Education

Commission of Pakistan (HEC) have created initiatives to invite scholars from abroad for short-

and medium-term teaching and research assignments. Many other activities are happening, but

respondents felt that Pakistan needs a comprehensive program because these individual

contributions might not be enough to fulfil and meet the dire needs in all sectors of the economy.

A major starting point is to take stock of diaspora engagement in different sectors of Pakistan’s

economy.

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Focus on Well-Established Diaspora and Engage Them at the Board Level

Pakistan has more than seven million diaspora spread across the world. It is neither

possible nor necessary to engage with the entire diaspora community. For the sake of

development, Pakistan must identify well-established, highly qualified diaspora who possess the

necessary expertise, and desire to give back to the motherland. It is important to note that not all

diaspora are ready to give back so the policy of engagement must be very selective. Pakistan will

need to identify sectors of the economy where there is a need for new knowledge. Several

participants identified the areas of health and education where diaspora contribution can be

accessed and valuable.

This research study indicates that the diaspora has great regard to give back; however,

they need an environment where they are accepted as partners, and their new knowledge and

ideas are welcomed and appreciated. Many respondents felt that, unless such an invitation comes

from the top of an organization, people at the working level will always create hurdles for a

smooth relationship between the diaspora and local users. One recommendation to overcome this

situation is for all institutes in Pakistan registered under the Chamber of Commence, and higher

education institutions under HEC, to induct at least one diaspora member at the board level as an

advisor. Inducting members of the diaspora officially on the boards of various institutions will

provide them with a solid platform to play an effective role in knowledge transfer and

mobilization. If diaspora members are appointed as advisors, it will provide them with increased

motivation and help in paving the way for knowledge dissemination across the organization.

Diaspora coming from a position of power and authority will be able to surpass hurdles that were

discussed earlier in this report. Their acceptance will be greater, and their connection and

contributions will be at a larger scale.

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Pakistani Educational Institutions Should Consider Creating Strong Linkages with Their

Alumni Abroad

Many respondents conveyed their desire to give back to the home country out of affinity

and reciprocity. They felt that their initial schooling had opened the doors for their growth and

development. The institutions at which they studied had an impact on their future and the rest of

their life. They showed great respect for their alma mater.

Alumni can be a great source of opportunities to stay connected because many appreciate

their education. It is not surprising that many alumni want to maintain these relationships and

reciprocate by giving back to their alma mater. This area presents an opportunity for educational

institutions in Pakistan to design robust programs and activities for building lifelong support.

A few prestigious institutions in Pakistan have initiated successful alumni engagement

programs; some have reaped the benefits, including Aga Khan University, Dow Medical

College, Lahore University of Management Sciences, and Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute. Many

other institutions have made efforts to engage with their alumni, but the vision and focus must be

international. Due to the phenomenal growth of information and communications technologies,

educational institutions can engage with their alumni on a more consistent and regular basis.

Alumni engagement can help in raising donations, knowledge transfer, mentorship for

new students, sharing success stories, and a temporary or permanent return to serving either as

volunteers or full-time employees. Educational institutions in Pakistan have a huge scope and

opportunity to engage with their alumni who have left the country. They need to be engaged to

promote a culture of philanthropy and create ambassadors of their alma mater and country. The

following success stories are worth mentioning.

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The Association of Physicians of Pakistani Descent of North America (APPNA) is

committed to supporting scientific development and education in medicine and achieving better

health care, regardless of race, religion, or gender. APPNA was founded in 1976 as the

Association of Pakistani Physicians of North America and the organisation was formally

organized in 1977. APPNA represents more than 17,000 physicians and health care professionals

of Pakistani descent in the United States and Canada and is one of the largest ethnic medical

societies in North America. Members of this organization have contributed to health

improvement and health services, particularly in deprived areas of Pakistan. APPNA has run free

clinics, supported young physicians, and provided scholarships to medical students in Pakistan.

In 2016, APPNA signed an accord with USAID to improve health care in Pakistan by providing

logistical support to selected mother and child health projects. In the words of APPNA's

President, "APPNA's goal is to help and assist in Pakistan's health care and medical education

and strive to have merit in every field, especially in the admission policy of state-run medical

colleges" (Shekhani, 2019).

