by derek. b,a,, columbia, 1967 - core · ismail acceded to leadership in egypt fifteen years after...

182
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUCED DEVELOPMENT IN EGYPT UNDER MUHAMMAD ALI PASHA AND KHEDIVE ISNAIL by Derek. Jarncs Overtnn B,A,, Unit~ersity of British Columbia, 1967 A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF hRTS in the Department of History @ DEREK JAMES UVERTON 1971 S IMUN FRASER UNIVEES ITY April 1971

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Page 1: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

SOME ASPECTS OF INDUCED DEVELOPMENT I N EGYPT

UNDER MUHAMMAD A L I PASHA AND K H E D I V E I S N A I L

b y

Derek. Jarncs O v e r t n n

B,A,, U n i t ~ e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1967

A T H E S I S S U B M I T T E D I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L M E N T OF

THE REQUIREMENTS F O R THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF hRTS

i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t

o f

H i s t o r y

@ DEREK JAMES UVERTON 1971

S IMUN FRASER U N I V E E S I T Y

A p r i l 1971

Page 2: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

A P P R O V A L

Name:

Dogrce:

litlo o f I h e s i s : Some Aspects o f I n d u c e d Cevsloprnrnt i n E g y p t u n d e r Muhammad A l i Pasha a n d Khcdivo I s m a i l

Examining C o r n m i t t ee :

Chairman: R o b e r t L t Koepke

- JOFP, S~~CJKTI~X--- -"-

S e n i o r S u o c r v i s o r

I - .. ---- 7----- Hanna Kassis E x t e r n a l Examiner

A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbiap Vancouver, B . C .

* 1 q - 7 1 D a t e Approved : .2 $?,

(ii)

Page 3: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

ABSTRACT

D r a m a t i c s o c i o - e c o n o m j . ~ r e f o r m s w e r e i n d u c e d i n E g y p t

d u r i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o f Muhammad A l i P a s h a , 1 8 0 5 - 1 8 4 8 ,

a n d K h e d i v e I s m a i l , 1863-1879. T h i s t h e s i s i s p r i m a r i l y

c o n c e r n e d w i t h many o f t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t i m p e d e d t h e f r u i t i o n

o f t h e s e r e f o r m s .

nF4- n- , , ~ , , m n t n n + hn nnt tnvnnrch i n .,, Ub, U,u,, l , , , ,,,, y,, , , , , , , ,u, , , , cf Eqyp'c i n ? 805; M n h p m m a r l

A l i s t r o v e f o r m o r e t h a n a d e c a d e t o c o n s o l i d a t e h i s p o s i t i o n

o f l e a d e r s h i p . S o o n a f t e r h e h a d e l i m i n a t e d o r n e u t r a l i z e d

m o s t e l e m e n t s o f a c t i v e o r p o t e n t i a l o p p o s i t i o n , h e u n d e r t o ~ k

m i l i t a r y r e f o r m s . T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a l a r g e a r m y - f o r

d e f e n s i v e a n d o f f e n s i v e p u r p o s e s - m o d e l l e d on E u r o p e a n

m i l i t a r y f o r c e s , b e c a m e t h e P a s h a ' s p r i m a r y p r e o c c u p a t i o n .

T h e p r o b l e m s o f a t t e m p t i n g t o f o r m a m o d e r n a r m y i n n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u r y E g y p t , a p r o f o u n d l y t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y , were

f o r m i d a b l e , T h e P a s h a a l s o u n d e r t o o k a n e s s e n t i a l l y m o r e

d i f f i c u l t t a s k , t h a t o f f o r m i n g a m o d e r n n a v y , E g y p t a t t h i s

t ime h a d n o e x p e r i e n c e d n a v a l p e r s o n n e l , o t h e r t h a n a f e w

E u r o p e a n n a v a l i n s t r u c t o r s ,

T h e a r m y , u h i c h b y t h e e a r l y lf33D1s e x c e e d e d 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 men,

a c t e d a s t h e m a j o r n u c l e u s o f r e f o r m . V a r i o u s "mode rn"

i n d u s t r i e s w e r e f o u n d e d - o s s e n t i a l l y t o s u p p l y t h e a r m y - a n d

n u m e r o u s "mode rn" p r i m a r y , s e c o n d a r y a n d s p e c i a l s c h o o l s were

e s t a b l i s h e d , l a r g e l y t o p r e p a r e p e r s o n n e l f o r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e .

A l l o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s e h c o u n t e r e d g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s , a s

( i i i )

Page 4: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t h e f a c t o r y ~ u o r k e r s a n d t h e s t u d e r ~ t s

o r i g i n a t e d f r o m a p r o f o u n d l y t r a d i t i o n a l e t h o s .

Muhammcd i i l i ' s r e f o r m s s u f f e r e d a g r a v e s e t b a c k i n 'i~!?140,

when t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y i n S y r i a was d e f e a t e d by O t t o m a n a n d

E u r o p e a n f g r c e s , T h e P a s h a tijas f o r c e d t o r e d u c e t h e s i z e o f

h i s a r m y t o a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f w h a t i t h a d b e e n . I n p o o r

h e a l t h , d i s i l l u s i o n e d a n d r e s e n t f u l , t h e P a s h a f o r t h e

r e m a i n d e r o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s h o w e d l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n

f u r t h e r i n g o r m a i n t e i n i R ; his r-fcr~s. D z r i ~ n + h i e n n r i n r i Y ""'" I - - - - - -

t h e n a v y , s c h o o l s a n d i n d u s t r i e s h e h a d f o u n d e d w e r e l a r g e l y

d i s s i p a t e d ,

Ismail a c c e d e d t o l e a d e r s h i p i n E g y p t f i f t e e n y e a r s a f t e r

t h e a b d i c a t i o n o f h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , Muharnrr~ad A l i . T h o u g h h e

h a d p r e v i o u s l y a p p e a r e d t o b e s o m e w h a t c a u t i o u s a n d

p a r s i m o n i o u s , h e r a p i d l y i n s t i g a t e d r e f o r m s i n v o l v i n g r e l a t i v e l y

l a r g e expenditures, w h i c h n e c e s s i t a t e d c o s t l y ( i n i n t e r e s t a n d

s e r v i c e c h a r g e s ) f o r e i g n l o a n s . By t h e e n d o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a -

t i o n , h e h a d a c c u m u l a t e d a d e b t o f E. 9 1 , U 0 0 9 0 0 0 .

A t t h e t ime o f h i s a c c e s s i o n , E g y p t e n j o y e d a p e r i o d o f

u n p r e c e d e n t e d p r o s p e r i t y d u e t o t h e boom i n 1 8 6 1 - 1 8 6 5 o f w o r l d

p r i c e s f v c o t t o n . ' T h i s u n d o u b t e d l y i n f l a t e d h i s e x p e c t a t i o n s

o f t h e c q u n t r y ' s e c o n o m i c p o t e n t i a l , w h i c h i n t u r n i n f l u e n c e d

h i m t o s p e n d i m p r u d e n t l y i n v a r i o u s a r e a s . N o t a b l e a m o n g h i s

e x p e n d i t u r e s were t h o s e o n p u b l i c u ~ o r k s . S o o n a f t e r t h e

d e c l i n e o f c o t t o n p r i c e s , I sma i l i n i t i a t e d a l a r g e s c a l e s u g a r

r e f i n i n g i n d u s t r y , h o p i n g i n p a r t t o d i v e r s i f y E g y p t ' s i n c o m e

f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e , w h i c h was ' l a r g e l y r e l i a n t o n c o t t o n . S u c h

Page 5: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

f a c t o r s a s a l a c k o f m a n a g e m e n t p e r s o n n e l and s k i l l e d w o r k e r s ,

a s we11 a s p o o r s u g a r p r i c e s o n t h e w o r l d m a r k e t , u n d e r m i n e d

t h e p r o j e c t . I t was u n p r o f i t a b l e a n d e v u n t u a l l - y c o l l a p s e d ,

I s m a i l u n d e r t o o k r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e s c a l e m i l i t a r y r e f o r m s ,

y e t t h e a r m y d i d n o t b e c o m e t h e r a i s o n d % t r e o f h i s p o l i c i e s

a s i t h a d b e e n w i t h Muhammad A l i . Among h i s m o r e n o t e w o r t h y

a c h i e v e m e n t s were t h o s e c o n c e r n e d i g i t h e d u c a t i o n . Neu~

e d u c a t i o n a l . i n s t i t u t i o n s w e r e o p e n e d , o t h e r s w e r o r e v i v e d a n d

\ m a j o r r e f o r m s w e r e p r o m u l g a t e d . i s m a i i was a b i e t o u t i i i z e

E g y p t i a n a n d O t t o m a n t e a c h i n g p e r s o n n e l e d u c a t e d i n s c h o o l s

f o u n d e d b y h i s g r a n d f a t h e r .

T h e p r e c i p i t a t e c h a n g e s and r e f o r m s i n d u c e d b y Muhammad

A l i were f r a u g h t w i t h s h o r t c o m i n g s , a n d h a d l a r g e l y d i s s i p a t e d

b e f o r e h i s a b d i c a t i o n . C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t E g y p t was a p r o f o u n d l y

t r a d i t i o n 8 1 s o c i c t y , h o w e v e r o i t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e y

d e v e l o p e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y d i d . Soma o f I s m a i l ' s

m o d e r n i z a t i o n p r o j e c t s o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p r o v e d t o b e

r e l a t i v e l y d u r a b l e a n d p r o v i d e d a m o r e c o n c r e t e b a s i s f o r

f u t u r e s a c i o - e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e l a r g e N a t i o n a l Debt

a c c u m u l a t a d d u r i n g his a d n ~ i n i s t r a t i o n , h o w e v e r , o f f s e t t h e

b e n e f i t s f r o m t h e s e p r o j e c t s , I t was a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n a

c h a i n o f e v e n t s t h a t c u l m i n a t e d i n t h e B r i t i s h o c c u p a t i o n o f

E g y p t *

A w i d e v a r i e t y o f b o o k s , j o u r n a l s , c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ,

c o n s u l a r r e p o r t s , a n d e d i c t s were s t u d i e d f o r t h i s t h e s i s - i n

b o t h E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h , Much o f t h i s m a t e r i a l was o b t a i n e d

t h r o u g h I n t e r - L i b r a r y L o a n .

( v >

Page 6: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

T A B L E OF CONTENTS - Paae I..-.

A B S T R A C T

INTRODUCT I O N

P A R T I

C h a p t a r I E g y p t , Muhammad A l i a n d t i l e C a n s o l i d a t i o n o f P o v ~ c r

M i l i t a r y C o n s c r i p t i a n i n a T r a d i t i o n a l S o c i e t y

C h a p t e r IV The Navy: D e v e l a p r n a n t a n d E f f e c t i v e n e s s

* h a p t c r V

C h a p t e r V I

P r i o r i t i e s i n E d u c a t i o n

P r o b l e m s o f I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i c n

P l i R T I I

C h a p t e r VII Ismail's Ambition

C h a p t e r VI l I P r o b l e m s OF P r a d u c t i v i t y i n Agriculture

C h a p t e r I); P u b l i c Works a n d t h e P u b l i c D e b t 1 2 2

C h a p t e r X The O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d A d n f n i s t r a L i o n of E d u c a t i o n , 140

C h a p t e r XI T h e E x p a n s i o n and O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e M i l i t a r y 151

CONCLUSIOPJ

B I B L IOGRAPi-lY

Page 7: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

INTRODUCTION

Muhammad A l i P a s h a a n d K h e d i v e I s m a i l were t h e m o s t

d y n a m i c r u l o r s o f E g y p t i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , D u r i n g

t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s t h i s a u t o n o m o u s p r o v i n c e o f t h e O t t o m a n

E m p i r e u n d e r w e n t d r a m a t i c s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c h a n g e s . T h e r e s u l t s

o f t h e r e f o r m s were i n many i n s t a n c e s m a r k e d l y d e f e c t i v e , a n d

t z s p a e l a l l y t i l u s e i l i d ~ ~ c e d b y Muhaiiiiiiau" &:is large:j: ephsmera? .

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e many e l e m e n t s w i t h i n t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y i

a n t i t h e t i c a l t o s u c h r e f o r m s , i t i s r e m a r k a b l e % h a t t h e y

d e v e l o p e d t o t h e d e g r e e t h e y d i d . T h e o v e r t d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n E g y p t o f t h e t ime o f Muhamniad Ali's a c c e s s i o n t o p o w e r

i n 1 8 0 5 , a n d E g y p t a t t h e t ime o f I s m a i l ' s a b d i . c a t i o n i n 1 8 7 9 ,

a r e n o l e s s s t r i k i n g ,

T h i s t h e s i s i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d u ~ i t h a s t u d y o f t h e

t e n s i o n s a n d p r o b l e m s t h a t e m e r g e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h e c h a n g e s

t h e t w o a d m i n i s t r a t o r s u n d e r t o o k t o i m p l e m e n t . T h e s e c h a n g e s

a r e i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e s o f a t t e m p t s t o i n d u c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t ,

i n t h e n o n - W e s t e r n w o r l d , o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t e v o l v e d i n

t h e E u r o p e a n c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , T h e Muhammad A l i e r a

p r o v i d e s a n e a r l y a n d c l a s s i c p a t t e r n o f i n d u c e d c h a n g e w i t h

t h e f o l l o w i n g h i s t o r i c a l s t a g e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t :

1. T h e F r e n c h i n v a s i o n a n d o c c u p a t i o n o f E g y p t b r o k e t h e M a m l u k q s c o n t r o l o f t h a t c o u n t r y . S o o n a f t e r t h e F r e n c h f o r c e h a d w i i h d r a w n , Muhammad A l i u s u r p e d c o n t r o l of E g y p t .

2 . D u r i n g t h e n e x t d e c a d e o r s o , h e c o n s o l i d a t e d h i s p o s i t i o n a s r u l e r o f E g y p t b y 9 a m o n g o t h e r m e a s u r e s , n e u t r a l i z i n g o r d e s t r o y i n g a c t i v e o r p o t e n t i a l o p p o n e n t s t o h i s r e g i m e ,

Page 8: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

3. I n t h e same p e r i o d , h e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d g o v e r n m e n t i n c o m e , m o s t n o t a b l y b y c o n f i s c a t i n g a l l l a n d , a n d m o n o p o l i z i n g a l l f a r m p r o d u c e .

4. D u r i n g t h e s e c o n d d e c a d e o f h i s r e i g n t h e P a s h a i n s t i t u t e d m i l i t a r y r e f o r m s . T h e s e , c o u p l e d w i t h r a p i d m i l i t a r y e x p a n s i o n , t r i g g e r e d l a r g e s c a l e d e v c l o p r n e n t s i n a n c i l l a r y a r e a s .

T h e i n i t i a t i v e s u n d e r t a k e n b y t h e t w o a u t o n o m o u s r u l e r s

o f E g y p t h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d f r o m a v a r i e t y o f p e r s p e c t i v e s i n

a v a r i e t y o f a c c o u n t s , b u t a b a l a n c e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r

r e f o r m s , i n t h e l i g h t o f t h o p r o b l e m s o f i n d u c e d d e v e l o p m e n t ,

h a s b e e n l a r g e l y n e g l e c t e d , A n u m b e r o f E u r o p e a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s

o f Muhanimad A l i w r o t e a p o l o g i a s f o r h i s r e f o r m s , T h e i r w o r k s ,

w h i c h h a v e h a d c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e u p o n s u b s e q u e n t s t u d i e s

o n t h e s u b j e c t , g a v e s c a n t a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f

t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t r a d i t i o n t o m o d e r n i t y . O n e c o u l d c o n c l u d e

f r o m t h e m t h a t s u c h d i f f i c u l t i e s were v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t .

I n f a c t , h o w e v e r , t h e r e f o r m s w e r e i n u n d a t e d w i t h p r o b l e m s .

I t i s p r o b a b l c t h a t a t l c z s t s o m e o f t h e = p o l o g i s t s E e r z b r i b z d

b y t h e P a s h a t o g l o r i f y h i s a c h i e v e m e n t s . T h i s o f c o u r s e w o u l d

a c c o u n t f o r t h e i r f a i l u r e t o d i s c u s s t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n t e r e d .

Ismail a c c e d e d t o t h e t h r o n e i n 1863, f o u r t e e n y e a r s a f t e r

t h e d e a t h s f h i s g r a n d r a t h e r , Muhammad A l i , b y w h i c h t ime t h e

o v e r t e f f e c t s o f t h e P a s h a ' s r e f o r m s h a d b e e n l a r g e l y d i s s i p a t e d .

He i n s t i g a t e d l a r g e s c a l e m o d e r n i z a t i o n p r o j e c t s , s o m e o f w h i c h

p r o v e d t o b e r e l a t i v e l y d u r a b l e . U n l i k e h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ,

h o w e v e r , h i s c o n t e m p o r a r y c r i t i c s o u t n u m b e r e d h i s a p o l o g i s t s .

T h e l a r g e n a t i o n a l d e b t t h a t h e a c c u m u l a t e d w a s o f c o u r s e t o a

c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s , A p a r t f r o m t h e d e b t ,

s u c h i n f l u e n t i a l B r i t i s h f i g u r e s a s t h e E a r l o f C r o m e r , L o r d

Page 9: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

M i l n e r , a n d E d w a r d D i c e y u n j u s t 1 . y c h a r a c t e r i z e d I s m a i l i n t h e i r

w r i t i n g s a s a n u t t e r w a s t r e l , S u c h c h a r a c t e r a s s a s s i n a t i o n

h e l p e d t o j u s t i f y B r i t a i n ' s r o l e i n I s m a i l ' s a l ~ d i c a t i o n , a n d

t h e s u b s e q u e n t B r i t i s h o c c u p a t i o n o f E g y p t . His e f f o r t s a t

m o d e r n i z a t i o n , a n d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d , h a v e

l a r g e l y b e e n i g n o r e d b y h i s t o r i a n s , u ~ h i l e h i s d e b t h a s b e c o m z

h i s e p i t a p h .

T h i s t h e s i s c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h o s e a s p e c t s o f i n d u c e d

d e v e l o p r n ~ n t , o r i ~ i r i a t i n ? 111; t .h t he i n i f . i a f . i \ t e ~ n f khf? r e f n r m n r s

o r t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t s , T h e s e a r e t h e s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s o f

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d f i n a n c e , m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n , c o n s c r i p t i o n ,

n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , e d u c a t i o n a l r o f o r m , a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p -

m e n t , i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a n d p u b l i c w o r k s e x p a n s i o n . T h e g e n e r a l

p r o b l e m s o f war, r e l i g i o n , p o l i t i c s , d i p l o m a c y a n d s o c i e t y m u s t

p e r f o r c e r e m a i n b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f a s p e c i a l i z e d s t u d y l i k e

t h i s o n e .

Page 10: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

PART I CJzipter I - E q y p t , Muhammad A l i a n d ----- t h e C o n s o l i d a t i o n --... o f P o w e r

When Muhammad A l i c a m e t o p o w e r E g y p t was p a r t o f a

t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y p r o f o u n d l y i g n o r a n t o f E u r o p e a n a d v a n c e s .

T h e e t h o s o f t h i s s o c i e t y w a s e s s e n t i a l l y a n t i t h e t i c a l t o

s o e i o - e c o n o m i c c h a n g e s o f t h e k i n d u n d e r t a k e n i n E u r o p e .

Muhammad A l i was a p p o i n t e d Vali o f E g y ~ ~ t i n 1005, s e v e n y e a r s

a f t e r t h e t r e n c h i n v a s i o n o f E g y p t , h e r f i r s t r e a l c o n t a c t

w i t h E u r o p e f o r t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s . U n t i l e a r l y i n t h e

s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , E g y p t h a d b e e n i n r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e c o n t a c t

w i t h t h e West, h e r p o r t s b e i n g m a j o r l i n k s i n t h e t r a d e r o u t e s

t h a t c a r r i e d s u c h l u x u r y i tems a s i v o r y , p r e c i o u s s t o n e s a n d

s p i c e s f r o m Asia a n d Afr ica t o E u r o p e . S o o n a f t e r P o r t u g u e s e

n a v i g a t o r s h a d d i s c o v e r e d t h e C a p e R o u t e t o I n d i a a n d t h e

S p i c e I s l a n d s . D u r i n g t h e l a s t d e c a d e o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,

h o w e v e r , t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f t h i s l u x u r y t r a d e was d i v e r t e d t o

t h e n e w l y d i s c o v e r e d s e a r o u t e s . T h u s E g y p t ' s s o l e a v e n u e o f

c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e w i t h t h e West was a l l b u t s e v e r e d .

T h e Mamluk r u l i n g c l a s s was o v e r t l y h o s t i l e t o E u r o p e a n s

a n d g e n e r a t e d p u b l i c s e n t i m e n t a g a i n s t t h e m . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,

t h e f e w E u r o p e a n s who l i v e d i n E g y p t , m o s t l y m e r c h a n t s , l a r g e l y

r e m a i n e d a l o o f From E g y p t i a n S o c i e t y . T h i s i s e v i d e n c e d i n t h e

f o l . l o v ~ i n g o b s e r v a t i o n b y a F r e n c h t r a v e l l e r , V o l n e y , c o n c e r n i n g

t h e f e w o f h i s c o u n t r y m e n r e s i d i n g i n C a i r o d u r i n g t h e I 7 8 O ' s :

S h u t u p i n a c o n f i n e d s p a c e , l i v i n g a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h s c a r c e l y a n y e x t e r n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , t h e y e v e n d r e a d e d i t a n d w e n t o u t a s l i t t l e a s p o s s i b l e , t o a v o i d t h e i n s u l t s o f t h e common p e o p l e , who h a t e d t h e v e r y name o f F r a n k s , a n d t h e i n s o l e n c e o f t h e M a m l u k s , who f o r c e d

Page 11: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

t h e m t o d i s m o u n t f r o m t h e i r a s s e s i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e s t r e e t s . l

B e c a u s e o f t h e s ' r l a c k o f c o m m u n i c a t i a n w i t h E u r o p e a n s a l l

E g y p t i a n s r e m a i n e d u n a w a r e o f t h e m o m e n t o u s s c i e n t i f i c ,

i n d u s t r i a l a n d s o c i a l c h a n g e s t h a t w c r c o c c u r r i n g i n E u r o p e

d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h , s e v e n t e e n t h a n d eighteenth c e n t u r i e s . 2

T h e b a c k u ~ a r d n e s s o f e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y E g y p t , e s s e n t i a l l y

a f e u d a l s t a t e , i s r e f l e c t e d t o s o m e e x t e n t b y h e r e d u c a t i o n a l

s y s t e m . T h r o u g h o u t t h e . e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , E g y p t i a n e d u c a t i o n ,

w h i c h Mas e n t i r e l y r e l i g i a - c e n t r i c , was i n a s t a t e O F d e c a y .

A p e r u s a l o f e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y c u r r i c u l a o f a l - A z h a r p t h e

c e n t r e o f E g y p t i a n l e a r n i n g , d i s c l o s e s t h a t h i s t o r y a n d b e l l e ? -

l e t t r e s were l a r g e l y n e g l e c t e d , a n d t h a t p h i l o s o p h y a n d

s c i e n t i f i c s u b j e c t s were n o t s t u d i e d a t a l l . ' I n t h e r e l a t i v e l y

n a r r o u r a n g e o f s t u d i e s m o s t a t t e n t i o n was p a i d t o A r a b i c

l i n g u i s t i c s , j u r i s p r u d e n c e , t h e o l o g y , l o g i c a n d e l . e m e n t a r y

m a t h e m a t i c s . 41-Azher l i b ~ a r y as o n l y a f r s c t i o n o f t h e

- ' 4 u o t e d i n E . R . J . OwenP C o t t o n a n d t h e E q y p t i a n Economy, 1 8 2 0 - 1 9 1 4 ( o x f o r d , 1 9 6 9 ) , p . 1 4 .

here is no r e c o r d o f a s i n g l e E g y p t i a n h a v i n g v i s i t e d E u r o p e i n t h e 1 6 t h , 1 7 t h a n d l e t h c e n t u r i e s . C h a r l e s Issawi , " A s y m e t r l c a l D e v e l o p r n a n t a n d T r a n s p o r t i n E g y p t , 1 8 0 0 - 1 9 1 4 , " i n W.R. P o l k a n d R . L . C h a m b e r s ( e d s . ) , % i n n i n s of M o d e r n i z a t i o n i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t ( C h i c a g o , - e p . 3 5 9 .

or a r e s u m 6 o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y c u r r i c u l a a t a l - A z h a r s e e J. H e y w o r t h - D u n n e , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o ---- t h e his to^ o f E d u c a t i o n i n f i lodern E q y p t ( 2 n d e d . , 1 9 6 7 , p p . 4 1 - 7 7 .

4~ s i m i l a r r a n g e o f s u b j e c t s was g i v e n a t o t h e r p o s t - k u t t a b i n s t i t u t i o n s , A l - J a b a r t i r e p o r t e d t h a t s u c h i n s t i t u t i o n s e x i s t e d a t A s y u t , Birma, Damiet ta , D a s u k , F a i y u r n , G i r g a , M a h a l l a h , M a n s u r a h , M a r u f , R o s e t t a , T a h a a n d T a n t a . T o t h e s e J. Heytuor th -Dunne a d d e d A l e x a n d r i a , G i z a h , K a l y u b , K e n a , J u s a n d M a n f a l u t . p p . 1 9 - 2 0 .

Page 12: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s i z e i t h a d b e e n i n p r e v i o t i s c e n t u r i e s . Fern o f t h e - s h a . " ~ ~ -

k n e w a n o t h e r M i d d l e E a s t e r n l a n g u a g e ,

F u n d a m e n t a l I s l a m i c e d u c a t i o n w a s p r o v i d e d b y t h e k u t t a b s

w h i c h o p e r a t e d u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f l o c a l m o s q u e s . I t i s n o t

p o s s i b l e t o e s t i m a t e t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f c h i l d r e n who r e c e i v e d

k u t t a b t r a i n i n g s i n c e , f o r i n s t a n c e , i t is n o t known h o u ~ many

k u t t a b s e x i s t e d . O v e r a p e r i o d o f t h r e e y e a r s t h e s t u d e n t s

m e m o r i z e d a l a r g e p a r t , o r a l l , o f t h e ~ u r a n . ' L e s s o n s i n

c u i ~ ~ p r e h e n a i n g t h e material t h a t h a d b e e n m e m o r i z e d were n o t

p a r t o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m , n o r d i d t h e t e a c h e r s h a v e m o r e t h a n a

s u r f a c e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t ,

I t a p p e a r s t h a t r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g were o n l y t a u g h t i n

s o m e u r b a n k u t t a b s , C o n s e q u e n t l y , v i r t u a l l y n o n e o f t h e r u r a l

p o p u l a t i o n were l i t e r a t e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , C h a b r o l , a F r e n c h

s c h o l a r , who was a member o f N a p o l e o n ' s E x p e d i t i o n t o E g y p t ,

e s t i m a t e d t h a t b e t w e e n a q u a r t e r a n d a t h i r d o f t h e a d u l t male

p o p u l a t i o n o f C a i r o c o u l d r e a d , o r r e a d a n d w r i t e , t o s o m e

e x t e n t . C h a b r o l ' s e s t i m a t e a p p e a r s t o b e h i g h , b u t i t i s

p r o b a b l y m o r e a c c u r a t e t h a n t h a t g i v e n b y t h e R u s s i a n C o n s u l -

G e n e r a l , D u h a m e l , who, i n t h e 1 8 2 0 8 s , c l a i m e d t h a t e x c e p t f o r

t h e C o p t s , who a c t e d a s b o o k e e p e r s a n d s c i b e s , t h e r e were l e s s

t h a n 2 0 0 l i t e r a t e p e o p l e i n E g y p t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e

5 ~ . ~ , L a n e r e p o r t e d t h a t h e h a d h e a r d o f a s c h o o l t e a c h e r i n h i s n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f C a i r o who was a b l e t o r e c i t e t h e whole o f t h e Q u r a n , t h o u g h h e c o u l d n e i t h e r r e a d n o r w r i t e , When i t w a s n e c e s s a r y f o r h i m t o r e a d , h e w o u l d a s k t h e h e a d b o y o f t h e s c h o o l t o a s s i s t h i m , " a r e t e n d i n a t h a t h i s e v e s were w e a k . " - a

E.W. L a n e , T h e M a n n e r s a n d ust to is o f ---- t h e m o d e r n E q y p t i a n s - ( 2 n d e d . ; L o n d o n : ~ v e r ~ r n a n ' s , 1 961j4Yp. 6 3 .

Page 13: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 6

E i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y E g y p t s u f f e r e d a s e v e r e j o l t v ~ h e n s h e

!as i n v a d e d b y F r a n c e i n 1 7 9 8 , T h e F r e n c h e x p e d i t i o n a r y f o r c e

r a p i d l y o v c r w h e l m e d t h e Mamlulc a r m y a n d b r o k e t h e Msrnlu!, : '~

c o n t r o l o v e r m o s t o f E g y p t . H a v i n g been p r o f o u n d l y w e a k e n e d

b y t h e i r d e f e a t a t t h e h a n d s oT t h e F r e n c h , t h e Mamluks w e r e

n o t a b l e t o m u s t e r s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h t o r e - e s t a b l i s h t h e i r

c o n t r o l when t h e F r e n c h h a d d e p a r t e d f r o m E g y p t , By d i s l o c a t i n g

t h e s t a t u s q u o t h e F r e n c h i n a d v e r t e n t l y f a c i l i t a t e d Nuhammad

Ali's r i s e t o p o a e r a F e u y e a r s l a t e r ,

D u r i n g t h e f o u r y e a r s t h a t t h e y r e m a i n e d i n E g y p t , t h e

F r e n c h were t o o p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h s u p p r e s s i n g i n s u r r e c t i o n s t o

u n d e r t a k e a n y p r o f o u n d i n t e r n z l r e f o r m s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y

r e v e a l e d t o s o m e E g y p t i a n s , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , v a r i o u s a s p e c t s

o f m o d e r n u ~ e s t e r r ~ d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e f a c t t h a t N a p o l e o n ' s

c a r r i a g e was t h c s e c o n d w h e e l e d v e h i c l e t o b e u s e d i n E g y p t

s i n c e a n c i e n t t imes - t h e f i r s t h z v i n g b e e n a F r e n c h g i f t t o

I b r a h i m B e y , a Mamluk p r i n c e - i n d i c a t . e s t h e e n o r m o u s g u l r

b e t w e e n t h e t e c h n i c a l a c h i e v e m e n t s s f t h e t w o c u l t u r e s . 7

6 ~ h i s c la im a p p e a r s t o b e s u b v e r t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t m o r e t h a n 1 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s were i n a t t e n d a n c e a t a l - A z h a r t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y ; m o r e o v e r , t h e r e was a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s a t o t h e r p o s t - k u t t a b i n s t i t u t i o n s , I t s h o u l d b e a d d e d h o w e v e r , t h a t s o m e o f tie s t u d e n t s a t a l l o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s h a d e n r o l l e d i n o r d e r t o r e c e i v e t h e F r e e f o o d p r o v i d e d f o r t h e m , a n d n o t t o s t u d y . H e y w o r t h - D u n n e , o p . _c_i;., p p . 2 7 - 2 8 . C h a b r o l w r o t e t h a t a l l C o p t i c b o y s a t t e n d e d d e n o m i n a t i o n a l p r i m a r y s c h o o l s , w h e r e t h e y l e a r n t t o r e a d a n d w r i t e . T h e r e were, h o v ~ e v e r , n o f a c i l i t i e s f o r h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n f o r C o p t s . I b i d . , pe 8 6 .

7 ~ s s a w i , o p . c i t . , p . 3 9 6 . F o r Mamluk a t t e m p t s t o u s e r o l l e r s a n d whee1.s f o r t h e t r a n s p o r t o f c a n n o n s a n d c o l u m n s , s e e G a s t o n W i e t , C a i r o orma man, O k l a h o m a , 1 9 6 4 ) ; p . 8 4 .

