THE NATtRE OF POVERTY

Aca:mnIMJ 1'0

BASIL. O}O' CABSAREA

by

Dolores M. Rieden, B. A.

A Thede submitt.ed to the Faculty o f the Graduate School, Marquette University, in

Partial Fulfillment o f the Re­quirements f or the Degree

of Master o f Arts

Milwaukee, Wieconein April, 1910

PREFACE

The purpo.se o f this study is to ~termine the natura of

poverty as presented in the 1 i f e and m:itings or Sa int Basil of

Caesarea. An investigation o f :the hed.tage and environment o f

&u~il is undertaken in order to determine the influence of these

on the ooneept of povel!'ty as lived in his own lif e and as p re­

sented in his writings addressed to all Christians and those

specif ically addressed to m.onks.. An attempt is made to deter­

mine the rela tionship betw~n the poverty dema.ndedof all

ChJdstians and that required of those who embrace 'the soonaatic

lire. In conclusion, an aasessment is made of the unique oon-

tribution of Basil to the understanding and practice ot QIOnaatic

poverty and his inf luence on subsequent monastic practice and

1 egisla tion.

I w!ab to thank t.he faculty ·of the Theology Department

of Marquette University. the committee reading this work. and

especially Bernard Cooke , under 'whose inspiration and guidance

this study was begun . Special gratitude is also due to the

Sisters of Saint Dominic of Racine; Wisconsin, who made possible

this researcb, and to Mavis Might for heir invaluable assistance.

1'ABLS, OF CX>N"lBNTS

Chapter I . LtrrE AND tm ITIN3S OF SAINT BAS I I.. . .' .

It . nm ASCETIC AND mNASTIC LIFE PRIM 'TO

• • • • • • • • • Pag~

1

SAXNT BASt;,.. • • • ,. • " • . ' • " • • • • • •• • • • •• 10

III. POVERl'Y m '1'lm LIFE AND WR ttImS OF

IV.

SAINT BASIL. '. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

POv~ny as a Fol'lli , o f Ascetici .. ~manded Q'£ AU Cbrb'tla.ns

Seriptul:al Basis Iutern.."\l and E1cternal Poverty Ae Renuncia. Uon As a Means to Po:tdtive Virtue

Mbna_tle Poverty

• • • • •

Question 0 :£ the Vow o~ Povel'ty a a Legislated tor in the "Rules" of Saint Basil

COr«::t.US%QN • • •• • • • • • • '. • .. • • .'

lklique Contribution o f Ba.U to tb."" Underatan<ling and Praetic~ of MoMatic Po~rty

lnt),uenee of Basil on Subsequent Monaatie Practice and L4gblation

. . . . .. . .

17

S4

CHAPTER I

tHE LIFE ANI> WR ITn«;S OF SAINT BASIL

I~ is t.pGrtant to. begin this study with a brief aurvey

o.f 'lbe I1f.1 o.f saint Ba.il since hie faaily backgro.und and

enviro.naent .ignificantly affected hi. thinking and wri tino o.n

the aac.dc Ute and in particular hi. attitude toward _terial

good. with which this paper is pdllAdly concented. Born into an

ITbe biographical aat.rial coDtained h.r. is drawn pd.ar-11y tl'Oll tbe fo.llo.wing work.: Saint Ba.il. L.ttere. Vo.I •• · I and II~ tl'an •• Si.t.eX' Agnee Clare Way (New Yo.rk: Fathers o.f the Church, I.nc •• 1951. 1955) J St. Gregory Nuianaen, 't)n St. Ba.11 the 01''''.'' F-m.ral Oratio.n. b St. Gr r Nazianz.n and St. AIIbrc) ••• tran •• Leo p. McCauley, hn J. Sull van, Martin MCGulr. and Roy J. Deferrad. (New Yo.l'k t Fa,her. o.f the Church, Inc •• 1953); St. Gregory o.f Ny .... I1nco.iWl o.f St. GregorYt 8iebpp o.f Hy •• ,o.n Hi. Bzoth.r St. Ba.U, Archbiehop o.f CappadoC an Cae.al'ea, tl'an •• and CODaentary sl.t.x J .... Alo.ydus SteIn . ( waaiiLi9ton. D. C. I Ca. tbolic Uni'Vu.i ty o.f AIIedca Pre... 1928); St. Gregory o.f Ny .... '''the Life of St. Macrina." St. Gr.xy o.f Nyssa, Aac.tical Work., trans. Virpinia Woods Callahan. (Washing­ton, D. C.I 'lbe Catholic Univ.rsity o.f Aaerica Pr •••• 1961).

Froa the aboVe work. the principl •• vent. in the life of Ba.il can be dtablished, but not thed8taU. which have y.t to be the object of a critical biographical .tudy. Oth.r work. which hAve pmve<1 h.lpful t G. Bardy, "Basil. de <=*.ar'.," Dictionnaire d'Hi.toir. et d.G r hi. kcldia.tl U., eel. A. Baudrillart,

1932 . • 1111.112 aW. K. L. Clarke, t. Ba.il the Great I a Studf in Mona.,ici.a (Caabri.dge: c ... bridge onlverd.ty Pr ... , 1913 , JObD Henry Newman, Ht.to.ria1 Sk.tcbe., Pargoire, j. J

Vol. II (N ... Yo.riu Longaan., Green, and COiiPany, 1840); "Ba.i1e de C ........ " DicUonnabe d'Ar~l 1. Chr'Uenne et de Litu te ad. F. Cabral and H. Leclercq, II 1910), SOl .. SlO.

2

aristocratic and distinguished family Basil enjoyed an · especially

favorable heritage and an exceptional environment. Both parents

were from families of wealth and position. Gregory Nazianzen

\'I%'i testhat no family was more often nor more highly distinguished

for military OOJlll11and$, high civil oftices, power in imperial

courts, wealth, lotty throne., public honors, and splendors of

e loquence. 2 More important was his spiritual descent. "The

distinguishing character of both his mother's and his father's

fall1ily was piety • • •• "3 As an instance of this piety Gregory

points out · how both fall1ilies, sui'fering in the persecution of

Maciminus, went into the i'orests of the Pontic Mountains for an

exile oi' seven years during which tiae they endured distre ••

ben_1h the open sky, in cold, heat, and rain without fr'iends or

social intercourse. Basil's father, a lawyer of eloquence and

erudi t1on, was also distinguished as a teacher who "surpassed all

in virtue."4 He married Rtaiaelia who was equally renowned tor

nobili ty of character and her co_i tIIent to the Christian life.

Gregory~ites that 'llthe union oi' his parents in a OODlllllOn .steelll

of virtue • • • was evidenced in many ways, notably in their care

ot the poor,their hospitality toward strangers., their pud.:ty of

soul, achieved through austed ty, the dedication of a portion of

their goods to God •••• ,,5 Considering this .taraUy milieu 11:

2Grfa90ry Nazianzen, 't)n St. Basil the Great," p. 29.

3Ibid.. p. 30.

4Ibidi, p. 34.

SIb1d" p. 33.

3

does not seem strange that Basil and h i. brothers and sisters

should be persons of outstanding gifts; Macrina, the eldest daugh­

ter, turned to a life of asceticism after t he death of her t iance.

Her style o f life had a signif icant effect on that of Basil, as

will be seen later. A brothe~Naucratius, was killed while

hunting after spending five years in a lite ot "monasticio and

pover~y. ,,6 The youngest eons, Gregory and Peter, became bishops

of Nyssa and Sebaste reepectively.

As a young boy Basil's edUCAtion, received at the hands ot

his mother and grandmother, was essentially spiritual and concen_

trated on studies in Scripture. 7 As he grew older his training

fell increasingly to his father who undertook to educate him in

the best secular tradition. In a day when many Christians tended

to despise secular education and lette~ Gregory Nazianzen

represents Basil's father as a tervent Christian who, liberally

educated himself, saw to it that his sons were brought up in the

same tradition. Thus Basil's "c,k>uble education" began at an early

age. (This tera dates troll Fialon who wrote. "If Saint Basil i.

one of the IIOs1: original types ot ·the new spirit which effected

the alliance of Greek and the Orient, it aust be due principally

to the double education which he received--on the one hand in the

faaily, in the Church, and in solitude; the other in the schools

of the graJllla:tians, the rhetoricians and the philosophers. The

Church prepared the theologian and the great bishop; the schools,

Eoregory of Nys'sa, "The Lite ot Saint Macrina," p. 168.

7aasu, ~ CCXXIII.

4

the thinker and the great orator. tl )S When he had been suff iciently

instructed at hOlle he went to Caesarea, aetropolis of letters, to

continue his studies in oratory and philosophy. It may have been

here that his famous friendship with Gregory NAzianzen began. It

i. from Gregory's funeral oration on Basil that we receive the

most direct, though undoubtedly rather highly embellished, informa-

tion concerning this period. He next went to Byzantium, famed for

its accomplished rhetoricians and philosophers. Quickly exhausting

it. resources he moved on to Athens. Lasting froa 351-355, the

years in Athens were some of the most formative of his life. In

Athens, a city "harmful in general to the things of the soul, It

t~ ways were familiar to Basil and Gregory I the first leading

them to their sacred buildings and the _sters there; the second

to their secular teachers. They imaersed themselves in a life of

intensive study from which the enticing pleasures even of Athens

could not draw them. Although he studied largely in the pagan

authors at this time it is a tribute to his earlier religious atudy

and upbringing that he was so well able to assimilate the two

areas in his writings.

At the end of the Athenian period the avenues open to Basil

as a man of great learning and property were practically unUaited.

It proved to be a time of critical decisiveness for him. His

brother, Gregory of Nyssa, in his "Life of Saint Macrina" gives us

an insight into his spiritual state at this point of returning hoae

I / SE. Fialon , Etude Litteraire sur Saint Basile (Paris:

1861), p. 7. ---

from school. '~e was excessivelY puffed ' up by his rhetorical

abilities and disdainf ul o f all great reputations, and considered

himself better than the leading men in the district . ,,9 At this

point Macrina persuaded her mother to give up her customary and

ostentatious manner of living and the services of her maids in

5

order to enter into a common life with them in which they would all

live as sisters in a life of retirement and simplicity. It was

perhaps her example which enabled Basil to make the decision to

break resolutely from every pUblic career which stood 'open to him,

to become baptized and to begin to live an ascetic life . The

family tradition, the impression made on him by monks in his

travels, earlier ascetic movements in his own homeland may also

have influenced him. A decided influence also probably came from

Eustathius of Sebaste, a pioneer of the monastic ideal in

Cappadocia. In a letter to Eustathius Basil describes his own

conversion.

After I had wasted much time in vanity and had spent nearly all my youth in the vain labor in which I was engaged , occupying myself in acquiring a knowledge made foolish by God, when at length, as if aroused from a deep sleep, I looked upon the wondrous light of the truth of the Gospel and saw the futility of the wisdom of the rulers of this world who are passing away, having mourned deeply my piteous life, I prayed that guidance be given me for my introduction to the doctrines of religion. And before all things else" I was careful to amend my ways, which f or a long time had been perverted by my companionship with the indifferent. Accordingly, having read the Gospel and having seen clearly there that the greatest means for perfection is the selling of one's possessions (cf. Mt . 19.21; also , Mk. 10. 21; Lk. 12.33, 18.22), the sharing with the needy brethren, the complete renouncing of solicitude for this life, and the refusing of the soul to be led as t ray by

9Gregaryof Nyssa, ~ cit., p. 168.

any affection for things of earth, I prayed to find some one of the brethren who had chosen this way o£ lite, 80 a8 to pass with him over li£e'. brief and troubled waters. 10

Basil then describes his search through B9ypt, Palestine,

Coele Syria, and Mesopotalllia for others leading such a life, his

emulation of their life style and hi. desire to be a zealous

6

follower of them. His journeys aust have lasted about a year. He

waa back in Caeaarea in 358. Basil lost no time in applying the

resulta of hie findings. He first attempted to persuade his

friend Gregory Nazianzen to join him. He refused on the plea of

having to care for his aged, ailing parents. Basil attempted then

to live a life of ascetici.m at Tibirnia but the experiment was

short-lived in this ''pit ot the world. ,,11 He returned to a spot

actoss the Iris from his ancestral bome at Annesi. According to

Epistle 14, written to Gregory Nazianzen, the place was ideal,

both on account of its natural beauty and the eolitude it provid~

Followers from among the numerous, unorganized ascetics in the

region soon gathered around him and his hermitage became something

of a "koinobion."

Thes. years, deeply :formative. were spent in discipline

and the developlRent of the inner life tbrough prayer, reading o:f

Sacred ScriptuJl'e, aanual labor and the care ot the poor and tbe

sick. Tbey were by no means, however, spent eolely in retirement .

In c. 365 Basil was ordained to the priesthood and divided bis

time between a retired ascetical life and. pastoral activities.

lOBasil,~ CCXXIII .

11aasi1, .!2:.. XIV.

He devoted himself to defending Nicean orthodoxy and to social

works of charity. Elected Bishop i n 310, he came to rely heavily

on the common people who were indebted to him for his charity.