Aga Khan University (AKU) is the first private university of Pakistan, established in

1983 with an international mandate. It currently has six teaching sites and campuses across Asia,

Africa, and Europe. The university has more than 15,000 alumni across the world. Aga Khan

University offers high-quality programs in the fields of medicine, nursing, media and

communication, and teacher development. Noting the significance of alumni relations and

engagement, the university has established alumni departments at its campuses; in 1993, it

supported the establishment of the Aga Khan University Alumni Association of North America.

Members of the alumni association have participated in mentorship programs, immigration

assistance, research, and counselling. Alumni have also participated in the university’s 25-year

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celebration by making financial donations. Interestingly, AKU alumni have also established links

and provided leadership to other NGOs in Pakistan, including The Citizen Foundation and Indus

Hospital.

The above examples clearly show the benefit of keeping alumni engaged with their alma

mater. They have a lot to offer and usually have a keen desire to give back. Talented alumni will

likely have a wealth of experience and skills that they can share with current students.

Institutions can use alumni management software to stay engaged with their alumni populations.

There is a need to build a thriving alumni community.

Engage Second Generation Diaspora - A Critical Need

Respondents highlighted the need to keep the second generation of diaspora engaged with

the home country of their ancestors. Children born abroad to Pakistani diaspora will have no

connection with their ancestral homeland unless concrete steps are taken to keep them aware of

Pakistan. This might be yet another challenge and should be given serious thought when framing

an overall diaspora engagement policy.

Children's roots of connection with Pakistan are weak, and they might be less interested

in Pakistani politics or socio-economic development. If harnessed, young people might prove to

be an amazing potential resource for expanding deeper connections with Pakistan, supporting

development, and supporting youth in Pakistan because they have the advantage of experiencing

two cultures and likely two languages. One suggestion made by a respondent was to increase

awareness of younger members of Pakistani descent through social media that features Pakistan

and through an authentic media outlet or TV station for overseas Pakistanis. One respondent

suggested that educational institutions in Pakistan should partner with universities in Canada to

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offer an internship program for Pakistani students studying in Canada. This would allow these

students to visit Pakistan and learn more about the country.

Either Broaden the Scope of the Pakistan Centre of Philanthropy or Create a Similar

Institution in Pakistan for Diaspora Engagement

During the interviews, almost every participant expressed a need for Pakistan to create a

platform or avenue that can connect Pakistani diaspora and institutions based in the home

country. One recommendation worth pursuing was to either broaden the scope of the Pakistan

Centre of Philanthropy (PCP) or establish a similar institution dedicated to diaspora engagement.

PCP is a unique public-private partnership institution in Pakistan established in 2001. A first

such initiative in the South Asian region, its main purpose is to monitor and certify non-profit

organizations (NGOs) operating in Pakistan. The certification programme awards accreditation

to NGOs that demonstrate excellence in three functional areas: internal governance, financial

management, and program delivery. Once certified, the NGOs enhance their trust and credibility

and can display that they are credible, well-functioning organizations. This ultimately earns the

trust and confidence of the donor community and increases the volume and effectiveness of

indigenous philanthropy. PCP promotes certified NGOs in an annual directory and on its

website, which provides information to donors who might then decide to engage with an NGO.

Having PCP do the necessary due diligence makes it easier for the donor community to choose

the preferred NGOs with whom they would like to engage.

Many respondents of this study who expressed a desire for diaspora engagement stated

that there is a need for a trusted institution to serve as a bridge or link between the diaspora and

Pakistani institutions. There is a need for an established and legitimate organization to spearhead

diaspora engagement activities. Respondents felt that a fully government-driven engagement

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initiative might face too many bureaucratic barriers, whereas an institution like PCP might be

well suited to drive a diaspora engagement agenda.

