By: MAYOBy: MAYO

Philosophes

• Writers and critics who forged the new attitudes favorable to change, who championed reform and who flourished in the emerging print culture

Reading During the Enlightenment

► Literacy: - 80% for men; 60 % for - 80% for men; 60 % for women.women.

► Books were expensive (one day’s Books were expensive (one day’s wages)wages)

► Many readers for each book (20 : Many readers for each book (20 : 1)1) - novels, plays & other - novels, plays & other literature.literature. - journals, memoirs, “private - journals, memoirs, “private lives.”lives.” - philosophy, history, theology. - philosophy, history, theology. - newspapers, political - newspapers, political pamphlets.pamphlets.

An Increase in Reading

The 18th Century

► Political History -->>> Political History -->>> Reform

► Intellectual History --> Intellectual History --> Reason

► Cultural History --> Cultural History --> Individualism

► Social History --> Social History --> Increased Literacy ---- Age of Aristocracy

► Economic History --> Economic History --> Mercantilism to Capitalism

18th Century Politics► BRITAIN --– Constitutional --– Constitutional MonarchyMonarchy

► FRANCE --> Royal Absolutism --> Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious (cultural and religious unity)unity)

► PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA --– “Enlightened --– “Enlightened Despotism”Despotism”

► OTTOMAN EMPIRE –-- traditional –-- traditional empire empire

The Origins of Enlightenment?► POLITICALPOLITICAL::

revulsion against political revulsion against political abuses abuses arising in the 1680s arising in the 1680s - James II --– - James II --– CatholicizationCatholicization & & the return of the return of absolutismabsolutism inin England. England. - Louis XIV --– revoked the - Louis XIV --– revoked the Edict of Nantes Edict of Nantes (persecution(persecution of the of the HuguenotsHuguenots).).

The Origins of Enlightenment?

► POLITICALPOLITICAL::

Resolved in England by:Resolved in England by: - Glorious Revolution - Glorious Revolution - new political party -- - new political party -- WhigsWhigs - John Locke became - John Locke became thethe “prophet” of this “prophet” of this new pol./new pol./ intellectual intellectual movement.movement.

John Locke (1632-1704)

► Letter on Letter on TolerationToleration, , 1689 1689 ► Two Treatises Two Treatises ofof Government Government, , 16901690 ► Some ThoughtsSome Thoughts Concerning Concerning Education Education, 1693, 1693► The The ReasonablenessReasonableness of Christianity of Christianity, , 16951695

John Locke’s Philosophy (I)

► The individual must become a The individual must become a “rational“rational creature.” creature.”► Virtue can be learned and practiced.Virtue can be learned and practiced.► Human beings possess free will.Human beings possess free will. - they should be prepared for - they should be prepared for freedom.freedom. - obedience should be out of - obedience should be out of conviction,conviction, not out of fear. not out of fear.► Legislators owe their power to a Legislators owe their power to a contractcontract with the peoplewith the people..► Neither kings nor wealth are divinely Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained. ordained.

John Locke’s Philosophy (II)

► There are certain natural rights There are certain natural rights that are that are endowed by God to all human endowed by God to all human beings. beings. - - life, liberty, property!life, liberty, property!► The doctrine of the Divine Right The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was nonsense.of Kings was nonsense.► He favored a republic as the best He favored a republic as the best form of government.form of government.

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

► Common Common SenseSense, 1776, 1776

► The Rights of The Rights of ManMan,, 1791 1791

The American “Philosophes”

John AdamsJohn Adams(1745-(1745-1826)1826)

Ben FranklinBen Franklin(1706-1790)(1706-1790)

ThomasThomasJeffersonJefferson(1743-(1743-1826)1826)……...…life, liberty, and the pursuit ...…life, liberty, and the pursuit

of happiness…………...of happiness…………...

The Origins of Enlightenment?

► SCIENTIFICSCIENTIFIC::

Science presented new Science presented new standards for arriving at the standards for arriving at the truth.truth. - it stood for - it stood for philosophicalphilosophical elegance (the elegance (the elimination of any abstract elimination of any abstract notion for whichnotion for which no physical reality no physical reality seemed to exist).seemed to exist).

The Origins of Enlightenment?

► SCIENTIFICSCIENTIFIC::

Newton’s system was Newton’s system was synonymoussynonymous with the empirical and the with the empirical and the practical.practical.