Page 14: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

S h a y k h - a ] - J a b a r t i , a c o n t e m p o r a r y E g y p t i a n c h r o n i c l e r , r e f l e c t e d

t h e g e n e r a l b e w i l d e r m e n t o f e d u c a t e d E g y p t i a n s t o w a r d s w e s t e r n

s c i e n t i f i c a c h i e v e m e n t s , w h e n , a f t e r w i t n z s s i n g F r e n c h

e l e c t r i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s , h e r e m a r k e d : " T h e y a c h i e v e w o n d e r s , ,.. many o f U J I - ~ i c h c a n n o t b e c o m p r e h e n d e d b y t h e m i n d s o f p e o p l e l i k e

U S . 11 8

Muhammad A l i f i r s t b e c a m e p r o m i n e n t d u r i n g t h e t h r e e

c h a o t i c y e a r s f o l l o w i n g t h e F r e n c h w i t h d r a ~ v a l i'rom E g y p t , 1 8 0 2 -

T, C L ' n P 1 8 8 5 , .,, ,,t;s p e r i o d v d r i i j u s I d c t i v r i s I u u y i l i f o r c o n i r o i O F

E g y p t . B o r n i n C a v a l l a , M a c e d o n i a i n 1 7 6 9 , Muhammad A l i

j o u r n e y e d t o E g y p t i n 1 7 9 9 a s a n o r f i c e r i n t h e O t t o m a n c x p e d -

i t i o n a r y f o r c e t h a t Luas d e f e a t e d b y t h e F r e n c h a t Abu Kir i n

J u l y , 1 7 ~ 9 . ~ S o o n a f t e r t h e F r e n c h e v a c u e t i o r i t h e S u l t a n

a p p o i n t e d h i m l e a d e r o f t h e A l b a n i a n t r o o p s i n E g y p t , w h o s e

d e s i g n a t e d t a s k mas t o e s t a b l i s h T u r k i s h c o ~ t r o l t h o r e - E g y p t

h a d t e c h n i c a l l y b e e n p a r t o f t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e s i n c e 1517.

H o w e v e r , Muhammad A l i s h o w e d l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n a c c o m p l i s h i n g

t h i s e n d . He a n d h i s t r o o p s f o u g h t f o r a n d a g a i n s t t h e T u r k i s h

g o v e r n o r . I n t h e m e a n t i m e h e w a s w o o i n g t h e s u p p o r t o f S a y y i d

'Urnar Makrarn, who h e l d t h e s e c o n d m o s t p o w e r f u l p o s i t i o n i n t h e

' q u o t e d i n Abu a l - F u t o u h Ahmad R a d w a n , O l d a n d New F o r c e s i n E q y p t i a n E d u c a t i o n ( ~ e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 1 ), p . 51.

9 ~ p p a r e n t l y , Muhammad A l i h a d r e c e i v e d n o f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a s a c h i l d , He l e a r n t t o r e a d when h e was 47 y e a r s o l d . A c c o r d i n g t o A r t i n Bey , who was t h e n a z i r o f t h e S c h o o l o f E n g i n e e r i n g d u r i n g t h e P a s h a ' s r e i g n : "He h a d e v e r y b o o k a b o u t N a p o l e o n t h a t h e c o u l d f i n d t r a n s l a t e d f o r h i m , a n d r e a d t h e m o r h a d t h e m r e a d t o h i m w i t h a v i d i t y . " Q u o t e d i n N.W. S e n i o r * C o n v e r s a t : i . o n s a n d --- J o u r n a l s i n ~ ~ ~ ~ t - ondo don, ' l 8 9 2 ) , v o l . 11, p . 1 7 6 . A c c o r d i n g t o R i f a a t Uey, Nuhammad A l i p r i d e d " h i m s e l f o n b e i n g b o r n i n t h e same y e a r a s N a p o l e o n . " M. R i f a a t Bey , T h e A w a k e n i n q o f M o d e r n -- E q y p t ondo don^ 1947), p. 1 5 c

Page 15: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

h i e r a r o l - l y o f t h e E g y p t i a n u l a n i a . T h e .--. u l a r n a h a d c o n s i d e r a b l e

i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e p o p u l a c e a n d Muhammad A l i saw Nakram a s t h e

k e y t o g a i n i n g c o n t r o l o f E y y p t v i a p o p u l a r s u p p o r t .

I n 1 8 0 5 , u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f Makrarn, t h e u l a m a l e d a

p o p u l a r r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e T u r k i s h G o v e r n o r o f E g y p t , K h u r s h i d

P a s h a , He was d e p o s e d a n d Muhammad A l i was a c c l a i m e d a s h i s

s u c c e s s o r , I t i s n o t a b l e t h a t w i t h o u t t h e u l a m a ' s a s s i s t a n c e -- i n s t i r r i n g a n d l e a d i n g t h e mob, Muhammad A l i c o u l d n o t h a v e

a t t a i n e d t h i s q n a l a t t h i s t i m e . h a d i - i s u f f i c i p n t t r o c p s t o

a c h i e v e i t w i t h o u t o u t s i d e a s s i s t a n c e ; m o r e o v e r , t h e r e was

c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s s e n s i o n w i t h i n t h e r a n k s , I n a d d i t i o n * h e Luas

v i r t u a l l y u n k n o ~ u n t o t h e E g y p t i a n p e o p l e ,

D u r i n g t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f h i s r e i g n Muhammad A l i was

p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e t a s k o f c o n s o l i d a t i n g h i s p o s i t i o n a s

r u l e r o f E g y p t . S o o n a f t e r h i s c o u p d ' e ' t a t h e was r e l u c t a n t l y - - a p p o i n t e d Vali o f E g y p t b y S u l t a n S e l i m I11 when o n l y i n

.- c o n t r o l O F C a i r o a n d i t s e n v i r o n s . I h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e c o u n t r y

was i n t h e h a n d s o f c o m p e t i n g Mamluk f a c t i o n s , o r o f B e d o u i n

t r i b e s , N e v e r t h e l e s s , b y t h e u s e o f v a r i o u s e x p e d i e n t s ,

i n c l u d i n g m i l i t a r y o p p r e s s i o n , i n t r i g u e a n d b r i b e r y , t h e P a s h a

g r a d u a l l y g a i n e d c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f E g y p t .

P a r a m o u n t a m o n g t h e P a s h a ' s m a n o e u v r e s d u r i n g t h o e a r l y

p a r t o f h i s r e i g n ums t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r o f

t h e M a m l u k s , T h o u g h t h e r e were p r o b a b l y l e s s t h a n t e n t h o u s a n d

Mamluks i n E g y p t a t t h i s t ime , t h e y c o n t i n u e d t o c o n s t i t u t e t h e

m a j o r i n t e r n a l t h r e a t t o h i s p o s i t i o n o f l e a d e r s h i p . 1 0 I n 18119

I o h t t h e t i m e o f t h e F r e n c h O c c u p a t i o n i t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t c o n t d :

Page 16: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

m o s t o f t h e Mamluk l e a d e r s w e r e a s s a s s i n a t e d a t t h e C a i r o

C i t a d e l , h a v i n g b e e n i n v i t e d t h e r e a s g u e s t s o f t h e P a s h a ,

I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r w a r d s , t h e P a s h a ' s t r o o p s m a s s a c r e d a l a r g e

p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e r e m a i n i n g a d u l t male Mamluks t h r o u g h o u t t h e

c o u n t r y . T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e women a n d c h i l d r e n w e r e s p a r e d ,

m o s t o f t h e m b e i n g a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e h o u s e h o l d s of Muhammad A l i

a n d o t h e r members o f t h e p o l i t i c a l . h i e r a r c h y a s s e r v a n t s , a n d

members o f h a r e m s , T h e Marnluks' l a n d h o l d i n g s , b ~ h i c h c o n s t i t u t e d

a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e q u a r t e r s o f E g y p t ' s a g r i c u L t u r a l a r e a , were

c o n ? i s c a t e d b y Muhammad A l i .

Ano t .he r o f t h e P a s h a ' s k e y m a n o e u v r e s d u r i n g t h e e a r l y

y e a r s o f h i s r e i g n was t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e u l a m a ' s

p o l i t i c a l p o w e r , 'Urnar Makram, t h e P a s h a ' s e r s t w h i l e p o l i t i c a l

a l l y , b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c i e s t

e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e c o n c e r n i n g t a x a t i o n , I n 1 8 0 9 , when a t a x was

t o b e l e v i e d o n h i t h e r t o u n t a x e d l a n d , a m e e t i n g o f t h e -- u l a m a

P a s h a ' s p o w e r . Makram p e r s u a d e d t h o s e p r e s a n t t o s w e a r

o p p o s i t i o n u n t i l v a r i o u s nevJ t a x e s h a d b e e n r e p e a l e d , T h e

P a s h a , h o a e v e r , r a p i d l y e n g i n e e r e d d i v i s i o n among t h e u l a m a a n d

g a i n e d t!7e s u p p o r t o f some o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s h a y k h s . W i t h i n a

s h o r t t ime , Makram h a d b e e n e x i l e d a n d t h e u l a r n a ' s o p p o s i t i o n

a g a i n s t t h e P a s h a q u i e t e d . 1 1 I n 1 8 1 4 , Muhammad A l i c o n f i s c a t e d

I 0 c o i l t d : t h e r e were o n l y 9 , 0 0 0 Marnluks i n E g y p t , F e l i x M. Mengin , H i s t o i r e d e l . 'E9yp 'ce , - 1 7 9 8 - 1 8 2 3 ( p a r i s , 1 8 2 3 ) , v o l . I , p , 3 6 5 .

I I ~ f a f L o u t f i e l S a y e d , "The R o l e o f t h e Ularna i n E g y p t d u r i n g t h e e a r l y N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , " i n P,M. H o l t ( e d . ) , P o l i t i c a l a n d S o c i a l Chanqe i n Modqrn E g y p t ( t o n d o n , 1 9 6 8 ) , pp . 2 7 6 - 2 7 7 .

Page 17: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

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Page 18: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

d u r i n g t h c p r e v i o u s y e a r , e n a b l e d t h e d i ~ t r i b u t i g n O F t h e

b u l k o f E g y p t ' s a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d t o t e n a n t f z r n i e r s , E a c h

a l l o t m e n t a v c r a g e d f r o m t h ~ c c t o f i v o a c r e s w i t h t h e tenancies

r e c o r d e d i n g o v e r n m e n t r e g i s t e r s . l 4 T h i s p o l i c y p r o v i d e d

t h e T r e a s u r y w i t h a l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n l a n d t a x r e v e n u e .

To f u r t h e r b o o s t T r e a s u r y r e v e n u e , t h e P a s h a r e q u i s i t i o n e d

t h e e n t i r e c e r e a l c r o p o f U p p e r E g y p t d u r i r - ~ q 1 8 1 2 , He t h e r ?

s o l d i t t o E u r o p e a n m e r c h a n t s f o r many t i m e s t h e m i n i m a l

d e m a n d i n E u r o p e , w h e r e t h e N a p o l e o n i c War was i n p r o g r e s s a t

t h i s t i m e . He l a t e r d e c r e e d t h a t a11 f u t u r e g r a i n c r o p s i n

U p p e r E g y p t c o u l d o n l y b e s o l d t o g o v a r n n i e n t a g e n t s . 1 5

S i m i l a r l y i n 1 8 1 6 he e s t a b l i s h e d n l o r l o p o l i e s i n L o w e r E g y p t o v e r

hemp, s e s a m e , i n d i g o , c o t t o n , c a r t h a m e , b a r l e y , b e a n s a n d w h e a t ,

By t h e e a r l y 1 8 2 0 ' s a l l f a r m p r o d u c c h a d b e e n r n ~ n o ~ o l i z s d . ~ ~

W i t h t h e d i m i n u t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r s o f t h e -. u l a m a

a n d t h e Marn luks , Muhammad A l i s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d l i k e -

l i h o o d o f l a r g e s c a l e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t subsequent r e r o r m s . By

m o n o p o l i z i n g F a r m p r o d u c e a n d a p p r o p r i a t i n g v i r t u a l l y a l l

a r a b l e l a n d , h e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d g o v e r n w e n t i n c o m e . T h i s

r e v e n u e p r o v i d a d a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l F o r h i s

s o c i o - e c o n o m i c r e f o r m s .

4 ~ . E . C r o u c h l e y , T h e E c o n o m i c ---- D e v e l o p m e n t - o f Modorn E q y p t ondo don, 1 9 3 8 ) , p p . 4 8 - 4 9 ,

I 50wcn , o p e c i t . , p. 2 1 .

Page 19: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

One o f t h e m o s t s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s f a c i n g a c o u n t r y u n d e r -

g o i n g i n d u c e d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c h a n g e s i s t h e l a c k o f k e y

p e r s c n n e l a b l e t o a d m i n i s t e r t h e c h a n g e s , T h i s p r o b l e m was a

f o r m i d a b l e b a r r i e r t o t h e f r u i t i o n o f Muhammad Ali's e f f o r t s a t

r e f o r m . When h e f i r s t a c c e d e d t o p o w e r p e v e n t h o u g h E g y p t h a d

b e e n t h r o u q h a p r o 1 n n r j ~ d p ~ ~ i n d n f \ t i n 1 ~ n f . p n l i f iral d i q r u p t inn:

a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h i e r a r c h y a n d n u m e r o u s m i n o r o f f i c i a l s

c o n v e r s a n t ~ ~ i t h t r a d i t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t a l r e g u l a t i o n s r e m a i n e d .

T h e P a s h a d i d n o t , t h e r e f o r e , h a v e t o c o n c e r n h i m s e l f w i t h re-

e s t a b l i s h i n g a s y s t e m o f g o v e r n m e n t p b u t e s s e n t i a l l y u s e d t h e

e x t a n t Form. Some y e a r s a f t e r h i s a c c e s s i o n , h o ~ k j e v r r , a m o r e

c o m p l e x g o v e r n m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e b e g a n t o e v o l v e t o d e a l . w i t h t h e

c h a n g e s h e s o u g h t t o i n d u c e ,

By t h e e a r i y 1 t 1 2 U i s t h e P a s h a ' s p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m was h i g h l y

c e n t r a l i z e d , f a r mere s o t h a n t h a t w h i c h h a d e x i s t e d u n d e r t h e

N a m l u k s , T h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t w a s c o n d u c t e d

b y d e l i b e r a t i v e c o u n c i l s ( m a i l . i . s e s ) - a n d b y b u r e a u c r a t i c d e p a r t -

m e n t s ( d i w a n s ) . P o l i c i e s d i s c u s s i d i n t h e c o u n c i l s w e r e

d e t e r m i n e d b y m a j o r i t y r u l e ( a s s t i p u l a t e d i n a n o f f i c i a l

r e g u l a t i o n o f F e b r u a r y - M a r c h , 1 8 1 8 ) . Muhammad A l i h a d t o a p p r o v e

a n y d e c i s i o n , h a w e v e r , b e f o r e i t c o u l d b e l e g i s l a t e d , t h u s

r e t a i n i n g c a n t r o l o f E g y p t ' s g o v e r n a n c e . l On t h e s u b j e c t o f h i s

J . D e n y P -- S o m m e i r e d e s A r c h i v e s t u r q u e s d u C a i r e ( c a i r n , 1 9 3 0 ) ~ p . 33,

Page 20: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

Ir

p o l i t i c a l p o w e r p Muhammad A l i s a i d :

I n y o u r c o u n t r y ( ~ n ~ l a n d ) y o u m u s t h a v e a g r e a t many h a n d s t o move t h e m a c h i n e o f s t a t e ; I move i t u i t h my 0 x 8 . I d o n o t alciays s c c w h a t i s b e s t t a b c d o n e ; b u t . . . I cor i lpel p r o m p t o b e d i e n c e t o my w i s h e s , a n d w h a t i s s e e m i n g l y b e s t i s

E u r o p e a n s a s s i s t e d i n o r g a n i z i a i g t h e f o r m a t i o n o f ma.jlj.ses

a n d ---. d i w a n s , t h e m e m b e r s h i p s o f w h i c h c o n s i s t e d p r i m a r i l y o f

O t t o m a n s ( s o m e W e s t e r n e r s a l s o s a t o n t h e m ) . T h e t ~ u o p r i n c i p a l

m a j l i s e s , f o u r t d e d i n 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 2 5 p e r i o d , w e r e t h o s e of ' c i v i l a n d

m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s , al-Na4Ais a l - A l i a l -Malal t i a n d Maili.: 21- --"---"

J i h a d i y a h r e s p e c t i v e l y , D i w a n s w e r e e s t a b l i s ' r t e d a s t h e i r n e e d - -- -.

a r o s e , b u t t h e o n e s w h i c h c a r r i e d t h e b u r d e n o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

f u n c t i o n s w e r e t h o s e o f t h e (1 ) i n t e r i o r , ( 2 ) t r e a s u r y , ( 3 ) wara

( 4 ) m a r i n e , ( 5 ) p u b l i c i n s t r u c t i o n a n d p u b l i c w o r k s , ( 6 ) f o r e i g n

a f f a i r s a n d cornmerca a n d ( 7 ) i n d u s t r y . To f a c i l i t a t e t h e w o r k

o f t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m s n t , E g y p t was d i v i d e d L n t o s e v e n

p r o v i n c e s d u r i n g e a r l y 1 8 2 6 a n d p r o v i n c i a l g ~ v e r n m ~ n t s were

f orrriud.

D u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e 1 8 2 0 ' s 'a p r i v y c o u n c i l w a s

e s t a b l i s h e d . I t s t a s k s i n c l u d e d a s s i s t i n g t h c P a s h a i n c o -

o r d i n a t i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a d v i s i n g h i m o n v a r i o u s p r o j e c t s ,

p r o m u l g ~ k i n g h i s o r d e r s , v e r i F y i n g t h e e x e c u t i o n o f a l l o f f i c i a l

b u s i n e s s a n d r e s o l v i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s

r e f e r r e d t o i t , I t a l s o s t u d i e d r e p o r t s From v a r i o u s g o v e r n -

m e n t a l d e p a r t m e n t s a n d r e s o l u t i o n s p a s s e d a t t h e m e e t i n g s o f

t h e d i r e c t o r s o f d i w a n s , i n o r d e r t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e m o r e

' ~ u o t e d i n A . A . P a t o n , A H i s t o r y o f t h e E g y p t i a n R e v o l u t i o n , M e m o i r s , O r a l T r a d i t i o n , a n d L o c a l R e s e a r c h ondo don, 1 I p p e 85.

Page 21: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e d o c u m e n t s t o t h e P a s h a .

A c o m p l e x g o v e r n m e n t structure h a d e v o l v e d , y e t i t was

m a n n e d f o r t h e m o s t p a r t b y p e r s o n n e l . who h a d u n d e r g o n e n e i t h e r

r e l e v a n t t r a i n i n g , n o r m o r s t h a n m i n i m a l f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n . I n

a d d i t i o n t o t h e many p r o b l e m s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e s e f a c t o r s ,

d e l i b e r a t e o b s t r u c t i o n t o t h e P a s h a ' s r e f o r m s was common a t a l l

l e v e l s o f g o v e r n m e n t , 3 T h e f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t b y H a m o n t , who

was i n c h a r g e o f t h e S c h o o l o f A g r i c u l t u r e d u r i n g t h e 1 8 3 0 ' s ,

b i a e L o a e s s a f i e f a c e t s o f ~ ~ s ~ r " i - t f i j ~ f i ~ s s ;

T h e M i n i s t e r o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n r c f u s e d me h i s a s s i s t a n c e , h e c r e a t e d d i f f i c u l t i e s , c a u s e d d e l z y s a n d t o o k p l e a s u r e i n o p p o s i n g me,

I c a r r i e d o u t s o m e t e s t s o n p o t a t o e s , T h e y d i d n o t s p r o u t , p e r i s h e d i n t h e f u r r o w s a n d t h e d i w a n w i t h d r e w t h e i r v a l u e f r o m my s a l a r y .

D e s p i t e t h i s l a c k o f a s s i s t a n c e , i n d e f i a n c e o f t h e d i ~ a n , d e s p i t e a l l o p p o n e n t s I c a r r i e d o u t s o m e r e f o r m s . I h a d t h e Diiuan o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , t h e A r m e n i a n s a n d t h e P a s h a ' s P r i v y C o u n c i l a g a i n s t me,

I n t h e same c o n t e x t , Hamont w e n t o n t o s a y t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s

3~ s o n - i n - l a w o f Muhammad A l i , Mohammed Bey , I n t e n d a n t G e n e r a l o f t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e t h i r d h i g h e s t p o s i t i o n i n E g y p t " d i s t i n g u i s h e s h i m s e l f f r o m o t h e r T u r k s i n E g y p t b y s o m e t a l e n t s , a n d s o m e r e a l k n o u ~ l e d g e , b u t a b o v e a l l f o r a l a r g e e n e r g y - b u t h e is r e g a r d e d , i n s p i t e o f h i s d e v o t i o n f o r h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w , a s a n e n e m y o f t h e nevj i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d a s t h e c h i e f o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n . " T r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : G e o r g e s D o u i n , L ' E q y p t e d e 1 0 2 8 2 1 8 3 0 , C o r r e s p o n d a n c e d e s C o n s u l s d e F r a n c e e n E g y p t e ( R o m e , 1935-74: M o n s i e u r Mimaut a u P r i n c e d e ~ t o i g n a q m a n d r i e , 26 j u i n 1 8 3 0 , T h e f o l l o w i n g c o m m e n t s o n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w e r e made b y M o n s i e u r d e C o h o r n : "Mahmoud B e y , M i n i s t e r o f War i s o n e o f t h e T u r k s m o s t o p p o s e d t o t h e New Army - t h i s i s s u p p o s e d t o b e a c l e v e r move b y Muhammad A l i , f o r Mahmoud Bey h a s Lo s u p p o r t t h a t u ~ h i c h h e h a s s t r o n g l y o p p o s e d . Osman B e y , M a j o r G e n e r a l o f t h e a r m y - who was s e n t t o E u r o p e t o l e a r n new m i l i t a r y i d e a s - is o n e o f t h e m o s t e n l i g h t e n o d T u r k s , h o u ~ e v e r , t h e b e y s u ~ h o s u r r o u n d Muhammad A l i h a v e c a s t o b s t a c l e s i n h i s way - f o r i n s t a n c e i n h i s a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h a n a r s e n a l . C o l o n e l S e l i r n Bey , g o v e r n o r b f 1 9 E c o l e d ' E t a t M a w o n l y o w e s h i s p o s i t i o n t o t h e g e n e r o s i t y o f t h e P a s h a . ~ y - i s a r i d i c u 1 o u s l . y c o n c e i t e d man, a n d p r o f o u n d l y i g n o r a n t , " T r a n s - l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : I b i d . , p , 1 8 9 ; L e R a p p o r t d e M o n s i e u r d e -

c o n t d :

Page 22: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

a r r a n g e d f o r t h e s t u d e n t s

d e m o n s t r a t e s o m e o f t h e i r

o r d e r t o a s s u r e b a d r e s i r l

a n d w e a k d r a u g h t a n i m a l s ,

a t t h s S c h o o l c f A g r i c u l t u r e t o

n e w l y l e a r n e d t e c h n i q u e s , b u t i n

t s , p r o v i d e d t h e n w i t h i n F e r i o r l a n c

H e n c e , t h e y were a b l e t o r e p o r t

c o n f i d e n t l y t o t h e P a s h a t h a t t h e S c h o o l o f A g r i c u l t u r e was

~ o r t h l e s s . ~ C h a n g e s i n t h r s t a t u s q u o % e r e r e g a r d e d b y many

o f f i c i a l s a s t h r e a t s t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n s i n t h e g o v e r n m e n t ,

y e t t h e y were s u p p o s e d t o o v e r s e e s u c h c h a n g e s ( f o r m o r e o n

v b s t r u i ; i . i u r i L y governmeni o r r i c i a i s s e e p . 6 6 ) .

Muhammad A l i f r e q u e n t l y b e m o a n e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w e r e

v i r t u a l l y n o c a p a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s i n h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o

a s s i s t h i m i n i m p l e m e n t i n g h i s p o l i c i e s . He s a i d t o B r i t i s h

g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l B o w r i n g , f o r i n s t a n c n :

You ( ~ n g l i s h ) h a v e n u m b e r s o f i n t e l l i g e n t p e r s o n s who c o m p r e h e n d t h e i r r u l e r s , a n d c a r r y o n t h e i r w o r k . I c a n f i n d v e r y f e r i t o u n d e r s t a n d me a n d d o my b i d d i n g , 5

T h o u g h t h i s was l a r g e l y t r u e , t h e P a s h a , who a p p o i n t e d a l l

m e m b e r s o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h i e r a r c h y , e x a c e r b a t e d t h e p r o b l e m

h j m s e l f . I n v a r i a b l y , t h e s y c o p h a n t s a m o n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t

o f f i c i a l s p e r s i s t e d i n h i s f a v o u r * C o n v e r s e l y , t h o s e who d a r e d

t o c o n t r a d i c t h i m , o r o v e r t l y d i s a p p r o v e o f a n y o f h i s p r o j e c t s ,

were c o n s i d e r e d e n e m i e s a n d s e n t a w a y t o s o m e d i s t a n t p l a c e , o r

3 c o n t d : C o h o r n , 9 d g c e m b r e 1 8 2 9 ,

4 ~ . ~ . H a m o n t , L ' E q y p t e s o u s M t h e m c t A l i --- ( P a r i s , 1 8 4 3 ) , V O ~ . 11, p p . 2 9 4 - 3 0 5 .

' ~ o h n B o e r i n g , Re a r t o n Eq p t a n d C a n d i a . H o u s e o f Commons S e s s i o n a l Pa'*:ondon, 1- v o l . XXI, p . 1 4 6 .

Page 23: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

e x i l e d . ' N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , v i r t u a l l y n o o n e v ~ o u l d t e l l t h e

P a s h a t h e t r u t h c o n c e r n i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e c o u n t r y . R e p o r t s

on a l l a s p e c t s o f E g y p t i a n s o c i e t y w e r e d i s t o r t e d i n o r d e r n o t

t o e n g e n d e r t h e w r a t h , I n t h e w o r d s o f Ycrsuf H e k e k y a n

( s e e p . 8 5 f o o t n o t e 2 6 f a r i n f o r m a t i o n o n H e k e k y a n ) : "He

( ~ u h a m m a d A l i ) r e c e i v e d n o r e p o r t s . . . t h a t h e c o u l d t r u s t . "?

T h e P a s h a was f u r t h e r i n s u l a t e d f r o m t h e t r u e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s

i n E g y p t b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o u r t d r a g o m a n s w e r e a s much i n

P,.,m.,.." ,P m , : , . b , : , : . , , C L r . r r L ^ L . . l -,,n , u I I I IL l .L I IC.UI I I I I I~ C . I I C 3 b a b U 3 LIUu a s n;embers t;f t l i e admiri-

i s t r a t i o n . T h u s t h e y d e l i b e r a t e l y d i s t o r t e d a l a r g e p a r t o f

t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i m p a r t e d t o t h e P a s h a b y E u r o p e a n s . 8

T h e c o m p l e x a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e t h a t e v o l v e d d u r i n g

t h e Muhammad A l i Era t h e o r e t i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d a p r o g r e s s i v e

s t e p i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f e f f i c i e n t g o v e r n m e n t i n E g y p t .

I t p r i n c i p a l l y f e l l s h o r t o f i t s p o t e n t i a l b e c a u s e t h e r e uJere

n o t s u f f i c i e n t a d e q u a t e l y e d u c a t e d a n d t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l t o

o p e r a t e i t . F o r l a r g e l y t h e s a m e r e a s o n , t h o m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r

c o r p s - t h e a r m y b e i n g t h e P a s h a ' s p r i m a r y p r e o c c u p a t i o n a f t e r

m i l i t a r y r e f o r m s g o t u n d e r m y - f a i l e d t o a c h i e v e i t s e x p e c t e d

p o t e n t i a l .

Muhammad A l i h a d i n t e n d e d t o i n s t i g a t e m i l i t a r y r e f o r m s i n

1 8 1 5 , b u t a s i s d e s c r i b e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e s e f a i l e d t o

6 ~ 1 - J a b a r t i n o t e d i n 1 8 1 6 t h a t t h e P a s h a t e n d e d t o s u r r o u n d h i m s e l f w i t h p e r s o n s who n e v e r d i s a g r e e d w i t h h i m , A b d - e l - Rahman a l - J a b a r t i , -- M e r v e i l l e s b i o q r a ~ h i q u e s -.-- e t h i s t o r i q u e s o u C h r o n i q u e s - ( C a i r o , 1 8 m , "01. IX, p p . 2 2 5 - 2 2 6 ,

' ~ u o t e d i n S e n i o r , o p . c i t . , "01. I , p . 2 5 0 .

8 ~ o w r i n g , o p . c i t . , p . 118.

Page 24: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

m a t e r i a l i z e a t t h a t t i m e , d u e t o o p p o s i t i o n f r o m r e a c t i o n a r y

A l b a n i a n a n d C i r c a s s i a n m e r c e n a r i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e P a s h a

r e m a i n e d d e t e r m i n e d t o institute t h e r c f o r m s u ~ h i c h i n v o l v e d

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a w e s t e r n s t y l e a r m y . He h a d f o u g h t , o n

s e p a r a t e o c c a s i o n s , F r e n c h a n d B r i t i s h a r m y c o n t i n g e n t s .

U n d o u b t c d l y t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s h a d g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d h i m i n

c o n c l u d i n g t h a t , i n o r d e r t o b e c o m e a s i g n i r i c a n t m i l i t a r y p o w e r ,

E g y p t w o u l d h a v e t o a d o p t w e s t e r n t e c h n i q u e s a n d e q u i p m e n t . 9

T h e P a s h a w i s h e d t o d e v e l o p t h e s t r o n g e s t m i l i t a r y f o r c e

p o s s i b l e , m a i n l y t o d e f e n d h i s d o m a i n , b u t a l s o t o a t t e m p t t o

e x p a n d i t a n d p e r h a p s t o f r e e i t f r o m O t t o m a n s u z e r a i n t y , I 0

T h e r e i s e v i d e n c e t h a t h e was s e r i o u s l y c o n t e m p l a t i n g m i l i t a r y

r e f o r m s d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b e c a u s e

o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l m i s s i o n s h e s e n t t o E u r o p e e a r l y i n 1 8 0 9 .

M o s t s t u d e n t s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o s t u d y m i l i t a r y s u b j e c t s . I ' or

9iic: f o u g h t a g a i n s t t h e F r e n c h a t k b u Kir i n i 7 9 9 , a n d i l l

t h e T u r k o - B r i t i s h f o r c e t h a t d e f e a t e d t h e F r e n c h i n 1 0 0 1 . He l a t e r f o u g h t t h e B r i t i s h a t a].-Hammad i n 1 8 0 7 . M, R i f a a t B e y , o p , c i t e , p p . 15, 1 7 a n d 2 7 .

1 0 ~ u h a m m a d A l i h a d t o l d M i s s e t , t h e B r i t i s h C o n s u l - G e n e r a l - i n E g y p t , a s e a r l y a s 1 8 1 2 , t h a t h e m e a n t t o c o n q u e r P a l e s t i n e a s s o o n a s h e c o u l d . H, D o d w e l l , T h e F o u n d e r o f M o d e r n E q y p t ----- ( ~ a m b r i d - : e , 1 9 6 7 ) , p. 1 0 7 . C a h i l E f e n d i , a S y r i a n , who w a s E h e A m e r i c a n V i c e - C o n s u l t o E g y p t d u r i n g S a i d P a s h a ' s r e i g n , made t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r c e p t i v e c o m m e n t o n t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e P a s h a ' s p o s i t i o n o f l e a d e r s h i p " " F o r many y e a r s h i s t e n u r e o f E g y p t was m o s t i n s e c u r e . H i s a u t h o r i t y , l i k e t h a t o f h i s b r o t h e r P a s h a s ' , was d e l e g a t e d a n d r e v o c a b l e . He was f o r c e d t o b e a w a r r i o r a n d a c o n q u e r o r , i n o r d e r t o p o s s e s s a n a r m y v ~ h i c h s h o u l d h o l d h i s m a s t e r t h e S u l t a n i n awe. I f he h a d n o t made h i m s e l f f o r m i d a b l e , h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n d e p o s e d a n d s t r a n g l e d , " S e n i o r , o p . c i t e , V O L 11, p , 226,

I q ~ h s r e c o r d s o f e a r l y e d u c a t i o n a l m i s s i o n s t o E u r o p e w e r e d e s t r o y e d h y a f i r e a t t h e C a i r o C i t a d e l . T h u s i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e w h a t s u b j e c t s w e r e s t u d i e d b y m o s t m e m b e r s o f t h e e a r l y m i s s i o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t is known t h a t s o m e o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s s t u d i e d m i l i t a r y s c i e n c e , s h i p b u i l d i n g a n d e n g i n e e r i n g , H e y w a r t h - Dunne , o p e c i t e , p . 1 0 5 .