After being r a ised to the Bishopric he vigorously opposed the

7

civil administration which upheld the Arian heretics . His efforts

to reunite orthodox Christians divided by the sehism of Antioch

met with success only after his death in 379 .

Hb _1110_~ ... rk .... s .... -.The writings of Basil can be conveniently

divided into three areas, I. Dogaatic tvOrks_·ltAdversus EunomiU11l"

--three books against Eunomius of Cyzieu.; a treatise "De Spiritu

Sancto," a "Philocalia tt of Origines writin08 which he edited with

Gregory Nazianzen, the ''Hexaemeron .'' thirteen homilies on the

Psalms . and numerous .e~ns of which Qua.ten say. twenty-three

are authenticl2 and "Ad adolescentes, de legendis libris

GentiliUII. II

II. Letters--365 letters have been traditionally attri-

buted to Basil. Many of the letters can be dated with certainty.

Numbers I through 46 were written from 357 to 370, the years prior

to his episcopate; 47 through 291 during his episcopate froa 370

to 3781 nuabers 292 through 365 are of uncertain date. All of

lette .. s 292 through 365 are of doubtful origin; . eolle of thea ~e

clearly apurious. The letters have proved of value in this study

by providing insights into the life and 'tilles of Basil. Of

12Quasten, Johannes, patrolo,y, Vol. III: .!!!!. Golden Age of Greek Patristic Literature (Westa nster, Maryland: Newman ~ess, 1960). p. 216.

8

particular importance , in relation to the topic treated here, are

what Butler calls the "Monastic Epistle.,,13 (numbers 2, 14, 22, 42 ,

94, 188, 199, 217 , 223) . Of equal value are those letters termed

"Mora1-Ascetical" by Quastenl4 (nUJllbers 10, 11, 18, 23-26, 4.9, 65,

83 , 85 , 97, 106, 112, 115, 116, 161, 173, 174, 182, 183, 197, 219,

220-222. 240, 246 , 249, 251, 259, 277, 283, 291-299) .

III. Ascetic Works--Research for this paper was done

primaril y in thOse works of Basil which con~ the life of

Christian asceticism. The "Ascetica" is a group of thirteen

writings; some of which are quite certainly unauthentic ("SerlIO

Asceticu., 1t a second "Sermo Asceticus;" "Poenae in monachos,"

"Epitimia in eanonas , " "Constitutiones .,n&8ticae") and others

which have been questioned in mQre recent times (npraevia

institutio ascettea, "De renuntiatione p.eeuli" and "De aseetica

diaciplina lt ) . Following the study of Sister Margaret Gertrude

Murphy15 these works have been accepted as authentic and are

included in the works used as the basis of this study. A third

group has never been seriously questioned (''De judicio Dei, ""De

fide,tt ").bralia," "Regulae fuaius trac'tatae," and "Regulae brevius

tractataen ). I t is the1ast three works which are of particular

significance. The "Morals" is a collection of eighty rules based

on and supported by the teachings of the New Testament. It is the

l3Dom Cuthbert Butler. Benedictine Monaehi_ (London: Longmans, Green, and Company, 1924).

14Quaat en, 2e.t..s!!.:., p. 224.

lSSister Margaret Gertrude Murphy, St. Basil and Monasti­cia, Vol. XXV of Patristic Studies (\<lashin9tOn, b. c-;r- cathOlic unIversity o f America Pre •• , 1930).

9

old~st of the asceticalworks and, in the opinion of some critics,

the most iraportant--the regulae par excellenee,16 thQ tru;e, prilllary

ru;le. on whieb the Longer and Shorter Rules arcrt only a COJIIlentary.

The work appears to be written primarily to Christians in general • .

However, certaia sections are directe4 to monks and to the clexgy.

Basil later WlI'ote "De Judicio Dei ft as a p.xeface to the "Moralia"

and subaequently added "De Fide."

The two Rules, confimed by both internal and extexnal

evidence, axe universally accepted as au;thentic. Both are emilas'

stylistically and use the $CUIIe gener.al VOcabulary. Both Ru;les axe

developaC!!ftts ot ideas contained in Letter two in which Basil

descxibes hb life of asceticism lived at Pontus. The Longer Rule

•• s to have been written prior to the Shorter; since the Shorter

xefexs to the Longex in several places (B. LXXIV __ F. VII J

B. CIII __ F. XXVII, B. CCXX--F. XXXUI).18 The Rules are in the

torm ot questions . and answers unmethodically arxanged and axe

based on conver$ations between Basil and his JIlOnks, perhaps

xecorded by tachygraphs duxing BasU's vieitations to various

monastui.s. The Longer Rule discusses the principles of reU.~

life in fifty-five questions and answer.s; the Shorter contains 313

points for discussion. Both also include suggestions for

practical applicationo;f the general principles to daily U.vin9 in

coJlUllUnity.

16Tiek, Will iam Arthur t 'taa.n of Caesarea and the Bible. If Doctoral D18.erta1:1on Series (Ann Arbor, Michigan: U. t4icroi !lms) p. 57. •

17FrOlll here on B refers to'Regulae breviue tractatae·~; F t,o t'Regulae :fuaiu$ tractatae."

CHAPTBR II

THE ASCETIC AND M:>NASTIC LIFE PRIOR TO BASIL

The phenomenon of Ch~istian asceticism is described by

Butler as a form of living in which the cb:dstun voluntarily re­

nounces things. lawful in order the better to attain to God.

Christian asceticiSlll oontains two eleaentsl a nega1;ive asceticism

of renWlciation or self-purificat ion, and a positive asceticism of

the practice of virtue and growth in.boliness.18 Asceticism is

seen IIII)re or Ie •• clearly in practi@l1y all religions, but it is

di~tinguished in Christianity as a phenoaenon. which has its roots

in the Gospel" It is certain that such Gospel saying s as2 "If

anyone wants to be a follower of mine, let him renounce himself

and takE! up hi. cross and follow me," (Mt . 16 . 24 ; Mk. 8.34;

Lk. 9 . 22), "If you wish to be perfect, go and Hll what you own

and ·give the money to the poor .... come, follow me,,·t (Mt. 19.21 J

Mk. 10. 21; Lk. 18.22), the sharing of good. in common by the

Christians of Jerusalem (Acts 2 . 42-47) J and the aacetical teacb1ngt

of Paul (I Cor. 9 . 24 .. 27; I Tim. 4 . '1; Bph. 4 . 22; Rom. 8 . 12-13;

Phil . 2 . 5-8; _tc.) gave an impetus to the practice of asceticism

in the early Church. The tendencies to the alicetic;:al practices of

celibacy, fa.ating. the voluntary renuncu.tion of poss.ssions and

, 188utler. 22:. ill.:... pp. 35-39.

11

work.. of pld.1anU.py are diacemib1e tl.'OlII. the beg:lnni:n9s of

Chrb·UanUy. Aeeetic pracdcea are attested to in the "Didachett

(11, 6), Saint C;lIprian (I Apol., 14 . 2; De hab. Virg., XI. P . L. ••

4 . 169), Cl~t o:f Alexandria (St1' •• 4 , 4 ; P .G •• , 8 , 1229)" Orivtn

(lba. XVII, P.G., 11, 152), etc. (It should be noted that in the

wd.ting. of so-.e, for exaapl0, Origin and Clellent of Alexancb:ia .,

llI101:ivat:ion tor the ascetic Itfe ia baaed a1800n philoSOphicAl

grounds. ) 19 Such practicd were at fint engaged in in an

unorganbed way w1thollt wUhdro.wal ;f'~_ tile home or oz-dinary life

situation. Gradually, however, :tind1ftg .fuUie., businnae.,. and

the dbtraetlon. o f oity lite a hindrance to their pur.uit of

perfe-=tlon. they began, particulad.)! in :BQwt. to withdraw to

pl~ces of 8Qlitude and to live in buts n-.. the towna.20

Such a li.fe was _braced by Anthony (0. 250-356), who, in

270 withdrew to practice an ascetiea1 lite.,ith other ascados .

. near hi. naUve city after bearing the GOapel text. 'lI! you wish

to be perfect ••• " (Nt. 19.21). Fox fifteen years he l1ved a

life o.fextr .. " austerity and then went into ~lete s.elus1bn.

So l'IIUly others gathered about hu., however. and bftectched him to

be their leader that he auCCUDbod to their .tahes and lett his

I / 19F,( ~4arttnez. LtAacetiame. chrotien pendant 1e. t1'o!,_

Pr.u..s .ieeles ~ l'Ep1IN (Pub" 1933), p . 158.

2Gh t. PQt ditf'icul t to uraderstand the ol'19in. ot such Ou:is'Ua.n "aeetic:l._ in Egypt \lrben on. considers tha't ascetic te~e. he.d a.lready r4.tlnit eated thasel'H' in the perJ.od of the Ptol_1e.,be.fo~.' the ROllAn occtlpa:U.on ot Egypt, and that both pa-gan and Jewl'sh l'eU.gt,oua COIDluni 1; te. extste.d in Egypt during the f irst andaec:JOnd centuries. (c£. Murphy, p . 7).

12

retreat to become the first organizer of Christian monasticism.

lie did not compose a rule in the strict sense . His followers

continued to live in separa te cells, and a great amount of freedom

was left to each t o make his own decisions in regard to the

practice of asceticism. The life remained essentially eremitical

or semieremi tical and became the norm in northern Egypt .

Almos t contemporaneous with Anthony was Pachomius

(c . 292-346) who founded a monastery at Tabennisi near Dendera in

wh ich cenobitism, or life in common , was a n essential feature . In

this "koinobion" we have a highly organized life in which the days

are divided by a routine of p r ayer, Scripture reading, meals, and

work , which for the first time becomes an integral part ot! the

life . A great deal o f individual freedom 1s permitted in t hese

matters and a spirit of individualism predominates in the

Paellamian "koinobia tt which becomes the patt ern for monastic life

in southern Egypt .

r40tivated by the same Christian ideal, Saint Basil's

concep tion of the ascetic life, in a number of respects, repre-

sented a new departure and his organization of the monastic life

was significant for both Ba stern and Western monasticism. His

contributions to the institutionalized form of asceticism will

become evident in subsequent parts of this paper.

The practice of poverty prior to Ba8:i.~ .--It is evident in

even a cursory reading of the New Te8t~ent that the attitUde of

• the Christian toward material goods was an important element in a

13

life of ascetici811l. Christ's teaching was too categoric for

fervent Christians to evade his oounsels endowing renunciation and

fraternal charity with a reciprocal value as a means of perfection.

The primitive community represented in Acts attempted to pass on

this ideal in a pure form, and it was an ideal to which thegxow.mg

Church looked back somewhat wistfully.21

The ''I>idache'' recommends that Christians be generous to

the point of sharing their po.sessions in cOlllllOn with their

brothers, renouncing private ownership as an iapediment to the

oomplete realization of Christian brotherhood. "Do not turn away

the poor lIIan but share everything in ooaaon with your brother,

without saying that it is yours= for if you have in ooJlJlOn what

is : undying, how lIIuch the IIOre should you share wba t is IIOrtal. ,,22

The "Didache" also shows us apostl.s and lIIissionaries professing

poverty and refusing any reward for their services save their

keep. 23

Such tendencies are also seen in Pseudo-Barnabas t "You

shall share everything with your neighbor and you shall not say

that APything is your own ..... 24 and in Justin " • • • we who

21The oo_unity of goods as presented in Acta (2.44-45; 4.32-S.10) was voluntary, set up by sales, and shared by apostles with the poor. Its IIIOtivation was God's grace. It was not an equality of property or of production. It 800n faded out. and the poor were aided by other plans (Gal. 2.10; I Cor. 16.1, II Cor. 8.l-lS). But its influence continued long (Did. 4 .8; Barn. 19.8), especially in the colllllunal IIIOnastic orders of the Church. cf. K. Lake, Beginnings 2! Christianity, (1933),pp. 140-151.

22Didache , IV, 5-8 • •

23Ibid., XI, 6.

24Ibid. XIX, 8.

14

coveted .,st greedily the weal th and tortune.s of others, now place

in co.aon the goods we po.seas, dividing them with all the needy

••• and we live in COIlUIlunity.,,25 It ae.s, however, that hi.

renunciation was merely relative, since the individual retained

his social pod t1on. Saint Cyprian, in .-peaking to virgins who

have kept their position in the world, reeo_enda a proper use ot

wealth Jl'athex than itacollplete abandonaerl't. 26 By the ta. of

C1eaent of Alexandria and Origin the practice of the renunciation

of 900ma aeeas to have become fa;l.rly rue. Poverty is seen as one

ot the ''Gnostic virtues" and it ihereasing1y based on philoliOphieal

grounda--it is better to hate the things of this world which do not

endure and ue pJ:one to corruption and to love the others which

are incoJ:ruptible27_-J:ather thAn on fidelity to the Gospel.