How can PCP or a similar institution help drive a diaspora engagement initiative? PCP’s

mission is to enhance the effectiveness of indigenous philanthropy. This is made possible by

serving as a certificate granting organization to NGOs operating in Pakistan; as mentioned

above, this activity creates trust and confidence among the donor community. The Pakistani

diaspora in this study has commented on creating avenues for giving, building trust between

diaspora and home country institutions, removing fragmentation, taking a holistic approach to

engagement, and creating a database of the Pakistani diaspora. All these comments lead toward

establishing a dedicated institution responsible for focusing on diaspora engagement. PCP's

activities are related as it serves NGOs and the donor community, although it mainly deals with

financial contributions. PCP is well suited to also champion diaspora engagement activities for

knowledge transfer and brain gain purposes.

Research Limitations

A major limitation of this exploratory study is that the findings are not generalizable

beyond the specific group addressed in this study. However, generalization is not the goal of

qualitative research; the goal of my study was to get a deeper understanding of the phenomena of

the Pakistani diaspora. The findings will be of great interest to governments and groups that seek

information on how to address the issues of brain drain and brain gain.

Another limitation of the study was its focus on the views of the first generation of the

Pakistani diaspora. There is a large group of second- and third-generation Pakistani diaspora who

may have different levels of attachments to Pakistan. Also, gender is an important variable for

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Pakistani diaspora and further research needs to explore the unique perspectives of women in

diaspora.

Contribution to the literature and areas of further research.

This study has contributed to the literature on brain gain and diaspora engagement in

number of ways. It has also identified areas of further research as follows.

First, it has identified a need for including diaspora feedback and suggestion in framing any

diaspora engagement policies. Diaspora are integral and key stakeholders in the entire brain gain

endeavour. The collaboration and consensus building with the involvement of diaspora is key

towards setting a coherent agenda for any county which seeks to engage with its diaspora.

There are very few studies on diaspora engagement that take into consideration the views of the

diaspora on giving back to their home country. This study has touched upon an incredibly

significant gap in the literature by eliciting views of Pakistani diaspora with a specific

geographical location in Canada. However, as noted in the limitations, this study used a small

sample size that may not allow generalization of the findings. Nonetheless, this small sample size

may inspire future researchers to consider similar study using a larger scale multi-country-based

diaspora and soliciting their views on their motivation and conditionality for sharing their time

and knowledge with their respective home countries.

Second, this study has demonstrated that diaspora may be willing to contribute their

knowledge by making short visits to their home country under a proper arrangement. This

phenomenon which has been described as “Circular Migration” is getting a lot of traction in the

present day. Many participants in this study expressed their willingness towards short term visits

to Pakistan, which opens an interesting avenue for further research. Under this arrangement,

employers in the home countries may have to move away from traditional full-time employment

171

contracts and work towards designing newer employment arrangements with diaspora members.

This may lead to formation of an entirely new group of workforces (short-term diaspora or

seasonal diaspora) in the home county organizations, an interesting concept which requires more

research.

Third, this study through the development of “WAPIS” model has demonstrated that all

diaspora members though willing, may not be ready to contribute their time and knowledge to

their home country. Their readiness depends on their settlement stage in the host country. Those

who are new to a new country may need some time to settle before they are ready to make any

such contributions. This model can help policy makers and governments in identifying those

diaspora who would be willing to serve. WAPIS model is an outcome of this study and is still in

its evolution stage. It has uncovered a unique concept which can be refined in future scholarship.

Fourth, this study has revealed that in Pakistan to date what ever little has been achieved

through diaspora engagement has been through either private sector, non-profit organizations,

civil society or through individual initiatives of diaspora themselves. This raises the point about

the contributions of governments and other international agencies like Migration Development

Institute. The World Bank, International Organization of Migration and many such international

agencies. Have these International agencies helped in promoting the concept of brain gain? Have

they made an impact? What has been their role? Have they been able to engage all key

stakeholders in the diaspora engagement process?

Fifth, it will be interesting to conduct studies that seek to understand the motivation of

diaspora who have moved back to their home country and examine their motivation for moving

and the challenges which they faced to resettle permanently back in their home country.

172

Research on the motivation of Pakistani diaspora who, after living overseas, have gone back may

offer a significant addition to the existing literature.