Scientific laws could be Scientific laws could be expressed as universal expressed as universal mathematical formulas.mathematical formulas.

Science allowed alternatives to beScience allowed alternatives to be imagined in everything from imagined in everything from politicspolitics to religion. to religion.

The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

Zoology & Biology

A dissection at the Royal A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.Academy, London.

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

Natural History Collections

► Cocoa plant drawing.Cocoa plant drawing.

► Sir Hans SloaneSir Hans Sloane (1660-1753). (1660-1753).

► collected from Jamaica.collected from Jamaica.

Natural History Collections

James Petiver’s BeetlesJames Petiver’s Beetles(London apothecary)(London apothecary)

Private Collections

The Origins of Modern The Origins of Modern Museums.Museums.

The Origins of Enlightenment?► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

physico-theologyphysico-theology –-- an –-- an attempt attempt inspired by science to explain inspired by science to explain God’s providence by reference God’s providence by reference to his work in nature & not to his work in nature & not primarily through his biblical primarily through his biblical Word.Word. support of a “rational” support of a “rational” religion, freereligion, free from mysteries, miracles, and from mysteries, miracles, and superstitions. superstitions.

The Origins of Enlightenment?► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

DeismDeism - The belief in the existence - The belief in the existence of aof a God or supreme being but God or supreme being but aa denial of revealed denial of revealed religion, basing one’s belief on religion, basing one’s belief on the the lightlight of nature and reasonof nature and reason.. Deists saw no point in any Deists saw no point in any particularparticular religion; they recognized only a religion; they recognized only a distant God uninvolved in the distant God uninvolved in the daily life of man.daily life of man.

The Origins of Enlightenment?► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

UnitarianismUnitarianism - very simple church - very simple church ceremonies,ceremonies, a simplified doctrine a simplified doctrine centeringcentering on the belief in one God, on the belief in one God, notnot the Trinity, and on the the Trinity, and on the rightright of each individual to of each individual to fashionfashion his or her own his or her own understandingunderstanding of a spiritual life.of a spiritual life.

The Origins of Enlightenment?► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

Gradually, highly educated Gradually, highly educated Prots.Prots. & Caths. thought more about & Caths. thought more about God’s work as revealed God’s work as revealed throughthrough science, than through the science, than through the Scriptures.Scriptures.

PantheismPantheism - The belief that God and - The belief that God and nature are one and the nature are one and the same.same.

BIG DEBATE: Religion v. Reason► The Enlightenment did The Enlightenment did NOTNOT banish banish

religionreligion and superstition. and superstition.

► They existed side by side –-- one often They existed side by side –-- one often provided justification for the other.provided justification for the other.

► Clergy played an important role in the Clergy played an important role in the training of scientists & philosophers. training of scientists & philosophers. (many were active in the field (many were active in the field themselves!)themselves!)

► Voltaire fought for those accused of Voltaire fought for those accused of heresy.heresy.

► The The EncyclopedieEncyclopedie used covert topic used covert topic headings to address religion critically.headings to address religion critically.

What is “Enlightenment?”

ReasonReason& Logic& Logic

TraditionsTraditionsandand

SuperstitionsSuperstitions

Immanuel Kant –-- Immanuel Kant –-- DARE TO DARE TO KNOW!KNOW!

Immanuel Kant –-- Immanuel Kant –-- DARE TO DARE TO KNOW!KNOW!

rationalisrationalismm

empiricisempiricismm tolerancetoleranceskepticisskepticismm DeismDeism

nostalgia for nostalgia for the the past past organized organized religionsreligions irrationalismirrationalism emotionalismemotionalism

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

► Critique of Pure Critique of Pure Reason Reason, 1781, 1781

► “ “What is What is Enlightenment?”, Enlightenment?”, 17841784

Centers of the Enlightenment

Why Study the Enlightenment?1.Its values –-- autonomous & –-- autonomous &

free use of one’s own free use of one’s own reason,reason, toleration, toleration, progress &progress & questioning questioning authority.authority.

2.Assumptions –-- –-- perfectibility of all humans; perfectibility of all humans; reliability of the evidence of reliability of the evidence of the senses & instruments of the senses & instruments of measurement.measurement.

Why Study the Enlightenment?3.Practices –-- technological –-- technological

treatment of nature.treatment of nature.