A return to Scriptural poverty occurs when Anthony ftItIJOnds

to the call to renounce hia possession.. lbe torm of ascetic:isa

which he began was characterized by the distribution o f goods to

the poor and a living in great austerity. His unequivocal answer

to the Gospel counsel distinguishes ha from ascetics prior to hi.

whose characteristic renunciation was virginity, although they did

not neglect the counsel to poverty. nutre is nothing, before

Anthony, to indica te that ascetics iliad. a publ ic and COIIlp1ete

25Justin I ~, XIV, 2-3.

26Cyprian, 2! !!!2:. Virg., XI . P.L •• 4, 169.

27Martinez, 2£:i cit •• pp. lSS, 181.

renunciation of their hereditary po ••••• ions.28 Evolution ln

mona.tic poverty occurred when Anthony'. gesture found numerous

ilIli ta tor ••

According to Cas sian • renunciation of all the goods and

riches of this .,rld is the :tirat step in desert 8pirituaUty ,

indisp.nsable with no reaervation • • 29 • There was an economic

probl_, however, for 8uch monks a8 10n.g as 8Oc1al life was not

organi:ted in auQh a way that it .fostered their renunciation.

15

Saint AntbClny·. :tollowers owned neither tools nor land. In order

to support th.selve. it ._s they aay have hired theaaelves out

at harvest dme to eam enough money to pay for their meagre

suppU •• collected weekly :trOlll the bur.~. A further development

wa. initiated by Pachomiu. . Hia :t01'lll of the cenobitic lite was

organized on a strictly community ba.i. which achieved a stable

solution o:t the econoaic probl_. Retaining the initial gesture

of a personal renunciation, it sought in poverty a virtue per­

taining to community and not merely to the individual. The

poverty practiced in the Pacholllian (leU a was .trongly .tamped with

the characterisd.c of dependence . The COJaUni ty .tructure

re.tored by Pachoaius provided a relledy ft>r an arbitrary nature

and a certain tendency to anarchy evident in auch of previous

er_itlcl .. , and indeed pJte.ent under Pachomius' flrst experina ... t

in whieh each DlOnk waS to provide for hi. own needs and give to

28lbid • • passim.

29Ca •• ian, Conference. (Col.), 3,6: P. L., 49, 564.

16

Pacbomius an equal share for their material needs. the later rules

of Pacbollius, military and seve.re in atyle, somehow did not fit with

the Spirit of brotherhood in the Gospel and the primitive Christian

coJlllllUftity. Pacboaius d8l1anded poverty .s an exeX'cise aimed at.

detaehae.nt and the conquest o:f self-will among his disciples but

neglected somewhat the creationo.! a real tiPbit of iraternal

cbaX'ity within the comaunity. It was Saint Basil who filled this

gap . 1nrea11ty, be was the first to .. del himself explicitly on

the pr:i.laitive ideal.

CHAPTER III

POVERTY IN THE LIFE AND WRITINJS OF BASIL

It is significant that the Gospel text which led to Saint

Anthony's conversion was also a prime £actor in moving Basil to

embrace a lire o£ asceticism. In a letter to Eustathiu5 o£

Sebaste, quoted previously, he describes the motivation £or his

conversion experience: "AccordiJl91y, having read the Gospel and

having seen clearly there that the greatest means for per£ection

is the selling of one's possessions (Mt. 19.21, Mk. 10.21,

Lk~ 12.33), the sharing with needy brethren ••• ,,30 Be£ore

devoting himself to the ascetic lire he traveled throughout EgyPt,

Palestine, Syria, and Mesopotamia in search of others who had

responded to the Gospel counsel to renounce one's goods. Observmg

the monk'. way o£ life he wondered most at the poverty, the

austerity o£ their lives.

• • • the sel£.discipline o£ whose manner o£ living I marveled, too, at their enduranoe in toil; I was amazed at their attention at prayers, their victory over sleep, being overcome by no physical necessity, always preserving lo£ty and unconquered the resolution of their soul, in hunger and thirst, in cold and nakedness, not paying attention to the body nor

30Ba8i~ Ep. CCXXIII.

. ' .. ' £ <p '1. £ ~ (jE.',\

e i yo.. l ,

a..U'lW a lTjcJoU,;;;." E(.C:; ';- / ACLOS"

u (I a.. Y c, • 11 W A ~ rre' y

irrcd~ &;, t I' "- ..-

o ' p. e '(GLS;; 'l WV' tpl/j WV

" a.; '\ r 0 <; T';).. c:. , 0 ' V (JC

O-ov ,;.. ( / f UIr'a..{, oy tlt- ..

Nt. 19.21 rr 0 ( Yf (la.. (.. ~ 0 VI'I e '1' t:L ~ , •

Basil, Ep. CCXXln

18

consenting to waste any thought on it, but, as if living in flesh not one's own, they showed by their deeds what it is to dwell among those on this earth and What to have their citizenship in heaven.3l

After returning to Asia Minor Baai1 began to liVe the

ascetic l ife with a few others whom he gathered about him.

A rather extended quotation frolt Gregory Nazianzen's funeral

o!tation de.cribes the U.1'e o f poverty aa it was practiced by Bas11

at this time.

I take it that a man of siJllple and f rugal life, without po.sessions of any kind, i. a .ubject for praise. What did he ever po..... except hi. body and the Ilecesaary CIOverings for hia fle.h? His weal th was to have nothing, pos.easing the ero.a, which alone waa hb lite, and which he deeaaad more precious than great riches. ft> JIAIl. -"en if he has the dtMbe, can gain posse.aion of all things, but one can know how to de,apiae all and thereby abo" hbla.el:' supedbl' to all • ' . • he strove not to hem but to be excellent. He did not live in a tub in the middle o f the market place to gain p\Jblicity ;tor hillaelf and to turn his poverty into a novel 118&11. ot enriching Mllsel! . He was poor and unkempt without any trace of pride. And being content to tJu;ow overboard all that he once pos.essed, he sailed lightly laden aero •• theaea of li:fe.

An adail'able thing is temperance · and conten~nt with little and :freedom f rom the t~anny of pleasure. and :from the .ervltudeof that cruel and degrading aaater, the belly . Who waa 110 independent of food, I could almost say even tree trom the tleO? Surteit and satiety he I."enounced to the foolish whoae life ia servile and prone to basenesa. He had little regard for those things which, When 'they pa •• ed below the gullet, are of equal value. He was content to live on mere necessities as long as he could, and the only luxury he knew was to prove hbaself free froa luxqry, and on that account to have no need o f IIIl)re. But he looked .to the liliea and the birds, whoae beauty ia natural and whoae tood is found at random, in accordance with the great precept of illy Olris't, who aatumed the poverty of the flesh for our SIlke., that we might be enriched with Hia divinity. Hence, he had only one tunic and . one threadbcire cloak, the ground waa his bed, he kept . vigU •• and he went unwasbed. Such Were the fOrllla ot his ltUcury. For his t avori te repaat and relish he had bread and

311.oc. cit. --

$alt, that new deli.cacyl And hi, .obex and plentiful drink was what fountains supply wi "thout toil. 32

Gregory also represents hia aa one \900 imitated th", tru-

gality and 81J11plicity of the disciple. fo:r who. dress, ~d, and

eatinSJ were not worthy ot attention, being simple things .!Uld

depending JIlE!7:ely on CircU1'Ilstance8 . 33

19

On ODe oCCAaionBaail t threatened with punishl!lent by the

prefect Demosthene.; repl ied to h.u. with the words : It... the

man who po •• e •• es nothing is not liable to confiscation, un.! ...

you want_ perhaps these tattered raga, ahd a fe!l/l books Which

reprdent all lilY poase •• iona. ,,34

lbe aaaner of hia lUe at thils puiod was the firet

outline, a1 though subsequently modified 1n hi .• own lite and

\9ritinga, of the Rules he wrote later.

XnordeJr to understand the nat1U'fJ of poverty aa a pal't of

the ascetic!am practiced by & .811 hURaelf and a8 a pal't of the

aaoetici_he urged on others. it i. necdAry to atudy carefully

his &soetical works and those letters whiCh have a betaX'ing on

theae wox-ka. It must be detemined, fix-st of all, \9hether Bald.l

demanded a dif.t'erent poverty frolll Oll-iatiansin general than he

did t~ those who· entered themona.t.~ or whether the same

essential poverty was demanded of! all Christiana. Did . he preach

two poverties; different in type and degree or one response ~the

32GregOr;v Nazianzei1. Ope Sl!1:., pp,. 18-79.

33Ibid., pp. 9~9S.

34Ib!d • • p. 68.

20

GO$pel counsel? The answer to this fundamental question must be

sought in those ascetic works of Basil which were addressed to all

Christian ••

Basil based hi. entire doctrine of asceticism on the

demandS of the total Gospel rather than on any individual evangel.

ical C<)Uftsels. In preaching and writing to genera.l audiences he

made the same basic demands of them as he did of the monk whom he

saw a.s simply a Christian who wished to take what was for him the

IIOst effective means of salvation. Basil saw the Gospel counSels

as directed to all men. "Surely it has been made clear that

obedience to the Gospel is required ofa11 of us, both married and

celibate." Its

precepts are obligatory ~r all alike and are fraught with ~r:U for transgressors. Cbd.st. when he preached the colllllAnds of his Father, was speaking to persons living in the world; he clearly testified this by his answer on one oeca.ions when he was privately questiOned by his disciples: "And what I say to YOu, I !lay to all." (Mk. l3~37).3S

In his works Sacred Scripture is all perva.s .ive and is the final

arbiter. In the ''Morals,'' his chief ~scetical work directed to

all Olriat!ans, he supports each of the eighty rules presented

there with at least one scriptural quotation and often uses s.veal

as a basis for the rule. He himself describes hi. lIlethod in ''De

Fide" which serveS as an introduction to the "Morals."

Accordingly, whatever I have so far discovered in the way o.t prohibitions or coDlJlended aets in scattered passages thro.ughout the New Testaaent, I have attempted to the best of my ability to gather together into rules summarized for the convenience o f those who desire thisservice.\~i th each rule, also, I have coupled a listing by nWllber of Scriptural pas­sages comprised in -the rule, aa taken froll the Gospels. from

3Ssaail ~~, p. 68.

21

the Apostles, or the Acts. In this way, one who reads the rule and sees, for example, the nuaber "one" or If two" cited with it, may consult the Scripture itself and, looking up the passaoes quoted under the aforesaid nuaber, find the testillony trom which the rule was derived. 36

His other works directed to Christiana are marked by the

pervasiveness of Sacred Scripture. So it is that when he asks what

is deaaanded of the Christian he tums to Sacred Scripture, where

he f inM that he who wishes to turn to God must first of all do

penance tor hi. sins and reject anything which might distract him

from the obedience which he owes the Lord. The call to tbe

ascetical li.t'e 1s imaediate.

It is ~ssible, indeed, for one who oo .. its sin or who has entangled haself in the affairs of this world, or who is eolicitous even t or the necessities o f this life toserve--to say nothing of being the disciple of--that Lord who bade the young man .. 11 his goods and give to the poor before He said to hUll "Come, follow me." (Mt. 19.21)37

He writes elsewhere that anyone who· would obey the Gospel aust not

be entangled in matters toreign to piety; he must have no affection

for anything in this life. If he allows anything to draw bill away

from God even slightly he cannot become the Lord's disoiple. 38

Before exaaining this demand in greater detail it is

important to situate it in the rest of Basil's teachings and to

understand its motivation. Ba8il insists on love of God as the

greatest COIIIIandment and on love of neigbbor as second to it. All

else is only a means to this end ot love. Any renunciation

36&si1, !?.!!i!!!., p. 17.

37sasil, !?.! Bap.', p. 343.

38BasU, Mol' It, 3. -

22

required by Basil must be seen in light of this and can never be

considered an end in itself . The Christian strips hiaselt' of 'the

material in order to love God more freely and in order to serve

his neighbor more effectively . According to Ba.il, there is al$O

an eschatological motivation for renunciation and for poverty in

particular. Again he turns to Sacred SCripture, this time to the

beatitudes. ~he first o f which off ers promise 0:£ the kingdom ot

heaven.

Ble.sed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom o f heaven (Mt. 5. 3).

AgainJ

Fear no~, little flock, for it ha~h plea.ed )'Our Father to give you a kingdom . Sell what. you po ••••• and give alas. Make to yourselves bags which grow not old, a treasure in heaven which faileth not (Lk . 12.32. 33).

These, tben, are some of the means by which a II8ll wins entrance to

the kingdom 0:£ beaven.39

In specifying the Gospel injunction to aelf.denial, Basil

perhaps insists the mo.t on detachment trOll good •• 40 This detach-

lIent has a nwaber of facets: a positive and a negative, an

internal and an external. The Christian is first to dispo •• e ••

himself of anyexces. of goods. He is not to be eager to have

the nec;essities of life in abundance, nor to seek after luxury or

satiety . He is to be free of every fora of ostentation, not

39aasU, ~ Bap., pp. 350-351 •

4O"La detacheaent de. biens e.t I ' obligation .ur laquelle Basile insbte peut-etre Ie plUS. ,t p . Humbert-claude, La Doctrine

L / F -A.cetique ~ Saint Basile ~ Ceaaree (Pari.: 1930) 297.

making a display of dress or shoes (Mt . 6 . 29; Lk. 12.27); but

$hould use ineXpensive clothing for hils bodily needs.