Sixth, researchers and scholars may find it useful to study the second and third generation

of the diaspora who are born overseas but have links to the home countries of their parents (i.e.,

children of Pakistani diaspora born in Canada). This research opportunity would offer new

insight into the diaspora, particularly young generation views on giving back to their parents’

home country or to giving back to the country of their birth.

And finally, a study on Pakistani women diaspora may uncover interesting aspects

leading to their migration and motivation to support their home country. The role of women in

Pakistan in socio -economic development is still upcoming and out-migration of women mostly

takes place in the context of associational migration, including marriage. Over the years, this

trend is changing, and future studies focusing on Pakistani women diaspora may evoke some

very compelling findings.

Reflections

I have studied and researched the concepts of brain drain and brain gain, and the different

ways in which developing countries can harness diaspora knowledge. Through my literature

review of several articles, I observed that most scholars and researchers studying these topics had

highlighted the power and potential of diaspora toward supporting the developmental initiatives

of their homelands in a significant number of ways (Brinkerhoff, 2007; De Haas, 2006; Gamlen,

2008; Levitt, 2001; Newland, 2010; Newland & Patrick, 2004; Terrazas, 2010). Considering this

information, developing countries and international development agencies have undertaken

individual studies toward incorporating diaspora for development purposes and have

implemented various engagement strategies. The strategic initiatives employed for this process

173

have yielded mixed results, as some have been successful, while others have not achieved their

desired objectives.

Due to the absence of any tried and tested methodologies of engagement, the countries

that took the initiatives have continued to experiment with different methods for such

engagement. Most diaspora studies focused on justifying how the diaspora can benefit their

countries of origin. There was a scarcity of resources that could be used to provide detailed

analysis or synthesis of the results of governments' interventions and engagements with the

diaspora population. Practitioners generally knew that the diaspora had the power and potential

to contribute in positive ways. However, they looked to answer how to best engage with them, as

well as for information on what has worked in the past, so that such engagement could bring

positive value rather than be criticized as an activity of pomp and fanfare.

Furthermore, various developing countries have done most of the work in this space; on

many occasions, the diaspora's views were missing from the research. Many scholars and

policymakers questioned the usefulness of diaspora engagement and its effectiveness in the

absence of a reliable source that could provide lessons of good practices and success stories to

serve as a guide for new initiatives (Mayer, 2008). Additionally, those who criticized the brain

gain phenomenon, as well as diaspora engagement and its effectiveness, expressed concerns that

those migrant-sending countries opportunistically implemented many diaspora strategies at the

prompting of global development agencies. Some critics felt that, in the absence of a clear

direction and vision, many policymakers carelessly deployed engagement concepts, which

greatly affected the sustainability of diaspora strategies (Ho, Boyle, et al., 2015).

Keeping the above reality in view, I undertook this study to understand the views of

Pakistani diaspora based in the GTA on engaging with their home country for knowledge

174

transfer activities, as well as the efforts made and initiatives undertaken by Pakistani government

agencies to engage with their diaspora community. The objective of this study was to make a

small contribution to diaspora studies and seek answers to many unknowns in this space. The

outcome of this study has demonstrated that human mobility has become a key facet of global

integration and most migrants search for better lives for themselves and their families. Many

developing countries have created ways to connect with their diaspora to tap into their

intellectual resources and network. The traditional negative perception of brain drain is now

being challenged. Policymakers, researchers, and other key stakeholders are now viewing the

international movement of skilled workers through the optic of brain gain for the home countries

and suggesting ways for developing countries to adjust to and take advantage of this new

phenomenon.

Policy efforts to curb the movement or mobility of people from one country to another

might lead to unintended costs for the origin countries. Emigration has several overlooked

benefits for the countries of origin; over the past decade, there has been a surge in academic and

policy interest toward studying the contribution of diaspora in furthering national development

objectives in their home countries (Clemens et al., 2014). Based on the findings of this study, it

is evident that Pakistan has a significant opportunity to tap into its more than seven million

diaspora spread across the world. The perspectives of the respondents in this study on giving

back to Pakistan were overwhelmingly positive; they have ongoing passion and love for the

country, as well as unwavering determination and enthusiasm for sharing their knowledge for its

betterment.