Page 25: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s o m e y e a r s , h o ~ u s v e r , h e c o n s i d e r e d h i s p o s i t i o n t o o v u l n e r a b l e

t o w i t h s t a n d t h e v i o l e n t r e p e r c i j s s i o n s t h a t m i g h t b e p r o v o k e d

b y s u c h r e f o r m s . S u l t a i ~ S e l i r n 111's a s s a s s i r t ~ ~ t i o r l d u r i r t g '1008

n o d o u b t h e l p e d t o i m p r e s s u p o n rfluhamrnad A l i t h e f a c t t h a t

m i l i t a r y r c f o r m was a p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s u n d e r t a k i n g .

T h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e a d i r e c t l i n k b e t w e e n Muhammad Ali's

m i l i t a r y r e f o r m s a n d t h o s e o f S e l i m 111. T h e P a s h a was

a s s i s t e d i n d r a w i n g u p t h e m i l i t a r y r e f o r m p l a n s t h a t h e

a t t ~ r n p ~ ~ r l tn i.ns-I:i+:u'-~ i n ? R ? T ; , b y a Tur!.: r?=?mer! I b r a h i m ?gha,

who was p r o b a b l y i n v o l v e d w i t h S e l i m ' s new a r m y . l 2 p r i o r t o

1815, Muhammad A l i h a d c l a n d e s t i n e l y s e n t 1b rah i .m Agha t o

F a r c h o u t , i n U p p e r E g y p t , t o t r a i n s o m e s l a v e s i n w e s t e r n

m i l i t a r y t e c h n i q u e s , b u t h e was n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r r a t e

o f p r o g r e s s a n d t h e s c h e m e was t e r m i n a t e d e q 3

On A u g u s t 2 , 1 8 1 5 , Muhammad A l i a n n o u n c e d t o t h e t r o o p s

s t a t i o n e d a t B u l a q , n e a r C a i r o , t h a t a11 p e r s o n n e l i n t h e

E g y p t i a n Army w o u l d u n d e r g o a c o u r s e o f t r a i n i n g b a s e d u p o n

E u r o p e a n method^?^ A t t h i s t ime m o s t o f t h e E g y p t i a n Army was

i n t h e H e j s z f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t t h e W a h h a b i s ( s e e f o o t n o t e 2 1 ) .

H o p i n g t o d e f l e c t o p p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e t r o o p s t o t h i s n e w s , h e

w a r n e d t h a t a n y o n e who o p e n l y o p p s s e d t h e p l a n ~ o u l d b e b e a t e n

a n d e x i l e d . To no a v a i l , t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e r e f o r m s

1 2 ~ e r n o n t , o p . c i t . , v o l . 11, p p . 4 - 5 .

1 3 ~ b i d . , -- v o l . 11, p . 5 .

1 4 T h e r e ujere a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 , 0 0 0 men i n t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y

i n 1 0 1 3 , a n d p r o b a b l y a s imi la r n u m b e r i n I 8 1 5. T h e y were m o s t l y A l b a n i a n s , b u t t h e r e w e r e s o m e C i r c a s s i a n s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e a r m y was f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t t h e W a h h a b i e s i n t h e H e j a z a t t h e t ime. P e r i o d i c a l l y t r o o p s w e r e r e c r u i t e d i n A l b a n i a . Owen, o p . c i t . , p . 20 . .

Page 26: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

i n d u c e d p r o f o u n d u n r e s t a m o n g a l l m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l i n t h e

v i c i n i t y . T h e s o l d i e r s c h e r i s h e d t h e i r u n i q u e p o s i t i o n i n t h e

E g y p t i a n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e s t r e n g t h ,

n o o n e d a r e d t o e n f o r c e t h e law a g a i n s t a n y o f t h e m . T h e

r e F o r m s t h r e a t e n e d t h e i r p o s i t i o n s w h i l e t h e y p r o f o u n d l y

r e s e n t e d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h e y h a d a n y t h i n g t o l e a r n a b o u t

f i g h t i n g f r o m E u r o p e a n s . T h e s e w a r e n o t t h e i r o v e r t g r i c v a n c z s ,

h o w e v e r , f o r i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t r i o t i n g t h e y c l a i m e d t o b e

d e f e n d i n g I s l a m . T h e i r w a t c h w o r d was t h a t a l l r e F o r m was

c o n t r a r y t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f I s l a m . 1 6

TUJO d a y s a f t e r t h e P a s h a ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t s o m e o f f i c e r s

a t t e m p t e d t o a s s a s s i n a t e h i m , b u t t h e p l o t was f o i l e d .

I n f u r i a t e d b y t h e P a s h a ' s e s c a p e t h e s o l d i e r s t u r n e d t o

p i l l a g i n g t h e C a i r o b a z z a r s a n d t o t , o r r o r i z i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n , 1 7

Muhammad A l i f i n a l l y m a n a g e d t o p l a c a t e t h e i n s u r g e n t s , who

h a d r e m a i n e d i n o p e n r e v o l t f o r t w o o r t h r e e d a y s , b y o f f e r i n g

t h e m s u b s t a n t i a l b r i b e s , a n d s w e a r i n g t h a t h e w o u l d n o t c a r r y

1 5 ~ i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l r o b b e d c i v i l i a n s w i t h i m p u n i t y . T h e y were a c o n s t a n t s t r a i n o n t h e T r e a s u r y , p e r p e t u a l l y d e m a n d i n g h i g h e r w a g e s , a n d were o f m i n i m a l v a l u e a s s o l d i e r s . A c c o r d i n g t o a l - J a b a r t i , s u c h a t r o c i t i e s were c o m m i t t e d b y t h e m t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n w i s h e d t h a t E g y p t was o c c u p i e d b y a E u r o p e a n p o w e r ,

I " a n y E u r o p e a n p o w e r , j u s t t o r i d t h e c o u n t r y o f t h e b o a r d e r s who h a v e n o f a i t h , n o l a w , n o r u l e s o f c o n d u c t . " A l - J a h a r t i , op. c i t e , v o l e IX, p p . 123-124 ,

1 6 0 n e o f t h e s u n n i t r a d i t i o n s s t a t e s t h a t " t h e s o v e r e i g n s h o u l d g u a r d f r o m i n n o v a t i o n , f o r t h e p r o p h e t h a s s a i d , ' a l l

t i n n o v a t i o n i s a n e r r o r a n d a l l e r r o r l e a d s t o . t h e f i r e , ' " M e n g i n , o p e c i t e , v o l , 11, p. 50.

I 7 ~ o h n Lewis R u r k h a r d t , who t o o k r e f u g e i n t h e F r a n k q u a r t e r , r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e s o l d i e r s w e r e u n s u c c e s s f u l i n b r e a k i n g t h r a u g h t h e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , t h o u g h t h e y m a d e s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s t o d o s o . D . A . C a m e r o n , E q y p t i n t h e N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y o on don, 1 8 9 8 ) ~ p . 1 0 7 ,

Page 27: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

o u t a n y m i l i t a r y r e f o r m s . 1 0

To l e s s e n t h e d a n g e r o f a n o t h e r a t t e m p t o n h i s l i f e b y

m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l , t h e P a s h a g r a d u a l l y s e n t t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y

o f t h e s o l d i e r s s t a t i o n e d i n E g y p t t o g u a r d d i s p e r s e d c o a s t a l

p o s i t i o n s o n t h o p r e t e x t t h a t t h e s e a r e a s w e r e t h e m o s t

v u l n e r a b l e t o i n v a s i o n . l 9 To g a i n t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e c i t i z e n s

o f C a i r o a g a i n s t t h e a r m y , s h o u l d a n o t h e r r e v o l t o c c u r , h e

r e i m b u r s e d t h o s e u ~ h o s e p r o p e r t y h a d b e e n d a m a g e d a n d w h o s e

-. i r t ~ r ~ F ~ a i i d i s e i l ad been s t o i e n o r i i e s t r o y e d . ~ n e t o t a l r e i m b u r s e -

m e n t a m o u n t e d t o $E. 4 0 , 0 0 0 . ~ ~

T h e t h r e a t o f m i l i t a r y i n s u r g e n c y d i m i n i s h e d r u r t h e r a s

t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y was d e c i m a t e d d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r s k a g e s o f t h e

war a g a i n s t t h e W a h h a b i s i n t h e H e j a z . No A l b a n i a n o r

C i r c a s s i a n r e p l a c e m e n t s w e r e r e c r u i t e d , t h e P a s h a b e i n g c o n t e n t

t o r i d h i m s e l f o f h i s f a c t i o u s m e r c e n a r i e s . T h e war l a s t e d i n

i t s e n t i r e t y f r o m 1811-1 81 8.'l T h e W a h h a b i s w e r e e v e n t u a l l y

d e f e a t e d a n d m o s t o f t h e W e j a z b r o u g h t u n d e r E g y p t ' s c o n t r o l .

A f u r t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r o f E g y p t i a n a r m y p e r s o n n e l

p e r i s h e d i n t h e S u d a n b e t w e e n 1 8 2 0 a n d 1 8 2 2 , when t h e P a s h a

s e n t t h r e e m i l i t a r y e x p e d i t i o n s t h e r e . T h e e x p e d i t i o n a r y f o r c e s

\ 1 8 ~ e o r g c s D o u i n , Une M i s s i o n r n i l i t a i r e f r a n t a i - s e a u p r e s d e

Mohamed - A1.2 ( C a i r o , 1 9 2 3 ) , p . x .

I 9 ~ l - ~ a b a r t i , o p . c i t . , vo l . . IX, p p . 1 7 6 - 1 7 5 .

2 0 ~ a m o r o n , o p . c i t . , p . 1 0 1 .

2 1 ~ h e P a s h a h a d b e e n o r d e r e d t o f r e e t h e H e j a z f r o m W a h h a b i d o m i n a t i o n i n 1 0 1 1 b y t h e P o r t e . T h i s o r d e r was c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e P a s h a ' s a m b i t i o n t o b r i n g t h e M e j a z u n d e r h i s c o n t r o l . A c c o r d i n g t o t i a rnon t , t h e war c o s t E g y p t 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 men, 5 0 , 0 0 0 a n i m a l s i n c l u d i n g h o r s e s , d r o m e d a r i e s a n d c a m e l s , l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f u h e a t a n d m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s . H a m o n t , o p . c i t . , -- v o l . 11, p p * 433-434.

Page 28: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

c o n q u e r e d much o f E a s t e r n S u d a n , i n c l u d i n g a l a r g e p o r t i o n n f

t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t l i n e o f t h e Red S e a , 1 . i q u i d a t e d a g r o u p o f

Mamluks who h a d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s i n D o n g o l a a n d c a p t u r e d

many b l a c k s l a v e s who w e r e l a t e r c o n s c r i p t e d i n t o t h e E g y p t i a n

a r m y . 22

O n c e t h e a r m y h a d d i m i n i s h e d t o a m a n a g e a b l e s i z e , t h e

P a s h a a g a i n a t t e m p t e d t o i m p l e m e n t m i l i t a r y r e f o r m s . I t a p p e a r s

t h a t t h i s t o o k p l a c e s o o n a f t e r t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e f i r s t

b e e n a n a i d e d e c a ~ t o M a r s h a l l Ney i n N a p o l e o n ' s G r a n d e ~ r m 6 e ,

was a p p o i n t e d c h i e f m i l i t a r y i n s t r u c t o r , 24 I

T h e i n i t i a l g r o u p o f t r a i n e e s c o n s i s t e d o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y

4 0 0 M a m l u k s , T h e y were t o b e L r a i n c d a s o f f i c e r s a n d w e r e t o

f o r m t h e n u c l e u s o f t h e P a s h a ' s new a r m y , M o s t o f t h e m h a d

p r e v i o u s l y b e e n w o r k i n g a s d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s a n d h a d r e c c i v e d

n o f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n b e y o n d t h e -- k u t t a b l e v e l , A p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 0

2 2 ~ a m e r o n , o p . -- c i t . , p. 113.

2 3 ~ s u n i t s o f t h e E g y p t i a n e x p e d i t i o n s t o t h e S u d a n r e t u r n e d t o C a i r o t h e y w e r e r a p i d l y d i s b a n d e d . T h o s e o f t h e i r m e m b e r s who w e r e u n i u i l l i n g t o e n t e r t h e new a r m y were a w a r d e d small p c n s i o n s a n d d i s c h a r g e d . I b i d . , p . 113,

2 4 ~ & v e was h o n o u r a b l y d i s c h a r g e d a s a - s t a f f m a j o r f r o m t h e F r e n c h Army i n 1 8 1 5. He a r r i v e d i n E g y p t i n 1 8 1 9 a n d p r e s e n t e d Muhammad A l i w i t h l e t t e r s o f r e c o m m e n d a t i o n f r o m v a r i o u s F r e n c h d i g n i t a r i e s . His f i r s t a p p o i n t m e n t was a s l e a d e r o f a n e x p e d - i t i o n w h i c h was s e n t t o s e a r c h f o r c o a l d o p o s i t s i n U p p e r E g y p t . A f t e r h i s r e t u r n t o C a i r o , h e met I b r a h i m P a s h a , C o m m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f o f t h e E g y p t i a n Army, who was e x t r e m e l y i m p r e s s e d u i t h h i s m i l i t a r y r e c o r d . I b r a h i m a d v i s e d h i s f a t h e r , Muhammad A l i , t o a p p o i n t ~ & v e a s c h i e f m i l i t a r y i n s t r u c t o r . H e y w o r t h - D u n n e , o p . c i t . , p . 111 , ~ b v e ujas n o t t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n t o h o l d a k e y p o s i t i o n i n t h e P a s h a ' s a r m y , A M o n s i e u r ~ a i s s i b r e h a d b e e n ' a i d e d e c a m p t o I b r a h i m p a s h a d u r i n g t h e war a g a i n s t t h e W a h h a b i s i n t h e H e j a z , D o u i n 9 o p . c i t . , p , x .

Page 29: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

o f t h e m , h o w e v e r , h a d b e e n u n d e r g o i n g s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n a l

t r a i n i n g p r e v i o u s t o b e i n g d r a f t e d i n t o m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . A

s c h o o l h a d b e e n o p e n e d i n t h e C a i r o C i t a d e l i n l a t e 1 8 1 6 ,

I n i t i a l l y , a f e w ManLuks , a t t a c h e d t o t h e P a s h a ' s h o u s e h o l d ,

h a d b e e n t a u g h t a r i t h m s t i c z n d c a l i y r a p h y . D u r i n g 1 8 1 0 t h e

s t u d e n t b o d y a n d t h e c u r r i c u l u m were s i g n i f i c a n t l y e x p a n d e d .

T h e r e v i s e d c u r r i c t ~ l u r n c o m p r i s e d r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , t h e Q u r a n ,

T u r k i s h , P e r s i a n , I t a l i a n , p h y s i c a l e x e r c i s e s , r i d i n g a n d t h e

P l a c i n g ~ S v e , a C h r i s t i a n , i n c h a r g e o f a g r o u p o f M u s l i m

o f f i c e r c a d e t s , c r e a t e d a p o t e n t i a l l y e x p l o s i v e s i t u a t i o n .

T h i s is i n d i c a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t i t Nas r u m o u r e d t h r o u g h o u t

C a i r o t h a t Muhammad A l i , w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f S b v e , was i n t e n t

u p o n d e s t r o y i n g Isianl. 25 I n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e i n t e n s e d i s d a i n

f o r C h r i s t i a n s a m o n g u r b a n M u s l i m s , t h e o f f i c e r c a d e t s c o n s i d e r e d

i t a n i ~ s u l t t o t a k e o r d e r s f r o m ~ b v e . C o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e

P a s h a , h o w e v o r , t h e y g r u d g i n g l y o b e y e d S k v e ' s c o r n r n a n d ~ ~ ' ~ T h e

2 5 ~ a m o n t , o p . c i t . , v o l . 11, p . 9 .

2 6 0 n t h e o t h e r h a n d f e l l a h i n d o n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e s t r o n g l y o b j e c t e d t o C h r i s t i a n s i n s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n s . T h e r e a p p e ~ r s t o h a v e b e e n n o o v e r t f e l l a h i n r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t a k i n g o r d e r s f r o m E u r o p e a n s .

2 r l ~ e c a u s e o f t h e i n f l u x o f E u r o p e a n s t o E g y p t , t h e P a s h z r a i s e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e s t r i c t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o n o n - M u s l i m s w i t h i n E g y p t i a n S o c i e t y , F o r i n s t a n c e , f o r t h e f i r s t t ime f o r c e n t u r i e s , C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n E g y p t w e r e p e r m i t t e d t o r i n g t h e i r b e l l s , T h e f o l l o w ~ i n g s t a t e m e n t b y a l - J a b a r t i i n d i c a t e s t h e g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t M u s l i m s h a d i n a d j u s t i n g t o t h e f a c t t h a t C h r i s t i a n s w e r e t e c h n i c a l l y t h e i r s o c i z l e q u a l s : " C o p t s a n d G r e e k s h a v e u n t i l now b e e n o r d e r e d t o w e a r b l a c k o r w h i t e c l o t h i n g , a n d n o t t o w e a r t u r b a n s . T h e y h a v e now h o w z v e r , s u r p a s s e d t h e m s e l v e s w e a r i n g t u r b a n s o f a l l c o l o u r s , r i d i n g h o r s e s , a n d g o i n g s h o o t i n g i n t h e c o u n t r y . " T r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : A 1 - J z b a r t i , o p . c i t . , v o l , IX, p p , . 2 6 5 - 2 6 6 .

Page 30: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s i t u a t i o n w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e F a c t t h a t t h e

R o u m e i l e h f i e l d , c o n t i g u o u s t o t h e C a i r o C i t a d e l , was u s e d a s .

t h e d r i l l s q u a r e , A l a r g e c r o u d o f c i v i l i a n s p e c t a t o r s r i n g e d

t h e f i e l d t h r o u g h o u t t h e t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s , h o p i n g t o s e e t h e

\ o f f i c e r c a d e t s b r e a k i n t o r e v o l t a g a i n s t S e v e . N u m e r o u s

c i v i l i a n s p e c t a t o r s v e r b a l l y h a r a s s e d t h e t r a i n e e s . I t was

r e p o r t e d t h a t A l b a n i a n s , d i s c h a r g e d f r o m t h e E g y p t i a n Army,

were a m o n g t h e r i n g l e a d e r s o f t h i s p r o v o c a t i o n . 28 Y i n g t r i n i e r , \

S e v e ' s b l o g r a p h e r , d e s c r i b e d t h e h a r a s s m e n t o f t h e t r a i n e e s

t h u s : "By s e c r e t . i n t r i g u e s , b y r a i l l e r y i n p u b l i c p l a c e s , b y

p r o v o c a t i v e u j o r d s p b y t h e i r h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e , t h e y i n t i m i d a t e d

\ t h e r e c r u i t s who, when S e v e a n d t h e o t h e r i n s t r u c t u r s were n o t

a r o u n d , f o u n d n e i t h e r p e a c e n o r s e c u r i t y . 11 2 9

Muhammad A l i a n d h i s s o n I b r a h i m a t t e m p t e d t o e n c o u r a g e

t h e Mamluk t r a i n e e s b y j o i n i n g t h e m i n arms d r i l l , u n d e r t h e

i n s t r u c t i o n s o f ~ & e , a n d b y o f f e r i n g r e w a r d s t o o u t s t a n d i n g

c a d e t s . A f t e r r e l u c t a n t l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g f o r s o m e d a y s ,

h o w e v e r , a n d f a c i n g s e v e r e v e r b a l a b u s e f r o m c i v i l i a n s , t h e

Marnluks f i n a l l y t h r e w down t h e i r r i f l e s a n d a d a m a n t l y r e f u s e d t o

u n d e r g o a n y f u r t h e r t r a i n i n g , d e s p i t e t h e o r d e r s a n d p l e a d i n g s

o f Muhammad A l i . T h u s t h e new a r m y ' s t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e was

c u r t a i l e d .

D u r i n g t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f 1 8 2 1 , s o o n a f t e r t h e d e p a r t u r e

O F t h e s e c o n d e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e S u d a n o t h e P a s h a d i s p a t c h e d

2 8 ~ V i n g t r i n i e r , S o l i m a n - P a c l i a ( p a r i s , 1 8 8 6 ) , p . 9 8 .

2 g ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : - I b i d . , p . 9 8 .

Page 31: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

5 & v e a n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 0 Marnluk o f f i c e r c a d e t s ( p r e s u i x a b l y

t h e same o n e s who h a d b e e n u n d e r g o i n g t r a i n i n g i n ~ a i r o ) t o

E s n e h , 4 5 0 m i l e s d u e s o u t h o f C a i r o , f a r a w a y f r o m a n y m a j o r

s o u r c e s o f c i v i l i a n p r o v o c a t i o n , 3 0 T r a i n i n g w a s t o b e c a r r i e d

o u t t h e r e , b u t i t p r o v e d t o b e a n u n s a t i s f a c t o r y l o c a t i o n d u e

t o a n u n c o m m o n l y h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f e n d e m i c d i s e a s e , T h e r e f o r e ,

t h e g r o u p moved f u r t h e r s o u t h , t o swan.^^ B a r r a c k s , a

h o s p i t a l , a n a ~ s e n a l a n d a g u n p o w d e r m a n u f a c t o r y w e r e e s t a b -

i i s h e d t h e r e a n d t r a i n i n g c o m m e n c e d . D u r i n g 1 8 2 2 , L i e u t e n a n t -

C o l o n e l Mary , a C o r s i c a n , a n d F r e n c h m e n C a d e a u a n d D u s s a p were

h i r e d t o ass is t s a v e i n h i s t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e , 32 T h e E u r o p e a n

i n s t r u c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g s k v e , were n o t a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e E g y p t i a n

a r m y , b u t r e m a i n e d c i v i l i a n s , Wad C h r i s t i a n i n s t r u c t o r s b e e n

a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e a r m y , w h i c h was t r a d i t i o n a l l y a M u s l i m r e s e r v e ,

t h e g e n e r a l h a t r e d t o w a r d s t h e m w o u l d n o d o u b t h a v e i n t e n s i f i e d ,

T h e t r a i n i n g c o u r s e was s c h e d u l e d t o l a s t f ~ r t h r e e y e a r s ,

L e s s o n s i n i t i a l l y h a d t o b e p r e s e n t e d i n a n e x t r e m e l y e l e m e n t a r y

m a n n e r s i n c e t h e g e n e r a l c o m p r e h e n s i o n l e v s l o f t h e c a d e t s was

l o w , M o s t o f t h e m h a d p r e v i o u s l y w o r k e d a s h o u s e s e r v a n t s a n d

h a d e x p e r i e n c e d l i t t l e n e e d * i n t h e i r l i m i t e d m i l i e u s , t o

30 C . R . S c o t t , R a m b l e s i n E q y p t a n d C a n d i a o on don, 1 8 3 ? ) , p . 2 0 1 .

31 F o u r t h o u s a n d r i f l e s , m a n u f a c t u r e d i n S a i n t - E t i e n n e , w e r e p u r c h a s e d f r o m F r a n c e , a n d s e n t t o t Q e n5w t r a i n i n g c a m p a t Aswan. J u l e s P l a n a t , H i s t o i r e d e l a ~ e ~ e ' n e r a t i o n --- d e 1' W p t e ( p a r i s , 1 8 3 0 ) , p. 2 7 ,

3 2 ~ u r i n g t h e i r f i r s t y e a r i n Nuhammad Ali's e m p l o y , M a r y , C a d e a u a n d D u s s a ~ e a r n e d 2 , 0 0 0 f r a n c s e a c h , r e c e i v e d t w o s u i t s o f c l o t h i n g , a h b u s e a n d 6 0 f r a n c s w o r t h o f f o o d a m o n t h . I b i d * ? P " 4 0 ,

Page 32: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

e x e r c i s e t h e i r m i n d s ,

T h e d i f ' f i c u l t i c s e a u s c d b y d i f f e r e n c e s i n c h a r a c t e r a n d

r e l i g i o n s b e t w e e n e i n s t r u c t o s s a n d i n s t r u c t e d , w e r e g r e a t .

A p a r t f r o m d i s d a i n f o r C h r i s L i a n s , t h e t r a i n e e s vehemently

r e s e n t e d b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o W e s t e ~ n m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l j n e . T h e

k e y e l e m e n t o f E u r o p e a n a r m y t r a i n i n g was a f a r m o r e s e v e r e

c o d e o f c o n d u c t t h a n t h e y h a d p r e v i o u s l y e x p e r i e n c e d , J u l e s

P l a n a t , a F r e n c h m i l i t a r y i n s t r u c t o r i n E g y p t , s u m m a r i z e d t h e

l k m i u k ' s p r o f o u n d d i s t a s t e f o r m l i i t a r y t r a i n i n g t h u s :

r e l e g a t e d a l l a t o n c e i n t o a c o r n e r o f t h e d e s e r t , f o r c e d t o a b a n d o n t h e i r h o r s e s a n d b r i g h t a t t i r e , t o t a k e c h a r g e o f a h e a v y g u n , a n d t o t r a m p w h o l e h o u r s i n t h e s a n d . E v e r y t h i n g was t o r m e n t F o r t h e m , b u t w h a t was w o r s e was t o f i n d t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r t h o c h a r g e o f a C h r i s t i a n , 33

S e v e r a l a t t e m p t s were made b y Mamluk t r a i n e e s t o

a s s a s s i n a t e s h v e . C o n s e q u e n t l y s Muhammad A l i , iuho g r e a t l y

v a l u e d S & v e t s s e r v i c e s , p e r s u a d e d h i m t o c o n v e r t t o Islam i n

o r d e r t o p l a c a t e t h e r e a i n i n t ~ s s c ~ n c i i - i v i t i e s o f t h e t r a i n e e s , 3"""' --"----

He w a s c i r c u m c i z e d i n J u n e , 1 8 2 4 . ~ ~ A f t e r t h i s , o t h o r

E u r o p e a n s were p r e s s e d t o f o l l n t u S h e ' s e x a m p l e b u t f e w o f t h e m

d i d s o . On t h i s t o p i c , L i e u t e n a n t - C o l o n e l Mary t o l d Wil l iam

3 3 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : I b i d p. 27.

3 4 ~ i n g t r i n i e r o p i n e d t h a t s a v e c o n v e r t e d t o Islam p u r e l y t o g a i n p r o m o t i o n s w h i l s t i n t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e P a s h a . V i n g t r i n i e r , p p . G., p . 105. 6 e i n g a Mos lem, s b v e was a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y w i t h t h e r a n k o f C o l o n e l a n d Mas e l i g i b l e f o r p r o m o t i o n s , T h e P a s h a was v e r y p l e a s e d w i t h ~ h v e ' s w o r k , He g a v e h i m l a n d a n d r a i s e d h i s s a l a r y t o 4 0 , 0 0 0 f r a n c s p e r a n n u m . He Mas, a f t e r h i s c o n v e r s i o n , g i v e n t h e t i t l e S u l a i m a n Agha. P l a n a t r e p o r t e d t h a t h e was, i n 1 8 2 6 , l i v i n g " c o m p l e t e l y i n t h e O r i e n t a l m a n n e r , a l u x u r i o u s l i f e , w i t h h i s t h r e e u ~ i v e s , " I b i d . , p . 95. -

Page 33: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

0

S e n i o r , a B r i t i s h t r a v e l l e r : " I r e f u s e d o n t h r e e g r o u n d s :

f i r s t , t h a t I b e l i e v e d i n C h r i s t i a n i t y ; s e c o n d l y , t h a t I h a d

b e e n a n o f f i c o r o f N a p o l e o n ; a n d t h i r d l y , b e c a u s e I w a s a

C o r s i c a n - t h a t i s t o s a y , a n a t i v e o f a c o u n t r y s o C a t h o 1 . i ~

t h a t a Jew i s n o t a l l o w ~ e d t o l i v e t h e r e . " 3 5 I t i s n o t a b l e t h a t

S b v e was g e n e r a l l y d e s p i s e d b y o t h e r E u r o p e 2 n s i n E g y p t b e c a u s e

o f h i s c o n v e r s i o n ,

T h o u g h t h e r e was v i r t u a l l y n o m e n t i o n , i n w o r k s s t u d i e d

Tor ihis t h e s i s , 0 7 a i 7 7 i c u i t i . e ~ i n v e r b a i c u r n r n u n i c a t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e E u r o p e a n i n s t r u c t o r s a n d t h e t r a i n e e s , t h e y w e r e

u n d o u b t e d l y g r e a t , I t a p p e a r s t h a t n o n e o f t h e t r a i n e e s s p o k e 'ill

'"E F r e n c h . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t seems t h a t ~ A v e d i d n o t b e c o m e ilk

r e l a t i v e l y f l u e n t i n T u r k i s h u n t i l t h e mid-1 8 2 0 ' s . ~ ~ F o r t u n -

a t e l y , C o l o n e l Mary was a b l e t n s p e a k T u r k i s h b e f o r e h i s

a r r i v a l i n E g y p t , i n 1 8 2 2 , H o w e v e r , n o n e o f t h e o t h e r E u r o p e a n s

a t Aswan c o u l d s p e a k T u r k i s h o r a n y o t h e r M i d d l e E a s t e r n I

l a n g u a g e , " P r e s u m a b l y , i n s t r u c t i o n s s e r e g i v e n v i a i n t e r p r e t e r s , I

o f whom t h e r e were v e r y f e i ~ ~ , b y m e a n s o f c o n s e c u t i v e t r a n s l a t i o n .

Muhammad A l i h a d o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d t o m a i n t a i n a p r e -

d o m i n a n t l y Mamluk o f f i c e r c o r p s . He m a s c o n t e m p l a t i n g m i l i t a r y

c o n f l i c t a g a i n s t T u r k e y , a n d s u s p e c t e d t h a t , i n s u c h a n e v e n -

t u a l i t y , O t t o m a n o f f i c e r s wou1.d n o t r e m a i n l o y a l t o h i m . 3 8

3 5 ~ e n i o r , o p . c i t . , p . 27.

3 6 ~ b v e l e a r n t t o s p e a k T u r k i s h f l u e n t l y ' a t s o m e t ime i n h i s c a r e e r , b u t t h i s w a s n o t a common p r a c t i c e f o r E u r 9 p e a n s i n E g y p t . V i n g t r i n i e r , o p , c i t . , p . 9 1 .

3 8 ~ e o r g e s D o u i n , La M i s s i o n d u B a r o n d e -- B o i s l c c o m t e , L' c o n t d :

Page 34: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

N e v e r t h e l e s s , b e c a u s e o f t h e l a c k o f e l i g i b l e Mamluks , many

O t t o m a n r e c r u i t s were s o o n u n d e r g o i n g o f f i c e r t r a i n i n g . 3 9

T h e g r e a t n l z j o r i i y O F t h e m , a s w i t h t h e Mamluk o f f i c e r c a d e t s ,

l a c k e d a n y r e l e v a n t p r e p a r s t o r y e d u c a t i o n . A l s o , l i k e t h e

M a m l u k s , t h e y d e t e s t e d t a k i n g o r d e r s f r o m C h r i s t i a n s a n d f o u n d

w e s t e r n m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e r e p u y n a n t . 4 0 P r o f o u n d c o n c e r n f o r

t h e l a c k o f p e r s o n a l d i s c i p l i n e a m o n g o f f i c e r c a d e t s i s

r e f l e c t e d i n t h c f o l l o w i n g e x c e r p t f r o m a v e r b a l r e p r i m a n d

I t i s u p t o y o u t o b e c o m e men, t o f i n d y o u r s e l v e s a t t h e p e a k s o f y o u r j o b s , a n d n o t t o a b a n d o n y o u r - s e l v e s t o t h e i d l e n e s s , s t u b b o r n e s s a n d n u l l i t y o f y o u r r a ce . You w i l l b e d e g r a d e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e g r e e o f y o u r a p a t h y . I f y o u p e r s i s t , we w i l l t r e a t y o u l i k e b r u t e s , a n d y o u w i l l p e r i s h u n d e r t h o b z t o n , 4 1

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e g e n e r a l s h o r t c o m i n g s o f o f f i c e r c a d e t s i n

t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t , t h e o f f i c e r s o n

38 c o n t d : w p t e e t l a S y r i e e n 1 8 3 3 ( ~ a i r o , 1 9 2 7 ) , p p , 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 , T h e s e s u s p i c i o n s were c o n s i d e r a b l y j u s t i f i e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t , d u r i n g t h e F i r s t S y r i a n War, I b r a h i m f o u n d t h a t h e c o u l d t r u s t t h e l o y a l t y o f f e w o f h i s O t t o m a n o f f i c e r s a n d many o f t h e m d e f e c t e d . J. arke el, E q y p t e d e p u i s l a c o n q u ; t e d e s ~ r a b e s ( p a r i s , 1 8 7 7 ) ~ p . 33.