23

Take heed and beware o f allc::ovetousness; for a man's life does not consist in the abundance of things which he possesses (Lk. 1,2.15).

Adorning themselves not with plaited hair, or gold, or pearls, or QOstly attire (1 Tint. 2.9). .

Ha.vin.g food and wherewith to be covered, with these we are content (1 Tim . 6.8) .

For the Christian, to spend anything ~yond actual necessity or

for Illere extravagance is an abuse. 41 We are not to be rich but

poor as the Word of God tells us. Few o f the Church Fathers have

preached 80 vigo~usly against t .he danger of wealth. Basil . ,

portrays the rich man as unhappy, anxious and worried about his

health , the victim of constant fear .

You double your doors and lock them in order to guard your wealth. You $eAI them and surround thea and are fearful and anxious. 42

The r ich man is never content, never satisfied, never experience.

the happiness Qf giving. He is a\l.Uicious, and in his greed

oppreSll88 the poor by taking their land and enslaving the POOl'

themselves.

Wealth leads not to glory but to great pel'il. . To build a for tune is to lay the foundation fol' avarice and the acquisi­tion of JlM)ney bears no relation to excellence of chal'acter. Rather, it blinds a man to no purpose, arouses vain conceit, and produces in his soul an effect 80mething like an inflamed swelling •••• 43

41 Basi 1, l-br. XLVII; 3,4; ~ XXII.

42Basil,.!!l Illud Lucae, XLIV.

43Baail, ~ "WIl., p. 475.

2 4

The wealthy constantly seek to a cquire an increase of material

goodS.

Basil speaks too of the dangers of hyPOcrisy for the rich

who are able to pray ,fast, and perform a l l sorts of works of

piety provided it costs them nothing. But of what use are these

virtue's since more than this is needed to enter the kingdom.

r~ny o f Basil's denunciations against the rich were

certainly occasioned by widespread 80cial conditions in Cappadocia

during Basil's lif etime . Most lived under conditions o f e i t her

excessive wealth or extreme poverty. 44 Batiil deplores the con-

di t ions o f poverty which so degrade men and place them in utter

want to the point that some are forced to sell their children in

order that they may live . To be poor to the point of destitution

is not a good, in fact, it can lead to degradation which makes

virtue as difficult for the poor as fo r the rich. But , if the

poor have the necessities of life, the practice of virtue is more

possible to them since they have been freed from the distractions

which wealth brings to the rich.

The obligation to detachment i. not just one of non-posses­

sion of an overabundance of goods, but is even IIlDre iaportantly a

matter of an inner freedom from those we do pOs.e.s and from the

desire to seek more. Anyone who bas affection for anything in

this lite or allow. anything to draw him away froll God even

44t.iargaret Mary Fox, The Life and Times o f &aint Basil the Great .!!. Revealed .!!l ~ WritTr;Q., Vol:-LVII of P;'tristic Studi;;­(Washington,. D. C. : Catholic University of America P·res., 1939) .

25

slightly ¢annot become the Lord's disciple. Christians must avoid

any de.ire for glory or any wish to stand out in a crowd. If one

has .uch de. ires he must change them, a. one would the course of a

stream, toward the acqui.itLon of virtue. He must free himself

entirely from the desire for any kind of earthly riches or for the

esteem to be gained from possession of worldly goods. The

Christian must not define his highest good in terms of transitory

goods--human prosperity, renown, health of body-... but his highest

good is that which is real and eternal. 45

Poverty for the Christian 1. not only a negative renuncia-

t10n of those goods which can be an ob.tacle to a 11fe of virtue

but also has a pod ttve aspect which involves the proper attitUde

toward and use of goods one does po...... For Ba.il, good. are in

themselves not an evil but are instruments for practicing virtue

to those who u.e them well. "The manwbo administers hi.pos.e •• ns

well and according to right rea8On, who act. as a steward of the

goods received from God and dOes not aaa.. wealth f or his own

private enjoyment is justly accorded prai.e and affect Lon. tf/16

Thu. one who has received gifts fE'om God t. to foster them. If he

doe. he "ill be deserving of other gifts also. The man who does

not foster hia original gift will be deprived of any further goods

and will lose even the original. Even worse, he will be subject

( . . 47 to punishment Nt. 13.10-11; 25.14-17, 29, 30).

45aa8i1 , Conceming Envy. (iu T Ii? -c '0 c.. 'i\~ 00" 'irCl. ()e S ~. <1.1: Df ~ W o-<t-L)

46 · Loc. cit. --47sasil, Mor. LVIII, 4 • .........

26

While fostering his gifts, each Christian is to assess his

own needs and use all things with IIOderation. A part of the

rationale for such an obligation ~~, given in the ascetical work ,

~ ~ ~ Thyself, when Basil wri tesl

Acquire an exact understanding of yourself, that you ~ay know how to I118.ke a sensible allo~ent to each of the two sides of your nature: food and clothing to the body and the soul, the doctrines of piety, training in refined behavior, the practice of virtue, and the correction of »ice. Do not fatten the body unduly and do not try to acquire physical bulk for the flesh lusteth against the spld t and the spirit versus the flesh; for these are contrary one to another (Gal. 5.11). Take care never to provide the lower part of your nature with great power of dominion by adding weight to the flesh. As with scales, where, if you depress one side the other is necesearily raised, so, in the case of the body and soul, excess in one inevitably causes defect In the other. If the body is sleek and corpulent, the mind, by a neoessary conse­quence, is weak and languid in carrying on the activity proper to It. If, on the other hand, the soul is in good care and has been developed to it. proper stature by the practice of. virtues, the body suffers a corresponding deterioration.48

More tmportant is what i. to be done with any exce.s of

good.. In the eyes of Basil all goods have a social purpose and

use. 49 A llan is given a generous supply of goods, is made

p rosperous, in order that he may imitate the bountif.ul God whose

goodne.s extended to all men. The criminal is one who forgets the

communal nature of goods and ref.uses to distribute to the poor that

which is superfluous.SO Basil legislates on the necessity ot serving

48aasu, E!!.! ~ .!2. Thyself, pp. 435-436.

49Stanislaus Girt, !:!!. Ide~s ,!l1 'Action socia1e ~ Saint Basile (Paris, 1941), 96.

, 5~si~,!!!. Illu~ Lu:=ae, ~II. (c. '6LO ·V t:r~VTOOYt('L'YLUV TO YtOlVW~ "iro-.<TL Xo-.'/"CL 1:~V %frza-( v 1iro~t.:' f'-'- t:. YO Y )

27

others and pNvid1ng for their needs in the following rules in the

"Morals . "

Rule 32. 'l'hat to everyone should be rendered what is reasonably and fairly due him. Cap. 1; Lk . 20.21; Rm. 13.7.8

Rule 37 . 'nlat ready service, according to our ability, even in very small things and even i f it be rendered ·by women, is acceptable to God. Cap. 1; Mt. 10. 42; Lk. 21.1 .. 4; Mt. 26.6-10; Act. 16.15

Rule 47 . That one ought not lay up treasure for himself on ear'th but in heaven; and the method to be f ollowed in laying up treasure in heaven. Cap. 1; Mt . 6 . 19-20; Lk. 12.33; Lk. 18.22; I Tim. 6 . 1,8,19

Rule 48 . That we should be compassionate and generous; for they who are not such "-,re denounced . Cap . 1; Mt. 5.7; Lk. 6.301 Rill. 1.31-32; I Till. 6 .18

Rule 48. (continued) That whatsoever a man IIlAY pculsess over and above what is necessuy for life , he is obliged to do good with, according to the collltlland of the Lord who has bestowed on us the things we po.,ess. Cap. 2; Lk . 3.11; I Cor. 4.7; II Cor. 8.14-15

Rule 48. (continued) That we Blust be careful and solicitous regarding the needs o f tho brethren in accordance with the will of God. Cap . 6; l·tt . 25.34 .. 36, 40; JlIl. 6 . S ; I Cor. 16 . 1,2

Rule 48 . (continued ) That he who is able should work and give to those in need; for he who was unwi1l inO towoJtk was judged unworthy even to eat . Cap. 7; Mt. 10.10; Acts 20.35 ;' Eph. 4.28

Rule 58. That, since the g1ft of God is received as a :free gi:ft, it is our duty to $hare it f reely and not JIIal,Q it a. means ot profit forse1f-grati:fication. Cap . 3; Mt. 10.8, 9; Acts 3.6,7; I Thes. 2 . 5-6

Bas'il ext~ds his law of chari t y and almsgiving even to the .

poor. Tbey are to be generous in api te of their poverty, for bread

given by a poor man in his misery\Vill produce abundant truit .

You are poor? There is another poorer than )IOu. You bave enough bJ'ead for ten days, he :for only one. ile kind and

28

generous, ahare what you bave extra with those in need. Do not Ncr it ice the safety of many for your own personal interest. Even it you are reduced to one loaf of bread, and a beggar appears at your door, take from the closet that one loaf and raising it in your hands toward heaven, utter this touching prayer: "Oh Lord, I have only this one loaf which you aee. Hunger threatens me, but I prefer your commandment to everything else and the little I have I give to my brother who is hungry. Do you now help your aervant who is in danger? I know your kindness, I will trust in your omnipotence. Do not defer your favors too l ong, but bestow them as it pleases you." If you apeak and act thus, the break that you give in your poverty will become the seed of a harvest that will produce abundant fruit for you; it will be the guarantee of your future maintenance and of divine mercy in your behalf. 5l

sasil exhorts them to be generous with the little they

po.sess to their still more unfortunate brethren.

Therefore, you who are in need and poor, lend to a rich God. Tru&t Him who receives as if for Hiaself what you give to the more unfortunate; for He HiIIIself will reward you. He is worthy of confidence whose treasures are extended over both

" land and sea and if in the midst of the ocean ~u ask HiD for your debt, you will receive it with interest."

This definite eaphaais 'oD the proper use of goods as a

positive virtue appears frequently in Basil's works • . One of the

most frequently quoted passages in his writings is Matthew 25.34-40.

In "On Mercy and Justice" he writes that the Lord enjoins the

accomplishment of the duty of charity in a perfect and unrestricted

manner on His followers, so that, having fulfilled the .inistry as

regards worldly goods, they aay pass on to the ministry o f other

reaeon and the spirit. Froa others, he requires a continual

sharing and coaaunicating of that which they possess, that by

showing aercy, sharing their goods, and conferring benefits, they

51Ba811, !!!. Faa'ID, . 68.

S2Ibid., p. 69.

29

lllay produce in th.eelves the benevolence of God • • •• Further-

.are, he has promieed that if they practice theee virtues, they

will be united with Him.

Theee, indeed, are they who will stand at the right hand o f the Lord. To thea the King will say at his coming: "Come, blessed 00£ Illy Father, possee. you the kingdom prepared :for you fro. the foundation of the world. For I was hungry and you gave .. to eat; I was thirsty and you gave me to drink. I was naked and you covered lIle, a stranger. and you took me in. sick and in prison and you caae to ae." And when the just wonder and .. y: "When did we do these things to you, Lord?tt, He will an.wer 2 "Aaen , amen, I .. y to you, as long as you did it to one of the.e, my least brethren, you did it to me. " Ready kindne...hown to the saints i. piety toward Christ and he who .in18ter. zealoudy to the poor man becomes a coarade o f christ ... not only if he be rich and snares great po.sessions, but even. if he offers to the needy the little that he bas, although it be merely a cup of cold water which he give. a disciple to drink in the name of a disciple. The neediness of the dis. ciples whIch to the worldling is poverty is a source ot true riches to you, 0 man of wealth, for you becoae thereby a ~-worker with Christ. You nourish the lIOldiers of Christ, and this, not under compulsion but willingly. The kingdom of heaven does not employ force, nor does it exact tribute, but it welcolles those who freely offer their goods, lIO that, in giving thea away, they may receive and may be honored in bestowing honor, and that, in sharing t .heir temporal posses .. sions, they lIlay become partakers in eternal bles.ings. 53

In "Concerning Sapti .. " he allege. that disobedienoe is not

the cOllllli •• 10n of any forbidden act, but the ollission of commanded

one.. In support of this he again quotes Matthew 25. Anyone who

does the 1IIOrk ot the Lord negligently is to be cur.ed but how .uch

greater is the curse upon him who refrains from doing any good at

all. 54

Any gift to the needy, financed by unjust gains, i.s not

acceptable to God; yet a man who retrain. frolla cOlllll1 tting

53aaail,. ~ Mercy ~ Justice, pp. 511.512.