The results of my study have indicated that there is a dire need for policymakers in

Pakistan to create, in partnership with their diaspora, a carefully planned, thoughtful, and robust

175

program for systematically engaging with their diaspora beyond remittances. There is an urgent

need for a country like Pakistan, which has a huge talent shortage, to conceive of and design

innovative ways to engage the diaspora in applying their skills and sharing their resources toward

the country’s socio-economic development.

Developing countries’ shift in thinking from brain drain to brain gain, along with the

rapid advancement of technology, has set the stage to harness the huge potential of well trained

and educated overseas Pakistanis in contributing to their home country. It is critical for

policymakers, academics, scholars, and civil society leaders in Pakistan to start viewing overseas

Pakistanis as more than a source of remittances; they should also be viewed as a source of

considerable knowledge transfer that can, in the short term, bridge existing skills and knowledge

gaps and, in the long term, strengthen institutions and build capacity for economic growth and

development.

This exploratory study aimed to understand and seek the views of the diaspora population

toward home country engagement. The literature review revealed that, while framing diaspora

engagement strategies, developing countries paid less attention to the diaspora’s views, even

though they are key stakeholders in the engagement process. This study has not included views

of the diaspora who have physically returned to Pakistan after spending several years abroad.

Future research on the views of those who have returned to Pakistan can be useful to understand

their motivations for going back and how they were accepted in their homeland.

Many countries in the developing world have successfully engaged their diaspora and

have created a road map toward their engagement. However, the literature revealed that

policymakers are experimenting with different methods of engagement as the spectrum of such

policy initiatives is wide (Chen et al., 2014). However, one thing is clear: diaspora once spurned

176

by many homeland governments as defectors are now being honoured by the same countries as

national heroes and being bestowed with awards and recognition. They have a huge potential to

contribute to their country of origin.

Pakistan needs to sow the seeds of change now for future generations. It is time that

Pakistan took the initiative to mobilize its citizens abroad for socio-economic development and

nation-building. The present government’s Naya Pakistan (New Pakistan) vision can immensely

benefit from diaspora engagement, and it is heartening to see that it has started to think along

these lines. Although the journey has begun, with the determined involvement of key actors,

sound policies, and a positive attitude from all sides, a lot can be achieved by tapping this huge

talent resource.

Impact of COVID 19

Implications of the COVID 19 crisis and the role of diaspora in supporting their

home countries.

While this research study was conducted prior to the global pandemic, at the time of

writing this final chapter of my thesis, the entire world is facing a viral pandemic, COVID 19,

which has changed the world and has created a global impact. The speed of virus spreading, and

the scale of its impact is unprecedented in our lifetimes. Thousands of people have lost their lives

across the world. Millions have been infected and are struggling for life. Many cities and

countries are locked down, educational institutions are closed indefinitely, economies have

plunged into recession, and millions have lost their jobs. The best health care systems have

reached a breaking point, and people all over the world are in a deep crisis.

Educational institutions have rapidly moved and transitioned to online instruction

platforms so that students can continue to learn safely. The virus is still prevalent, and lockdown

177

continues, and no one can predict when the viral spread will end and how much damage it will

cause. Tens of millions of workers are in quarantine and self-isolation. The world has come to a

halt, and international travel is almost impossible. Panic amongst people is spreading faster than

the actual virus. Global platforms and social media are amplifying uncertainties and spreading

misinformation.

Against these realities, people are thinking about life after COVID-19, and many predict

that life before and after the Coronavirus will be quite different. There is a general feeling that

besides the health care and life sciences industry, the other clear winning industry will be

technology firms and their products (Morwa, 2020). There has already been a surge in the usage

of smart devices and an increased demand for additional bandwidth and cloud storage. These

demands of services and provisions are likely to be the trend in the future after the virus crisis is

over. Companies like Amazon, Google, LinkedIn, Facebook, and Microsoft are fairing well and

are expected to make more inroads and see increase demands of their products and services.

What does all this mean for the role of diaspora in development?