3 9 ~ u h a m m a d A l i t o l d B o i s l e c o m t e t h e f o l l o w i n g , c o n c e r n i n g h i s O t t o m a n o f f i c e r s : " I h a v e h a d t o d r a w f r o m t h e same s o u r c e s a s t h e S u l t a n ; l u c k i l y h e h a s b e e n p a y i n g smal l s a l a r i e s ; I h a v e g i v e n b e t t e r o n e s a n d t h e o f f i c e r s h a v e c o m e t o me; I f o u n d i t n e c e s s a r y a f t e r w a r d s t o a s s u r e m y s e l f o f t h e i r f i d e l i t y , I f o u n d t h e m e a n s b y l a v i s h i n g t h e m w i t h m o n e y a n d p r e s e n t s , b u t p r e v e n - t i n g t h e m f r o m b e c o m i n g l a n d o w n e r s a n d f r o m g a i n i n g a n i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e p o p u l a t i o n . " T r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , & M i s s i o n d u B a r o n d e B o i s l e c o m t e , p . 99: Le B a r o n d e B o i s l e c o m t e a u m i n i s t y e , A l e x a n d r i e , 1 e r j u i l l e t 1 8 3 3 .

4 0 ~ l a n a t , a p . c i t . , p . 6 9 .

4 1 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : I b i d . , p p . 3 1 6 - 3 1 7 .

Page 35: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

a c t i v e s e r v i c e were, b y Western s t a n d a r d s , markedly i n c o m p e t e n t ,

Monsieur de Cohorn, a m i l i t a r y o b s e r v e r f o r t h e French Govern-

ment, s a i d of them: "They do n o t u n d e r s t a n d hotu t o e f f e c t i v e l y

employ t r o o p s , t h e y knou~ l i t t l e of European m i l i t a r y methods . . . .

and t h e y a r e c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r a n t of modern methods of f o r t i f -

i c a t i o n . ($42

Few of t h e a c t i v e o f f i c e r s were l i t e r a t e . T h i s proved t o

be a s e v e r e h a n d i c a p t o t h e army even a t i t s most b a s i c l e v e l

O F o p e r a t i o n . For i n s t a n c e , t h e r e wFre no t s u f f i c i e n t i i t e r a t e

o f f i c e r s a v a i l a b l e t o c a r r y o u t such fundamenta l p r o c e d u r e s a s

r e c o r d i n g t h e names of members OF-' t h e v a r i o u s b a t t a l i o n s . 43

"The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of p e r s o n n e l r e s t e d on t h e memories of

a d j u t a n t o f f i c e r s , who coun ted on t h e i r f i n g e r s . ,144

The o f ' f i c e r s g e n e r a l l y d e s p i s e d t h e men i n t h e r a n k s ,

r e g a r d i n g thein a s " b e i n g s O F an i n f e r i o r s p e c i e s . "45 In keep ing

w i t h t h i s a t t i t u d e , t h e y f r e q u e n t l y t r e a t e d them w i t h utmost

c r u e l t y , In f a c t few o f f i c e r s p a i d any a t t e n t i o n t o t h e most

fundamenta l needs of t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e s , though, a c c o r d i n g t o

4 2 T r a n s l a t e d from French: Douin, L tEqyp te de 1828 ; 1830, p. 191 : Rappor t d e Monsieur de Cohorn.

4 3 ~ c c o r d i n g t o Genera l Boyer, a French m i l i t a r y i n s t r u c t o r , o n l y h igh r a n k i n g o f f i c e r s a t h i s camp, e l Khanka, c o u l d r e a d and w r i t e and none of them had l e a r n t any a r i t h m e t i c . Douin, Une Miss ion m i l i t a i r e f r a n a i s e a u p r k s de Mohamed Aly, p . 67: Rapport du G o n e r a 3 - d a m p d ' ~ l Khanka, 6 o c t o b r e 1825. S i m i l a r l y , Harnont i l ~ r o t c : " I n an i n f a n t r y c o r p s o r c a v a l r y c o r p s one s c a r c e l y f i n d s two o f f i c e r s who know how t o r e a d and w r i t e , " T r a n s l a t e d from French: Harnont, op , c i t , , v o l . 11, p. 44.

4 4 ~ r a n u l a t e d from French: G a b r i e l ~ u g n a r d , Les Reformcs - en Eqypte ( C a i r o , 1 9 3 6 ) , p, 132 .

4 5 ~ i e u t e n a n t - C o l o n e l Mary used t h i s p h r a s e i n d e s c r i b i n g r e l a t i o n s between o f f i c e r s and men i n t h e r a n k s . S e n i o r , op. c i t p, 24, * '

Page 36: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

L i e u t e n a n t - C o l o n e l . Mary , Muhammad A l i l e c t u r e d many o f t h e m f o r

h o u r s o n t h e " a f f e c t i o n w h i c h t h e c o l o n e l o u g h t t o b e a r t o w a r d s

h i s r e g i m e n t s p t h e c h e f d e - b a t a i l l o n t o h i s b a t a i l l o n a n d t h e

c a p t a i n t o h i s c o m p a n y , " 4 6 A C a p t a i n D a m e r g u e , who a c c o m p a n i e d

a n E g y p t i a n e x p e d i t i o n t o S y r i a , c l a i m e d t h a t , e v e n t h o u g h h e

p a i n s t a k i n g l y e x p l a i n e d t o o f f i c e r s o n t h e e x p e d i t i o n t h a t

u n l e s s a g r e a t d e a l o f p l a n n i n g a n d p r e p a r a t i o n was e x e c u t e d

b y t h e m s e l v e s t h o a r m y l u o u l d p e r i s h i n t h e d e s e r t , t h e y

i n s i s t e d o n t a k i n g a n e n o r m o u s a m o u n t o f s u p e r f l u o u s b a g g a g e

w i t h t h e m e d 7 L a r g e l y d u e t o t h e o f f i c e r s ' l a c k o f i n t e r e s t i n I<

t h e i r t r o o p s , a n d t h e i r o v e r t h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d s t h e m , e x t r e m e l y (I

I! h a r s h p u n i s h m e n t s w e r e v i r t u a l l y t h e o n l y m e a n s o f g e n e r a t i n g [I

d i s c i p l i n e i n , t h e r a n k s . G e n e r a l B o y e r , t h e l e a d e r o f a F r e n c h

m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n t o E g y p t , r e p o r t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g o n t h i s t o p i c :

D i s c i p l i n e i s t e r r i b l e i n t h e a r m y : r e c i d i v i s t d e s e r t e r s a r e s h o t , t h o s e who a r e c a u g h t a f t e r h a v i n g d e s e r t e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e r e c e i v e 1 , 0 0 0 b l o w s o f t h e c o u r b a s h , t h o s e who a r e g u i l t y o f s u c h r n i s d e m e a n o u r s a s d i s o b e d i e n c e a n d i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n r e c e i v e 5 0 0 b l o w s . . . . T h e r e a r e a l w y s 150 t o 2 0 0 w o u n d e d men i n h o s p i t a l r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e c r u e l b e a t i n g s t h e y h a v e r e c e i v e d . 4 8

M o n s i e u r d e C o h o r n o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e r a n k a n d f i l e ' s h a t r e d o f

t h e o f f i c e r s a t e l K a n k a h was s o i n t e n s e t h a t o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s ,

t h e y h a d b a n d e d t o g e t h e r a n d p h y s i c a l l y b e a t e n s o m e o f t h e m ,

He a d d e d t h a t : " s o m e p e o p l e b e l i e v e t h a t i t u ~ o u l d o n l y t a k e a

4 7 ~ l a n a t , o p . c i t ; , p p . 50-51

4 8 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , --- Une M i s s i o n m i l i t a i r e / f r a n q a i s e a u p r e s d e Moharned A l y , p p . 6 7 - 6 8 : R a p p o r t d u G e n e r a l BoyeE, Camp d ' E l Khanl ta , 6 o c t o b r o 1 8 2 5 .

Page 37: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s p a r k t o p r e c i p i t a t e a m i l i t a r y

T h e g e n e r a l l y l o u q u a l i t y OF p e r s o n n e l i n t h e u p p e r

e c l ~ e l o n s o r t h e E g y p t i a n o f f i c e r c o r p s was t o s o m e e x t e n t

p e r p e t u a t e d b y t h e r e s t r i c t i v e p r o n a t i o n s y s t r n , P r o m o t i o n s

were n o t p r i m a r i l y b a s e d o n m e r i t , b u t o n s t a t u s . F o r e x a m p l e ,

Marnluks who h a d w o r k e d a s s e r v a n t s i n t h c p a l - a c e s o f P a s h a s o r

t h e i r s o n s , a u t o n a t i c a l l y r e c e i v e d s u p e r i o r r a n k s hen

c o n s c r i p t e d i n t o m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y h a d n o

q u ~ l i f ' i c a t . s f o r s ~ c h piis:tiilrl.ls. Ai'ter t i l t : F i r s ; S y r i a n War,

Muhammad A P i i n s t i t u t e d a m i n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n t o t h i s s y s t e m .

I t was m a d e m a n d a t o r y f o r a l l p o t e n t i a l s u p e r i o r o f r i c e ~ s t o

s p e n d s o m e y e a r s i n t h e r a n k i m m e d i a t e l y i n f ~ r i o r t o t h e i r

p r o s p e c t i v e o n e . 5 0

D u r i n g t h e m i d - e i g h t e e n t w e n t i e s S t a f f C o l l e g e s were

o p e n e d . Thcso w a r e i n t e n d e d t o h e l p r a i s e t h c l o w s t a n d a r d

o f c o m p ~ t e n c e o f t h e E g y p t i a n o f f i c e r c o r p s b y f o r m i n g a n e l i t e

o f e x p e r i e n c e d o f f i c e r s , T h e f i r s t S t a f f C o l l e g e , M a d r a s a t -- A r k a n , was o p e n e d i n O c t o b e r , 1 8 2 6 . T h e i n i t i a l g r o u p t o t a k e

t h e c o u r s e c o n s i s t e d o f t w o c o l o n e l s , t w o c o m m a n d a n t s a n d

f o u r t e e n o t h e r o f f i c e r s , n o n e o f t h e m b e i n g b e l o w t h e r a n k o f

c a p t a i n . T h e i r l a c k o f f u n d a m e n t a l e d u c a ' i i o n t ~ o w e v e r , m a d e

t h e i n s t r u c t o r s f t a s k s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t , P l a n a t , a t e a c h e r

4 9 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , L f E q y p t e d a 1 8 2 8 1 0 3 0 , p , 196: A p e r q u d e M o n s i e u r cle C o h o r n .

5 0 1 b r a h i r n p r o m o t e d a f e w E g y p t i a n s e r g e a n t s , d u r i n g t h e G r e e k War, 1 0 2 3 - 1 8 2 7 , a n d t h e F i r s t S y r i a n War, 1831-1 8 3 3 , i n t o t h e l o w e r e c h e l o n s o f t h e o f f i c e r c o r p s a s r e c o m p e n s e f o r t h e i r b r a v e r y . I t Mas s a i d h o u ~ e v e r , t h a t t h e y : " d i s p l a y e d r e v o l t i n g b r u t a l i t y t o w a r d s t h e i r i n f e r i o r s , . . , b e a t i n g t h e m w i t h o u t r h y m e o r r e a s o n . " ~ u S m a r d , o p . c i t . , p . 1 3 2 .

Page 38: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

a t t h e c o l l e g e , f o u n d t h a t : " t h e y c o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e

s i m p l e s t d e f i n i t i o n s , "51 N o r e o v e r , t h o u g h t h e y were s s n i o r

o f f i c e r s , t h e y w c r c i n o r d i n a t e l y l a z y a n d e x t r c m ~ l y d i F f i c u l t

t o d i s c i p l i n e ,

T h e c o u r s e s p r o g r e s s e d v e r y s l n u r l y , F u r e x a m p l e , b e c a u s e

o f r e l i g i o u s c u s t o m , s t u d e n t s r e f u s e d t o d r a w d i a g r a m s of t h e

human b o d y . T o o v e r c o m e t h i s , o n e u f P l a n a t ' s c o l l e a g u e s

e m b e l l i s h e d h i s c l a s s r o o m w i t h p r i n t s o f t h e human b o d y a n d

l e f t s o m e , s e e m i n g l y i n a d v e r t e n t l y , o n h i s d e s k . T h e s t u d e n t s

s o o n b e g a n t o d e m a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s o f v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e

f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t e d , a n d e v e n t u a l l y t h e i r p r e j u d i c e was overcome,

P l a n a t c l a i m e d t h a t h e a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s were e v e n t u a l l y a b l e

t o e n c o u r a g e s i n c e r e i n t e r e s t From t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s t u d e n t s ,

e v e n t h o u g h i n i t i a l l y a l l o f t h e m h a d r e f u s e d t o p a y a t t e n t i o n

t o t h e i r c o u r s e s , A f t e r t h i s h a d b e e n a c h i e v e d , t h o i n s t r u c t o r s

p e r s i s t e d i n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o t e a c h t h e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d s t u d e n t s

a n d i g n o r e d t h o s e who u ~ i s h e d t o s a b o t a g e t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e

c o l l . e g e . W i t h i n t w o y e a r s o f i t s o p e n i n g , t h e r e were 71 o f f i c e r s

u n d e r g o i n g t r a i n i n g a t - M a d r a s a t A r k a n ; t h e p r o g r a m m e was o f f o u r

y e a r s ' d u r a t i o n , 53

5 1 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : P l a n a t , o p . c i t . , p p . 9 2 - 9 3 . T h i s p o i n t i s w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t i t t o o k a c o n - s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f d e m o n s t r a t i o n s b y P l a n a t t o p r o v e t o t h e s t u d e n t s t h a t o n e c a n o n l y s e e o n e e y e o f a h e a d i n p r o f i l e , And P l a n a t s a i d o f t h e t r a i n e e s ' q u e s t i o n s t o h i m t h a t " t h e y w e r e b a s i c a l l y q u e s t i o n s o f b i g c h i l d r e n , " -- I . b i d . , p , 9 3 ,

5 3 ~ h e c o u r s e s a n d i n s t r u c t o r s mere a s f o l l o u ~ s : P l a n a t : d i r e c t o r o f i n s t r u c t i o n , g e o d e s y , m i l i t a r y t a c t i c s , r e c o n n a i s - s a n c e , g u n n e r y , t e m p o r a r y a n d p e r m a n e n t f o r t i f i c a t i o n , S h a y k h H a s a n : a r i t h m e t i c , f i r i f E f : g e o m e t r y , t r i g o n o m e t r y , L i e u t e n a n t -

c o n t d :

Page 39: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

None o f t h e E u r o p e a n i n s t r u c t o r s a t M a d r a s a t A r k a n c o u l d --- s p e a k T u r k i s h a n d o n l y o n e o f t h e f i r s t i n t a k e o f s t u d e n t s

c o u l d s p e a k F r e n c h ( a l t h o u g h O F c o u r s e t h e s t u d e n t s were i n t h e

p r o c e s s a f l e a r n i n g ~ r e n c h ) . A s i n s j . r n i l a , . ,caching s i t u a t i o n s ,

t h e i n s t r u c t o r u ~ r o t e h i s l e c t u r e i n a E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e . T h i s

was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o T u r k i s h b y a n i n t e r p r e t e r o n t h e s c h o o l ' s

s t a f f . A f t e r t h e t r a n s l a t i o n h a d b e e n c h e c k e d b y t h e i n s t r u c t o r ,

t h o u g h a p p a r e n t l y i n many cases o n l y c u r s o r i l y , if a t a l l , t h e t l.

i n t e r p r e t e r r e a d i t t o t h e c l a s s , " q R m a j o r d i f f i c u l t y w i t h

t h i s s y s t e m was t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n t e r p r e t e r s w e r e u n f a m i l i a r

w i t h a g r e a t d e a l o f t h e m i l i t a r y t e r m i n o l o g y u s e d b y t h e

i n s t r u c t o r s . I n many c a s e s e q u i v a l e n t i u o r d s d i d n o t e x i s t i n

t h e T u r k i s h l a n g u a g e , s o t h a t t h e m e a n i n g s o f k s y w o r d s i n t h e

l e c t u r e were o f t e n m i s i n t e r p r e t e d , t h u s g r e a t l y m i s l e a d i n g

s t u d e n t s , S o o n a f t e r t h e M a d r a s a t A r k n n h a d o p e n e d , a n i n t e r -

p r e t e r was e m p l o y e d t o c o m p i l e a T u r k i s h d i c t i o n a r y o f F r e n c h

m i l i t a r y t e r m i n o l o g y .

I t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o a s s e s s t h e t e a c h i n g a b i l i t i e s o f

P l a n a t a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s From t h e m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s

t h e s i s , N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t

s o m e o f t h e E u r o p e a n s a t M a d r a s a t A r k a n were l e s s t h a n c a p a b l e

i n s t r u c t o r s , f o r many c h a r l a t a n s u ~ e n t t o E g y p t d u r i n g t h e

53 c o n t d : C o l o n e l Wayt : i n f a n t r y d r i l l - t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e , P a c h o t : F r e n c h , K o e n i g : F r e n c h , P e r s i a n , A r a b i c , ~ b b 6 C e l e s i a : p h y s i c s . H e y w o r t h - i l u n n e , op. c i t . , p. 1 2 0 .

5 4 ~ h e r e w a s f o r much O F Muhammad Ali's r e i g n a s e v e r e s h o r - t a g e o f i n t e r p r e t e r s . T h e r e were n o E g y p t i a n s a m o n g t h e i n i t i a l g r o u p o f i n t e r p r e t e r s u s e d i n t h e a r m y , m o s t o f t h e m were

g S y r i a n s . B o w r i n g , o p . c i t S I p p , 87 .

Page 40: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

Muhammad A l i E r a , p a s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s o f f a s h i g h r a n k i n g

m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s , ar id e m b e l l i s h i n g t h e d e c e i t b y " p l u m i n g

t h e m s e l v e s , a n d w e a r i n g g o l d e n e p a u l e t s . " 5 5 f l l o r e o v e r , many

o f t h o s e E u r o p e a n i n s t r u c t o r s , who were n o t b l a t a n t i m p o s t o r s 9

were i n a d e q u a t e l y t r a i n e d t o j u s t i f y t h e i r p o s i t i o n s . F o r

i n s t a n c e , r e f e r r i n g t o i n s t r u c t o r s i n b o t h m i l i t a r y a n d n o n -

m i l i t a r y f i e l d s , J o h n Bowring, a B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t c f f i c i a l ,

o p i n e d t h a t "among t h e E u r p p e a n s t h e m s e l v e s , t o o f e w h a v e b e e n

t r a i n e d b y a d e q u a t e e d u c a t i o n a t home t o b e c o m e i n s t r u c t o r s a n d

d i r e c t o r s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a b r o a d . 1 1 5G

B u t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e f a c t t h a t many E u r o p e a n s I n E g y p t

w e r e i m p o s t o r s , it i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e i n t r i n s i c d j f f i c u l t i e s

i n v o l v e d i n h a s t i l y a t t e m p t i n g t o f o r m a W e s t e r n s t y l e o f f i c e r

c o r p s f r o m t r a i n e e s o f c u l t u r e s t o t a l l y a l i e n a n d p r o f o u n d l y

h o s t i l e t o t h e West, w e r e f o r m i d a b l e . T h e l a c k o f adequately

t r a i n e d o f f i c e r s r e m a i n e d a m a j o r b a r r i e r t o t h e s u c c e s s o f

Muhammad Ali's m i l i t a r y r e f o r m s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f h i s r e i g n .

5 5 ~ r a n s l a t e d from F r e n c h : ~ u g r n a r d , op. c i t q , p. 120.

Page 41: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s ~ n c o u n t e r e d i n e n d e a v o u r i n g

t o f o r m a "modern" o f f i c e r c o r p s , t h e r e w e r e f o r m i d a b l e p r o b l e m s

i n v o l v e d i n a t t e m p t i n g t o t r a n s f o r m c o n s c r i p t s f o r t h e r a n k

a n d f i l e i n t o m i l i t a r y p e r s n n n u l . . T h e c o n s c r i p t s - S u d a n a s e

c a p t i v e s i n i t i a l l y b u t l a t e r m o s t l y f e l l a h i n - h a d g e n e r a l l y l e d

e x t r e m e l y n a r r o w t r a d i t i o n a l l i v a s , t o t a l l y d e v o i d o f m i l i t a r y

experience. To c o m p l i c a t e mat te rs f u r t h e r , t h e f e l l a h i n

r e g a r d e d m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e a s a n a n a t h e m a a n d many o f t h e m t o o k

s e v e r e m e a s u r e s t o a v o i d i t .

A f t e r E g y p t h a d c o n q u e r e d a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e N o r t h e r n

S u d a n i n 1 8 2 2 , t h o u s a n d s o f S u d a n e s e c a p t i v c s were s e n t t o

ne iu ly e s t a b l i s h e d m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g c a m p s i n U p p e r E g y p t ,

i n c l u d i n g Aswan. T h e y were m a r c h e d i n c h a i n s - a l a r g e p r o p -

o r t i o n u f t h e m d y i n g e n r 0 u t e . l I n E g y p t t h e y u n d e r w e n t a

p r o g r a m m e o f r u d i m e n t a r y m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n

o f Mamluk o f f i c e r c a d e t s . A f t e r e z c h r e g i m e n t h a d c o m p l e t e d t h e

p rog ramme, o n e b a t t a l i o n o f 800 men r e m a i n e d a t t h e t r a i n i n g

camp t o s e r v e a s a n u c l e u s f o r a neu r e g i m e n t s z

V i r t u a l l y n o i n f o r m a t i o n u a s a v a i l a b l e t o t h i s w r i t e r

~ R , R , Maddan, E q y p t a n d Mohammed -- A l i ( i o n d o n , 1 8 4 1 ) ~ p , 67,

2 ~ h e r e were 800 men i n a b a t t a l i o n a n d 5 b a t t a l i o n s i n a r e g i m e n t ,

\

Page 42: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

c o n c e r n i n g p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d w i t h t h e s e men, a p a r t From

D r o v o t t i Q s c o r n r n ~ n t t h a t t h e y l u c r e s t u b b o r n a n d d i f f i c u l t t o

t r a i n . N e v e r t h e ? e s s , t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n o v e r w h e l m i n g d i f f i -

c u l t i e s , F o r i n s t a n c e , n e g r o o s , who h a d f o r t h e f i r s t t ime

i n t h e i r l i v e s e n c o u n t e r e d f i r e arms d u r i n g t h e i r b a t t l e s

a g a i n s t t h e E g y p t i a n e x p e d i t i o n a r y f o r c e s , m u s t h a v e b e e n

p r o f o u n d l y c o n f u s e d i t 1 t h e t o t a l l y a l i e n m i l i e u o f a m i l i t a r y

t r a i n i n g c a m p . M o r e o v e r , b e c a u s e t h e i n s t r u c t o r s i n a l l p r o b -

w L L i l zrly f i F & . I - - J - - - Z - - - - * z h i l i t y ~trc ;:ot eo r ; ; e r sa r ; t . . . :A t - L i l t : L l d l l l k 5 U b l l d t l ~ t :

l a n g u a g e s , a n d v i c e v e r s a , v e r b a l c o m t n u n i c a t . i o n b e t w e e n t h e

t w o was i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t i n t e r p r e t e r s . P r e s u m a b l y , a t l e a s t

a f e w i n t e r p r e t e r s were p r e s e n t , t h o u g h how many d i f f e r e n t

l a n a g u a g e g r o u p s uJere r e p r e s e n t e d a m o n g t h e t r a i n e e s i s n o t

k n o w n . 3 Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e t r a i n e e s a r e

r e p o r t e d t o h a v e s u f f e r e d f r o m s e v e r e n e l a n c h u l i a c a u s e d b y

m e n t a l c o n f u s i o n a n d h o m e s i c k n e s s , I n f a c t t h o u s a n d s o f t h e m

d i e d f r o m a c o m b i n a t i o n o f s u c h a f f l i c t i o n s , A c c o r d i n g t o

B o i s l e c o m b e t h e deaths o f t h r e e q u a r t e r s o f t hem m a d e .it

n e c e s s a r y t o d e s p a t c h f u r t h e r e x p e d i t i o n s t o t h e S u d a n t o f i n d

r e p l a c e m e n t s . R . R . Madden , a B r i t i s h t r a v e l l e r , w a s i n C r e t e

i n 1824 when f o u r o f t h e P a s h a ' s s i x n e g r o r e g i m e n t s w e r e

s t a t i o n e d t h e r e . He s a i d o f t h e m :

3 ~ t m i g h t h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e t o t r a i n t h e S u d a n e s e w i t h o u t i n t e r p r e t e r s , S i n c e i n f a n t r y t r a i n i n g a t t h i s t i m e was n o t c o m p l e x , i t w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e t o c o m m u n i c a t e m a r c h i n g a n d f i e l d c r a f t t e c h n i q u e s b y v o c a l i z i n g a n o r d e r a n d g i v i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f t h e e x p e c t e d r e s p o n s e t o t h e o r d e r , By t h i s q u a s i - P a v l o v i a n m e t h o d t h e i n s t r u c t o r s c o u l d s l o w l y t r a i n t r o o p s w i t h o u t b e i n g f l u e n t i n t h e i r l a n g u a g e ( s ) ( d u e t o l a c k o f i n f ' o r m a t i o n o n t r a i n i n g t u c h n i q u e s , t h e a u t h o r i s h e r e m e r e l y h y p o t h e s i z i n g a m e t h o d o f o v e r c o m i n g l a n g u a g e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t r a i n i n g ) .

Page 43: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

h e r e t e y w e r e e n c a m p e d f o r t h e w i n t e r m o n t h s , 7 a n d a b o u t 3 o f t h e m p e r i s h e d . .. . T h e y c o u l d n o t b e s a i d t o d i e o f a n y d i s e a s e - t h e y d r o o p e d a n d p i n e d a w a y . T h e r e s t o f t h e n c g r o t r o o p s who w e r e s e n t i n t o A r a b i a a n d S e n n a r p e r i s h e d b y t h o u s a n d s , a n d i n a l i t t l e t i m e t h e s k e l - e t o n o f a r e g i m e n t was a l l t h a t r e m a i n e d o r 3 0 , 0 0 0 s t o l e n men. 4

T h e n e g r o s o l d i e r s h a d b e e n t r a i n e d t o s o m e e x t e n t t o e m u l a t e

t h e i r w e s t e r n c o u n t e r p z r t s i n m i l i t a r y p r o c e d u r e s . T h e r e h a d

b e e n n o a t t e m p t , h o w e v e s , t o a s s i s t t h e m i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y

a d j u s t i n g t o t h e i r new a l i e n s u r r o u n d i n g s . I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t

p s y c h o ? o g i c a l b a r r i e r s t h a t c o n f r o n t s u c h c h a n g e s a s t h e y were

a t t e m p t i n g t o e n g e n d e r ,

T h e e x t r e m e l y h i g h m o r t a l i t y r a t e o f t h e n e g r o e s c a u s e d

t h e Pasha t o t u r n t o t h e c o n s c r i p t i o n o f f e l l a h i n f o r m i l i t a r y

s e r v i c e . H u n d r e d s o f y e a r s h a d e l a p s e d s i n c e a l a r g e n u m b e r o f

f e l l a h i n h a d s e r v e d i n a n E g y p t i a n a r m y , t h o u y h a f e w of" t h e m

h a d b e e n r e c r u i t e d f o r Muhammad Ali's e x p e d i t i o n s t o A r a b i a ,

a n d a f e w m o r e h a d t r a i n e d w i t h t h e S u d a n e s e c a p t i v e s . I n f a c t

t h o P a s h a h a d b e e n s c e p t i c a l a b o u t c o n s c r i p t i n g t h e m a t a l l a s

h e f e a r e d t h a t , i f many f e l l a h i n r e c e i v e d m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g ,

t h e y m i g h t a t s o m e t i n e l a u n c h a u n i t e d e f f o r t i n a n a t t e m p t t o

o v e r t h r o w h i m . F u r t h e r m o r e , h e r e a l i z e d t h e i r v a l u e t o t h e

e c o n o m y a s f a r m e r s , a g r i c u l t u r e b e i n g t h e c h i e f s o u r c e o f

n a t i o n a l r e v e n u e . He r e s t r i c t e d t h e f e l l a h i n ' s p o t e n t i a l

m i l i t a r y p o w e r b y i s s u i n g f e w c o m m i s s i o n s t o t h e m , w h i l e n o n e

c o u l d r i s e b e y o n d t h e r a n k o f T o l i m i t t h e l i k e l i h o o d

4 ~ a d d e n , o p . c i t . , p . 68. /

5 ~ o u i n , La M i s s i o n du B a r o n d e B o i s l e c o m t e , p . 1 0 0 . -

Page 44: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

o f c i v i l i a n r e v o l t , h e p r o m o t e d t h e few f e l l a h i n c o n s i d e r e d t o

b e p o t e n t i a l l e a d e r s t o s u c h p o s i t i o n s a s ------ s h a i k h a l - b a l a d , -

T h i s t e m p e r e d t h e i r d i s c o n t e n t w h i l e g i v i n g t h e m a n o f f i c e t h a t

w o u l d make t h e m u n p o p u l a r among t h e i r f e l l o w v i l l a g e r s , 6

F e l l a h i n a r e u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g p a s s i v e a n d s e r v i l e

t o whomever r u l e s Egypt , . T h i s e v a l u a t i o n i s o n l y t r u e t o a

l i m i t e d e x t e n t i n t l ~ e p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n , T h e r e w e r e r e l a t i v e l y

l o n g p e r i o d s w~hen t h e f e l l a h i n r e m a i n e d p a s s i v e a n d s e r v i l e ,

b u t t h e r e were a h 0 p e r l o d s when t h e y b r o k e i n t o o p e n r e v o l t ,

F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e r e w e r e l a r g e s c a l e f e l l a h i n r e v o l t s i n Uppe r

E g y p t d u r i n g 1 8 2 2 , 1 8 2 3 a n d 1 0 2 4 . It; a p p e a r s t h a t A l b a n i a n s ,

p r e s u m a b l y v e t e r a n s o f t h e P a s h a ' s p r o - r e f o r m a r m y , p l a y e d m a j o r

r o l e s I n i n c i t i n g t h e s e r e v o l t s , 7

T h e l a r g e s t r e v o l t o f t h e Muhammad A l i E r a was t h a t o f

1 0 2 4 , I t b r o k e o u t d u r i n g March o f t h a t y e a r , i n t h e r e g i o n

b e t w ~ e e n E s n e h a n d T h e b e s , w h e r e t h e r e h a d b e e n much p o p u l a r u n r e s t

a g a i n s t c o n s c r i p t i o n , I t s l o a d e r , Ahrned b e n I d r i s , a M a g r e b i

c o n v e r t t o Wahhabism, p r o f e s s e d t o b e a n e n v o y o f God a n d t h e

P r o p h e t . He c l a i m e d t h a t h i s t a s k was t o o v e r t h r o w Muhammad A l i ,

whom h e r e f e r r e d t o as " t h e P a s h a o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s , " a n d t o

a b o l i s h h i s r e f o r m s , w h i c h were c o n t r a r y t o I s l a m .

6 ~ a d d e r 1 , o p . c i t e , p. 3 4 .

S e v e r a l b a t t a l i o n s o f t r o o p s , i n c l u d i n g many f e l l a h i n ,

m a r c h e d a g a i n s t t h e r e b e l s , L a r g e l y b e c a u s e o f t h e f r a t r i c i d a l

n a t u r e o f t h e i r t a s k , h o w e v e r , t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c o n t e n t

among t h e f e l l a h i n t r o o p s , a n d many o f t h e m j o i n e d t h e i n s u r g e n t s ,

7 ~ i n g t r i n i e r , o p , c i t . , p p . 1 2 1 - 1 2 3 .