54Bas11, 2.! Bap., pp. 404-405.

injustic~ but does not share the goods he possesses with anyone,

is not to be praised . Basil refers to Proverbs 21.131 "He that

stoppeth his ear against the cry o f the poor, shall also cry

himself and shall not be heard ... 55

30

In Basil'. own life he put into practioe what he demanded

of others; Basil addressed a great number of letters to wealthy

people and those in positions of authority in order to seek favors

forthe poor and oppressed and to intercede for cities and towns,

for friends and relatives (cf~ . letters 3. 15, 31-37, 72-78 ,

83-88, 96, 104, 108-112. 137, 142-144, 171-180, 271, 273 .. 276,

279-281, 303-319$ 335-359 to Labonius of Antioch .. -of doubtful

authent icity) •

An exanlple of such a letter it t .hat written before BasU' •

episcopate asking that justice be done . in the assessments to

Leontius. The letter is without an address .

I have already written to you and shall often write even more concerning many persons on the ground that they are kin.uaen of mine. For, the needy are always with us, nor are we able to deny them a favor . Besides. no one is dearer to me nor more able to give me relief by his prosperity than my 110.' revered brother, Leontius. So, treat his household as if you were coming to lIle lIlyself, not in the state of poverty in which I now am with God, but as though 1 had obtained sollle wealth and was po.sessed of lands . For, it is evident you would not lIla.ke lIle a poor man, but would guard my present posses.ions, or even aUglllent my wealth . This, then, we entreat you to do •••• 56

The year 368 afforded Basil occasion to display hie large

and universal charity. The whole of Cappadocia was desolated by a

faDline described in Basil's homily ''On the Famine and Draught."

r ----~--~--~--------------------------

55BasU, 2.!l Mercy .!!l2. Justice, p. 507.

56Ba.il, ~ XXXV.

31

Caesarea was especially pressed on account or its large population

and its distance from any seaport. Both Gregory of Nyssa and Gre§D.'Y

Nazian2en describe Basil's response to the situation.

He did all in his power both by word and example to

relieve the distress of the poorwno were the chief sufferers. He

pleaded with merchants who hoped to turn the famine to their own

profit by hoarding food until he bad convinced them to open their

stores to the starving. He sold his own possessions and the

property he had inherited at- the recent death of his mother and

brought provisions with which to f eed the poor. He raised a large

amount of money in the city, purchased food, and regulated its

distribution bimself. He personally ministered to the poorest,

f~ing thea with his own hand and washing their f eet. He rendezed

service freely without drawing any profit.

Basil's famous philanthropic institutions also deserve

notice. Ciarke notes that charity was far from unknown in the

pagan aapire. There was public distribution of eorn to poorer

, citiz .. s and vad.ous methods of relieving distress by public and

private benevolence. In the rourth century the need for charity

increased. The resources o f the state _re les. and the proportba

of poor in relation to the rich bad. ri .. n significantly. 57 In

order to relieve the distress of the poor Basil created, no doubt

very larg.ely frOli his own resources, a whole COlIplex o:f charitable

wel:fare institutions. In his iuneral oration on Basil, Gregory

Nazian2en describes th~ whole new city which arose grouped around

57Clarke, 22.!. £!!.:.' p. 61.

32

the church and monastery. It included boepitals, one for the sick

and one for contagious disease, a home for the poor, and a hospice

for traveler. and strangers. There are several allusions to other

houses established by Basil foX' the poor in letteX'. aSking for

immunities fro1'l taxation. It may be that Basil established poOr

houses in a number of cities and towns and organized social work

on a large scale. 58 Basil hiaselfonell took refuge in the alm .• -

house near Caesarea. 59

So insistent was Basil on the CX>lIIIOn ownership o f aU the

goods of the earth that some critics have questioned whether he

admitted any right to private propeX'ty. It seems, however, that

his unsparing and uncompromising dtmunc!adons of the rich did

not refer to their right to private property but were rather con ...

deranations of the avarice and greed and usurpation of the .-althy

landed proprietors who recognized M duty of ownership. Al thougb

sasil seemed to believe that the realization ·of the perfect

Christian ideal neces.itates the renouncement of the goods of the

world, he does not demand that all mal(e thera_lves monks and does

not condellln the exercise of the right of property in practice. 60

Finally, Basil sees poverty as a means to otheX' Christian

virtues. The man who accepts the gifts he has been given and

recognizes thea as his particular individual gift ia the huable

man, the peaceful man. He is the one who is not envious. He

SUcf. FOrK, Ope .2!!.:." p . 152.

59Baail, ~ Ct..

6OTiek, ~ cit., p. 31.

33

regards the goods of thiA worl d as neither gr eat nor admirable.

He does no t define his highest goods in terms of transitory things

but in possessions that are r eal and eternal . The goods o f t his

world a re instruments for pr act i cing virtue for the manWho usee

them well. The man who makes bad use o f t hem i s to be pitied as

being l i ke a person who voluntarily wounds himself with the sword

wh ich he had been gi ven as a mean s of defense agains t his enemies.

But the man who administers his possessions well and a ccording to

right reason, Who a cts a s a s t ewar d of the goods received from

God and does not amass wealth fo r his own pr ivate enj oyment , he i s

justly accorded praise and affec t ion because o f his charity to h is

brother and t he benevolence of his character.6l

Monastic Poverty

One of the first questions to be discussed in regard to

monastic poverty is whether or not Basil required his monks to

make a permanent and irrevocable vow of poverty, or whether he

viewed IaOna.tic poverty only as a binding obligation laid o.n the

individual by pUblic opinion and, his own conscience. There are

opinions support ing both views. Dom CuI tbert Butler, one of the

greatest au.thorities on the his~ory of monastici_, writes that a

peihd (,f novitiate or probation of indeterminate length had to be

passed at the end of which a profession of virginity was .. de, but

no monastic vows were taken. Palladius , writing in 420, says in

the prologue to t he Lausiac Hi story , that it is better to practice

61Ba911 , Conce rning F.nvl., p . 472 .

34

the monastic life freely , wi t hout the constraint of a ·vow. 62 He

p raises Lausces for not having bound himself by a vow or oath, and

exposing himself t o the danger of perjury . He is referring here

to vows o f abs tinence from food and drink which Basil also condemns

in a l e tter to Amph i lochius. 63

Cl a r .ke , in discussing the problem , writes that from the

general t enor of his works it seems t hat Pal l a dius disapproves of

vows of vi rgi nity and tha t s ince the "Lausiac Histor y" aims a t

g i v ing a faithful p icture o f cont emporary monas t icism he must

reflect a point of view that was generally prevalent . 6 4 I t seems ,

however, that t he lack of defin i te evidence, makes such a

conclusion o f dubious value .

Armfield i ns i sts tha t no trace of the f o rmal vow of poverty

can b e found before the Rule o f Saint Benedict . He base s h is

sta tement on the opinion that no vow formula existed before

Benedict. Even i n h i s fo rmula o ! p rofession Saint Benedic t makes

no expre ss mention o f poverty. The novice, however , i s a ske d

t h ree ques t i ons , which might be seen to correspond wi t h pove rty ,

chastity and obedience . The demand of poverty here is ve r y mild

but is described with grea t minutene ss o f detail in the Rule

65 (Cap . 33)--no p roperty , books, paper, nor pen.

62Butler, ~~, p. 528.

63c f . Basil, ~ CXCIX.

64Clarke , ~ c it., p . 107.

65Ar mfield , Henry T., "Poverty ," ~ Dictionary 2! Christian Antiquities , ed. William Smith and Samuel Chatham, II (1908), 1682 .

35

Vows seem to have been familiar to the early Christian$.

Saint Ignatius of Antioch (d. c. 100) apeaks of those ''pledged'' to

continence.66 Justin Martyr (d. c. 165) apeaks of "groups of

virgins,"67 but there is no support for anything resembling a

public vow prior to Saint Basil.

It 8eems quite evident that Ba8il considered those men who

were accepted after a period of trial to be bound by a .table and

permanent bond. The commitment was not centered in the profession

of poverty , chalStityand obedience since public pronouncement of

this triad is not mentioned !»1til the twelfth century. Entrance

to the monastery seemed to imply an acc~tance of a life lived in

the manner of those already re8iding there and according to the

Gospel and the guidelines laid down by Basil in his ''Rules. '' It

was a dedication ot a life to the COllUllOn life of these monks .and

was not specified by the three tJ:'adhtonalwws at the , l1el1g10us

life.

In accordance with earlier tradition Basil recognized the

vow ot virginity for wamen . }

In his letter to AmphllochiulS, con-

ceming the Canons, he speaks of the punishment for those «fla llen

virgins who had vowed to the Lord a life of chaUity, then, having

subnaitted to the passions of the flesh denied their vows · •••• ,,68

There is no indication that this statement , or others concerning

woraenwho profes8 virginity (cf. Eps . CCVII and CCXVII), re:fer in

66Ignatius o f Antioch, Letter .l2. POly~., V. 27 .

67Justin, ~, VI, 15.

68&1S11, !2..:., CXCIX.

any way to 'IIIOllen who have entered into an organized foX'll of the

ascetica.l life. Those men who embraced the monastic life, as

36

designed by Basil, did not seemingly make any public profes.ion of

chastity for sasil, again in his letter to Amphilochiu8, says that,

"These seem silently to have taken celibacy upon themselves.,,69

His statement in the same letter that he recognizes only the pro-

fessions of JUen who have enrolled themselves in the order of monks

supports the opinion that the religious profession, if any, of lien

consisted in the commitment to a total way o f life and was not

defined by the pronouncing of any particular YOW. In another

place he speaks again of those who have "professed the lif e o f

monks . ,,10 This statement follows immediately on one in which

Basil speaks of the profession of a woaan to virginity.

It is interesting and perhaps significant that a vow of

virginity was asked of a certain group in Basil's monastery. It

was cust.omary that, at a very early age, children were admitted to

the monastery for the purpose of being raised in "piety" and

discipline and educated in the scriptures. When the YOW19 -.n

reached the age when he was able to make aature and rea.mable

decisions, peraia.ion to make the yow of virginity was to be

granted. The YOW was public in its nature.

Furthermore, ecclesiastical officials should be called in as witnes.es o f the decision, so that through their presence, as well, the consecration of the person as a kind of votive offering to God may be sanctified and the act ratified by their testimony, "for," says the Scripture, "in the mout.h of

691.00. cit. --7ana.il, ~. CCXVII.

37

two or three 'Witnesses shall ~ery _rd stand." (II Cor. 13.1) In this way those who have so ~wed themselves to God and afte1'WaXd tl'Y to revoke such a vow will have no excuse t or their PaJlaelesaness ... 71

Thos. who were not able to make this vow of virginity, or

who had no desire to, were to be di.issed in front o£ these aame

witnesses. Thus, it seems that a vow of virginity was asked only

of those who had OOl'Ile to the monastery at an age whensucb a

deciei()n was not possible. It was presuaad that those wbo came 'to

the monastery as adults wished by their presenting theaase1ves 10

live such a lif e . The :fact of their being there was sU£ficient.

There is no evidence to suggest the presence Of any other public

vow ••

Though there were no vows f Saint an.i1' s monks were

conaider4ld to be under a strict obligation of persevering in the

monastic life. In ~le F. XIV t one who has been received into the

brotherhood and then falls away is to be treated as a sinner

against God; he !e guilty of sacrilege, having stolen what belongs

to God. The monastery doors are to be closed to hi-. and not

opened even When he begs for shelter. Basil recognizes, however,

that it aay eoaetiaes be necessary for one to leave the DIOnastery.

The .on)( b .. t justified in leaving if it is a case of an

unsteadiness o f resolution bu t lllaY leave only in a case where he

suffers inju.-y by remaining in the collllOn life. It such a one i '.

forced to leave he should not keep hhDlOtive a secret but should

71F. XV

38

make an open cha:rge to his b:rothers rega:rding the wrong done to

him. If the brothers persist in their evil and refuse to make

amends he may withdraw. In such a case he is not being unf a i thful.

He is 'nOt leaving brothers but strange:r •• 72 The obligation to

permanence endures only as long a s one is able to live in a

situation where he is not forced to sustain injur y to s elf . The

decision to leave is his own and he wi thdrawa of his own accord,

without the neceasity of any canonical approbation.

Al though poverty was not the object of any particular YOW

it was, as a part of the basic asceticism required o f Basilts

monks , one of the prille motivating fa.ctora and all pervasive

influences of his design for living the Christian life in the

monastery. 73 The poverty required of the imnk is essentially that

asked of anyone seeking to live as a Christian. In nWllher eight

of the "Long Rules" Basil speaks of detachment from external

goods, property, vainglory, life in society, and useless desires

aa the beginning step o f a man who ia seized wi th a strong desire

of following Christ. Entrance into the JIOnastery is one way of

fulfilling the d_and of Jesus that anyone who wishes to follow

him must deny himself and take up his cross (Mt. 16.24) and his

words: "so likewise, everyone of you that does not renounce all

that he possesses, cannot be my disciple," (Lk. 14.33). Again:

"If any man come to me and hate not his father and mother and wife

and children CUld b:rothers and sisters, yes, and hie own life,

72F . XXXVI.

73F. XX ( j( q yo' If 0 rr«; € u '\ l V

U Y( 0 ft ~ v 6 X (IJ Y , ·T~ Y r 0 ' f a.. v

l ~ V ~ o 'f"o v (l1"(<TILCLy o il

10\1 e~o v. ) fS ~'o ),

l:r-r....