4.Institutions –-- scientific –-- scientific institutes, institutes, centralized centralized states, &states, & technocratic technocratic experts.experts.

5.Debate: – – Religious Values v. Religious Values v. Secular ValuesSecular Values

A Parisian Salon

A Parisian Salon

The Salonnieres

Madame Madame GeoffrinGeoffrin

(1699-1777)(1699-1777)MademoiselleMademoiselle

Julie de Julie de LespinasseLespinasse

(1732*-1776)(1732*-1776)

MadameMadameSuzanne Suzanne NeckerNecker

(1739-1794)(1739-1794)

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794)

► The Decline The Decline andand Fall of the Fall of the Roman Roman EmpireEmpire,, 1787. 1787.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

Diderot’s Encyclopédie

The Encyclopédie ► Complete cycle of Complete cycle of knowledge……change the knowledge……change the general way of thinking.general way of thinking.

► 28 volumes.28 volumes.

► Alphabetical, cross-Alphabetical, cross-referenced,referenced, illustrated. illustrated.

► First published in 1751.First published in 1751.

► 1500 1500 livreslivres a set. a set.

Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

The “Republic of Letters”

► URBAN –-- gathering of –-- gathering of elites in the cities. elites in the cities. (salons)(salons)

► URBANE --– --– cosmopolitancosmopolitan, , worldlyworldly - music, art, literature, - music, art, literature, politicspolitics - read newspapers & the - read newspapers & the latestlatest books. books.

► POLITENESS –-- proper –-- proper behaviorbehavior - self-governed. - self-governed.

Alexander Pope

• English poet who contributed to political thought, love of language

• “Good books have the power to sustain and improve us”

• Grew up with a love of the classics and desire for self education

• Wrote in rhymed iambic pentameter•Fools rush in where angels fear to tread

•Hope springs eternal in the human breast

•To err is human, to forgive divine

•A little learning is a dangerous thing

Jonathan Swift

• Satirist who seemed to hate the human race, actually just hated injustice

• Gulliver’s Travels– Biting satire on the state of England

•Irish Tory

•Strong supporter of Monarchy and Anglican church

•Wrote – A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland from Being a Burden to Their Parents or Country, and for making Them beneficial to the Public

“Must Read” Books of the Time

The Philosophe► polymathic --– broad --– broad knowledgeknowledge

► autonomous –-- –-- beholden to beholden to no one.no one.

► sociable –-- –-- worked with worked with other other philosophesphilosophes..

► moral obligation –-- –-- improve society.improve society. - find the most just and - find the most just and efficientefficient “systems.” (economic, “systems.” (economic, political,political, social) social)

Voltaire (1712-1778)

► Essay on the Essay on the CustomsCustoms and Spirit of and Spirit of NationsNations, , 1756 1756

► CandideCandide, 1759, 1759

► Philosophical Philosophical DictionaryDictionary,, 1764 1764

VOLTAIRE

•French

•Deist

•Wrote Candide

•“Crush The Infamous Thing” (referred to the Catholic Church)

•Those who can make you believe absurditiescan make you commit atrocities.

VoltaireAuthor and Philosopher

1694 - 1778

Candide

Published in 1759, Candide is considered Voltaire’s signature work, and it is here that he levels his sharpest criticism against nobility, philosophy, the church, and cruelty. Though often considered a representative text of the Enlightenment, the novel actually savagely satires a number of Enlightenment philosophies and demonstrates that the Enlightenment was a far from monolithic movement

It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong.-- Voltaire (attributed: source unknown

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (I)

► Every man is guilty of all the Every man is guilty of all the good he good he didn’t do. didn’t do.► God is a comedian playing to an God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh.audience too afraid to laugh.► If God did not exist, it would be If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him.necessary to invent him.► It is dangerous to be right It is dangerous to be right when the when the government is wrong. government is wrong.► Love truth and pardon error.Love truth and pardon error.

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (II)

► Judge of a man by his questions Judge of a man by his questions rather thanrather than by his answers. by his answers.► Men are equal; it is not birth, but Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtuevirtue that makes the difference. that makes the difference.► Prejudice is opinion without judgment.Prejudice is opinion without judgment.► The way to become boring is to say The way to become boring is to say everything. everything.► I may not agree with what you I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.death your right to say it.

The Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

► Persian Persian LettersLetters, , 1721 1721

► On the Spirit On the Spirit of of Laws Laws, 1758, 1758

The Physiocrats: A Celebration of the Farmer

► An economic theory which An economic theory which considered considered that the wealth of nations was that the wealth of nations was derivedderived solely from agriculture. solely from agriculture.

► They strongly opposed They strongly opposed mercantilism,mercantilism, because they pictured the because they pictured the peasantpeasant society as the economic society as the economic foundation offoundation of a nation’s wealth.a nation’s wealth.

► Adam SmithAdam Smith - 1776 --– - 1776 --– The Wealth of The Wealth of NationsNations

Profit motive.Profit motive. Division of labor.Division of labor. Private ownership ofPrivate ownership of property. property. Law of Supply & Law of Supply & Demand.Demand. Law of Competition.Law of Competition. Free trade.Free trade.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

► Discourse on theDiscourse on the Arts & Sciences Arts & Sciences, , 17511751

► EmileEmile, 1762, 1762

► The Social The Social ContractContract,, 1762 1762

Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786)

► 1712 -– 1786.1712 -– 1786.

► Succeeded his Succeeded his father, Frederick father, Frederick William IWilliam I (the “Soldier (the “Soldier King”).King”). He saw himself He saw himself as the “First as the “First Servant of the Servant of the State.”State.”

Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)

► German German PrincessPrincess Sophie Sophie FriederikeFriederike Auguste of Auguste of Anhalt- Anhalt-Zerbst.Zerbst.

► 1729 -– 1729 -– 1796.1796.

1767: Catherine summons 1767: Catherine summons thethe Legislative Legislative CommissionCommission..1768-1774: 1768-1774: Russo-Turkish WarRusso-Turkish War.. 1771-1775: 1771-1775: Pugachev RebellionPugachev Rebellion isis suppressed. suppressed. 1772: First partition of 1772: First partition of Poland.Poland. 1785: 1785: Charter of NobilityCharter of Nobility.. 1793: Second partition of 1793: Second partition of Poland.Poland. 1795: Third partition of 1795: Third partition of Poland.Poland.

Reformer? OR Despot?

The Partitions of Poland

- - 17721772

- - 17931793

- - 17951795

Russian Expansionism in the 18c

Joseph II of Austria (r. 1765-1790)

► 1741 -– 1741 -– 1790.1790.

► His mother His mother waswas Maria Maria Theresa.Theresa.

1772: First partition of Poland.1772: First partition of Poland.1778-1779: He failed to annex 1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria toBavaria to Austrian lands. Austrian lands. 1781: Declared the 1781: Declared the Toleration Toleration PatentPatent.. 1781: 1781: Abolition of serfdom and Abolition of serfdom and

feudal dues. feudal dues. 1785: He failed to exchange the 1785: He failed to exchange the AustriaAustria Netherlands for Bavaria. Netherlands for Bavaria. 1787-1792: Aus. joined Rus. in the 1787-1792: Aus. joined Rus. in the Russo-Russo- Turkish War, but little was Turkish War, but little was gained.gained. 1795: Third partition of Poland. 1795: Third partition of Poland.

Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

1.1.The democratic revolutions The democratic revolutions begun in America in 1776 begun in America in 1776 and continued in and continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in Paris in the late especially in Paris in the late 1780s, put every Western 1780s, put every Western government on the government on the defensive.defensive.

2.2.Reform, democracy, and Reform, democracy, and republicanism had been republicanism had been placed irrevocably on the placed irrevocably on the Western agenda.Western agenda.

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

3.3.New forms of civil society New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs, salons, arose –-- clubs, salons, fraternals, private academies, fraternals, private academies, lending libraries, and lending libraries, and professional/scientific professional/scientific organizations.organizations.4.4.19c conservatives blamed it 19c conservatives blamed it for the modern “egalitarian for the modern “egalitarian disease” (once reformers disease” (once reformers began to criticize established began to criticize established institutions, they didn’t know institutions, they didn’t know where and when to stop!)where and when to stop!)

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

5.5. It established a materialistic It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the naturalistic account of the human condition (the human condition (the “Religion of Nature”“Religion of Nature”).).

6.6.Theoretically endowed with full Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, the civil and legal rights, the individualindividual had come into had come into existence as a political and existence as a political and social force to be reckoned social force to be reckoned with.with.