Page 45: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s a i d t o n u m b e r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 , 0 0 0 men . A f t e r s i x u jeuks o f

i n t e r m i t t e n t f i g h t i n g t h e r e b e l l i o n wzs c r u s h e d b y T u r k i s h a n d

B e d o u i n t r o o p s , S e v e n t h o u s a n d o f t h e i n s u r g e n t s w e r e k i l l e d

d u r i n g t h e f i g h t i n g , a n d many m o r e , i n c l u d i n g women a n d c h i l d r e n ,

w e r e m a s s a c r e d a f t e r t h e ~ e a s e f i r o . ~

T h e s y s t e m u s e d f o r c o n s c r i p t i n g f e l l a h i n f o r m i l i t a r y -- -

s e r v i c e was b o t h i n h u m a n a n d g r o s s l y i n e f f i c i e n t . F o r e x a m p l e ,

i n t h e l e v y o f men f o r t h e ' l o t h , 1 1 t h a n d 1 2 t h regiments, 4 8 , 0 0 0

t o g e t h e r t o t h e m i l i t a r y c a m p a t K h a n g a , T h i s e n t a i l e d a 2 0

d a y j o u r n e y f o r many o f t h e m . By t h e t i m e t h e y h a d r e a c h e d

o n c e n t r e a l a r g e n u m b e r o f t h e m ha 11 $111

e y t o p a s s t h e s i m p l e m e d i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n . ,,*I 1

/- - m"- .- I:. T h e c a p t i v e s w e r e c l o s e l y f o l - l o w e d a l l t h e way t o K h a n y a b y

,101'.

24 ,000 r e l a t i v e s , f a m i l y t i e s b e i n g v e r y s t r o n g a m o n g t h r *#I '

f e l l a h i n , T w o l v e t h o u s a n d o f t h e males were c o n s c r i p t e d , dr i n

r d",, e s s e n t i a l l y f o r l i f e , s i n c e t h e r e uJas n o r e c o g n i z e d t e r m i n a t i o n 4;;

d a t e o f s e r v i c e f o r a n y c o n s c r i p t s . T h e r e m a i n d e r , many o f t h e m \___- -

b o y s t o o y o u n g f o r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , a n d men t o o o l d , were

r e l e a s e d t o m a k e t h e l o n g r e t u r n j o u r n e y . M e a n w h i l e , t h e f i e l d s - - - - - - -

o f many f a m i l i e s r e m a i n e d u n t e n d ~ d f o r u p t o f o r t y d a y s a n d many

o f t h e i r c r o p s were d e s t r o y e d , M o r e o v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t a f e l l a h

8 ~ e d ~ ~ i n t 6 8 r ~ u s e d t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t t o k e e p t h e f e l l a h i n u n d e r c o n t r o l . T h e y s c o u r e d t h e c o u n t r y s i d e f o r d e s e r t e r s f r o m t h e a r m y a n d t h e v i l l a g e s , Muhammad A l i d i d n o t a t t e m p t t o c o n s c r i p t t h e m i n t o m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e f o r f e a r o f p r o v o k i n g t h e m i n t o r e v o l t , N e v e r t h e l e s s , many o f t h e m v o l u n - t a r i l y s e r v e d i n t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y , T h e P a s h a p e r i o d i c a l l y g a v e g e n e r o u s g i f t s t o B e d o u i n l e a d e r s i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r l o y a l t y . ~ u b m a r d , 9. -- c i t . , p . 1 2 3 , a l - J a b a r t i , o p e c i t , , v o l , IX, p . 1 9 6 a n d H e l e n B, R i v l i n , T h e A q r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y o f Muhammad A l i ( c a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 201-20371

Page 46: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

h a d b e e n r e j e c t e d o n p r e v i o u s o c c a s i o n s d i d n o t e x e m p t h i m r r u m

a f u r t l i e r l e v y , We was f o r c e d t o g o t o a n i n d u c t i o n c e n t r e e a c h

t ime o n e o f t h e P a s h a ' s p r e s s g a n g s came t o h i s d i s t r i c t . Some

o f t h e w e a l t h i e r f e l l a h i n w e r e a b l e t o b r i b e t h e i r wzy o u t o f

c o n s c r i p t i o n , b u t i t was n e c e s s a r y t o r e p e a t t h i s s u b t e r f u g e

a t each l e v y .

C o n s c r i p t i o n w a s n o t e n t i r e l y l i m i t e d t o t h e f e l l z h i n .

B r i t i s h C o n s u l - G e n a r a l B a r k e r r e p o r t e d , f o r i n s t a n c e 9 t h a t t h e

P a s h a i n t e n d e d t o r a i s e s i x t y t h o u s a n d men f r o m t h e t o w n s a n d

c i t i e s i n J u n e , 1 8 3 2 . He d e s c r i b e d a l e v y i n C a i r o t h u s :

On t h e 1 4 t h i r i s k a n l ; t h e m a l e p o p u l a t i o n o f C a i r o was s u d d c n t l y s e i z e d b y p r e s s g a n g s p o s t e d i n e v e r y q u a r t e r a t t h e same a p p o i n t e d t i m e . . . . I t i s s a i d t h i s v i o l e n t m e a s u r e p r o d u c e d 1 5 , 0 0 0 o f a l l c o n d i t i o n s , a g e s p a b l e - b o d i e d a n d i n f i r m , o u t o f w h i c h 4 , 0 0 0 were r e t a i n e d I, f o r t h e t y r a n t e 9 lil

111

T h e r e were s e r i o u s e n o u g h p r o b l e m s i n t r a i n i n g t h e f e l l a h i n - I

who a c c o u n t e d f o r t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f E g y p t i a n c o n s c r i p t s . 111

IT - - - -

t h a n v

v i l l a g e s a n d t r a n s p l a n t e d i n t o t h e a l i e n s u r r o u n d i n g s o f a r m y - .-- -

t r a i n i n g c a m p s , t h e y were f o r s o m e t ime g r e a t l y d e j e c t e d a n d

c o n f u s e d , T h e y p r o v e d , h o w e v e r , t o be m o r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y i- -

r e s i l i e n t t h a n t h e S u d a n e s e .

O n c e a d j u s t e d t o t h e m i l i t a r y m i l i e u , t h e f e l l a h i n a r e

s a i d t o h a v e b e e n r e l a t i v e l y g s o d s o l d i e r s . V a r i o u s E u r o p e a n

o b s e r v e r s c l a i m e d i n f a c t t h a t t h e y were, i n g e n e r a l , b e t t e r

s o l d i e r s t h a n t h o o f f i c e r s . 1 • ‹ T h e i r a d j u s t m e n t t o a r m y l i f e i s

1 0 ~ c o t t o p i n e d t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c e r n i n g t h e o t h e r r e n k s c o n t d :

Page 47: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

4 1

r e f l e c t e d i n t h e f a c t t h a t many o f t h e m came t o r e g a r d t h e m -

s e l v e s a s b e i n g s o c i a l l y s u p e r i o r t o o t h e r m e m b e r s oP t h e i r

o a t i v e v i l l a g e s . Ga l ice , a F r e n c h m i l i t a r y i n s t r u c t o r , r e m a r k e d

i n 1 8 4 1 , t h a t t h e y were g r e a t l y f l a t t e r e d ~ ~ h e t Y f a v o u r a b l y

c o m p a r e d t o F r e n c h s o l d i e r s . 11

T h e a b j e c t s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h many F e l l a h i n /- -

s o L d i e r s l i v e d w h i l e s t a t . i o n e d i n E g y p t a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e - -

f o l l o u ~ i n g o b s e r v a t i o n :

A s h o r t d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c a m p s , t h e f e l l a h i n r e c r u i t s b u i l t s h a n t i e s , o n e a y a i n s t t h e o t h e r , l ~ ~ i t h mud o r p i e c e s o f s t o n e , a n d i n t h e s e n a r r u t u v e r y l o w d u ~ e l l i n g s , o f t e n h u m i d a n d a l w a y s d i r t y , t h e y h o u s e d t h e i r w i v e s , t h e i r c h i l d r e n , t h e f a t h e r a n d m o t h e r - s i c k a n d t o o o l d a n d i n c a p a b l e t o l o o k a f t e r t h e m - s e l v o s , . , . B u t t h e w i v e s , t h e c h i l d r e n , t h e f a t h e r , t h o m o t h e r p o s s e s s e d n o t h i n q ; a n d t h e s o l d i e r o f Muhammad

: A l i was o b l i g e d t o s h a r e h i s a l r e a d y n ~ r ~ d e s t r a t i o n : w i t h t w o , t h r e t 3 , f o u r o r s i x p e r s o n s . 1 2

When f e l l a h i n c o n s c r i p t s were p o s t e d o u t s i d e o f E g y p t , t h e i r

w i v e s a n d f a m i l i e s h a d t o r e s o r t t o s u c h d e m e a n i n g p r a c t i c e s a s

b e g g i n g and p r a s t i t u t f o n i n o r d e r t o g a i n s u f f i c i e n t s u s t e n a n c e

t o r e m a i n a l i v e .

T h e f e l l a h i n ' s c o n s t e r n a t i o n a t t h e t h o u g h t o f s e r v i n g i n - "-

t h e a r m y was m a n i P e s t e d i n t h e m o a s u r e s t h a t many o f t h e m t o o k

t o a v o i d c o n s c r i p t i o n . Some maimed t h e m s e l v e s b y b u r n i n g ~ u t a n

1 0 c o n t d : a n d t h e o f f i c e r s a f t e r t h e y h a d p u t down a W a h h a b i u p r i s i n g i n 1 8 2 4 : " t h e E g y p t i a n t r o o p s e a r n e d t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f p o s s e s s i n g t h e p r i n c i p a l q u a l i t i e s r e q u i s i t e i n a s o l d i e r . . . . w h i l s t t h e i r T u r k o f f i c e r s p r o v e d t h e m s e l v e s t o b e t o t a l l y u n w o r t h y o f coin- m a n d i n g t h e m . " S c o t t , o p . c i t . , p . 2 6 6 .

l l ~ e p o r t e d i n R i v l i n , o p . c i t . , p . 2 1 2 .

Page 48: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

e y e w i t h l i m e , o t h e r s c u t o f f t h e i r t r i g g e r f i n g e r s , w h i l e

o t h e r s e x t r a c t e d a l l o f t h e i r f r o n t t e e t h , B o u ~ r i n g t e l l s o f a

f e l l a h who " c u t o f f h i s t o e s , o n e a f t e r a n o t h e r - a t o e a d a y

u n t i l h e h a d g o t r i d o f t h e v ~ h o l o o f t h e m . " S u c h d r a s t i c

m e a s u r e s i n c r e a s e d i n number e v e n t h o u g h t h e P a s h a made s u c h

s e v e r e t h r e e t s a s " h e who h a s maimed h i m s e l f s h a l l . b e s e n t t o

t h e g a l l e y s a l . 1 h i s l i f e . " I 3 I n f a c t d u r i n g t h e e i g h t e e n

t h i r t i e s s e l f - m u t i l a t i o n b e c a m e common i n d i s t r i c t s w h e r e i t

I n a d d i t i o n t o m u t i l a t i o n , many f e l l a h i n f l e d From t h e i r

n a t i v e d i s t r i c t s t o a v o i d c o n s c r i p t i o n . T h e y w e n t t o c i t i e s , __..--., 1 -

d e s e r t r e g i o n s , t m i g h t p r o v i d e LW_."̂̂II-- ---

a n a d e q u a t e h i d

T h e r e , A b d - A l l a h , P a s h a o f Acre, p r o v i d e d a n a d d i t i o n a l i n c e n -

t i v e when h e e x e m p t e d f r o m t a x a t S o n f o r t h r e e y e a r s , a l l

E g y p t i a n r e f u g e e s who s e t t l e d i n h i s a r e a o f j u r i s d i c t i o n .

A p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 , DO0 t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s o f f e r . ; 51 P e r i o d i c a l l y

Muhammad A l i h i r e d b e d o u i n , o r s e n t c o n t i n g e n t s o f t r o o p s . , t o

s e a r c h f o r p e a s a n t f u g i t i v e s . I n J u l y , 1 8 3 1 a l o n g , 1 5 , 0 0 0 o f

t h e m uJere f o u n d i n t h e A l e x a n d r i a r e g i o n . l 6 A t t h i s t ime i t

was e s t i m a t e d t h a t o n e q u a r t e r o f t h e c u l t i v a b l e l a n d o f I ' p p e r

E g y p t was n o t b e i n g f a r m e d b e c a u s e o f a s e v e r e s h o r t z g e o f

I 3 ~ a m e s A u g u s t S t . J o h n , E q y p t a n d Muhammed --- A l i ( ~ o n d a n , 1 8 3 4 ) , v o l . I , a . 1 9 0 , T h i s q u o t a t i o n - ' i s f r o m O r d e r F . 0 o f ~ u h a k a d Ali,- d a t e d March 1 2 , '1 633.

151uiuhamrnad A1.i a t t a c k e d Acre i n 1 8 3 1 , o s t e n s i b l y t o r e c o v e r t h e s e r e f u g e e s . T h i s was t h e f i r s t s t a g e o f t h e F i r s t S y r i a n War.

1 6 ~ r o u c h l e y , o p . c i t . , p . 5 2 .

Page 49: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

p e a s a n t l a b o u r , Some o f t h o s e f o u n d u e r e c o n s c r i p t e d f o r t h e

armed f o r c e s , o r i n d u s t r y , t h e r e m a i n d e r were h e r d e d bzck t o

t h e i r v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a f t e r ? v i l l a g e - s h a y k h s w ~ r l " c o C a i r o a n d - A l e x a n d r i a e a c h S p r i n g a n d Autumn t o l o o k f o r d u s e r t e r s From

t h e i r ~ i 1 l a ~ e s . l

By t h e m i d - e i g h t e e n t h i r t i e s t h e r e were a l m o s t n o a b l e -

b o d i e d men OF c o n s c r i p t i o n a g e , w~ho were n o t e i t h e r i n t h e

a r m e d f o r c e s , i n i n d u s t r y , o r w o r k i n g o n c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s .

i n ? a c t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o u r f o r c e c o n s i s t e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y

of warnen, c h i l d r e n , o l d men a n d m u t i l a t e e s . 1 8 Dr. G a l l i n a r ,

who m e d i c a l l y e x a m i n e d f e l l a h i n t o a s s e s s t h e i r f i t n e s s f o r

m i l i t a r y s o r v i c e , r e p o r t e d i n 1 8 3 4 t h a t G i r g a p r o v i n c e , u ~ h i c h

h a d n i n e t y s i x v i l l a g e s , c o u l d n o t f u r n i s h s e v e n s u i t a b l e r e c r u i t s ,

a n d t h a t i n f i v u o t h e r p r o v i n c e s f r o m w h i c h t h e G o v e r n m e n t

demanded a l e v y o f 4 0 0 r e c r u i t s h e c o u l d o n l y F i n d o n e h u n d r e d

a n d s e v e n t y men c a p a b l e o f b e a r i n g a r r r 1 s . 1 ~ I n t h e m i d - 1 8 3 0 ' ~ ~

y o u t h s were b e i n g c o n s c r i p t e d f r o m t h e a g e o f t h i r t e e n a n d i t

was r e p o r t e d i n 1836 t h a t t h r e e r e g i m e n t s o f men w i t h f i n g e r s ,

f r o n t t e e t h o r e y e s m i s s i n g , h a d b e e n f o r m e d i n U p p e r ~ ~ ~ ~ t . ~ ~

1 7 ~ i u l i n , o p . c i t . , p . 2 0 4 a n d Hamant , o p . c i t . , "01. I , p. 43, v o l . 11, p , 1 2 a n d B o w r i n g , o p . c i t . ' ; p . 1 9 7 .

he R u s s i a n C o n s u l Meden w r o t e i n 1 8 3 8 " t h e p o p u l a t i o n i s m o r e t h i n l y s p r e a d t h a n b e f o r e - m o r e r a g g e d a n d c o m p o s e d o f o l d men, women, c h i l d r e n a n d m u t i l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s . " ~ e n k C a t t a u i , Le ~ b q n e d e Moharned A l i d ' a p r 6 s . l e s A r c h j . v e s r u s s e s e n E q y p t e ( K O ~ E , 1935) , t o m e 11 , p a r t 2 , p. 2 4 5 . B o w r i n g w r o t e d u r i n q t h e s a m e p e r i o d t h a t : " I n t h e Favoum, w h i c h was f o r m e r l v t h e m6st r i c h l y c u l t i v a t e d p a r t o f € g y p t i t h s d e s e r t h a s made

'

many i n r o a d s , " B o w r i n g , o p e c i t . , p . 1 5 .

1 9 ~ i v l i n , o p . c i t . , p p . 205 -206 .

2 0 ~ a t t a u i , o p . c i t . , t ome 11, p a r t 2 , p. 28: O o n t e n e f f ?i

c o n t d :

Page 50: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

I n 1 8 4 0 - t h e S e c o n d S y r i a n War b e g a n i n 1 8 3 9 - t h e P a s h a

was i n f o r m e d b y s e v e r a l m u d i r s a n d marnurs t h a t t h e r e were no

m o r e f e l l a h i n s u i t a b l e F o r r e g u l a r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . I n r e s p o n s e

t o t h i s p r e d i c a m e n t h e d e c r e e d , i n t h e S p r i n g o f t h a t y e a r ,

t h e f o r m a t i o n o f N a t i o n a l G u a r d r e g i m e n t s , T h e s e c o n s i s t e d

p r i m a r i l y o f b o y s , o l d men a n d f a c t o r y w o r k e r s , Though N a t i o n a l

Gua rdsmen w e r e o n l y p a r t - t i m e s o l d i e r s J t h e f e l l a h i n w e r e no

m o r e w i l l i n g t o s e r v e i n t h e N a t i o n a l G u a r d t h a n i n t h e r e g u l a r

f o r c e s . I t was u n i v e r s a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t a s e r i e s o f F i r e s i n

C a i r o , i n c l u d i n g o n e il~hj.ch d e s t r o y e d a l - A z a b a k i y a h P a l a c e on

May 2 2 , 1 0 4 0 , uJore s t a r t e d by o p p o n e n t s t o t h e new f o r m o f

c o n s c r i p t i o n . 21 I t i s n o t c l e a r how many r e g i m e n t s o f N a t i o n a l

G u a r d were a c t u a l l y f o r m e d , b u t i t i s known t h a t t h e P a s h a

o r d e r e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t w e n t y o f t h e m ( 3 , 2 0 0 men t o a

r e g i m e n t ) - 2 2

A f t e r E g y p t ' s d e f e a t b y T u r k e y a n d a c o a l t i o n o f E u r o p e a n

p o w e r s i n t h e S e c o n d S y r i a n War, h o u ~ e v e r , t h e N a t i o n a l G u a r d

r a p i d l y d i s s i p a t e d . Bu t i n e s t i m a b l y m o r e i m p o r t a n t was t h o

f a c t t h a t t h e P a s h a was c o m p e l l e d b y t h e k h a t t - i - s h a r i f o f 1 8 4 1 ,

r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e War, t o r e d u c e h i s r e g u l a r a r m y t o a maximum

o f 1 0 , 0 0 0 men - w h i l e t h e S u l t a n was t o h e n c e f o r t h a p p o i n t t h e

2 0 c o n t d : Duhamel , P e r a , l e 1 0 mai, 1 8 3 6 , a n d Hamont , o p e - c i t . , v o l . 11, p , 4 1 . A l s o B o w r i n g r e p o r t e d t h a t : " a t E s S i o u t t h e r e was a w h o l e r e g i m e n t w h i c h h a d b e e n c o m p o s e d o f m u t i l a t e d c o n s c r i p t s , e v e r y o n e o f t h e m h a d e i t h e r l o s t a n e y e , a f i n g e r o r t h e F r o n t t e e t h , " E o w r i n g p ~ c i t , , -- p , 5 2 .

2 1 ~ i v l i n , o p , c i t . , p . 2 0 8 .

Page 51: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s u p e r i o r o f f i c e r s . The r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f E g y p t ' s d c f c a t i n t h e

S e c o n d S y r i a n War a r e d i s c u s s e d i n m o r e d e t a i l l a t e r i n t h i s

t h e s i s .

Tho e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e a r m e d F o r c e s a n d t h e P a s h a ' s o t h e r

m a j o r p r o j e c t s a b s o r b e d E g y p t ' s l i m i t e d manpower i s i n d i c a t e d

i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t i s t i c s . By 1631, w i t h i n a d e c a d e o f i t s

i n c e p t i o n , t h e new a r m y n u m b e r e d a p p r : o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 , 0 0 i l o f ' f i c e r s

a n d men. 2 3 I n 1 8 4 0 i t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e 1 3 0 , 3 0 2

r e g u i a r t r o o p s , rh194'/l . i r r e g u l a r s a n d 8 N a t i o n a l Guard r e g i m e n t s

( 3 2 , 0 0 0 men a t F u l l s t r e n g t h ) . Z 4 D u r i n g t h e s z m c p e r i o d t h u r e

were a l s o a r o u n d 2 5 , 0 0 0 o f f i c e r s a n d men i n t h e E g y p t i a n n a v y ,25 rllllvl

*I, *IA

,, * i

.I 4 ' 2 3 ~ h e r a t i o o f o f f i c e r s t o men i n t h e r a n k s was a p p r o x -

i m a t e l y 1 : ' 16 , T h i s e s t i m a t e i s b a s e d o n t h e f a c t t h a t F l a r l a t I Ij, I"

m e n t i o n e d t h a t i f t h e s i z e o f t h e new arrriy r e a c h e d 5 0 , 0 0 0 men ,,wl 1 b e l o w c o m i n i s s i o n e d r a n k s , d u r i n g t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t u ~ e n t i e s i t w o u l d r e q u i r e a n o f f i c e r c o r p s o f 3 , 0 0 0 men, P l a n a t , o p . c i t . , p * 6 9 ,

2 4 ~ . ~ + Hureujii:z, " T h e B e g i n n i n g s o f m i l i t z r y f i o d o r n i z s t i o n i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t : A C o m p a r a t i v e A n a l . y s i s , " i n The M i d d l e E a s t

-* ----.-- - J o u r n a l , X X L I , (\?a. 2 ( s p r i n g , 1960 ) , 1 4 7 , a n d E d o u a r d D r i a u l t , L ' E ~ Y & e t l ' E u r o p e , ---- l a Cr i se --.--- d e 1 0 3 9 - 1 0 4 1 ( ~ a i r o , 1 9 3 0 ) ~ t o m e 29 , P a 2 C o c h e 1 e " c s o n E x c e l l e n c e M o n s i e u r T h i e r s , P r e s i d e n t d u C o n s e i l , N i n i s t r e d e s A f f a i r c s E t r a n g & r e s , A l e x a n d r i e , l e 2 2 a v r i l 1 8 4 0 . S t a t i s t i c s o f m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l , as we]-1 a s p o p u l a t i . o n , a r e m e r e l y e s t i m a t e s made b y E u r o p e a n o b s e r v e r s a n d a r e n o t t o t a l l y r ~ l i a b l e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , o f f i c i a l . E g y p t i a n m i l i t a r y c n d p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s a r e q u i t e u n r e l i a b l e . I n many c a s e s t h e y h a v e b e e n p u r p o s e l y i n f l a t e d i n o r d e r f o r t h e o f f i c i a l s i n v o l v e d t o g a i n t h e P a s h a ' s f a v o u r . I n o n e n o t a b l e c a s e o f t h i s i t was c o n c l u d e d i n 1 8 3 3 t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f E g y p t was 3 , 4 8 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e , w h i l e m o s t E u r o p e a n s e s t i m a t e d i t a t l e s s t h a n 2 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e . A c c o r d i n g t o R u s s i a n C o n s u l - G e n e r a l Duhame l , t h e r e s e a r c h e r s i n v o l v e d c l a i m e d t o h a v e c o u n t e d a l l d o m i c i l e s i n E g y p t a n d a s s u m e d t h a t t h e r e was a n a v e r a y e o f f o u r i n h a b i t a n t s t o e a c h o n e . He was s u r e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e y h a d f a l s i f i e d t h e i r f i n d i n g s b y i n c l u d i n g i n t t ~ e i r c o u n t a b a n d o n e d homes , s t a b l e s a n d d o v e c o t s . R i v l i n , o p . c i t . , p . 2 7 8 .

2 5 ~ h i s f i g u r e i n c l u d e s m o r e t h a n f i v e t h o u s a n d men who w o r k e d i n t h e n a v a l a r s e n a l a t A l e x a n d r i a . Nada Torn iche , " N o t e s s u r l a H i e r a r c h i e s o c i a l e e n E g y p t e 1 ' E p o q u e d c Muhammad A l i , " i n H o l t , o p , c i t . , p . 253.

Page 52: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

F u r t h e r m o r e , 4 0 , 0 0 0 men w e r e c o n s c r i p t e d f o r w o r k i n g i n f a c -

t o r i e s a n d 67,998 w e r e i n t h e c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , 26

E v e n i f t h e p o p u l a t i o n h a d m a i n t a i n e d i t s 1 0 2 1 l e v e l . o f

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2% m i l l i o n p e o p l c , t h e n u m b e r o f men w o r k i n g i n

o n e o r o t h c r o f t h e P a s h a ' s new p r u j e c t s i n t h e 1 8 3 D ' s w o u l d

h a v e b e e n e x c e s s i v e , b u t , t h o u g h s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h i s p e r i o d a r e

u n r e l i a b l e , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n f e l l t o b e t v ~ e e n 14-

ar id 2 m i l l i o n . 2 7 T h e c h o l e r a e p i d e m i c o f 1035, s a i d t o h a v e

k131ed ai i e a s t a t h i r d o f t h a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , was t h e m a j o r

s i n g l e f a c t o r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s . 2 8 I n z d d i t i o n , t h o u s a n d s

w e r e k i l l e d i n t h e F i r s t S y r i a n War a n d t h o u s a n d s m o r e d i e d

f r o m o t h e r d i s e a s e s a n d f a m i n e . 2 9 f f l o r e o v e r , t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s

2 6 ~ h i s f i g u r e r e p r e s e n t s t h e h i g h e s t n u m b e r o f p e r s o n n e l e m p l o y e d i n i n d u s t r y , T h e r e were w i d e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e n u m b e r o f f n d u s t r i a l w o r k c r s . T h e same i s a l s o t r u e f o r t h e o t h e r t w o c a t e g o r i e s . R i v l i n , o p , c i t . , p p . 1 9 9 a n d 2 0 9 .

2 7 ~ a r n o n t ~ s t i r n a t e d t l i a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n h a d f a l l - r ; t o l - L 1 2

m i l l i o n p e o p l ~ d u r i n g t h e m i d - e i g h t e e n t h i r t i e s , a n d o t h e r E u r o p e a n o b s e r v e r s i n c l u d i n g E d w a r d L a n e , A u g u s t S t . J o h n , J o h n B o v ~ r i n g a n d D u h a m e l r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e h a d b e e n a d r a m a t i c d e c l i n e i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e e i g h t e e n t h i r t i e s . C h a r l e s I s sawi , " E g y p t s i n c e 1 8 0 0 , " i n T h e J o u r n a l o f E c o n o m i c H i s t o g - , -

2 4 r X X I , No. 1 a arch, 1 9 6 1 ) , 6 a n d T o r n i c h e , o p . c i t . , p .

2 8 ~ e n g i n w r o t e of t h e p l a g u e i n 1 8 3 5 : " T h e p e o p l e , s u p e r - s t i t i o u s l i k e a l l i g n o r a n c e - b a s e d p e o p l e , b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p l a g u e c o m e s a s a r e s u l t o f a r a i n y w i n t e r . , , , A p u r p l e h o r i z o n b e f o r e s u n s e t a n d s u n r i s e i s i n t h e i r e y e s a c e r t a i n s i g n o f a p u b l i c c a l a m i t y - M u s l i m s , f a t a l i s t s b y p r i n c i p l e , d o n o t b e l i e v e i n c o n t a g i o n , . , , I f a p a r e n t d i e s o f t h e p l a g u e , t h e c h i l d r e n u s e h i s o r h e r c l o t h e s . " F e l i x M . M e n o i n . H i s t o i r e d e -- -

l e G o u v e r n e m e n t d e Mohammed-Al.y9 i 8 2 3 - 1 6 3 8 -- F a r i s , 46s?S--7~. B u b o n i c p l a g u e was n o t c o n t a g i o u s , t h o u g h

c o n t e m p o r a r y p h y s i c i a n s t h o u g h t t h a t i t was. ' T h e E g y p t i a n G o v e r n m e n t m a d e c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t s t o m a r n a g a i n s t c o n t a g i o n o f t h e p l a g u e , b u t t h e y made v i r t u a l l y n o i m p r e s s i o n o n t h e f e l - l a h i n ,

2 9 ~ o n c e r n i n g t h e m a n p o w e r s h o r t a g e , t h e F r e n c h e n g i n e e r L i n a n t d e S e l l f o n d s t o l d S e n i o r t h a t u ~ h e n h e Gas d i r e c t i n g t h e c o n s t r t ~ c t i o n o f a N i l e B a r r a g e d u r i n g t h e l a t e 1 8 3 0 ' s - w h i c h

c o n t d :

Page 53: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

o f E g y p t i a n s o l d i e r s w e r e i n f o r e i g n r e g i o n s a n d t h u s u n a b l e

t o p r o c r e a t e i n t h e i r olun c o u n t r y .

A p o l o g i s t s u f Muhammad A l i h a v e u ~ r i t t e n much p a n e g y r i c

c o n c e r n i n g t h e h i g h l e v e l o f m i l i t a r y a b i l i t y o f t h e E g y p t i a n

a r m y , o f . t e ! i f i n d i n g i t c o m p a r a b l e t o E u r o p e a n a r m i e s . Some o f

t h e s e a p o l o g i s t s s u f f e r e d f r o m l . a c k o f c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f u ~ h a t

c o n s t i t u t e s a n e f f e c t i v e a r m y . O t h e r s w e r e d e l i b e r a t e l y c x a g -

g e r a t i n g i n o r d e r t o g l o r i f y t h e w o r k t h e y t h e m s e l v e s h a d d o n e

i r i E g y p t , o r p o s s i b l y b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e p a i d t o d o s o b y Muhammad

A l i . T h o s e who w e r e i g n o r a n t o f w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a n e f f e c t i v e

a r m y , s e e m t o h a v e b a s e d t h e i r o p i n i o n s l a r g e l y o n h a v i n g wit-

n e s s e d E g y p t i a n s o l d i e r s o n p a r a d e , T h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s n o t a

v a l i d m e a n s o f a n a l y s i n g m i l i t a r y c f f e c t i v e n e s s , T h e r e is i n

f a c t n o d o u b t t h a t e v e n b y 1 8 4 0 t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y was s t i l l i n

t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n t r a d i t i o n a l a n d m o d e r n , On t h e b a s i s o f

e v i d e n c e f o u n d i n u ~ o r k s s t u d i e d f o r t h i s t h e s i s , t h e f o l l o w i n g

r e p o r t b y a F r e n c h o f f i c e r - w r i t t e n i n 1 8 3 1 - c r e d i b l y t y p i f i e s

t h e a c t u a l s t a t e o f t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y i n t h e 1 8 3 0 ' s :

s o m e r e g i m e n t s m a n o e u v r e , i f n o t w i t h p r e c i s i o n ,

e m p l o y e d 1 2 , 0 0 0 E g y p t i a n l a b o u r e r s - " t h e p l a g u e came, t h e S y r i a n War came, h a l f my w o r k p e o p l a d i e d , t h e r e s t were m a d e s o l d i e r s , a n d t h e b a r r a g e was s t o p p e d . " S e n i o r , o p e c i t , , v o l . I , p p . 5 3 - 5 4 , T h c f a c t t h a t t h e f e l l a h i n l i v e d o n g r o s s l y i n a d e q u a t e d i e t s , a c c o u n t s t o a l a r g e e x t e n t f o r t h e h i g h mor- t a l i t y r a t e d u r i n g d i s e a s e e p i d e m i c s , T h e i r d i e t c o n s i s t e d a l m o s t t o t z l l y o f d u r r a , a maize b r e a d . T h e y a t e l i t t l e m e a t # a n d c o n s u m e d f e w , i f a n y d a i r y p r o d u c t s . w . A . C l e l a n d , T h e .