39

also, he cannot be .. y disciple," (Lk. 14.26). He who t'inds the

pearl, an image of the heavenly kingdoJl, can possess it only it' he

gives up in exchange tor it all o f his possessions.,..,.weal th , rame,

lineage, and anything else that is an object o f desires for many.

Such possesaions distract one fro~ a chieving the desired end. "No

man can sexve two masters, tr (Mt . 6 . 24). Earthly possessions or

perishable wealth kept in reserve sink the mind do\Yn as into mire

and make the mind insensible to God and the things at' the kingdom.

Renunciation is the severance of the bonds of this material and

transient life and :freedom trom human concerns , whereby werendex

ourselves more fi t to set out upon the road leading to God. The

cltie:f point is that it is the :first step toward. the likeness of

Christ, who, being rich, became poor for our sake (II Cor . 8 .9).

Unles. we attain to this Ukenes.s, it is impos.ible to say we live

according to the Goapel.14 Poverty is not an end in itself but is

a nece.sary condition tor the :freedom needed to develop a love of

God. It h a practical means, too, o:f :fultilling the duty of

charity to one's neighbor. Again, Basil rerainda his monks of the

connection between the t'tlO great coaaandlaents so that benefi't

conferred upon the neighbor is transterred to hiaself: "For I

was hungry," he says. "and you gave me to en t," (Mt. 2S • .35) and 110

on, adding: "a. long as you did it to one o f these, my least

brethren , you did it to me, " (Mt. 25.40) . 15 He remind. them, too, .

that without love renunciation is of no value. ''Wherefore, Paul

74F. VIII.

15F . III .

40

the Apostle was taught to say: 'And 1f I ahou1d distribute all ay

goods to :feed the poor and if I should deliver my body to be

burned and have not charity, it profiteth rae nothing,' tI (I. Cor.

13.3).76

In the "Short Rules" denial is set forth as the profession

demanded of tho'.e who wish to "live together in God's way_"77 The

principla of poverty as basic to the !.IOnastic lite can be found in

numerous other sections of his works. 78

In the discussion of poverty; aa legislated for by Basil

in his "Rule'," two points will begiv,en primary consideration:

first, how a DIOnk is to dispose of goociJ brought with him to the

mona.tery and tho.e he inherits or earns while there, and, second,

bow he is to use goods which have been given to him for his use.

In question LXXXV of the Short Rules, saail asks whether it is

lawful to have private property in the brotherhood. He answers

that:

This is contrary to the 1.st1llony in the Acts concerning th_ that believed where it is written: "And not one of th_ said that ought of the things whiCh he possessed was his own," (Acts 4.32)., So he that says anything is his private property has uaade hiaself an alien to tbe Church of God and to the love of the Lord Who taught u. both by .,:wrd and deed to lay down our life :tor our friends, to 8ay no.thing of external po ..... ion. 79

Goods are to be disposed of with great calfe. They are the

po.ses.ions of the Lord and tau.t not be t:wreated negligently. The

76Ibid. From the preface.

776. II.

18¢f. F. XLI; LXXXV, LXXXVI I LXXXVII, XCI, XCIII. OCLV, CXLVI, CO/, CCCVIXI; !2!.. XXII, CL, E.!. Renun. saec.

19uoo<.v.

41

monk will keep a careful account of everything and distribute it

personally, if this is possible and be bas the necessary experi­

ence, or through some other person chosen after careful inquiry

who can handle the business with f idelity and intelligence.

Guilty, too, is the monk who makes f rivolous disposition o f goods.

At the S;uQe time, if the monk's relatives use his property

unjusUy be should rebuke them but should avoid entering into a

litigation with them before secular tribunals. 80

Although the Rules call for the selling of all onets

possessions on entrance, there seems to have been some amount of

freedom or laxity in the practical disposition of them. It seems

that Basil himself continued to receive income from the family

estate after his entry into the monastic life. In the year 369 he

wrote: ''However, I am, even at the present tae, .till supported

by this household, since I have nothing of my own but am restrained

by the re80Ur~e8 of my loved ones • • ,,81 •• In a letter to the

assessor o f taxes Basil ~lain8 that if the monks live according

to their profes.ion, they posse •• tlneither money nor bodies" to

render the state, for the fortler is spent on the poor. The fact

that the monks had money to give to the poor seems to indicate that

the ab8ence o f money for the individual monk ''fas not absolute . The

questions posed concern individual monks. (Clarke says it would

be an anachronism to think of the taxation of a monastery as a

corporate oody at this early period. )82 ThoSe who brought witb

BOF. IX.

8l~. XXXVII.

82clarke , 2E.:.. ill:,., p . 82 .

42

them and kept any of the things that "pertain to Caesar" must pay

taxes . 83

A related question pertains to the acceptance of gifts

from friends or relatives . The decision in the matter is to be

left to the Superior. However, it is Basil's private opinion that,

to avoid offense to the other monks and to edify, it is better to

refuse such presents . Accepting gifts sometimes results in other

abuses: reproaches are leveled against the community, it affords

an excuse for pride to the relative who made the gift, it might

lead to monks eating and drinking their own supplies in front of

the community.84 In a related question s

If a man say, I neither take anything from the brother-" hood nor do I give them anything, but I alii content with my own things, what shall be our attitude towards him?

If he obey not the teaching or the Lord Who said: "loVe one another, as I have loved you," (In. 13 . 34) let us obey the apostle who said: "Put away the wicked man from among ,YOur .. selves," (1 Cor . 5. 13); lest it come true.! "A little leaven corrupteth the whole lump," (1 Cor. S. 6) . U5

Generally Basil wishes to exclude f rom the monastery any

interference from the care o f external affairs and forbids any

enjoyment o f prOperty that infringes on this principle .

Much of what Basil has to say concerning how a monk is to

use goods given him for his use is centered in and receives its

838. XCIV. For opposing views on the divergence between the principle and practice of pover ty in Basil's monastery cf. Clarke , p . 82, and Murphy, p . 94.

848. CCCIV.

• 85S. LXXXVI. This rule perhaps also implies the possi-

bility of retaining ownership of goods within the monastery.

43

direction trom hie insistence on theeocial nature of Christianity

and the COllIIIOn lite as the best means of fulfilling the obligations

consequent on a Christianity t'fhich is eocial. His insistence on

the co ..... n life is based directly on his conception of the

apostoUc manner of living and that corporate :fellowship which

Paul speak. o f under the image of the body and its Jllliftbers.86 He

viewed all men as social be.!ngs dependent upon one another. It:t.

in community that a man is. brought to the iullnes. o:f the Chri.dan

life, :for Olristianity involves 8Ocd.al activity as well as

individual JIlQral effort.87 The cenobUical form of IIOMstici .. is

both theoretically and practically superior to the eremitical or

quaei-__ itical. He writes that life spent in the same habita-, .

t1o'n is IIOre advantageous in aany retlpecl\l.. First of all J it is

not possible for any man 1:0 be self .. auf:tici.nt in providin" f(lr

his bo4ily needs. In the aolitary lite td\at we have is useles. 1:0

anyone else, and what we ourselves need cannot be auppU.ed.

Moreover, the law of the love of Christ does not pexait each one

ot us 1:0 regard only hie own things. 'lbe soUtary lite: bas only

one aim, that each IQAY serve his own needs. But this i. plainly

opposed 1:0 the Oospel law of charity. Moreover, the majority of

the cowandllenta are more easUy obeened by person. living in

coJllllOn. but not 80 in the case of one living alone; for, "hUehe

is obeying one commandment, the practice of another ia being

inter tered with. 'thus, the visitation of the sick will hindcar a

86!2,:. CCXCV.

87y. III.

44

man £rom r~ceivip9 guests, and the dispensing and distribution of

tbe nec.ssities of li£e (especially when a great deal o:f tae is

spent on8ueb matters). will hinder bia from concentrated attention

to his custoaary work. As a resu! t the greatest commandment is not

observed, since the hungry are not fed nor the naked clotbed. The

solitary life is ine:ffective and unpro£itable. Divided and

separated,bow can men in the body of atriat give mutual se!;'Vice

to eadt otber1 Furthermore, in the common life each man'sgit t

£rom the Spirit beQOmes the common property of his fellow.. Com ..

muni ty lif.!e also preserves men frollt the ta01i tary' s tendency to

sel:f-complacency and provides opportunit.ies for the px-actice of

virtue. How can a bermit practice humility? To whom can be $how

hinisel:f bumble? How can he show pity if he is cut of£ £rom the

society of others? Or, bow can be show £orbearance if thete is no

one t09ppOse his wishes? To study the Scriptures is .not suffi­

cient. Menal., need a living exaJltple. Chriat Himself washed his

disciples- teet . If you live alone whose feet will you wash? To

who. will you be a servant? Among whoa wIll you be the last if you

are alone? .A life in common bears the same stamp aa that of 'the

early Chriatiarus who had all tbings in CODrlllOn (Acts 4.32). Againi

"And the multitude o f them that believed were of one heart and

soul, and not one ·0·£ them said that ought of the thing. which he

poa.es_ was hi. own, but they had all in oommon. tt Acts 2.44) .88

Basil also suggests that the cOIUIOn life is superior to the

eremitical since fewer q£ the neces.ities of lite are needed when

88F. VII.

45

persons live together and where one h ear th and one lamp and other

such items can suf f i ce for the entire group . It is thus possible

that there will be goods and money a vailable with which poorer

brotherhoods can be assist ed . Basi l declares i t t o be an intol­

erable s tate of things when a monastery is poo r and its prosperous

neigbbor does not come to its hel p _ If one cOlllIl1uni ty i s in

dis tre$s i t shoul d have no hesitation in applyi ng to the others .

He who is entrusted with t he general care o ught to decide when and

how goods are t o be given a nd received. 89

Any excess of goods could a lso be used t o care for

vis itor s who sough t lodgi ng at the monastery and fo r the poo r \vho

came for he l p . For the monk , hospitality was an obligat i on to be

observed fa i thful ly. Basil a ttaches great impor tance t o t his

p ractice . I n the ''Rul es '' he t r eats the matter at some lengt h . In

a l l o f his r emarks concerning hospitality he is a lwa ys most anxbus

a bout the reputation of the monasteries . It does a great deal o f

harm, he writ es, to those who spend their lives in sensual gratifi.

ca tion and measure happ iness i n terms of pleasure for the appetite

to see the Illcmks taken up with the sallie preoccupations whiCh keep

t hem en1hralled. If a brother, who l eads the same type of l ife a s

the monks, comes, he will recognize the table as his own. I f a

s tranger comes, let him be g i ven a model and pattern of frugal

suff iciency . Let memo r ies o f pover ty endured without ahallle :for

the sake of Chr ist be car ried away with hin. I f he does no t car e

for what he receives h~ will not come again. I f a rich man comea

89F . CLJOOCI. F. CCUOOC.IV.

46

who places sensual delights among the greatest of blessings he

should be told to his face that he has received his blessing

already and that, by living in luxury here, he is preparing

himself to bum in the hereafter . The monks are to beware of

ostentation, lest it seem to guests that t hey have been transformed

only in their dress . 90 All guests should be received with honor

and carefulness for the glory of the Lord. Anyone who refuses to

receive a guest is condemned.9l

The obligation to share goods with the poor was recognized

from the first . As was his custom, Basil bases th~s duty on

Scripture: "For we are taught to ahare with one another to meet

needs according as it is written: your abundance being a supply

for their want, and their abundance for your want, that there may

beequa1ity," (I I Cor. 8 . 14 ). 92 The monk claiJlled to live the

"apostolic life" and both the t eaching and example of the Apostles

encouraged him in his charities . The great object of his renuncia­

tion is that he might be able to give to the poor. The duty of

almsgiving belongs most 'p roperly to the whole brotherhood, not to

the individual monk . A special off icer is appointed for this

task . 93 He is to decide who are to be the recipients of the goods

of the community. These goods are intended first for those

dedicated to God, but just as dog eat of the crumbs that fall

90F. XX.

91~. XXXVI.

92B. CCLXXXV .

938. LXXXVII, XCI

from the table, so there may be something left OVer for

begg.ars . 9 4

Giving to the poor was actually organized on a much

greater scale than the ''Rules'' suggest . Basil's letters and

homilies paint in very dark colors the lIocial conditions of the

Eastern provinces at this time. Inefficient and unconcerned

government had resulted in misery for the poor, and was respon-

sible for great excesses of luxury and selfishness among the

rich. Basil's monastic movement may be seen ina real sense as

an effort after social rightoousness. 9S · Thus the Basilian

monasteries were established in the towns instead of the deserts

so that the needs of other men could more effectively be

47

p rovided for. Basil's charity to the poor during the famine of

368, his famous philanthropic institutions and his many letters of

intercession fo·r the poor testify better than any written word to

the use ,t6 which monks are to put their material goods .