COVID-19 will have a considerable consequence, particularly for a developing country

like Pakistan, which was already struggling on the economic front with all its broader

macroeconomic indicators showing declining trends. After the COVID-19 crisis, Pakistan, like

many other developing countries, is likely to experience a substantial downward trend in its

overseas remittances and an increase in inflation and poverty. Many of its low skilled workers

who were sending remittances from the Gulf countries are facing job losses and have already

started returning to their home country Pakistan.

The governments of developing countries will have enormous challenges to rebuild the

country post coronavirus crisis; this is where I believe the knowledge diaspora will be able to

178

play a crucial role. Knowledge is the key driver for development, and a country like Pakistan

after going through the pains of COVID-19 will need unparalleled support from overseas

Pakistanis, particularly in the shape of their knowledge, ideas, connections and other support.

Once the normal life resumes and countries become virus-free, the rebuilding and reconstruction

of developing countries will make the diaspora engagement for knowledge transfer, not an option

but perhaps a critical requirement.

179

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Appendix A

Interview Protocol

Note: Non-leading follow up questions/probes will be used as appropriate to increase

understanding of the responses.

1. When did you migrate to Canada?

2. What encouraged you to make the decision to migrate?

3. How often do you visit Pakistan?

4. When were you last in Pakistan?

5. How are you connected with other Pakistanis in Canada?

6. Have you ever supported Pakistan in any cause, financially or otherwise, after migrating to

Canada?

7. Do you have any existing connection or relationship with any organization in Pakistan

where you are sharing your knowledge or expertise? If yes, can you please describe how

the relationship was created? Who took the initiative? What has been your experience? Are

you satisfied with your engagement?

8. What are your thoughts about sharing your time and knowledge with the home country?

9. Do you think diaspora can contribute in some ways to Pakistan for its development? If yes

in what ways?

10. Many developing countries are utilizing diaspora knowledge for development, have you

ever been approached by any institution from Pakistan to share your knowledge with

Pakistan’s public or private sector?

11. If someone approaches you to share your knowledge what will be your reaction?

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12. Would it make a difference if you are sharing knowledge with a government agency,

business, or not-for-profit organization?

13. What will be your decision if you are asked to share your knowledge with your alma mater,

former employers or with any government agency?

14. If you decide to share the knowledge how would you do this? Would you return

permanently, or will you offer short-term visits?

15. Will you be open to using technology to share knowledge (e.g., creating a webinar,

teaching an online course, hosting Skype mentoring sessions)?

16. Any other thoughts/observations? Do you think it is a good idea to probe and research this

topic?

17. Will you ever consider relocating back to Pakistan? What three conditions do you think are

necessary to encourage diaspora to move back to Pakistan?

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Appendix B

Recruitment Message by Pakistani Professional Forum

Subject: Request for Participation in Research Study

Dear PPF Member,

One of our members is pursuing his PhD at the University of Toronto and is studying how

diaspora members can be engaged by their Home Country for developmental purposes. This

project makes special reference to Pakistan and takes an interest in members of the

Pakistani diaspora. As part of his studies/research, he is interviewing members of the

Pakistani diaspora who have settled in the GTA. He has made the following request for

participation.

“Hello, my name is Navroz Surani and I am currently pursuing my PhD at the University of

Toronto (OISE). My area of specialization is Diaspora Studies and my dissertation focuses

on how brain drain can be converted to brain gain through the engagement of diaspora

communities. I am researching this subject with special reference to Pakistan and the

Pakistani diaspora.

My research engages overseas Pakistanis settled in the GTA (the diaspora) on what role, if

any, the diaspora can play to support their home country. I would like to specifically probe

what will motivate diaspora to share their time and knowledge to support their home

countries. As part of this research, I am interviewing Pakistani professionals who are settled

in the GTA.

As a participant in the research, you will be asked to participate in a one-hour, in-person,

one-on-one interview. I invite you to volunteer as part of this important study, which will

hopefully create an awareness amongst the policy makers in Pakistan on the potential of

diaspora engagement. Your participation will be purely voluntary, and I have pledged to

keep the data confidential and only to report aggregate results in my findings.

If you have any question, please feel free to ask. If you are interested in participating

please send an e mail to me at Navroz.surani@mail.utoronto.ca by --------. Participation

will be on a first-come, first-served basis, and if I receive more than the required

participants by the due date, selection will made through a ballot. This study has been

approved by the Research Ethics Board at the University of Toronto.