P o p u l a t i o n Prob le r i i .i.n E q y p t anca caster, P e n n s y l v a n i a , 1 9 5 7 , p . 2 3 , C l o t gey, t h e d i r e c L o r a ? t h e m i l i t a r y m e d i c a l s e r v i c e , h a d much t r o u b l e i n g e t t i n g t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u i a t i o n t o a c c e p t v a c c i n a t i o n s , w h i c h h a d i n i t i a l l y b e e n u s e d i n E g y p t o n m i l i t a r y c o n s c r i p t s , T h e f e l l a h i n i m a g i n e d t h a t t h e y u e r e a m e a n s o f m a r k i n g c h i l d r e n f o r l a t e r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . ~ u d m a r d , op. c i t . , p. 230.

Page 54: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

a t l e a s t w i t h s o m e t o g e t h e r n e s s . B u t m i t h o u t a n y a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n t h e c o r p s , how c a n t h e y b y p e r s u a s i o n a l o n e o b t a i n t h a t m i l i t a r y b e h a v i o u r ( d i s c i p l i n z ) s o n e c e s s a r y snd s o d i f f i c u l t ? The e q u i p m e n t , r e j e c t s o f German a n d F r e n c h f a c t o r i e s , is s t i l l i n a w r e t c h e d s t a t e ; a l l s o r t s o f m o d e l s c a n b e s e e n h e r e , . , . A d d t o , . , , ( t h e s e ) v i c e s t h e l a c k o f c o n c e r n o f t h e c h i e f s , t h e i g n o r a n c e o f t h e o f f i c e r s p t h e ill w i l l o f t h e s o l d i e r s a n d o n e will h a v e a n e x a c t i d e a o f t h e E g y p t i a n i n f a n t r y . 3 0

I n a s i m i l a r v e i n , a f t e r i n s p e c t i n g g u n e m p l a c e m e n t s e s t a b -

l i s h e d b y E g y p t i a n m i l i t a r y e n g i n e e r s , Yates - a n E n g l i s h

t r a v e l l e r - w r o t e t h a t :

t h e 24 p o u n d e r g u n c a p r i a g e s a n d p l a t f o r m s a1.ong t h i s w a t e r - l i n e , a r e v e r y i l l c o n s t r u c t e d ; t h e l a t t e r a r e s o s c a n t y t h a t t h e y w o u l d p r o b a b l y f a l l . b a c k w a r d s a t t h e f i r s t s h o t , a n d k n o c k t h e i r otun i u h e e l s o f f ! T h e m o r t a r s t o o s i t o n a s a n d y f o u n d a t i o n , w h i c h i s s h a k e n a t e v e r y c h a r g e , when t h e men a r e e x e r c i s i n g ; a n d t h e r e i s , t h e r e f o r e , n o p o s s i b i l i t y o f t a k i n g a s u r e aim w i t h

T h o u g h t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y was i n a s t a t e o f f l u x , i t h a d

b y t h e 1 8 3 0 % u n d e r g o n e s u f f i c i e n t r e f o r m t o h a v e a p p r e c i a b l e

a d v a n t a g e s o v e r t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s o p p o n e n t s , m o s t o f U J ~ O ~

u s e d m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l w a r f a r e t e c h n i q u e s a n d a r m a m e n t s . I t

a p p e a r s , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e m a j o r r e a s o n f o r i t s m i l i t a r y

s u c c e s s e s was i t s n u m e r i c a l s u p r e m a c y o v e r o p p o s i n g f o r c e s ,

The m o b i l i z a t i o n o f a l a r g e s t a n d i n g a r m y was i n i t s e l f o f c o u r s e

a r e l a t i v e l y m o d e r n c o n c e p t , i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e M i d d l e E a s t b y

Muhammad A l i a n d h i s a d v i s o r s . 32

3 0 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : G e o r g e s D o u i n , La p r e m i G r e G u e r r e d e S y r i e ( C a i r o , 1 9 3 1 ) , v o l . I , p 1 : S i t u a t i o n d e l 'armee r o g u l i d r e 6 g y p t i e n n e p a r F e l i x - M a t h i e u d e F a v i e r s , l i e u t e n a n t a u 13e C h a s s i e u r s , 30 mai 1 8 3 1 .

31Yates, o p . c i t , , v o l , I , p . 4 3 0 .

3 2 ~ i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e s c o n s t a n t l y a c c o u n t e d f o r a n e x t r e m e l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e P a s h a ' s r e v e n u e . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e 1 8 3 3 - 1 8 3 4 f i s c a l p e r i o d t h e y a m o u n t s d t o 6 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e e n t i r e b u d g e t . T a m i c h e , o p , c i t . , p p . 2 5 3 - 2 5 4 .

Page 55: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

Chapter IV

T h e Navy: D e v e l o p m e n t a n d E f f e c t i v e n e s p - .-*

The n a v y , d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g Ruhamrnad AliQs a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,

was i n s o m e r e s p e c t s o n e o f t h e m o s t n o t a b l e a s p e c t s o f

i n d u c e d d e v e l o p r n o n t , P r i o r t o t h e 1 8 2 0 ' s E g y p t h a d n o t

e q u i p p e d a n a v y f o r s o m e centuries, O t h e r t h h n a few c o a s t a l

t r a d e r s , n o n e o f t h e m e x c e e d i n g 1 0 0 t o n s d i s p l a c e m e n t , s h e d i d

n o t e v e n p o s s e s s a m e r c h a n t f l e e t f r o m w h i c h e x p e r i e n c e d s e a m e n

c o u l d b e d r a w n . Manncd b y s a i l o r s w i t h no t r a d i t i o n o F t h e s ea ,

a n d w i t h c u r s o r y t r a i n i n g , i t is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e

n a v y Mas p l a g u e d w i t h p r o b l e m s d u r i n g i t s s h o r t e x i s t e n c e o f

t w o d e c a d e s .

T h e n a v a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e c o m m e n c e d i n 1821, t h e same

y e a r t h a t ~ k v e f i r s t t r a v e l 1 . e d t o U p p e r E g y p t w i t h h i s Mamluk

c a d e t s . T h e o f f i c e r t r a i n e e s c o n s i s t e d uP a s m a l l n u m b e r o f

y o u n g O t t o m a n s a n d Mamluks who h a d b e e n d r a w n f r o m s c h o o l s i n

C a i r o a n d s o m e " o l d T u r k e x - a r m y o f f i c e r s , ''A N a v a l i n s t r u c t i o n

was g i v o n b y a few F r e n c h m e n a n d I t a l i a n s . As w i t h t h e a r m y ,

t h e o f f i c e r c a d e t s p r o v e d t o b e p o o r s t u d e n t s . T h e i r c o u r s e

c o n s i s t e t i o f n a u t i c a l t r a i n i n g ' a n d l e s s o n s i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d

l i n e a l d r a w i n c ~ . ~ I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o f f i c e r c a d e t s , t h e r e wore

3 , 2 0 0 c o n s c r i p t e d r a t i n g s . T h e t r a i n i n g o f o F f i c e r s a n d r a t i n g s

t o o k . p l a c e a b o a r d f i v e o l d c o r v e t t e s p u r c h a s e d f r o m E u r o p e a n

' ~ o u i n , L I E q y p t e d e 1 8 2 8 h 1 8 3 0 , p . 1 9 9 : A p e r 5 u d e M o n s i e u r d e C e h o r n ,

2 ~ l a n a t , o p . c i t . , p . 1 7 0 .

Page 56: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

50

p o w e r s , 3

N a v a l r a t i n g s tuere c o n s c r i p t e d i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r a s

t h e i r a r m y c o ~ l n t e r ~ a r t s P But n a v a l s e r v i c e u:29 e v e n m o r e

u n p o p u l a r a m o n g E g y p t i a n s t h a n m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . Many men

d e s e r t e d e 5 F o r t h i s r e a s o n e a c h s a i l o r h a d a n a n c h o r o r f i s h

t a t t o o e d o n t h e b a c k o f h i s h a n d , o r o n h i s l e g o i n o r d e r t h a t

h e c o u l d e a s i l y b e i d e n t i f i e d . A s t h e r e %as n o s p e c i f i c a g e

l i m i t f o r c u n s c r i p t . ~ , a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f t h e m were

r e l a t i v a l y o l d . T h e s e f o u n d it e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o a d j u s t

t o t h e i r new m i l i e u , a n d t h e y were h a r d e r t o t r a i n t h a n y o u n g e r

men. 6

T h e n a v y w a s , f o r a n u m b e r o f y e a r s , g r o s s l y i n c o m p e t e n t ,

F o r e x a m p l e , when a c o n v o y o f 1 4 6 t r a n s p o r t v e s s e l s ( m a n y o f

t h e m o n l o a n f r o m o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , b u t p r i m a r i l y ~ u s t r i a ) a n d

51 w a r s h i p s s a i l e d f o r t h e M s r e a i n 1 8 2 4 - E g y p t h a v i n g j o i n e d

3 ~ h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e P a s h a w i s h e d h i s n a v y t o e m u l a t e t h o s e o f E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s i s r e f ' l e c t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g r e p o r t : "Whon t h o s a i l o r s c o m e t o s h o r e t h e y f a l l i n , r a n k a n d f i l e , a n d m a r c h a w a y t o t h o s o u n d o f t h e d r u m a n d f i f e , a n d many f a m i l i a r E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h a i r s : - " L i f e l e t u s c h e r i s h , " " M a l b r o o k , " " L e V a l i a n t T r o u b a d o r , " a n d t h e l i k e r e a c h e d my e a r , " Yates, o p e c i t . , v o l e I , p . 1 4 0 . --

l ~ e e p a g e s 39 - 4 0 f o r m i l i t a r y c o n s c r i p t i o n t e c h n i q u e s .

' ~ e n e r a l B o y e r m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e P a s h a h a d t o l d h i m t h a t h e Mas g o i n g t o i s s u e a n o r d e r w a r n i n g t h a t i f a n y member o f t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a c e was f o u n d t o b e a i d i n g a d e s e r t e r P rom t h e a r m y o r t h e n a v y , h e w o u l d b e h a n g e d , ~ o u i n , La m i s s i o n d u B a r o n d e - Boislccornn, p , 94.

6 ~ h s d i s c i p l i n e i n t h e n a v y was s e v e r e . F o r i n s t a n c e o n e c a p t a i n , c o n t r a r y t o s t a n d i n g o r d e r s , a t t e m p t e d t o b r i n g h i s s h i p i n t o A l e x a n d r i a h a r b o u r w i t h o u t t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f a p i l o t . His s h i p s t r u c k a r o c k a n d s a n k , He was e x e c u t e d . As f o r men i n , t h e r a n k s , t h e y w e r e b a s t i n a d o e d f o r t h e l e a s t i n f r a c t i o n . G u e m a r d , o p , c i t e , p , 2 1 1 .

Page 57: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

T u r k e y i n f i g h t i n g t h e G r e e k s s e e k i n g i n d e p e n d e n c e - s h e :

n a v i g a t e d w i t h o u t o r d e r , h e r b a t t e r i e s e n c u m b e r e d b y c l o t h i n g , c r a t e s a n d g o o d s . . , . S o m e s e c t i o n s o r t i l e c o n v o y r e m a i n e d e n t i r e l y w i t h o u t p r o t e c t i o n . T h e r e i s n o d o u b t t h a t s u r p r i s e d i n t h i s p o s i t i o n b y t h e C r e e k s q u a d r o n s , w h i c h were s o a g i l e a t m a n o e u v r i n g , s h e w o u l d h a v e s u f f e r e d c o n s i d e r a b l e l o s s e s .

A c c o r d i n g t o P l a n a t , w h e n e v e r a c o n v o y l e f t A l e x a n d r i a t h e

s l o w e r s h i p s w o u l d s o o n b e l e f t b y t h e m s e l v e s . T h e c o m m a n d e r s

o f t h e f a s t e r v e s s e l s - a w a r e o f t h e i n c o m p e t e n c e o f t h e i r

l i h o o d o f t h e i r s h i p s b e i n g a t t a c k e d b y G r e e k r a i d e r s e 8 T h e

g e n e r a l l o w s t a n d a r d o f s o a m a n s h i p is i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e f a c t

t h a t a s h i p s e l d o m e n t e r e d p o r t u ~ i t h o u t r a m m i n g i n t o a p i e r o r

w h a r f . 9

ransl slated f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , Les p r c m i $ r e ~ T t e s .-- ddc Mohamed A l y , 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 2 7 , p p . 1 - 2 . P l a n a t s a i d o f - & l a t e r c o n v o y b o u n d f o r t h e M o r e a , u h i c h h a d i n i t 4 0 t r a n s n o r t v e s s e l s c a r r y i n g r e l i e f m i l i t a r y u n i t s a n d s u p p l i e s f b r I b r a h i m P a s h a ' s I . - - - L L U U P S ~ wile were b e s i e g i n g r u i i s s o i o n g h i : " t e n h a v e b e e n t a k e n b y t h e G r e e k s , , . . t h e s e s h i p s were E u r o p e a n , t h i s h a s c a u s e d many c o m p l a i n t s . " T r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : P l a n a t , o p . c i t . , p. 1 1 0 ,

8 ~ h i d ., p . 6 3 . G e n e r a l B o y e r s a i d t h a t t h e G r e e k n a v y , w h i c h i t was e s t i m a t e d c o n s i s t e d o f 7 0 - 8 0 a r m e d m e r c h a n t b r i g s : "is mistress o f t h e s o a , t h a t t h e T u r c o - E g y p t i a n ( n a v y ) i s o n l y s e c u r e i n p o r t s p r o t e c t e d by f o r t r e s s c a n n o n s ; t h a t t h e v i g i l a n c e a n d q u i c k n e s s o f t h e i n s u r g e n t s ' n a v y is s u c h t h a t t h e y t a k e a w a y a l l t h e m u n i t i o n s f r o m t h e P a s h a ' s f l e e t a n d a r m v . " T r a n s - l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , Une M i s s i o n m i l i t a i r e f r a n - a i s e a u p r e \ s d e Mohamed A l y , p . 1 1 1 : B o y e r a B e l l i a r d , C a i r o , 1 0 mzrs 1 8 2 6 ,

\

9 ~ a t t a u i , o p . c i t . . t o m e 11, p a r t 1 , p . 91: D u h a m e l a N e s s l e r o d e , A l e x a n d r i e , l e 2 5 mai 1 8 3 4 , P l a n a t w r o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c e r n i n g a n o m a l o u s c o n d i t i o n s a b o a r d E g y p t i a n s h i p s : " T h e e x h a l a t i o n s f r o m t h e h o l d s c o u l d d e s t r o y a w h o l e crew, a n d t h e p i l e s o f f i l t h r o t t e d t h e w o o d . T h e p r o j e c t i l e s o f a l l c a l i b r e s t h r o w n a t r a n d o m h a d n o f i x e d d e s t i n a t i o n ; c a n n o n s o f c a s t - i r o n w o r e f o u n d b u r i e d u n d e r t h e b a l l a s t o f s e v e r a l s h i p s . " T r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : P l a n a t , o p . c i t e , p p . 1 6 8 - 1 6 9 , d a t e d M a r c h 1 8 . 1827.

Page 58: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

S i n c e t h e r e was o n l y a l i m i t e d s u p p l y o f o f f i c e r g v a d u a t o s ,

e v e n t h e m o s t i n c o m p e t e n t o f t h e m r a p i d l y g a i n e d r e s p o n s i b l e

p o s i t i o n s . A f u r t h e r c r u c i a l p r o b l e m was t h a t , a h i l e i n

t r a i n i n g , t h e o f f i c e r c a d e t s r e c e i v e d l i t t l e p r a c t i c a l

e ~ p e r i e n c e ~ a t s e a , When c o m m i s s i o n e d t h e y e v e n l a c k e d know-

l e d g e i n s u c h e l e m e n t a r y ma t t e r s a s e s t i m a t i n g t h e s t r e n g t h

o f t h e w i n d a n d t h e a m o u n t o f s a i l t o c a r r y . I t was r e p o r t e d

t h a t E g y p t i a n s h i p s s u f f e r e d c o n s i d e r a b l e d a m a g e d u e t o c a r e -

l e s s n e s s o r i g n o r a n c e o n t h e p a r t o f t h e i r o f f i c e r s . l l T h e

f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e f l e e t r e f i t t i n g d u r i n g t h e S e c o n d

S y r i s n War i l l u s t r a t e s t h e g r o s s n e g l i g e n c e a n d d i s o r q a n i z a t i o n

t h a t s t i l l - a t t h a t l a t e d a t e - p e r v a d e d t h e E g y p t i a n Navy: --- --

\ t h e b a l l s were f o u n d t o b e t o o b i g f o r t h e c a n n o n s ! Some o f t h e s h i p s w e r e t h e n s e r v e d f o u r t imes b y t h e s t o r e k e e p e r b e f o r e h e c o u l d h i t t h e p r o p e r c a l i b r e ,

" ' T i s n o t my f a u l t , " s a i d t h e c a p t a i n , " I s e n t a n o r d e r f o r s o many r o u n d s f o r my s h i p , T h o s e f e l l o w s i n t h e a r s e n a l o u g h t t o know t h e s i z e of t h e g u n s t h e y p u t i n h e r , "

* t ; t e S iis f a u l t o f m i n e , " s a i d t h o s t o r e k e e p e r ,

" I s e n t a l l t h e c a r t r i d g e s t h e y a s k e d f o r ; a n d t h e y m i g h t h a v e t r i e d t h e m a n d s e n t t h e m a11 b a c k a g a i n a t o n c e , i f t h e y were n o t t o o l a z y . 1 t 1 2

I n i t i a l l y , a l l E g y p t i a n n a v a l v , e s s e l s were f o r e i g n b u i l t .

A p a r t f r o m t h e t r a i n i n g v e s s e l s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , t h e f l e e t

c o n s i s t e d i n F e b r u a r y , 1 8 2 2 o f " t h r e e v e s s e l s ( o r r a t h e r l a r g e

f r i g a t e s ) o f 64, n i n e c o r v e t t e s , f o u r b r i g s , t h r e e s c h o o n e r s ,

I 0 " ~ h e o f f i c e r s a r e m o r e i g n o r a n t t h a n t h e r a t i n g s ; t h e P a s h a d e s i r e s v e r y much t o a t t r a c t E u r o p e a n o f f i c e r s i n t o h i s s e r v i c e . " T r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , La p r e m i e r e G u e r r e d e S y r i e , v o l e I , p. 266: La c a p i t a i n e A u b r y - B a i l l e u l comman- d a n t l a L a m p o i e a u c o n t r e - a m i r a l H u g o n , N a u p l i e , 1 8 j u i l l e t 1 8 3 2 .

1 2 ~ a t e s , o p . c i t . , v o l . I , p . 4 3 1 .

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53

t h r e e g o r ? l l e t t e s a n d s i x f i r e h o a t s . " 1 3 I n e a r l y 1 8 2 4 ,

i n o r d e r t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y s t r e n g t h e n h i s f l e e t f o r s e r v i c e ,

a g a i n s t t h e G r e e k s i n t h e i r Wnr o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , Muhammad A l i

c o m m i s s i o n e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o m e new w a r s h i p s . F o u r

f r i g a t e s were t o b e b u i l t i n I t a l y a t V e n i c e , L i v o r n o , G e n o a

a n d T r i e s t c . N e g o t i a t i o n s i u e r e h e l d f o r s im i l a r s h i p s t o b e

c o n s t r u c t e d i n E n g l a n d , b u t b e c a u s e o f s t r o n g p u b l i c s y m p a t

t h e r e f o r Greece, t h e g o v e r n m e n t u l t i m a t e l y d e n i e d E g y p t i a n

T h e r e was a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e p a p u l a r s u p p o r t f o r G r e e c e

~ r a n c e . 1 N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h i s , t h e F r e r l c h G o v e r n m e n t s e c r e t l y

1 3 ~ r a n s l a t e d From F r e n c h : ~ u g r n a r d , o p e c i t e , p p . 21 0 - 2 1 1 .

1 4 ~ a m u e l B r i g g s , a B r i t i s h m e r c h a n t i n E g y p t , a n d a c o n f i d a n t o f Muhammad A l i , h a d p e r s u a d e d t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t , i n 1 8 2 1 , t o p e r m i t t h e E g y p t i a n w a r s h i p D i a n a t o b e c o p p e r e d i n E n g l a n d , E g y p t l a c k e d t h e f a c i l i t i e s f o r c a r r y i n g o u t t h i s o p e r a t i o n , F u r t h e r m a r e , h e r e q u e s t e d t h a t t h e D i a n a b e e q u i p p e d w i t h modern a r m a m e n t s , S i n c e E q y p i Lvas a p r u v i n c e o f t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e , a n d T u r k e y w a s i n v o l v e d i n t h e G r e e k War o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , t h i s r e q u e s t was d e n i e d , H o ~ u e v e r , B r i g g s was " p r i v a t e l y i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e D i a n a m i g h t l e a v e t h e d o c k s a s a m e r c h a n t v e s s e l w i t h o u t arms" - t h o u g h e v i d e n t l y w i t h n o o t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n s a s t o i t s e q u i p m e n t - " a n d m i g h t s a i l f o r G i b r a l t a r o r T u n i s , w h e r e i t c o u l d p i c k u p a r e g u l a r E g y p t i a n c r e w , " T h e D i a n a , a f t e r b e i n g c o p p e r e d , s a i l e d f o r E g y p t i n S e p t e m b e r , 1 8 2 2 . E n - r o u t e s h e s t o p p e d a t A l g i e r s , w h e r e s h e r e c e i v e d E n g l i s h g u n s o n b o a r d , s p e c i a l l y s e n t From E n g l a n d o n a B r i t i s h b r i g . T h e B r i g g s Company p a i d f o r t h e e x p e n s e s o f t h e r e p a i r s a n d e q u i p - m e n t w i t h c o t t o n a n d l i n s e e d . F .S . R o d k e y , " T h e A t t c m p t o f B r i g g s & Co, t o g u i d e B r i t i s h P o l i c y i n t h e L e v a n t i n t h e I n t e r e s t o f Mehemct A l i P a s h a , l 8 2 l - ' ? 8 4 ' l 9 " i n J o u r n a l o f M o d e r n H i s t o r y , V, No. 3 ( S e p t e n i b e r , 1 9 3 3 ) , 326-327 .

1 5 E 3 r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h p h i l h o l l e n i s m a t t h i s t i m e w a s l a r g e l y b a s e d o n : r e l i g i o u s s y m p a t h y f o r C h r i s t i a n s f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t M o s l e m s , " p o l i t i c e l s y m p a t h y w i t h t h e n z t i o n a 2 i s m w h i c h t h e G r e e k s a p p e a r e d ( i n many w a y s m i s l e a d i n g l y ) t o r e p r e s e n t : ( a n d ) r e v e r e n c e f o r C l a s s i c a l G r e e c e , w h o s e h e i r s t h e G r e e k s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w e r e a s s u a e d t o b e . " M.A. A n d e r s o n , The E a s t e r n Q u e s t i o n (New York , 1 9 6 6 ) ~ p . 57.

Page 60: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s a n c t i o n e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h r e e E g y p t i a n w a r s h i p s a n d

a w a r d e d t h e c o n t r a c t t o a p r i v a t e c o m p a n y i n Marse i l l e s , An /

e n g i n e e r i n g o f f i c e r f r o m t h e F r e n c h n a v y , Lef 'ebvre d e C e r i s y - who l a t e r g a i n a d f a m e i n o r g z n i z i r i g n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n i n

A l e x a n d r i a - was g i v e n i n d e f i n i t e l e a v e b y t h e F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t

i n o r d e r t o s u p e r v i s e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k . tie w a s a u t h o r i z e d

t o d r a u ~ a n y t h i n g h e n e e d e d f r o m t h e n a v a l s t o r a s a t T o u l o n , I

P l e a s e d w i t h t h e ~ o r k t a k i n g p l a c e i n F r a n c e , Muhammad fili

,. 4 c; ~ i d e i s d a I u r i h o r w a r s h i p t o b e c e n s t r u c t ~ d t h e r e . ' "

1 I I

U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r t h e P a s h a , t h e d e s t i n a t i o n s f t h e s h i p s

u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n l e a k e d o u t , T h e r e were b i t t e r o u t b u r s t s o f C

cr i t ic ism b y p h i l h e l l e n e s a m o n g t h e p r e s s a n d p u b l i c a g a i n s t t I

G o v e r n m e n t ' s c o m p l i c i t y , A t t e m p t s were m a d e b y p h i l h e l l e n l e

g r o u p s t o d e s t r o y t h e s h i p s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d a r c w a r d o f

1 5 0 , 0 0 0 f r a n c s mas o f f e r e d by t h e m f o r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h o \

f r i g a t e l a G u e r r i e r e . l 7 Due t o p u b l i c a n d p r e s s c r i t ic isn , , t h e

G o v e r n m e n t m a d e t o k e n p o l i c y a m e n d m c n t s . T h e y r e s c i n d e d cgrisy 's ,m

in

Ill a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o d r a w e q u i p m e n t f r o m T o u l o n a n d it was d e c r e e d

t h a t t h e v e s s a l s w o u l d l e a v e F r a n c e u n a r m e d ( a p p a r e n t l y t h e y w o r e

f i t t e d w i t h g u n s i n I t a l y , b u t it i s n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e s e w o r e

I 6 ~ l s a d u r i n g 1 8 2 4 , o r d e r s were a c c e p t e d i n F r a n c e f o r t h s c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f i v e smal le r s h i p s : f o u r b r i g a n t i n e s a n d a c a r v e t t e . T h a F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t , d u e t o t h e r i s i n g w a v e o f p r o - G r e e k s e n t i m e n t i n F r a n c e , w i s h e d t o a p p e a r n e u t r a l c o n c e r n i n g t h e G r e e k Nar sf I n d e p e n d e n c e . T h u s i t r e f u s e d t o p e r m i t t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e s e s h i p s i n e s t a b l i s h m e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e F r e n c h Navy, b u t i t d i d n o t h i n g t o p r e v o w t p r i v a t e c o n t r a c t o r s f r o m b u i l d i n g t h e m o n t h e i r owJn p r e m i s e s , T h e G o v e r n m e n t d e c r e e d , h o u ~ e v e r , t h a t t h e s h i p s w o u l d n o t b e a r a n y p l a q u e s a n n o u n c i n g t h e p l a c e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h a t t h e y w o 3 l d n o t b e a r m e d w h i l e i n F r e n c h waters . D o u i n , L e s p r e r n i 2 r e s F r e q a t e s d e Muharned A l y , 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 2 7 ( C a i r o , 1 9 2 6 ) , pp. 21-33 a n d 65 ,

l 7 1 b i d * P P a 62.

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55

o f F r e n c h o r I t a l i a n m a n u f a c t u r e ) . Tha c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e

v e s s e l s was a c c e l e r a t e d , a n d s e c u r i t y p r e c a u t i o n s were s i g n i f -

i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d . T h e s h i p na ined , i r o n i c a l l y , La S p a r t i a t e , ---

was l a u n c h e d b e f o r e b e i n g c o m p l e t e d , f o r i t was f e a r e d t h a t

s a b o t e u r s u ~ o u l d s o o n b e s u c c e s s f i ~ l i n t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o d c s t r o y \

i t , La S p a r t i a t e , l e G u e r r i e r e , - - l V A m a z o n e a n d l e C r o c o d i l e

a r r i v e d i n E g y p t d u r i n g t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1 0 2 7 . S e v e r a l F r e n c h

n a v a l o f f i c e r s a n d t e c h n i c i a n s a b o a r d t h e m r e m a i n e d i n E g y p t

i n t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e P a s h a ,

T h e p h i l h e l l e n i c u n r e s t i n F r a n c e a n d t h e r e f u s a l o f

t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t t o p e r m i t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f E g y p t i a n

w a r s h i p s i n E n g l a n d i n f l u e n c e d Muhammad A l i i n t o d e c i d i n g ,

i n t h e l a t e 1 8 2 0 ' s , t o e s t a b l i s l ~ e x t e n s i v e s h i p b u i l d i n g

f a c i l i t i e s i n A l e x a n d r i a . A f u r t h e r i n d u c e m e n t f o r t h i s

d e c i s i o n was t h e f a c t t h a t t h e P a s h a was f l a g r a n t l y o v e r c h a r g e d

f o r v a r i o u s o f t h e f o r e i g n b u i l t s h i p s h e p u r c h a s e d , a s i s

e v i d e n t i n t h e f o l l o v ~ i n g r e p o r t :

He h a d b o a t s b u i l t a t Marse i l l e s , B o r d e a u x , L e g h o r n , G e n o a a n d a s f a r a w a y a s A r c h a n g e l , n o t o n l y was h e m a d e t o p a y a t h i r d m o r e t h a n t h e y w e r e w o r t h , b u t t h e y s e r e m a d e f r o m i n f e r i o r m a t e r i a l s e . . e 1 9 7 0 0 , 0 U 0 f r a n c s was p a i d f o r t h e m o s t r e c e n t s h i p , i t w o u l d o n l y h a v e b e e n w o r t h 1 , 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 F r a n c s b u i l t o f g o o d wood, i t w i l l b e r o t t e n w i t h i n a f e w m o n t h s a n d w i l l h a v e t o b e t a k e n o u t o f s e r v i c e , 1 8

Yet Muhammad A l i t o o k g r e a t p r i d e i n h i s f o r e i g n b u i l t f l e e t ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t s u r p a s s e d a n y o t h e r f l e e t o f

t h e I s lami2 W o r l d i n i t s m o d e r n i t y . T h e s e p o i n t s a r e c l e a r l y

I 8 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , La M i s s i o n d u B a r o n d e B o i s l e c o r n t e , p , t18: Le B a r o n d e B o i s l e c a m t e a u M i n i s t r e , A l e x a n d r i e , 3 j u i l l e t 1833,

Page 62: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g l e t t a r o f t h e P a s h a t o h i s s o n

I b r a h i m - w r i t t e n a s t h e E g y p t i a n f l e e t p r o p a r e d t o e m b a r k f o r

Cre te , s h o r t l y p r i o r t o t h e B a t t l e o f N a v a r i n o :

My s o n , we a r e , w i t h G o d ' s h e l p , i n p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e m o s t b e a u t i f u l f l e e t t h a t h a s e v e n b e e n s e e n i n Islam. I t a n s w e r s a l l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a s f a r a s s p ~ e d , g o o d o r d e r a n d d i s c i p l i n e a r e c o n c e r n e d . I t i s n o l o n g e r t h e f l e e t t h a t y o u k n e w a s h o r t t ime a g o : i t i s noLu a b r i l l i a n t f l e o t , c o m p l e t e l y m o d e r n , n o b o d y i n t h e M u s l i m w o r l d h a s u p t o now p o s s e s s e d i t s e q u a l . You w i l l s e e , . . . t h a t t h e f i v e s h i p s w h i c h h a v e b e e n b u i l t i n G e n o a . . . . a r e v a s t l y s u p e r i o r t o t h e T u n i s i a n f r i y t p t h a t ycu k~a::. Thz F r i 9 ~ t : ~ , g r c h ~ d - f - ~ : ~ h a S I_ ( l a ~ u a r r i b r e ) , w h i c h h a s a r r i v e d f r o m ~ a r s e i l l ~ s , d o e s n o t c e d e a n y t h i n g i n t h e p o i n t o f v i e u ~ o f s a i l i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n , o r i n a n y o t h e r r e g a r d t o t h e A u s t r i a n c o m m a n d e r ' s f r i g a t e . I t i s a l s o s a i d t h a t t h e t w o f r i g a t e s ~ u h i c h w i l l a r r i v e a n d w i l l b e s e n t t o y o u l a t e r a r e e v e n b a t t e r t h a n t h e ~ u r c h i d - i - ~ . j i h a d . l ~

Muhammad Alivs h i g h a m b i t i o n f o r t h e n a v y i s r e v e a l e d i n

h i s f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t t o G e n e r a l B o y e r :

I am v e r y a m b i t i o u s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r my n a v y , a n d if God l e t s me l i v e a n o t h e r t w e n t y y e a r s I h o p e t h a t t h e c i v i l i z e d w o r l d w i l l h a v e a d d e d a n o t h e r mari t ime p o w e r ( n a m e l y E g y p t ) w h i c h w i l l n o t o v e n b e i n f a i o r t o E n g l a n d , whom c o n s e q u e n t l y I s h a l l n o t f e a r , ~6

T h i s a s p i r a t i o n was m o m e n t a r i l y c r u s h e d , h o w e v e r , when t h e

f l e e t , w h i c h h a d b e e n a c c u m u l a t e d a t g r e a t e x p e n s e , was a l m o s t

t o t a l l y d e s t r o y e d a t t h e B a t t l e o f N a v a r i n o i n O c t o b e r g 1 8 2 7 .