A similarity in at titude can be detected between Basil ' s

regulations on wealth and those concerning work. Both riches and

work provide opportunities for charity toward one's neighbor. In

reply to question XLII on the aim of wormen in the "Long Rules",

Basil writes:

This we must also keep in mind--tbat he who labors ought to perform his task not for the purpose o f ministering to his own needs thereby, but that he may accomplish the Lord'. command: "I was hungry and you gave me to eat, tI Mt . 25 . 35, and so on . To be solicitous for oneself is strictly forbidden by

94a . CI, CCCII.

95ct' . Morison, ~.£lli, p . 7 .

48

the Lord in the words. "Be not solicitous for ;your life, what you shall eat, nor for your body, what you shall put on," and He adds theX'eto: "for aiter all these thing.s do the heathens seek, II Nt. 6.25, 32. Bveryone. theX'efore, in doing hi. work, should place before himself the aia of service to the needy and not his own satisfaction. Thus will he escape the charge of selt-love and receive the blessing for f~aternal charity from the Lord, who saidt "As long as you did it to one of these, Jay least brethren, ;you did it to lie," (Mt. 25.40).96

In another X'ule he quotes Paul' s let ter to the Ephesians

and saYSI "But he who is striving eagerly for perfection should

work night and day "that he may have so_thing to give to h~ that

suffereth need,'''(Bph. 4.28).97

The' DIOnka in their work ab!l'uld strive for si1llplici1;y and

frugality and should work at those jobs Which eanbest fulfill the

needs of the poor and not those that cater to - the desires of the

ridh.98•

'the general rule is laid down that onlythoae occupations

are to be allowed which do not interfere with the DIOnastic life.

Their materials must be easUy procurable, and their products .such

as may .be easUy dietributed to the poor or sold without undue

trouble.

The IIOnks are to regard any tools given them for their use

as instruments conseerated to God. The benefit from the use of

tools is for ail and not for the individual. It is not 'titdng;

moreover, for those who follow trades to exercise such Authority

over their tools as not to pemi t the superior of the colllDlunity

96F. XLII.

97F. XXXVI I •

98F • XXXVIII.

49

to use them for whatever purpose he wishes, or that they should of

themselves take the liberty of selling or exchanging, or getting

rid of them in any other way, or o:f acquir:lng others in addition

to those they have. How could he who has irrevocably chosen not

to be master even o:f his own lands and who has consigned to

another the direction of their activity, how could he be consis.

tent in maintaining full authority over the tools of hie trade,

abrogating to himself mastership over thea799

The same priciples which govem work are to order matters

of food and clothing: all are to be guided by nece.sity, utility,

and siaplicity.lOO In regard to clothing, all are to dres. alike.

Uniformity in dress is desirable for those who have one end in

vi~. AS soldiers and senators wear a uniform, so should monks.lll.

Clothing should be used for one purpose. 0111y .... to give sufficient

covering to the body in both summer and winter . Brilliancy ot

color should not be sought, nor delicacy and80ftness in material.

The tunic ought to be so thick that no addit.lonal garment is

needed to keep the wearer warm. Sandals should be inexpensive but

sufficiently fulfill their purpose.102 The ''Rules'' are somewhat

more IIOderate in tone, possibly as the result of further experience.

In answer to the question, . "What is the .,dest apparel prescribed

99F.CCXLI; OCLIII, CXLIV, OCLVI.

lOOF. XXII I LXX. (""11 1/1trcu.l <; ;. v~ 'I'( I(

. 101B. XXII j , XC

l02.!£:. II.

r u fU ,,' T / ' v 7{ l. 1/'" f 4, '-r 1( r d <;

vii~ {tee'L ~)

50

by the apostles?" Basil replies: "A usage that is decent and

bef'itting its prC)per object , having regard to time, place, person,

necessity, f'or reason prescribes different covering in winter and

summer, nor will the workman and the man of leisure have the same

clothes, or the servant and he who is waiteth upon, or the soldier

and the c ivilian, or a man and a \voman . ,,103 It is sinful to treat

either clothes or shoes in ~ch a manner that they wear out

prematurely. 104 All articles of apparel are obtained f'rom the

superior of' the monastery and must be accepted without complaint .

If they are too coarse or too old the monk is to reflect that they

are more t han he deserves . But i f t hey do not fit, he may humbly

point out the fact . lOS If a monk is asked for clothing by one who

is 'poor he is to refer the needy person to. the one in charge of

t he stores, since the business of giving and receiving is entrusted

to the superior or the one named by him as s teward. 106 An.yone who

chooses clothing t o please men is wandering away f rom God. Just

as wrong is the man who ostentatiously chooses the poorest cloUUng

in order to impress men . 107 Although the garb does not make the

monk , it can help to keep him constant in his ideals and can serve

as a testimony to a poor and Godlike life. lOS

103B. OCX ; Cf F. XXII .

104B. I..XX.

10SB. CLXVIII.

106B. LXXXVII. XCI .

107B. CCXLVIII .

108E'I). CCI II • -

51

Self-indulgence and ostentation are also t o be avoided in

the mattcrof food . An austere frugality is recomended but excessive

abstention, such as that sometimes practiced by the Desert Fathexs,

is CQndemned. Basil's directions in this matter are characterized

by a great breadth of outlook. The use and amount of~ood taken

are to vary according to individual needs based on age, employment

and physical condition. It is not possible to set down one rule

to govern all. A norm can be established but dispensation can be

readily granted by the superior. For example, those who are sick,

tired from work, or preparing for some journey or particularly

strenuous labor can be given additional food. Superiors are

always to grant What is needed in accordance with the Scriptures:

"Distribution was made to each according as everyone had need l "

(Acts 2.45) . The objective--satistying need--must be common to

all. Rating to satiety is condemned since it renders the body

unfit for work. Food is not to be taken for pleasure but for the

sake of 8ustaining life. It must be simple, eheapand easily

prepared, such as is in common use in the district. Bread and

fish are appropriate since they :formed the simple and frugal meal

which our Lord Himself served. Nothing beyond water is to be

drunk except perhaps a little wine for the sake of health.

Extravagant and dainty foods are to be avoided. I09 Those are

reproached who murmur about the quality or quantity o:f food. IIO

I09F. XIX; Basil, LXXI • •

llOa;cxxxnI, CXXXIV.

52

Basil condemns exces.ive abstinence that would make a 110M

unfit for work. Self-imposed f a sts are forbidden, since to f ast

more than the rest is evidence of vainglory and self-will. No

extra austerities may be undertaken without good reason and a ll

such individual programs must have the approval of the superior.IlI

The principle of moderation is to govern all.

Special attention is given to the role of the superior, or

the one appointed by him, in the distribution of goods. To give

or receive does not belong to everyone but to h:lJa who has been

entrusted with such a stewardship after testing. The following

principle is to be observed: "Let each man abide in that wherein

he was called. ,,112 He must take care to divide goods according to

the needa of eaoh. 113 If he fails, through oarele.sness, to give

his brother what he needs he is to be condellned for not ful f illing

the Lord'. coramand to feed the hungry and clothe the naked.114 He

is likewise conderaned i f he does anything \fith favoritism OJ!'

contentiousnes •• llS

Those asking for goods a r e to be content with what t hey

J!'eceive. Nor should the monks be anxious about the necessities of

life but should seek rather the kingdom of God and his

11l3.;:'00CVIII , CXXIX, CXXX, CXXXIX, CXL, CXXXVII, CXXXVIII.

1128. XCI (cf . I Cor. 7.20 ~'" .p ... 7'" 11 ri -r<y r.", £ v I Y(

)( A 7 IT 6! " '1 . . , .c '(j • -r a.. ..i ..... Y( )

113B. CXLVIII.

1148. CL.

1158. CXLIX.

53

righteousness (Mt. 6.33). He should be anxious and work eagerly

to fulfill his neighbor's need since, again, the Lord receives as

given to Himself the services rendered to those dedicated to Him

and promises in return the kingdom or heaven. ll6 To be anxious

for one's own sake is nothing but a sign of self-love. To be

anxious and work for the sake of the Lord's commandment is a

sign that one loves both Christ and his brothers. 117

In all these matters Basil continued to serve as a living

example of how the monk ought to regard the goods of this earth.

'~e imitated • • • the frugality and simplicity of all the

disciples. • •• Then there were his style of dress, the shape of

his bed, and his manner of eating, none of which were to him

des'erving of attention, being simple things and depending merely

on circumstances."118

118c;regory Nazianzen, .2:2. cit., pp. 94-95

CHAPTBR IV

cotCWSIQN

In conolusion., an attempt will be made to assess the

unique contribution ot Basil to the theory and practice o f monastic

poverty. It is necessary, f irst o f all, to look briefly at the

souroe. ot nasil's monastic sy.stem. It can be assumed that he was

influenc·ed to sollie extent by the unorganized ascetic life which

was f ound in cappa-eJocia and Pontus during his youth, o f which such

outstanding examples bad existed in his own family. Also of sollie

influenoe must have be.en Eustathius of Sebaste who propagated

cenob! ti_ in Asia Minor. Exoessee in his ascetioal movement,

from which Messalianism later derived, brought upon him the

censure of various synods. Twenty canons of the Q:)uncil of Gangra

(c. 340) condemn certain practices o f the tollowers of Busta thius.

These inoluded unbecoming dress, contempt of marriage, excessive

denial, and neglect of parental and tilial duties. Bu.tathiu8 was

:Basil 'a tutor in the aacetical life and hi. intimate friend until

a ditterenceon doctrinal grounds caused a permanent breach in

their relationship. The materials available are too.canty to

lIilke any objective and definitive statement on precbely how much

Basil owed to Bustathius in the developllent of his monastie ideals,

but his influence wae c;ertainly of importance in the f ormation of

ascetical doctrine and even in the practical organization o f his

ss

monasteries. Sozomon reports that some considered Eustathius to

be the author of the ascetic works commonly attributed to Basil~19

Although today he is not seriously considered the author of these

works, it is possible that a similarity in the ideas of Eustathius

and Basil led some to this conclusion.

Al so to be considered is the i nfluence of the native pagan

religions and the Greek philosophy which formed a significant part

of Basil'. education. Both no doubt produced a f rame of mind t hat

was favorable to t he growth of ascetioism and monasticism. Basil

was a man of his t imes in seeing , with Plato, the body as a

stranger to the soul , and even with Plotinus, as a heavy weight

encumbering it, the source of impurities that corrupt it. Although

he makes no direct reference to pagan or classical authors, t he

Hellenic influence on his works is unmistakable but, as seen

earlier, it is the Christian spirit which pervades all and the

Scriptural factor whieh is primary.

Also to be considered is the lite of the monks in the

Paehomian monasteries at the time of Basil's visit to Egypt in 358.

Pacholllian cenobiti.m, eonsiderably developed, was the model of the

monas tie system as it was promoted by Basil. Saint Basil' 8 con­

struction o£ the monastic life was fully cenobitical, in this

respect going beyond that of Pacbomius . In the Pachomian system

the monks dwel t in different houses wi thin the monastery precints;

the meals were at different hoursJ and all assembled in the ehurch

only for greater servicfi>.s. But sasil required a colllJDOn roof, a

l19So2:0IlOn, H. R. III, 14. as quoted in Clarke, ~~, p . 160.

S6

common table, and common prayer at all times. We ~eet here for

the first time in Christian monastic legislation the idea of the

cenobitQll , and comXDOn life properly so called . The Pachomian

monasteries were cenobitic primarily in outward appearance, while

thei%' inner spirit remained strongly individualistic and alien to

the c01llDlOn life. Basil corrected What was unworkable in the

Pacho .. ian system by omitting the extreJIe individualism which later

becaJlle a source of irregularity and relaxation. It may be safely

stated that the common life, a constant: and permanent part of

Western monasticism, was original with Basil, . since he regulated

and systematized ascetical practices in his monasteries.

Original also was his insistenee on moderation. He f orbade

the extreme austerities of the eremitical life and of some of the

monks in the Paehomian monasteries in order to protect the common

life in which any extreme manifestation of individualism tends to

be disruptive. It is better to be satisfied with what one

receives than to seek loss and be subject to vainglory.

Significant also is his vindication of the theoretical and

practical supremacy of the .cenobitic life over the eremetic.