Thank you for your time and interest in this important endeavour.

Navroz Surani

PhD Candidate, Higher Education

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), University of Toronto

Phone 416 230 7015 (cell)

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Appendix C

Ethics Approval

200

Appendix D

Informed Consent

This form will be given at the time of the interview

Note to Participant: Thank you for agreeing to participate in the research study which I am undertaking as part of my studies at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto. My study is called “Turning Brain Drain into Brain Gain – Harnessing Pakistan’s Skilled Diaspora” This is a study that solicits the perspectives of overseas Pakistanis

(diaspora) who live and work in the GTA. This study is part of my dissertation, which is a

requirement towards a PhD degree in Higher Education from the University of Toronto. My

Thesis Supervisor is Professor Angela Hildyard, in the department of Leadership, Adult and

Higher Education at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto.

Purpose: As you may know, developing countries like Pakistan are facing a huge shortage of

skilled talent. Many professionals have migrated to the West leaving a huge skills and

knowledge shortage in many developing countries. Some countries like China, India and a few

African countries have creatively engaged its diaspora to share resources and knowledge with

their homelands. International Development agencies, policy makers and researchers see a huge

opportunity for developing countries to engage creatively with their diaspora who can help them

in many ways. Pakistan has over 7 million diaspora population spread across different

continents. I want to study what will take to engage Pakistani diaspora and who amongst the

diaspora are more likely to engage in such an endeavor.

Study Procedures: My research is qualitative in nature and the information will be collected by

me personally by conducting interviews with the participants. This will take approximately one

hour of your time and can be longer or shorter as per your schedule and interest. I will audio-

record the entire interview and will send you the transcript for you to review and revise as you

see fit. The audio-recording will be erased immediately after the recording is transcribed by me.

Voluntary Participation: There is no obligation for you to participate in this study.

Participation is completely voluntary. You are free to decline to answer any question(s) you do

not wish to answer or if you would like a break in the discussion, just let me know. You may

withdraw from the study anytime without explanation by ending the interview or later letting me

know by any means. If you withdraw before data aggregation is begun all the information you

provided will be deleted and not included in this study. If you wish to withdraw after data

aggregation has begun, it will not be possible to delete your input.

201

Confidentiality & Anonymity: The transcript of our interview will be produced by me and kept

on my password-protected laptop to which only I have access. Your name as a participant will

remain confidential and you will be given a non-identifiable pseudonym in the dissertation and

other reporting of the findings in publications or professional conferences. All hard copies of

transcripts or data will be kept secure in a locked space in my office. All identifiable electronic

information outside of a secure server environment will be encrypted, consistent with UT’s data

security and encryption standards available at:

http://www.research.utoronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/documents/2013/05/datasecurity1.pdf

All data will be accessible only to my Thesis Supervisor and me.

Questions? If you have additional questions about the research study, please let me know at

navroz.surani@mail.utoronto.ca or phone 416 230 7015 or Professor Hildyard at

angela.hildyard@utoronto.ca or phone no. 416 978 5710)

If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant please contact the Ethics

Office (ethics.review@utoronto.ca, 416-946-3273).

Please Note: The research study you will be participating in may be reviewed for quality

assurance to make sure that the required laws and guidelines are followed. If chosen, (a)

representative(s) of the Human Research Ethics Program (HREP) may access study-related data

and/or consent materials as part of the review. All information accessed by the HREP will be

upheld to the same level of confidentiality that has been stated by the research team.”

Consent Statement: By signing below, I indicate that I have read and understood this form and

that the research study has been explained to me. I also indicate that I consent to have the

interview audio-recorded and transcribed. I agree that I have been given the opportunity to ask

questions and my questions have been answered. If I have additional questions, I have been told

whom to contact. I agree to participate in the research study described above and will receive a

copy of this consent form. I will receive a copy of this consent form after I sign it.

______________________________________________ Participant’s Name (print)

______________________________________________ _______________ Participant’s Signature Date _______________________________________________ _______________ Signature of the Principal Investigator Date