O f t h e s e v e n t y - f i v e s h i p s o f t h e T u r c o - E g y p t i a n f l e e t t h a t

p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e B a t t l e ( t w o b a t t l e s h i p s o f 75 g u n s , t h e

r e m a i n d e r b e i n g f r i g a t e s , c o r v e t t e s , b r i g s a n d t r a n s p o r t v e s s e l s :

\ 1 9 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , Les p r e m i e r e s ~ r Q ~ a t e s d e

Nohamed A l y , 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 2 7 , p . 9 6 . - 2 0 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , Une M i s s i o n m i l i t a i r e

f r a n c a i s e , p. 111: B o y e r a B e l l i a r d , C a i r o , 1 0 mars 1826, ---

Page 63: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

t h r e e F r i g a t e s a n d a b r i g t h a t were p r e s e n t wore o f t h c A l g e r i a n

~ a v y ) , ' s i x t y w e r e s u n k , m o s t OF t h e r e m a i n d e r s e v e r e l y damaged ,

a n d 9 , 0 0 0 men w e r e k i l l e d e 2 I

N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h i s immense s e t b a c k , t h e Pasha q u i c k l y

r e c o v e r e d h i s c o n f i d e n c e . P r e p a r a t i o n s were s o o n a f o o t f o r

b u i l d i n g w a r s h i p s i n A l e x a n d r i a , I n 1 8 2 9 L e f e b v r e d e ~ 6 r i s y

was h i r e d t o o r g a n i z e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d o p e r a t i o n o f t h i s

u n d e r t a k i n g , A l s o , some F r e n c h , I t a l i z n a n d M a l t e s e s h f p -

b u i i a i n g a r t i s a n s were h i r e d t o t e a c h a n d s u p e r v i s e c o n s c r i p t e d

E g y p t i a n w o r k e r s , 22 A s h i p y a r d , a f o u n d r y , a r o p e f a c t o r y a n d

o t h e r w o r k s h o p s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e b u i l d i n g a n d F i t t i n g OF war-

s h i p s were c o n s t r u c t e d a n d e q u i p p e d . O n l y t h e F i n e r n a u t i c a l

i n s t r u m e n t s , b r a s s n a i l s a n d s o m e c a n n o n s were i m p o r t e d ,

D u r i n g e a r l y 1831 t h e f i r s t E g y p t i a n b u i l t 1 1 0 - g u n b a t t l e s h i p

was l a u n c h e d , 23

T h e m a j o r p r o b l e m i n s h i p b u i l d i n g , ms t h a t t h e r e ...

t o t a l l a c k of n a t i v e a r t i s a n s w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e s k i l l s , > -

P,.

L ' ~ l a n a t , o p . c i t , , p. 2 3 3 . P r o k e s c h , a n A u s t r i a n Gove rn - m e n t o f f i c i a l r e o o r t e d t h a t 2 8 E a v o t i a n w a r s h i o s a c t u a l l v t o o k p a r t i n t h e 0 a t t i e : 3 f r i g a t e s , 6 ' c o r v e t t e s , 4 ' b r i g s , 3 h o e l e t t e s , 3 s c h o o n ~ r s a n d 6 f i r e - s h i p s , I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e Mere some E g y p t i a n t r a n s p o r t v e s s e l s ' p r e s e n t . R e p o r t e d i n ~ u g m a r d , ;lee clt; - . p I T w e l v e o f t h e E g y p t i a n s h i p s a t N a v a r i n o were commanded b y F r e n c h c a p t a i n s who i n c l u d e d : L e t e l l i e r , Bompar, C h a b e r t , R e y n i e r , l e D e n t u , d 1 I s n a r d 9 M a t o i r e , B r i a n , i'$aFCre, a n d L u c i a n i , G a b r i e l H a n o t a u x , H i s t o i r e d e l a N a t i o n e q y p t i e n n e ( p a r i s , 1 9 4 0 ) ~ tome V 1 9 p. 82,

2 2 ~ o w r i n g 9 o p . c i t . , p . 67.

2 3 " ~ u h a m m a d A l i p a s s e d a g r e a t d e a l o f h i s t ime a t t h e a r s e n a l a t A l e x a n d r i a , a n d c a u s e d f o u r f r i g a t e s and s e v e r a l small v e s s e l s t o b e b u i l : i n r a p i d s u c c e s s i o n , u n d e r t h e s u p e r - i n t e n d e n c e o f M o n s i e u r C e r i s y , Two s h i p s o f t h e l i n e were t h e n l a i d down, a n d h i s f i r s t t h r e e - d e c k e r o f 1 1 0 g u n s was l a u n c h e d o n t h e 3 r d o f J a n u a r y , 1 8 3 1 , " Yates, o p , c i t , , v o l , I , p . 4 2 0 .

Page 64: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

t h u s h a d Lo u s e u n s k i . l l e d p e r s o n n e l , He d e s p a i r e d o v e r t h i s \.----*-.-- . . _ .

s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , a n d c o n f i d e d t o D r o v e t t i , i n J u l y , 1 8 2 9 , ___I- - - -- t h a t h e m u s t g e t m o r e E u r o p e a n f a r e m e n i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e ._- - - -.- i n c r e a s e d g u i d a n c e __1_------ - -

f o r t h e u ~ o r k r n e n . B o u ~ r i n g g r a p h i c a l l y

d e s c r i b e d t h e i n e p t n e s s o f t h e E g y p t i a n w o r k e r s a t t h e

A l e x a n d r i a A r s e n a l t h u s :

G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , a m o n g t h e A r a b s , t h e r e i s t h e g r e s t u s t i n a t t e n t i o n t o t h e b u s i n e s s o n w h i c h t h e y a r e e n g a g e d . A man who s t r i k e s a b l o u ~ w i t h a hammer s e l d o m l o o k s t o w h e r e t h c i n s t r u m e n t f a l l s , A c a r p e n t e r ~ i t h a c h i s e l o r p l a n e , t a k e s n o t r o u b l e t o w a t c h w h a t h i s t o o l i s d o i n g . T h e r e i s l i t t l e r e g a r d t o l i n e s o r a n g l e s . I f a n a i l i s d r i v e n , n o t r o u b l e i s t a k e n t o a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r i t i t o o l a r g e o r t o o sma l l f o r t h e p u r p o s e s p r o p o s e d . $4.

I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t a t t h e t ime t h a t t h e a b o v e was w r i t t e n - t h e l a t e 1830 ' s - f e w E u r o p e a n f o r e m e n w e r e e m p l o y e d a t t h e

A r s e n a l , d u e t o e c o n o m y m e a s u r e s b y t h e P a s h a . M o r e o v e r ,

C e r i s y h a d r e t u r n e d t o F r a n c e b e c a u s e o f f r i c t i u j n w i t h O t t o m a n

m e m b e r s o f t h e A r s e n a l ' s b u r e a u c r a c y , who h a d g r e a t l y r e s e n t e d

h i s d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n . 2 5 A f t e r c6r i sy ' s resignation, t h e r e was

a d e c l i n e i n w o r k m a n s h i p a n d o u t p u t a t . t h e A r s e n a l ,

T h e m a j o r ma te r i a l s r e q u i r e d f o r s h i p b u i l d i n g , w~ood , i r o n

a n d c o p p e r , h a d t o b e i m p o r t e d . T h c P a s h a was a b l e t o a c q u i r e

wood c h e a p l y f r o m S y r i a a f t e r h e h a d g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h a t ,

c o u n t r y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e w o o d c u t t e r s h e s e n t t h e r e were

2 4 ~ o w r i n g , o p . c i t . , p. 5 6 .

2 5 ~ g r o u p o f I t a l i a n s , who h a d s o m e i n f l u r ? n , c e a m o n g k e y O t t o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , a t t e m p t e d t o o b s t r u c t C e r i s y ' s p r o j e c t s w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e , d u e t o t t e i r j e a l o u s y o f h i s p o p u l a r i t y w i t h t h e P a s h a . D o u i n , La p r e m i e r e G u e r r e d e S y r i e , v o l , I , p . 5: Mimaut k S e b a s t i a r l i , l e C a i r e , 8 mars 1 8 3 1 .

Page 65: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

i n e x p e r i e n c e d a n d d i d n o t know how t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n

s u i t a b l e a n d u n s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l , C o n s e q u e n L l y , much p o o r

q u a l i t y wood w a s u s e d a t t h e A r s e n a l . In a d d i t i o n , b e c a u s e

t h e P a s h a was c o n s t a n t l y i n a h u r r y t o h a v e new s h i p s c o m p l e t e d ,

much wood was u s e d t h a t w a s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y d r i c d o u t . 2 6 T h o u g h

i t was n o t p o s s i h l e t o t r a c e a n y o f t h e s h i p s q s e r v i c e r e c o r d s ,

i t c a n b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e y d i d n o t r e m a i n i n s e r v i c e a s l o n g

a s t h e y m i g h t h a v e d o n e , d u e t o t h e i r h a s t y c o n s t r u c t i o n , w i t h

f a u l t y m a t e r i a l s , b y i n e p t w o r k m e n . 27 T h e f o l l o u ~ i n g r e p o r t b y

t h e F r e n c h C a p t a i n O F t h e E g y p t i a n c o r v e t t e --.em B r u a t i l l u s t r a t e s

s o m e f a u l t s o f s h i p s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n . C e r i s y was t h e

D i rec to r o f t h e A r s e n a l when t h e r e p o r t was w r i k t e n :

O t h e r t h a n t h e 7 4 g u n n e d v e s s e l , a l l h a v e a f a u l t y s j - d e . T h e t h r e e d e c k e r h a s e i g h t i n c h e s m o r e beam o n o n e s i d e t h a n t h e o t h e r , a n d h e r bow o n o n e s i d e f a l l s 11 i n c h e s . . , . I t i s , m e a n w h i l e , v e r y h i g h i n t h e w a t e r b e c a u s e t h e g u n b a t t e r i e s h a v e b e e n r a i s e d t o o much . T h e P a s h a i n t e n d e d t o h a v e i t c u t down a n d was q u i t e r e s o l v e d i n t h i s ma t t e r , t h e p i l o t s d e s i r e d t h a t t h e ~ a t e r l i n e s h o u l d r 1 0 t r i s e b a y o n d 22 f e e t , T h i s v e s s e i is e n d a n g e r e d i f i t r u n s i n t o b a d w e a t h e r o n i t s d e p a r t u r e .

\ 2 6 ~ a t t a u i , o p . c i t . , t o m e 11, p a r t 2 , p . 4 7 2 : D u h a m e l a

N e s s l e r o d e , A l e x a n d r i e , l e 2 o c t o b r e 1 8 3 7 . M o u g i l B e y , a n e n g i n e e r , r e l a t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c e r n i n g t h e P a s h a ' s c o n s t a n t h a s t e t o c o m p l e t e p r o j e c t s : "Mehmet A l i was a l w a y s i n a h u r r y . IF I t o l d h i m t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r w o r k c o u l d b e e f f e c t e d b y 6 0 , 0 0 0 men i n t e n u ~ e e k s , h e w o u l d o f f e r me 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 men a n d r e q u i r e i t c o m p l e t e d i n a w e e k .

I h a d a l w a y s t o e x p l s i n t o h i m t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f men who c a n b e c o n v e n i e n t l y d i s p o s e d , s o a s n o t t o i n t e r f e r e u ~ i t h o n e a n o t h e r , a n d c a n b e s u f f i c i e n t l y s u p e r i n t e n d e d , i s l i m i t e d . He n e v e r was q u i t e c o n v i n c e d o f t h a t , He n e v e r c o u l d c o m p r e h e n d why 4 , 0 0 0 men c o u l d n o t d o i n a week w h a t 1 , 0 0 0 men c o u l d d o i n a m o n t h . " S e n i o r p o p . c i t . , v o l . I , p . 1 2 5 .

2 7 ~ e r d i n a n d d e L e s s e p s t o l d Wil l iam S e n i o r t h a t h e h a d w a r n e d Muhammad A l i t h a t a f l e e t " b u i l t . . . . o f u n s e a s o n e d wood a n d b y u n p r a c t i c e d work-men w o u l d n o t l a s t s i x m o n t h s , " S e n i o r , o p . c i t . , v o l e I , p p . 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 .

Page 66: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

T h e r e i s a n o t h e r v e s s e l u h i c h n e e d s 4 0 t o n s m o r e b a l a s t o n o n e s i d e t h a n t h e o t h e r i n o r d e r t o k e e p u f i r i g h t . 28

By t h e l a t e 1 8 3 0 q s , t h e P a s h a p o s s e s s e d a n i m p r e s s i v e l y

l a r g e f l e e t , Q e s p i t e i t s many f a u l t s , i t was l a r g e r a n d m o r e

m o d e r n t h a n a n y o t h e r f l e e t i n Islain. . I n J u l y , 1 8 3 9 , i t

c o n s i s t e d o f 9 b a t t l e s h i p s o f 1 0 0 a r m o r e g u n s , 2 o f 8 0 g u n s ,

4 f r i g a t e s o f 6 0 o r m o r e g u n s a n d o n e o f 54 g u n s , 5 c o r v e t t e s ,

6 b r i g s , 2 c u t t e r s a n d 3 ~ t e a m s h i p s . ~ 9 Many o f t h e s e h a d b e e n

b u i l t i n E g y p t , w h i l e t h e r e m a i n d e r h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d f r o m

E u r o p e a n p o w e r s . 3 0 T h e b a t t l e s h i p s c a r r i e d crews o f f r o m

1 , 0 0 0 t o 1 , 2 0 0 menp t h e f r i g a t e s f r o m 5 0 0 t o 7 0 0 , t h e c o r v e t t e s

f r o m 2 5 0 t o 3 0 0 , t h e b r i g s 1 5 0 t o 2 0 0 , a n d t h e c u t t e r s 1 0 0 ,

T h e n a v y o b v i o u s l y p l a c e d a g r e a t s t r a i n , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h a t

c a u s e d by t h e a r m y , o n t h e T r e a s u r y , I t was s t i p u l a t e d i n t h e

p e a c e terms f o l l o w i n g t h e S e c o n d S y r i a n War, h o u ~ e v e r ~ t h a t

E g y p t was h e n c e f o r t h f o r b i d d e n t o b u i l d w a r s h i p s . T h u s ,

c o n c o m i t a n t t o t h e a r m y ' s d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n i n s i z e , t h e v a s t

m a j o r i t y o f s a i l o r s were d e m o b i l i z e d . . A t t h e same time, a

number o f n a v a l v e s s e l s were d i s a r m e d a n d p l a c e d on t h e Nile a s

2 8 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , La p r e m i e r e G u e r r e d e S y r i e , v o l . 11, p . 3 8 8 : Le C a p i t a i n e d e c o r v e t t e B r u a t a u M i n i s t r e d s l a M a r i n e , A l e x a n d r i e , l e 20 m a i 1833.

2 9 ~ r i a u l t , o p . c i t . , pp . 1 1 5 - 1 1 6 : M . C o c h e l e t 2 s o n E x c e l l e n c e M o n s i e u r l e M a r e c h a l Duc d e D a b r a t i e , ~ r b s i d e n t du C o n s e i l , M i n i s t r e d e s A f f a i r e s ~ t r a n ~ G r e s , A l e x a n d r i e , l e 5 j u i l l e t 1 8 3 9 .

3 0 ~ c c o r d i n g t o B o w r i n g , t h e P a s h a c o n t i n u e d t o p u r c h a s e s h i p s f r o m o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a f t e r N a v a r i n o . He l i s t s 5 f r o m I t a l y ( L i v o r n o a n d G e n o a ) , 2 f r o m E n g l a n d ( ~ o n d a n a n d L i v e r - p o o l ) , a n d 1 f r o m A l g e r i a . B o w r i n g , o p , c i t . , p. 5 4 .

Page 67: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

r i v e r t r ~ n s ~ o r t s . 3 1

T h a u g h t h e crews were f a r f r o m e f f i c i e n t , t h e P a s h a ' s war -

s h i p s p r o v i d e d a k e y m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f man a n d s u p p l i e s

i n t h e S y r i a n War. T h e y a l s o a c t e d a s a w a r n i n g s y s t e m a g a i n s t

f o r e i g n s e a b o r n e i n c u r s i o n s 9 b y p a t r o l l i n g t h e E g y p t i a n a n d

S y r i a n c o a s t l i n e s , S e v e r 2 1 T u r k i s h s h i p s w e r e c a p t u r e d i n t h e

v i c i n i t y o f S y r i a d u r i n g t h o p e r i o d b e t w e e n t h e S y r i a n

T h e n a v y ' s i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s when c o n f r o n t e d b y s h i p s o f a m o r e

r e n o v ~ n e d n a v a l p o w e r , h o u e v e r , i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o u i n g

r e m i n i s c e n c e b y A r t i n Bey, a n e n g i n e e r . I t c o n c e r n s t h e n a v y ' s

l a c k o f r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f f i v e o r s i x h o s t i k B r i t i s h

s h i p s , u n d e r t h e command o f A d m i r a l N a p i e r , j u s t o u t s i d e

A l e x a n d r i a h a r b o u r d u r i n g t h e S e c o n d S y r i a n War:

we h a d a b o u t e i g h t e e n s a i l o f t h e l i n e , a n d t w e n t y f r i g a t e s , n o t l e s s t h a n f i f t y s h i p s , b u t we c o u l d n o t r e l y o n t h e T u r k i s h s a i l o r s . T h e y w o u l d h a v e j o i n e d t h e E n g l i s h i f we h a d a l l o w e d t h e s h i p s t o q u i t t h e p o r t . Nor c o u l d we i n d e e d t r u s t t h e E g y p t i a n s , a n d a s f a r a s t h e a r t i ? ? e r y ~ e i i , t h e y h a d s p i k e d t h z g u n s on t h e b a t t e r i e s . 3 3

I t i s p e r h a p s u n f a i r t o j u d g e t h e E g y p t i a n n a v y i n terms o f

t h e i n f i n i t e l y m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d f l e e t o f B r i t a i n , T h e f a c t

r e m a i n s , t h o u g h , t h a t t h e P a s h a o f E g y p t , b y h i s p o l i c y o f

e x p a n s i o n , e x p o s e d i t p r e m a t u r e l y t o t h i s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h

l i t t l e r e g a r d f o r t h e l i m i t a t i o n s i m p o s e d b y i t s i n d u c e d d e v e l o p -

m e n t .

- 3 I ~ i v l j . n ~ o p . c i t . , p p . 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 .

3 2 ~ ~ o u s t a f f a Fahmy, La ~ 6 v o l u t i o n d e l t i n d u s t r i e e n E q y p t e e t s e s c o n s Q q u e n c e s s o c i a l e s a u I 9 g s i h c l e , 1800-1 850 ( L e i d e n , 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 40.

3 3 ~ e n i o r , o p . c i t e , v o l . 11, p . 174 .

Page 68: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

C h a p t e r 1 P r i o r i t i e s i n E d u c a t i o i i

Muhammad P t l i w s e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r i i : ~ c o w - n c n c e d a s e a r l y a s

1 8 0 9 , when h e i n i t i a t e d E g y p t i a n e d d c a t i o n a l m i s s i o n s t o E u r o p e .

La t e r , r a d i c a l c h a n g e s o c c u r r e d i n t h e d o m e s t i c e d u c a t i o n s 1

s y s t e m , T h e P a s h a ' s p r i m a r y aim i n e d u c a t i o n was r a p i d l y t o

I, , t r a i n p e r s o n n e l f o r r e s p o n s i b l e p o s i t i o n s i n t h e a r m e d f o r c e s , li

i i n d u s t r y a n d t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . H e n e v e r l a o k e d b e y o n d t h i s I

u t i l i t a r i a n e n d . 1 I1

The f a c t t h a t he s e n t a n e d u c a t i o n m i s s i o n t o E u r o p e a s

e a r l y a s 1 0 0 9 , i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e P a s h a was p l a n n i n g t o u n d e r -

t a k e m a j o r r e f o r m s e a r l y i n h i s r e i g n . B e t ~ u e e n 1 8 0 9 a n d 1 8 1 8 , . 4 I

1

2 8 s t u d e n t s w e n t t o e i t h e r I t a l y , F r a n c e o r E n g l a n d t o s t u d y , I . j

Jl # #

T h e y u s u a l l y r e m a i n e d a b r o a d a p p r o x i m a t e l y f o u r y e a r s . T h e i r , . (11

m a j o r s u b j e c t s i n c l u d e d n a v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , e n g i n e e r i n g , p r i n t i n g a I , /

1 Jd ;il

a n d m i l i t a r y s ~ i e n c e . ~ I t a p p e a r s t h a t n o m i s s i o n s w e n t t o I

;ll,~,lllf~@l E u r o p e b e t w o e n 1818 a n d 1 8 2 6 . F r e n c h m i l i t a r y a n d n a v a l m i s s i o n s I

were s e n t t o E g y p t d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , h o u ~ e v e r , t o a s s i s t i n

m i l i t a r y a n d n a v a l t r a i n i n g . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e w e r e

q ~ u r i n g t h e m i d - 1 8 3 0 • ‹ s , Muhammad A l i m e n t i o n e d i n a n o t e t o h i s s o n I b r a h i r n t h a t h e was s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t e d u c a t i o n s p r e a d i n g b e y o n d t h e r e c r u i t s f o r s t a t e e d u c a t i o n , F r i t z S t e p p a t , " N a t i o n a l E d u c a t - i o n P r o j e c t s i n E g y p t b e f o r e t h e B r i t i s h O c c u p a t i c s n , " i n P o l k a n d C h a m b e r s , o p . c i t . , p . 2 8 1 .

2 ~ s m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , t h e r e i s a d e a r t h o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e s o s t u d e n t s . D e t a i l e d f a c t s a r e a v a i l a b l e o n o n l y t w o o f t h e m . N i q u l a M a s a b k i s t u d i e d p r i n k i n g i n Rome b e t w e e n 1 0 1 5 a n d 1 8 2 0 a n d was D i r e c t o r o f t h e B u l a q p r i n t i n g p r e s s b e t w e e n 1 0 2 1 a n d 1831. Uthrnan NCr a l - D i n s t u d i e d n a v a l a n d m i l i t a r y s c i e n c e s i n I t a l y a n d F r a n c e b e t w e e n 1 0 0 9 a n d 1 6 1 7 a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c a m e A d m i r a l o f t h e E g y p t i a n Navy , I b r a h i r n A b u - L u g h o d , A r a b R e d i s c o v e r y a f E u r o p e ( p r i n c e t o n , 1 9 6 3 ) , p , 35.

Page 69: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

t h e o n e s l e d b y G e n e r a l B o y e r , C o l o n e l R e y a n d n a v a l o f f i c e r F

L e t e l l i e r , T h e F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t h o p e d , b y p r o v i d i n g s u c h ' ,

a s s i s t a n c e , t o g a i n a n i n f l u e n t i a l p o s i t i o n i n E g y p t . T h o u g h

Muhammad A l i d e l i b e r a t e l y k e p t F r e n c h p o l i t i c a l i n f l u a n c e a t

a min imum, F r e n c h m i l i t a r y , n a v a l a n d c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s

g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d i n E g y p t d u r i n g t h e 1 8 2 0 ' s a n d 1 8 3 0 ' s .

An E g y p t i a n s c h o o l was e s t a b l i s h e d i n P a r i s i n 1 8 2 6 u n d e r

t h e d i r e c t i o n o f F r a n c o i s J o m a r d , F o r t y - t w o s t u d e n t s w e r o i n

a t t e n d a n c e d u r i n g i t s f i r s t y e a r o f o p e r a t i o n - t h e y r a n g e d i n

a g e f r o m 1 5 t o 38. T h e i r s u b j e c t s o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n were c i v i l

c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , n a v a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e , h y d - ! 1 ; r a u l i c s , m e c h a n i c s , m i l i t a r y e n g i n e e r i n g , a r t i l l e r y , meta l

f o u n d i n g , l i t h o g r a p h y a n d e n g r a v i n g , c h e m i s t r y , m e d i c i n e , 1-

Y s.2

s u r g e r y , h y g i e n e , a g r i c u l t u r e , b i o l o g y , m i n i n g a n d t r a n s l a t i o n .

I n a d d i t i o n , s o m e s t u d e n t s , who w e n t t h e r e l a t e r , s p e c i a l i z e d

i n t h e r n a n u F a c t u r e o f s u r g i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s , t e x t i l e m a n u f a c t u r e

a n d d y e i n g , s h i p b u i l d i n g a n d g u n - p o w d e r m a k i n g . 3 T h e r e were o f

c o u r s e v a r i o u s a d v a n t a g e s t o h a v i n g a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e n u m b e r

o f s t u d e n t s i n o n e l o c a t i o n , u n d e r a c e n t r a l i z e d g r o u p o f

i n s t r u c t o r s , r a t h e r t h a n h a v i n g t h e m s c a t t e r e d a b o u t E u r o p e .

T w e n t y - f i v e o f t h e i n i t i a l f o r t y - t w o s t u d e n t s a t t h e P a r i s

s c h o o l h a d p r e v i o u s l y u n d e r g o n e s o m e t r a i n i n g a t i n d u s t r i a l a n d

m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s i n E g y p t . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r s u b j e c t s

o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , t h e y h a d p r o b a b l y s t u d i e d f u n d a m e n t a l s o f

A r a b i c , I t a l i a n a n d m a t h e m a t i c s . B e s i d e s t h e s e , t h e r e w e r e

t h r e e A z h a r i t e s a n d f i v e s t u d e n t s d r a u ~ n f r o m s p e c i a l s c h o o l s ,

3 ~ a d w e n , o p . c i t . , p . 8 7 .

Page 70: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

T u r k i s h was t h e p r i m a r y l a n g u a g e o f m o s t o f t h e s t u d e n t s , I t

was r ' e p o r t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t v i r t u a l l y a l l o f t h e m w o r e i n o r -

d i n a t e l y i g n o r a n t a f e v e n b a s i c s y n t a x o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e

n a t i v e l a n g u a g e s ,

I t u a s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n i t i a l l y t o s t u d y

i e l e m e n t a r y c o u r s e s d u e t o t h e i r l o w e d u c a t i o n a l i e v c l . T h e i r

p r o g r e s s was g e n e r a l l y s l o u t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r s t a y a t t h e Pari's

S c h o o l . W i t h s u c h s t u d e n t s , i t was u n r e a l o f Muhammad A l i , a n d

s u b s e q u e n t l y o f J o m a r d , t o h o p e t o t r a i n t h e m r a p i d l y i n

s p e c i a l i z e d s u b j e c t s - t h e p r o d u c t s o f a t o t a l l y a l i e n c u l t u r e .

Be t t e r r e s u l t s t h a n t h o s e a c h i e v e d c o u l d c o n c e i v a b 1 . y h a v e b e e n

a t t a i n e d h a d c a r l i e r g r o u p s of s t u d e n t s t o t h e s c h o o l f o l l o w e d

a u n i f o r m c o u r s e o f E u r o p e a n s t u d i e s . T h e y c o u l d h a v e t h e n

r e t u r n e d t o E g y p t t o g i v e p r e p a r a t o r y t r a i n i n g t o o t h e r s t u d e n t s ,

who c o u l d h a v e , i n t u r n , u n d e r t a k e n m o r e a d v a n c e d s t u d i o s i n

E u r o p e . Muhammad A l i was a l w a y s i n a h u r r y t o s e e r e s u l - t s o n c e

( a p r o j e c t h a d b e e n i n i t i a t e d a n d n e v e r c a r r i e d o u t r e f o r m s i n

s u c h a c o n s t r u c t i v e m a n n e r .

T h e P a s h a was d i s a p p o i n t e d w i t h t h e g e n e r a l l y u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d

a c h i e v e m e n t s o f m i s s i o n student^,^ Due t o h i s t o t a l l a c k o f i i i l ' \ e x p e r i e n c e i n f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n , h e f a i l e d t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e

1

g r e a t p r o b l e m s f a c e d b y t h e i l l - p r e p a r e d s t u d e n t s , T h i s was

' m a d e m a n i f a s t i n t h e n u m e r o u s l e t t e r s h e s e n t t o t h e m r e b u k i n g

4 R l i s s i o n s t u d e n t s were m a r k e d l y u n s u c c e s s f u l i n g a i n i n g . i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n s a f t e r t h e y h a d r e t u r n e d t o E g y p t . T h i s was c o n s i d e r a b l y d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t p r o m o t i o n s f o r t h e m were o b s t r u c t e d b y O t t o m a n s a n d E u r o p e a n s i n t h a P a s h a ' s e m p l o y , i i~ho were i n t e n t u p o n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r own p o s i t i o n s . H a m o n t , c i t v o l . 11, p , 195, a n d L a n e , o p . c i t , , p . 228. -* '

Page 71: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

then1 f o r n o t t r a n s l a t i n q E u r o p e a n w o r k s i n t h e i r s p a r e t i m e /

He f a i l e d t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e y w e r e f u l l y o c c u p i e d i n

a t t e m p t i n g t o k e e p a b r e a s t o f t h e i r s t u d i e s .

He h a d a s i m p l i s t i c c o n c e p t o f w e s t e r n k n o w l e d g e - a

p a n a c e a t o E g y p t - a p p a r e n t l y t h i n k i n g t h a t i t , o r a t l e a s t

s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n s s f i t , c o u l d b e a c q u i r e d b y m e r e l y g o i n g

t h r o u g h a s e r i e s o f m e n t a l e x e r c i s e s , a t a n e d u c a t i o n a l

i n s t i t u t i o n , d u r i n g a p r e d e t e r m i n e d p e r i o d o f t i m e . M o r e o v e r ,

h e s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n u n a w a r e o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f s p e c i a l i z e d

e d u c a t i o n e 5 F o r i n s t a n c e , a t a n a u d i e n c e w i t h a g r o u p o f

s t u d e n t s n e w l y r e t u r n e d f r o m E u r o p e , t h e P a s h a was t o l d b y o n e l q a l

o f t h e m t h a t h e h a d s t u d i e d g o v e r n m e n t a l a f f a i r s . On h e a r i n g

sd t h i s , t h e P a s h a e x p o s t u l a t e d : " I t i s I who g o v e r n s a f f a i r s o f . I I 1

s t a t e ; g o t o C a i r o , y o u will t r a n s l a t e m i l i t a r y w o r k s . " T h e 1 ,

s t u d e n t p r o t e s t e d v a i n l y : " Y o u r H i g h n e s s ! I h a v e n o t s t u d i e d 1 y l I 'i " i

m i l i t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a t a l l . " 6 A c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f t h e : j

m i s s i o n s t u d e n t s we ,,J~ll~~~~@''''i

u n r e l a t e d t o t h e s u b j e c t s t h e y h a d s p e c i a l i z e d i n . ? B e t w s e n \ . . A ---- -*

1826 a n d 1 8 4 8 , 319 s t u d e n t s w e n t o n e d u c a t i o n a l m i s s i o n s t o ,

E u r o p e . O f t h e s e , 35% s t u d i e d m i l i t a r y a n d n a v a l s c i e n c e s , 27%

% t u d e n t s were s u p p o s e d t o h a v e b e e n f r e e t o c h o o s e w h i c h s u b j e c t s t h e y w o u l d p u r s u e a t t h e E g y p t i a n S c h o o l i n P a r i s . I t a p p e a r s , t h o u g h t h a t J o m a r d h a d a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t t o s a y r e g a r d i n g t h a t c h o i c e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s u b j e c t s s t u d i e d d i d n o t a l ~ c a y s c o i n c i d e w i t h t g y p t ' s i m m e d i a t e n e e d s . H e y w o r t h - D u n n e , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 6 4 - 1 6 5 .

6 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : Hamonk, o p . c i t . , v o l . 11, p p . 1 9 2 - 1 9 3 .