There is no proof that Pacborllius considered colllJlunity life the

higher form of mOnasticism or denied the individual the right to

return to the solitary life if he 80 chose. His rationale for the

super ior i ty of the colllDlOn life foms perhaps Basil's most signifi­

cant contribution in the area of poverty. Christianity and

therefore monasticism, which for naai1 ia simply one way of living

the Gospel, is social in its nature. The whole purpose o f the

S7

monastic lif'e is not to live in a¢COrd with one or the oth(U' of

the evangeli ca l counsel s but i$ t o be a means of fulfilling t h e

two great inclusive oommand$ to love o f God nnd neighlx>r. Basil

grasped the uni que c:xmnectlon between t he two, espec ially as i t ie

present ed in the twenty .. fif t h chapt e r of Matthew, and legislat oo

for its practical f ulf illment in his organiza tion of the monaetie

lit e and i n hie ''Rules .. '' Fox: "the monk , as tor aU Otristians,. ~

arty. and aU other type.s o f denial, are not ends in themselVes or

_ans o f welf-discipline which Itfreesoul f x:om body" and t ac:U.itate

union with God. Rather, the controlled use of goods 1s prhial'ily

a means to more effective service of neighbor. Food and clothing

ehould be ueed in moderat!,Qn by the _Ilk tIo that the s'tewa>rd might

have IIIQlMthing left over for diiatJtibution to the poor. Woxk is of

greater value than austerities; therefore, fas ting should not 00

practiced to such an extent that h is cletrUaental to \lUrk. Cb::dm

of labor should be based ulthlately on whetber OJ!' not it will make

possible tbe shar!Qg of proviaions-, the ve;:y nature"! Chrbtian.

i ty demand$ that hoapi taU ty andehaJti ty be an e •• entiat po.l't of

the .,na.tic lit'e. Therefore. the mona. teir iee a .re to be butlt in

areas o f concent rated popula tiOI'lso that people can have greater

access to tha. the door. ot tbe inns. hospitals, and orphanage.

are to be! Open to all . RVen acboot. are to be established at the

mona.te~Y' 80 that the IIIOnk. caneare tbeu intellectual abilitie ..

Property b io be given up a t tb~ tima 0:1 entrance. not be(:aute

property i.e .wil in itself j but in order that it 1Ila,Y be given to

the poor. The colDJQOn life, too; not to be equated with poverty ,

is a. mean. to develop the monkstha t tbey might better be the

s e rvants of those in need .

58

In reality. Basil was the firat to 1110001 himself expUcltly

on tbe primitive ideal as it is found in 'the Acts of the Apostles .

A nostalgia for life in the early Church ca.n be found . especially

in the "Rules" \fhich quote frequently t rom Acts. Theco1Dlllunity of

gooda pres()rib~ in tbe''Rules'· and that poverty which consists in

being sad .• tled with ,mat the monastery provides, a s well a. the

watchfulnes. of superlol's to see tba.t all receive \that they need,

can be seen as. a d irect appl icatmn of Acts 4 .34-35.. Poverty

stands out in Bas1lian monasteries. It is one of the chief virtues

of the Basil ian monk because it is a cbaJ'actet'ieticel ement of a

oo_unity i oJ:1aed in the Ukene •• of the primitive Church. The

appeal to tbis iniant Church,recall'ed by this colDlllUnalconception

of poverty. in no way lesHns the a ttraction of pel'sonal perf'ectlon

brougbt to mind by tbe .• ,...,na to 1: he rich young man. 8a.s11

f'l'eqUet1t1y takes hie inspiration froID h. But the history of

p:dmiti ve r.aonastic povel'ty notes particularly what WaS done by the

f uture bisbop o f Caeaarea to consolidate theeoclal charact er o f

poverty .1 th the refeJ;'ence to the ideal pictUit'8 depicted by the

Acta bl the life ot the f ir.t Cl~bt1an ••

The ideal. of Baatl 8e_ to have been more influential in

the West than in the Bast. BuIll' authors.uggeat that the Basillan

ideal was impc:>sed Oi'l the Whole mona. tie Orlen't. Later writers'

declare that there a re tew sta tements taken over by one author

from anotoor that al'e quhe $0 untl'ue.120 To attelllpt to· $how

exactly which ot the Rules of SQ$il have been repeated in l a ter

Const1tut!on$. in the Baat would be a fonidable task and Deyon

59

tho scope of this study. Certainly some C)f hi$ regulations have

been repeated by lateX' legislator8 and have passed into the COlll'l1OD

fund ot Eastet'1l Churchcus'tOlIli but when we atudy the problem with

a critical eye it can be seen that the distinctive Sa$illan prin­

ciples have not been the doIainating influence in Eastern mona.ti ..

cia. It has been seen above that ~ng Built. mo,t .ignit lcMt

contribUtions to the development of mona.ticism was hi. promotion

of the cotIllIOn life a$ the ldgheat. type o f alce-tic!a_ :tn the area

of hi •• at unique contribudons· BasU ball been least tn.f1uet'ltial

in ·the Bast. Here eenobitlam hatJ endul'eci through the-centuries .e

one po •• i ble .,de of monastic living. OUritlg .nit p~riod$ it hat

existed C!Onjointly with the eremitic .~tGm. SVenMiere the

cenobitic U.:fe has CIOntinucd to _18t it baa not survived 1n the

form env!aU)tled by Basil, slneolDlita;rios 4.te permitted with:f.n

tbe cienobloa al1d, ineome eases • .olitude is regarded •• bc)ing the

bigher fol"ll of l ite.

While tbe a.cetic life ba.. continued to be held in esteem.

the IKmks of the Bast have dono little to tollow BasU·. leade~~

in area. o f tioeial concern. In later cebtUl!'ies EaJtern monasticiIJR

has nat preserved the nasiUan traditiort. ot cad.ng fC)t the pelOt'.

and the .ick.. In many ca .. pl'actidal activit! .. ·.have bci!fOn set

aside in faVOr o f an exduslveeffoxot toward oontet»platl.orhl"hus,

: .. 120uan. von Carapenhauscm, . Thi Fathers e.! the GrC!lek ChurCh. tr. Stadley Godaaan, (New Yorks 1959 . p. 341.

60

although Basil is one of the traditional authorities on tlJhom monks

of the East rely and eVen though some of his "Rules" are still

observed today, he can hardly be said to be of primary influence

in Eastern monastioism, since in many important respects neit her

the l e tter nor the spirit of his "Rules"is observed .

At only one point d id the works o f Basil seem to be a

signif icant factor in the development of Eastern. monasticism. In

the eighth century many monasteries of the Near East fell into

disrepute. The time was ripe for a renewa l . New leadership came

f rom Theodore o f Studium, whose chief source of inspiration seems

to have been the ascetic works of Baail. He revived the common

I ife and insisted that all, to the minutest detail, be geared to

the community . Provision was made :for education, care o f the

sick , and numerous other philantropic works . Theodore'S reformed

monastery became a center from which influences went out to all

parts ot the East . Many parts of Theodore ' . Rule were adopted on

Mount Athos, which in the eleventh and twelfth centruies became

the headquarters ot mona aticism. The monastery of Kiev in Russia

also drew its inspiration from Theodore,· 80 that indirectly

Basilian principles also a ffected Russian monasticism . Sub sequent

developaents, however f tended to lose touch with the basic

Basilian ideas . 121 Although Basil is revered as the Father of

Bastern mona sticism, it.8 IIIOre immed iate guides have been other

legislators who have not a lways been faithf ul to his ideals.

12lClarke, passim, c f . al80 Martinez, Butter, La Clerc;q.

It is in the West that Basil's influence ha$ been most

widespread and enduring . His "Rules" beCame known in the Weat

thJ."Qugh the tranala. tiOT! into Latin by Rudnu$ (c. 391) .122 His'

version is a confi·ation of the Long and Short Rules to' make n,

61

total of 203 r ules . Throughout he paraphrases and abbrevia t e s

fr::eely . There .is no eviden~'e that any western monastery adopt ed

the BasiU.an Rul'a in ita e.ntiret y' in the version ot RuftnU9, but

it 18 the ehannel through which Basil influenced Benedict .

BeliedictsuggeS'dthat, beaide. studying his own RUle. Benedictine

mcmks should give special ' attention to' the Bible. the lttitill9s ox

the Fathel's, the ''Conferences'' and "In.sd.tutean of Ca.sian and

"the Rule o f our holy father Saint Basil ... 123 According to Dom

But'lci!t ., Saint lJenedict owed more of the ~round-idea. of hi. Rule

to $aLl'lt basU than to a ny othel: _nastio legislator;. While he

may have bee'l lIC)J."e indebted to Ca!lusian, fbI( matteJ!'s of detail in

the arM o f pdneiplea and !JPbi t he Ie.. .t() 0_ IIOl'e to Basil ..

tn tI01!Ie ilt.,tances be was directly dapeildent on BasJl . 124 In the

122Mt,ne, P . L . cUi. pp .• 48s...55'4.

123suttcar , op.cb.

124tbe fol lowing parallels are :from H. Le Clercq , ''Mona .. t!hi$Ille, "rU.et 1Dnna.ire d t Areheolog1e Chredenne et de t.it~r9i41h 1820~ Ba.n F. XaBenedict LVIU; Basil F . XV=BenediotLU;Basil F. D(,XI;:8enedictXl.. ; Basil F. tXX=Benedlet L.V ; aa.UB.l=8enedic't VII, na.U B. I..)O(XV::iBenedict XXXIII; &.il B. C=Benedi.ct II; 8as11 CV=Bene4iet XLVIII ; $a$il B. CVllllBe.nedtet t.Xt; Basil B. 201=llene ... diet XX,Ba.n 8 . CIXX:=Benediet t.XVIU, aa.ll B. CXl.IU=Betlediet XXXI; Basil CXLVI=Benediet LVUX; Sasil B. CXL.VI,I=a.nedict t.; a.a..UB. C1..X=Senediet XXXVI; &.11 B. C1JOO<lV;:Benedidt XI; aa.u B. OWl-Benedict. LXVII!; Sas.il B. OO<X\1;:Benedict LV; Ba.i1 B •. CXCVIIl=Bened:i.ct VII .

62

area or povert y therels a close resemblance in t heir teachings .

Benedict patterned hils Rule '00<111 carefully on Basil's Short Rule

I..XXXVooncerning private property in the brotherhood. In both,

the one making application wa$ to give his property to the poor or

to the monastery before he enter ed . In contrast to later develop ..

mente, coll1ll1unity ownership of poverty was , permitted. But i n Ba~dl

as in Benedict goods Were held by the collmunity only that they

might have something to give to the pbor. Gifts in both are made

to the community, not that. it should grow rich or ama.ss wealth,

but $0 that too$e who have given all or whQ are in want may obtain

relier. In insisting on the common life as the best means to

rraternal charity Benedict was Basil's stX':i:.ctest disciple. Both

r ul "ed that I'4Qnks we).'e to receive according to their needs but

Benedict legislated more preeisely on what the monk.s needs ought

to be in order to prevent any illegitiaate claims~ Also, much

mor-e detailed are his rules concerning rood and clothing. He has

derinite regulations for quantity and quality o r rood and clothing

the number or fasts, t ype of work, all or which are lef t generally

undefined in Basil.

In some areas 'Basil and Benedict are actually opposed. FOr

Benedict labor was not the positive means or acquiringlllOre to

share with the poor that it was with Basil. BasiPs l1IOnasteries

weie to be located in ' towns so that people would , have easier access

to the monks who were directly respollsible . for philan1hropic work.

The relDoteness or the B~nedictine IIIOnaste:tles; however; prevented

the monks from undertaking works. or mercy to the extent that Basil

had prescribed to his followers.

63

If Basil's ideas were only partially realized in Benedict,

they have influenced much o f later monastic history. CenobitiSIU

under va rious foms has become the one recognized tyP.e of ~Jestern

monastic ism and the solitary life has ceased to exist. Many

modem reU.g ious communities were fo~din the spirit o f Basil as

a means to give better service to other lien. There is a strUdng

resemblance betweert his ideals and those of many today who a r e

seeking to experiment in new d1reetions. The BasiU.an literature

oonta ins much that eQuld provide guidelines for such sea rching in

the area o f the rationale for the eomaon life with its attendant

impU.eations t or the use of lDateJrial goods, a ,s well as the f reedorll

engendered by the setting down of general principles a$appposod to

detailed prescriptions. A valid and viable form of religious life

must be one primarily motivated by the desire to serve others.

The denial in moderation of material goods, together with the

joining in common life , can never be ends in themselves but only

means to facilitate the service o f those in need. The response to '

the call to religious U£ecannot be to a life lived apart f rom

that of other men but is a subjectively chosen means to live a

Christian calling among all aen . T~e individual Christian and

those he chooses to join w1 th in responding to the Gospel cannot

interpret the call to stewardehip to mean a care for aa terial

goode as a means for providing for the aeculj i ty of its OWh members

or for the aggrandbement of the l a rger cbwrch institution of

whidh it ia a pal't . Supll introverted concern is abhol'rent to the

Gospel _ilsage which today demands an earnest seeking to dbcover

64

and care :to!!' the poor and a detaohment izoom a false pride itl

telf ... satisfying structures and an over eoneern f or the perpetuation

of a particular in.titudon despite 1t. taCk of respG.nse to

contemporary Social needs. ReU.g!Gus today aust be the avant .. garde

of those l\bo confront thecont'liot s:f:tuations in eontaipora ry

1;.,~ .,c1ety where the disparity between the haves and the bave ... nots itt

most appar:ent.. It may well be that a _.ber of an institution not

wbQlehelul'tedly reaponding to this ~all to involvement in areas of

critical 100tai need. wUl bave to, in accord with the idea" o f

&.n. call this abuse to the attention of hi. brotl\e·rs. If his

adllloniUon is not heeded hemal" be torced to leave the intdtution

and ."kn~ methods of reaponding to theGospet injunctions ..

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