? ~ o u i s B r e h i e r , L ' E q y p t e ( p a r i s , 1 9 0 3 ) ~ p. 115.

Page 72: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

i n d u s t r i a l t e c h n i q u e s , 10% e n g i n o e r i n g , 7% m e d i c i n e , 6% a d m i n -

i s t r a t i o n , law a n d p o l i t i c s , 4% a g r i c u l t u r e a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l

e n g i n e e r i n g a n d 3% s c i e n c e . 8

v' Muhammad A l i was s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o m p o s i k i o n

o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s u n t i l 1 8 2 6 . I n J a n u a r y o f t h a t y e a r ,

t h e C o m m i s s i o n o f I n s t r u c t i o n was f o r m e d . I t a d v i s e d t h e P a s h a

o n e d u c a t i o n a l ma t t e r s . T h e C o m m i s s i o n - a p p a r e n t l y s u b s i d i a r y

t o t h e D i w a n a l - J i h a d i y a h - i n c l u d e d t h r e e F r e n c h o f f i c e r s , - L e n e r a l B o y e r a n d C o l o n e l s Key a n d G a u d i n : a s u ~ e l l a s a n u m b e r

o f O t t o m a n s , E d u c a t i o n o n l y o c c u p i e d a f r a c t i o n O F i t s a t t e n t i o n ,

s i n c e it was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r v a r i o u s o t h e r s e c t o r s OF t h e

e c o n o m y .

B e l o w t h e C o m m i s s i o n o f I n s t r u c t i o n was t h e Diwan o f P u b l i c

I n s t r u c t i o n a n d P u b l i c W o r k s , r e s p o n s i b l e f o r e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n -

- d g + k r a t i o n . C o n s i d e r a b l e d e l i b e r a t e o b s t r u c t i o n a g a i n s t educ- U n

4') 1

a t i a n a l r e f o r m s e m a n a t e d f r o m rn~rnbcrs o f t h i s b o d y O 9 I t seems 1, \ g*

Y4

Ill

i t h a t t h e y were m o t i v a t e d t o t h i s b y t h e i r h a t r e d o f E u r o p a a n s , ii, /

( a n d E u r o p e a n i n n o v a t i o n s , a n d b y t h e f e a r t h a t t h e y w o u l d s o o n e r

o r l a t e r b e r e p l a c e d b y p r o d u c t s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m u h o *

w o u l d b e b e t t e r q u a l i f i e d t h a n ~ h e r n s e 1 v e s . l ~ A p a r t f r o m

p r o b l e m s c a u s e d b y o b s t r u c t i o n , h o ~ u e v c r , e d u c a t i o n a l a d m l n i s -

t r a t o r s i n g e n e r a l w e r e e g r e g i o u s l y i n c o m p e t e n t . R e c o r d s , f o r

8 ~ b u - ~ u ~ h o d , up, c i t . , p a 35.

9 t l a m o n t s a i d o f t h i s d i w a n : " T h e y r e f u s e d b o o k s a n d a s p e c i a l l i b r a r y f o r e a c h s c h o o l . T h e y r e f u s e d p e n s a n d p a p e r . I t was n e c e s s a r y Lo w r i t e t w e n t y t imes i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n m a t e r i a l s t h a t were i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r t e a c h i n g t h e s t u d e n t s . " T r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : H a m o n t , o p . c i t . , v o l . 11, p . 3 3 1 .

Page 73: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

i e x a m p l e , were i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e a n d s c h o o l s f r e q u e n t l y h a d t o

b e c l o s e d temporarily b e c a u s e t h e y h a d r u n o u t o f f o o d u r o t h e r

f k e y s u p p l i e s d u e t o a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f a i l u r e s .

E g y p t i a n s t u d e n t s were r e c r u i t e d by m e a n s o f c o n s c r i p t i o n ,

S i n c e e d u c a t i o n was g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m i l i t a r y s o r v i c e ,

i t was a n a t h e m a t o t h e f e l l a h i n . C l o t Bey, o n e o f Muhammad Ali's

m o s t a r d e n t a p o l o g i s t s , r e p o r t e d t h a t : "Some p a r e n t s m u t i l a t e -- ---- - ~ - ---.

t h e i r s o n s i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m g o i n g t o s c h o o l .

RC,PC,,,~,-, h.-.,,- *.,I-.- I-.-A - . L A . - - A - J Y Y U U U d U U U r J V J l t U I t a ~ , Q L L ~ ~ ~ I U ~ C I k u t t a b s weru I I I U S ~ i i k e i y t o b e

> "..-.- c o n s c r i p t e d , many p a r e n t s d e s i s t e d f r o m s e n d i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n

T h i s f a c t o r , a n d a

t o t h e P a s h a ' s c o n f i s c a t i o n o f t h e !~ayf l a n d s , r e s u l t e d i n t h e

c l o s u r e o f many -- k u t t a b s * F r e n c h t r a v e l l e r P o u j o u l a t r e p o r t e d

i n a l e t t e r d a t e d A p r i l 2, 1 8 3 8 , t h a t : ' ' a l l t h e Mus l im r e l i g i o u s

s c h o o l s w h i c h were a t t a c h e d t o t h e C a i r o m o s q u e s h a v e c l o s e d , 111 2

D u r i n g t h e 1 8 2 0 • ‹ s , E g y p t i a n e d u c a t i o n was o r g a n i z e d i n t o a

& t r i p a r t i t e s y s t e m , c o n s i s t i n g o f : p r i m a r y , s e c o n d a r y a n d s p e c i a l

s c h o o l s , T h i s was s im i l a r - o n p a p e r - t o p r e v a i l i n g e d u c a t i o n ,

s y s t e m s i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e . F i f t y p r i m a r y s c h o o l s were e s t a b -

l i s h e d a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y . T h e s e a c c o m m o d a t e d a t o t a l o f 5 , 5 0 0

s t u d e n t s , T h e s u b j e c t s s t u d i e d K z r e r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , A r a b i c ,

C" e l e m e n t a r y r u l e s o f a r i t h m e t i c a n d r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n . 8d=' V

I l ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : C l o t Bey, o p , - c i t . , v o l . 11, p p . 2 5 3 a n d 3 1 6 . I t s h o u l d be a d d e d h o w e v e r , t h a t s i n c e t h e s t u d e n t s i n g o v e r n m e n t s c h o o l s were f e d , l o d g e d , c l o t h e d a n d g i v e n a

( s p e n d i n g a l l a i u a n c o b y t h e S t a t e , s o m e p a r e n t s , d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f " " s e v e r e h a r d s h i p , s u c h a s f o o d s h o r t a g e s , were r e l a t i v e l y w i l l i n g

t o a l l o w t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o b e c o n s c r i p t e d , Bowr ing , o p . c i t , , pp . 36-37,

1 2 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r o n c h , q u o t e d i n Keywor th -Dunne , o p , c i t . , p. 154.

Page 74: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

T e a c h i n g a t t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l s was d o n e b y f i z h a r i c c h , \-+-

t h e r e t 5 e i n g v i r t u a l l y n o o t h e r l i t e r a t e p e r s o n n e l a v a i l a b l e ,

( ~ r t i n Bey e s t i m a t e d t h a t o n e p e r c e n t o f E g y p t i a n a d u l t s were

l i t e r a t e i n 1 8 3 0 a n d 3 p e r c e n t i n 1 8 5 0 ) . 1 3 T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e

t o s h o w t h a t t h e s e A z h a r i t e s u n d e r w e n t a n y f o r m a l t r a i n i n g t o

e n a b l e t h e m t o t e a c h a p r o g r a m m e o f p r i m a r y s t u d i e s c o n s i s t e n t

w i t h t h e neN e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m . B e c a u s e o f t h i s , o n e c a n

a s s u m e t h a t t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l s w o r e l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e

k u t t a b s , -- l h e y wer@ flat l i k e l y , c o n s e q u e n t l y , t o a c h i e v e t h e i r

i n t e n d a d p u r p o s e o f a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r i n g s t u d e n t s f o r m o r e

a d v a n c e d s t u d i e s , T h e f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n b y Hamont we l l I 4 -

/I

I

i l l u s t r a t e s s o m e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s h o r t c o m i n g s o f E g y p t i a n

p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n :

T h e s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a r e e x t r e m e l y i n c o m p e t e n t a n d v e r y s u p e r s t i t i o u s . T h e y t e a c h t h e s t u d e n t s t o r e a d a n d w r i t e b y e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y s l o w , a n c i e n t m e t h o d s . T h e s t u d e n t s , o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d , l e a r n t h e s a c r e d b o o k o f Islam, c o n c o m i t a n t l y t h e y i n t e r n a l i z e t h e p r o f css~r's p r e j i ~ d i z e s , ' ~

_#I...', " ' ' ' I , 1 I" ( , , *" i 'hi I . , .,li.j

$d I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a b o v e p r o b l e m s , t h e r e was a t o t a l lack o f ,il~~~lb 11,

t e x t b o o k s o n e l e m e n t a r y s u b j e c t s , A t E g y p t ' s o n l y p r i n t i n g

p r e s s - t h e B u l a q P r e s s f o u n d e d i n 1 8 2 2 - p r i o r i t y was g i v e n t o

I z ~ l - ~ z h a r s u p p l i e d t e a c h e r s , t r a n s l a t o r s a n d s t u d e n t s f o r t h e P a s h a ; h o w e v e r , o n c e A z h a r i t e s h a d u n d e r t a k e n s u c h ~ o r k , t h e y " n o l o n g e r b e l o n g e d t o t h e m a i n s t ream o f t h e u l a m a f o r t h e y ( h a d ) r e j e c t e d a l - A z h a r a n d ujcre i n t u r n i g n o r e d b y i t ." A f a f L u t f i a l - S a y y i d , " T h e B ~ g i n n i n g s o f M o d e r n i z a t i o n a m o n g t h e R e c t o r s o f a l - A z h a r , 1789-1079," i n P o l k a n d C h a m b e r s , o p . c i t e , p , 276.

1 4 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : Harnont , o p , c i t . , v o l e 11, p .

I 320. I t h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a t n o t m o r e t h a n f i v e p e r c e n t o f c h i l d r e n b e t w e e n 6 a n d 1 2 y e a r s o f a g e r e c e i v e d a n y f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a t a l l d u r i n g Muhammad Ali's t ime , G a b r i e l Baer, " S o c i a l C h a n g e i n E g y p t : 1 8 0 0 - 1 9 1 4 , " i n H o l t , o p . c i t . , p . 159.

Page 75: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

t h e p r i n t i n g o f b o o k s o n m i l i t a r y , n a v a l , t t i c h r ~ i c a l . a n d m e d i c a l

s u b j e c t ; a n d o n A r a b i c g r a m m a r , T h e n e e d s o r t h e e l e m e n t a r y

A s c h o o l s were i g n o r e d . 1 5

S e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s f o r m e d t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a g e b e t w e e n ---

p r i m a r y a n d s p e c i a l s c h o o l s . Two o f t h e s e , o n e i n C a i r o , a n d

o n e i n A l e x a n d r i a , u ~ h i c h t o g e t h e r a c c o m m o d a t e d 2 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s ,

w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g t h e m i d - 1 8 2 0 @ s . T h e i r c u r r i c u l a

i n c l u d e d F r e n c h , I t a l i a n , h i s t o r y , g e o g r a p h y , b a s i c s c i e n c e a n d " P

~ m a t h e n a t i c ~ . ' ~ L i k e t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l s , t h e y were s t a f f e d b y

t e a c h e r s who, a p p a r e n t l y , h a d r e c e i v e d n o p r e p a r a t o r y t r a i n i n g ,

a n d who t a u g h t b y t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d s w h i c h were t o t a l l y

u n s u i t a b l e f o r m o d e r n e d u c a t i o n , Wamont o p i n e d t h a t w i t h b e t t e r

t e a c h e r s , s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t u d e n t s c o u l d h a v e l e a r n e d a s much

i n o n e y e a r a s t h e y d i d i n f o u r . 1 7 / , I !

he B u l a q P r e s s was t h e f i r s t E g y p t i a n p r i n t i n g p r e s s . ? h a F r e n c h t o o k one t o E g y p t d u r i n g t h e O c c u p a t i o n , b u t t h ~ y o n l y p r i n t e d a f e w b u l l e t i n s a n d a p a m p h l e t o n s m a l l p o x i n A r a b i c . A r a b i c s c r i p t p r i n t i n g b l o c k s h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e V a t i c a n .

B e t w e e n 1 8 2 2 a n d 1 0 3 0 , 5 6 b o o k s were p u b l i s h e d a t B u l a q (20 were r e p r i n t s o f w o r k s t r a n s l a t e d a n d p u b l i s h e d p r e v i o u s l y i n I s t a n b u l , t h u s s o m e o f t h e m were s o m e w h a t d a t e d ) , 1 7 o f t h e s e were o n m i l i t a r y o r n a v a l s u b j e c t s a n d , r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g l y , 1 0 were o n A r a b i c g r a m m a r . B e t v ~ e c n 1831 a n d 1 8 4 2 , 1 8 7 b o o k s were p u b l i s h e d , 31 o f t h e m c o n c e r n e d m i l i t a r y o r n a v a l s u b j e c t s , a n d I1 c o n c e r n e d A r a b i c g r a m m a r . A p a r t f r o m t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f h a v i n g o n l y o n e p r i n t i n g p r e s s i n t h e c o u n t r y , t h e r e was a l s o , u n t i l t h e 18JOEs, a c r i t i c a l s h o r t a g e o f p e r s o n n e l a b l e t o t r a n s l a t e E u r o p e a n b o o k s i n t o T u r k i s h o r A r a b i c . T h i s was c l e a r l y m a n i f e s t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t , when t h e 1 8 2 6 e d u c a t i o n a l m i s s i o n t o P a r i s r e t u r n e d t o C a i r o i n 1831, a l l . o f t h e s t u d e n t s w e r e l o c k e d i n r o o m s i n t h e C a i r o C i t a d e l a n d were o r d e r e d t o t r a n s - l a t e v a r i o u s F r e n c h w o r k s , T h e y r e m a i n e d i n s u c h c o n F i n e r n e n t f o r a b o u t t h r e e m o n t h s , Y , A r t i n , L f I n s t r u c t i o n p u b l i q u e e n E g y p t e ( p a r i s , 1 8 9 0 ) , p . 73, J. H e y w o r k h - D u n n e , " P r i n t i n g a n d T r a n s l a t i o n s u n d e r Muhammad A l i o f Eg p t , " i n J o u r n a l o f t h e A s i a t i c S t u d i e s S o c i e t y , L o n d o n (1 9 4 0 7 , 333-333.

I 6 ~ a d w a n , o p . c i t . , p . 88. -- 1 7 ~ a m o n t , o p . ~ i t . , v o l . 11, p. 3 2 2 .

Page 76: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

S p e c i a l s c h o o l s f o r m e d t h e u p p e r e c h e l o n o f t h e e d u c a t i o n

s y s t e m , - T h e f o l l o t u i n g s i x t e e n s p e c i a l s c h o o l s were o p o n c d

b e t v ~ e e n 1824 a n d 1850: t h e S c h o o l o f I l lusic , t h e f f i i l . i l a r y S t a F F

S c h o o l , t h e I n f a n t r y S c h o o l , t h e C a v a l r y S c h o o l , t h c A r t i l l e r y

S c h o o l , t h e N a v a l S c h o o l , t h e S c h o o l o f M e d i c i n e a n d P h a r m a c y ,

t h e S c h o o l o f I n d u s t r i a l C h e m i s t r y , t h e S c h o o l o f V e t e r i n a r y

M e d i c i n e , t h e S c h o o l o f M i n i n g , t h e P o l y t e c h n i c S c h o o l , t h e

S c h o o l o f A g r i c u l t u r e , t h e S c h o o l o f M a t e r n i t y , t h e S c h o o l o f

C i v i l f l d r n i n i s t r a t b o ? ~ n d k c c o u ; - i t ~ z c y , t h z S c h ~ o : of' Lzi-iguages

a n d T r a n s l a t i o n a n d t h e S c h o o l o f Arts a n d C r a f t s . l8 A

c o n s i d a r a b l e n u m b e r o f E u r o p e a n s t a u g h t a t t h e s e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s .

St was n o t u n t i l 1830 t h a t t h e f i r s t g r o u p o f g r a d u a t e s

e m e r g e d f r o m t h e neuJ s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s . I n t h e m e a n t i m e , t h e

s p e c i a l s c h o o l s c a r r i e d - o n w i t h w h a t e v e r l i t e r a t e s t u d e n t s t h a y

c o u l d f i n d . T h e s e p r o v e d t o b e v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o t r a i n - t o w h a t m i g h t b e r e g a r d e d a s a n a d e q u a t e l e v e l o f p r o f i c i e n c y - i n t h e m o r e c o m p l e x f i e l d s o f s t u d y . N o n - E g y p t i a n s t u d e n t s ,

m o s t l y T u r k s , C i r c a s s i a n s a n d Mamluks, b u t a l s o a f e w G r e e k s ,

K u r d s , A l b a n i a n s a n d G e o r g i a n s , g e n e r a l l y s t u d i e d f o r h i g h

r a n k i n g m i l i t a r y a n d c i v i l p o s i t i o n s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

E g y p t i a n s s t u d i e d f o r m e d i c a l , v c c e r i n a r y , e n g i n e e r i n g a n d

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e s a n d s c h o o l t e a c h i n g . T h e y were r a r e l y ,

if e v e r , a u a r d e d h i g h r a n k i n g p o s i t i o n s .

P r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d a t t h e S c h o o l o f M e d i c i n e , a s we l l a s

t h e S t a f f C o l l e g e Madrasat ~ r k a n - w h i c h h a s a l r e a d y b e e n

1 8 ~ a o u l d e C h a m b e r e t , ~ n ~ u g t e s u r l a C o n d i t i o n du F e l l a h H g y p t t e n ( ~ i j n n , 1909) , p. 100.

Page 77: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

d i s c u s s e d - r e f l e c t g e n e r a l d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t confronted

i n s t r u c i o r s a n d s t u d e n t s a t t h e s p e c i a l school^.?^ C l o t Bey,

a F r e n c h p h y s i c i a n , was a p p o i n t e d a s t h e D i r e c t o r OF L I l e Medica l .

S c h o o l d u r i n g l a t e 1 8 2 6 o r e a r l y 1 8 2 7 . P r i o r t o t h i s a p p o i n t -

men t h e h z d i n s t i g a t e d a number o f s i g n i f i c a n t m e d i c a l i r np rove - 1

m e n t s i n t h o E g y p t i a n Army: F o r e x n m p l e , h e h a d o r g a n i z e d

t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f f i e l d h o s p i t a l s , t o w h i c h u e r a a t t a c h e d

d o c t o r s , m e d i c a l a i d e s a n d p h a r m a c i s t s . Ho h a d a l s o i n s t i t u t e d

a c e n t r a l p h a r m a c y i n C a i r o s w h i c h h a d b r a n c h e s i n k e y l o c a t i o n s

t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . 2 0

T h e S c h o o l o f M e d i c i n e ar id P h a r m a c y - l o c a t e d a t , Ill

!. 1 1

A b o u z a b e l - was o p e n e d i n F e b r u a r y , 1 8 2 7 . I n i t i a l l y t h e r e were

t e n t e a c h e r s , i n c l u d i n g C l o t Bey. T h e y r e p r e s e n t e d a m o t l e y

r a n g e o f E u r o p e a n n a t i o n a l i t i e s . T h e r e were 4 F r e n c h m e n , 3 8 ',

I t a l i a n s , I B a v a r i a n , 1 P i e d m o n t e s e a n d 'i S p a n i a r d . T h i s l a c k , 4!

/! ' '

)r ( ' l o f n a t i o n a l h o m o g e n e i t y was n o d o u b t a c a u s e o f v a r i o u s p r o b l e m s

i d , Z l # n q

c c V Y ~ 5 3 ' h n i t s e l f . T h e c o u r s e s a t t h e s c h o o l i n c l u d e d p h y s i c s , c h e m i s t r y , IIII ,,I&

b o t a n y , ~ o o l o g y , p h y s i o l o g y , p a t h o l o g y , i n t e r n a l m e d i c i n e ,

t h e r a p e u t i c s , p h a r m a c y a n d F r e n c h . S i n c e O t t o m a n s r e g a r d e d

4 m e d i c i n e a s a d e m e a n i n g p r o f e s s i o n , i t was s t u d i e d e x c l u s i v e l y * 4

j ' b y E g y p t i a n s t u d e n t s , m o s t o f whom, i t s e e m s , w e r e A z h a r i t e s .

V a r i o u s members o f t h o p o l i t i c a l h i e r a r c h y a t t e m p t e d t o

p r e v e n t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a m e d i c a l s c h o o l , s i n c e t h e y

I 9 s e e p a g e s f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f p r o b l e m s a t M a d r a s a t A r k a n .

2 0 ~ l o t Bey, o p , c i t . , v o l . I , p p . 369-375 .

2 1 ~ h a m b o r e t , o p . c i t e , p . 1 4 7 .

Page 78: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

r e g a r d e d i t a s a n o t h e r p o t e n t i a l s t r o n g h o l d o f E u r o p e a n

i n f l u e n ' c e , C l o t Bey d e s c r i b e d t h e obstructive o f f o r t s o f t h e s e

i n d i v i d u a l s a s f o l l o ~ u s :

T h e y m a d e t h e o b s t a c l e s , w h i c h were a l r e a d y l a r g e I e n o u g h , a p p e a r l a r g e r t o Muhammad A l i . T h c y p r e t e n d e d

t h a t t h e Arabs h a d n e i t h e r t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e n o r t h e a p t i t u d e o r o t h e r men; a s i f h i s t o r y d o e s n o t p r o v e t h e m l i a r s . T h e y s a i d t h a t i t was f o l l y t o h o p e t o i n s t r u c t men who c o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e l a n g u a g e O F t h e i r p r o i @ e s s o r s r 2 2

L

O n c e e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e M e d i c a l S c h o o l was v e h e m e n t l y c e n s u r c d

b y t h e u l a m a . T h e i r o p p o s i t i o n was m o t i v a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t

a n a t o m i c a l d i s s o c t i o n s - i n t r i n s i c t o t h e t o a c h i n g o f m o d e r n i'

- [k m e d i c i n e - were c o n s i d e r e d t o b e c o n t r a r y t o I s l a m i c t e n e t ~ . 2 ~ w'.;

C l o t Bey was a b l e t o c o n c i l i a t e t h e ulama h i e r a r c h y , h o w e v e r ,

b y s e c r e t l y a g r e e i n g t o c a r r y o u t d i s s e c t i o n s " w i t h a l l

p o s s i b l e p r e c a u t i o n s " a n d b y p r o m i s i n g t o p r e v e n t t h e p u b l i c

f r o m w i t n e s s i n g t h e m . 2 4

T h e r e were a h u n d r e d s t u d e n t s i n t h e i n i t i a l i n t a k e .

B e c a u s e o f t h e i r i g n o r a n c e , i n h i b i t i o n s , s u p e r s t i t i o n s a n d

p r e j u d i c e s t h e y p r o g r e s s e d v e r y s 3 . o w l y . i n t h e i r s t u d i e s ,

R e a l i z i n g t h e h o p e l e s s n e s s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , C l o t Bey a d d e d

v a r i o u s n o n - m e d i c a l c o u r s e s t o t h e c u r r i c u l u m i n c l u d i n g a r i t h -

2 2 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : C l o t B e y , o p , c i t . , v o l . I , p . 383,

2 3 ~ o o n a f t e r a b u b o n i c p l a g u e e p i d e m i c , Muhammad A l i i s s u e d a n e d i c t i n 1812 f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f l a z a r e t s i n A l e x a n d - r i a a n d R o s e t t a . T h e r e was c o n s i d e ; - a b l e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h i s f r o m t h e u l a m a , t h e y a r g u e d t h a t i t was c o n t r a r y t o t h e d o c t r i n e o f p r e d e s t i n a t i o n . ~ u % r n a r d , o p , c i t . , p . 239. One r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c b r o k e i n t o a c l a s s r o o m , an-'-punched C l o t Bev w h i l s t h e was i n t h e m i d s t o f g i v i n g a n a n a t o m y l e s s o n . c h a m b e r e t , c i t p . 1 4 7 . -' '

2 4 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : C l o t Bey , op. c i t . , v o l . I , p . 3 8 4 .

Page 79: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

metic, g e o m e t r y , c o s m o g r a p h y a n d h i s t o r y . He h o p e d b y t h e s e

t o d e v e l o p t h e s t u d e n t s - m e n t a l f a c u l t i e s i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e

t h e i r m e d i c a l s t u d i e s . A t t h e same L i m e , t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e

m e d i c a l c o u r s e was e x t e n d e d f r o m f o u r t o s i x y e a r s . Many

s t u d e n t s were d r a w n p r e m a t u r e l y f r o m t h e c o u r s e , h o w ~ v e r ~ and

g i v e n m e d i c a l p o s i t i o n s i n t h e a r m y , By t h e e n d o f t h e f i f t h

y e a r , o n l y f i f t e e n o f t h e o r i g i n a l h u n d r e d s t u d e n t s were s t i l l

e n r o l l e d a t t h e M e d i c a l ~ c h o o 1 . ~ 5

initially t h e r e w e r e g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s i n v o l v e d i n g e t t i n g

m e d i c a l l e c t u r e s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o A r a b i c , s i n c e t h e f e w i n t e r -

p r e t e r s a v a i l a b l e h a d n o k n o w l e d g e o f m e d i c i n e o r m e d i c a l

t e r m i n o l o g y . D u r i n g t h o f i r s t y e a r o f t h e M e d i c z l S c h o o l ' s

e x i s t e n c e M. Don R a p h a e l a n d M, A n h u r i , a S y r i a n , a c t e d as t r a n s -

l a t o r s . R a p h a e l k n e w I t a l i a n , F r e n c h a n d A r a b i c , w h i l s t A n h u r i

k n e w o n l y I t a l i a n a n d ~ r a b i c . 2 6 Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e m e d i c a l

( i n s t r u c t o r s ' l e c t u r e s were o f t e n g r o s s l y d i s t o r t s d b y t h e t r a n s - i

l l l a t o r s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i g n o r a n c e o f m e d i c i n e . Muhammad A l i \

a t t e m p t e d , w i t h b o t h e f f i c i e n c y a n d e c o n o m y i n m i n d , t o p e r s u a d e

t h e i n s t r u c t o r s t o l e a r n A r a b i c . L i k e most E u r o p e a n s i n o t h e r

f i e l d s , h o u ~ e v e r , t h e y a d a m a n t l y r e f u s e d t o d o s o . T h o u g h t h e y

r e a l i z e d t h e g r o s s i n a d e q u a c i e s o f t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s y s t e m , t h e y

a r g u e d t h a t t h e y h a d b e e n h i r e d t o t e a c h m e d i c i n e , n o t t o l e a r n

A r a b i c ,

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e many o t h e r p r o b l e m s , t h e m e d i c a l s t u d e n t s

2 5 i 4 e y w o r t h - ~ u n n e , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o - t h e H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n - i n N o d e r n E q y p t , p. 1 6 4 ,

Page 80: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

c o n t i n u e d t o l e a r n b y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o t e me thod , T h i s

r e s u l t b d i n p h y s i c i a n s uiho h a d l i t t l e , i f a n y , u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

bow t o p r a c t i s e m e d i c i n e . Hamont - who f r e q u e n t l y c r i t i c i z e d

t h e S c h o o l o f M e d i c i n e - o p i n e d t h a t n o n e O F t h e m e d i c a l

g r a d u a t c s were f i t t o t r e a t a f r a c t u r e . 2 7 I n t h e s a m e v e i n ,

D u h a m e l r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e S c h o o l o f M e d i c i n e "is p e r h a p s t h e

s c h o o l w h i c h l e a v e s t h e m o s t t o b e d e s i r e d s o f a r . " 2 8

C l o t Bey a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s were we l l a w a r e t h a t v a r i o u s

m e m b e r s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l h i e r a r c h y w o u l d h a v e r e l i s h e d a n y

o p p o r t u n i t y t o e n g i n e e r t h e c l o s u r e o f t h e M e d i c a l S c h o o l ,

T h u s t h e y d i d a l l t h e y c o u l d t o c o n c e a l t h o s t u d e n t s ' m e d i o c r e

a c h i e v e m e n t l e v e l s , F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e y b r i e F e d t h e s t u d e n t s o n

t h e a n s w e r s t o t h e a n n u a l e x a m i n a t i o n s b e f o r e t h e y s a t t h e m , 2 9

T h e S c h o o l ' s e x i s t e n c e l a r g e l y d e p e n d e d o n r e s u l t s a c h i e v e d a t

these e x a m i n a t i o n s , P r e s u m a b l y , t h e i n s t r u c t o r s w e r e h o p i n g t h a t

r e s u l t s w o u l d b e b e t t e r i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e , ~ h c n t h e y w o u l d b e 1

t e a c h i n g g r a d u a t e s f r o m t h e new s e c o n d a r y s c h c o l s . D u r i n g 1 8 2 9 ,

Muhammad A l i u a s p e r s u a d e d b y s o m e o f h i s c o n f i d a n t s t o c l o s e

t h e M e d i c a l S c h o o l a n d u s e t h e p r e m i s e s f o r a s i l k f a c t o r y . B u t

b e f o r e t h e p l a n uJas i m p l e m e n t e d , s o m e o f C l o t B e y ' s a l l i e s

i n d u c e d t h e P a s h a t o c h a n g e h i s m i n d . C l o t Bey n u m b e r e d s e v e r a l

F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s a m o n g h i s p a t r o n s , i n c l u d i n g Mimaut

and ~ o i s l e c o m t e , J O

4'

2 7 ~ u o t e d i n Guernard, o p . c i t . , p . 2 3 4 .

2 8 ~ r a n s l a t s d from F r e n c h : C a t t a u i , o p e c i t . , t o m e 11, p a r t 2, p p , 395-396: M e Duhamel $ N e s s l e r o d e , A l e x a n d r i e , 6 j u i l l e t 1 8 3 7 .

3 0 H e y w o r t h - ~ u n n e , --. An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n i n M o d e r n E q y p t , p p , 1 3 0 - 1 31.

Page 81: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

75

C l o t Bey was d e t e r m i n e d t o m a i n t a i n a f a v o u r a b l e image

f o r h i s s c h o o l . T h u s i n 1831, when f r l o n s i e ~ r M i c h a u d o f

1 ' ~ c a d S m i e F r a n c a i s e was v i s i t i n g E g y p t , t h e Bey i n v i t e d h i m - t o e x a m i n e t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f s o m e o f h i s

, s t u d e n t s , T h e m e d i c a l s t u d e n t s s t u d i e d F r e n c h t o e n a b l e t h e m

\ t o r e a d u n t r a n s l a t e d F r e n c h m e d i c a l t e x t s . C l o t Bey l a t e r I P p u b l i s h e d a l o n g a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h c s k i l l o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n Y I I1 t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e , a t t r i b u t i n g t h e a u t h o r s h i p t o M i c h a u d .

li I Coniiei-sel y , X i ~ i r a u d ' s a c c o u n t or" t h e o x a m i n a i i o n , g i v e n i n h i s

w o r k C o r r e s p o n d a n c e d t O r i e n t , -- is h i g h l y u n f a v o u r a b l e :

I was d e l i g h t e d w i t h e v e r y t h i n g I saw w r i t t e n o n t h e b l a c k b o a r d , I w i s h e d t o c o m p l i m e n t t h e s t u d e n t s ; I c o n g r a t u l . a t e d m y s e l f i n a t l a s t s e e i n g t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e b e c o m e o n e o f t h e l a n g u a g e s o f E g y p t , b u t u h a t a s u r p r i s e I h a d ti~hen I saw t h a t n o b o d y u n d e r s t o o d me a n d t h a t my w o r d s were l i k e a v o i c e i n t h e d e s e r t . . , . n o b o d y h a d l e a r n e d t o s p e a k i t , n o t e v e n t h e master ( a P i e d r n o n t e s e ) who a p p r o a c h e d me i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n h i s m e t h o d a n d e x p l a i n e d i t t o me a s h e c o u l d n o t w i t h o u t m a k i n g s e v e r a l m i s t a k e s i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n . 3 1

A l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f s t u d e n t s f r o m t h e e d ~ c a t i ~ o s y s t e m , vlll 1

s u b s e q u e n t l y e n t e r e d t h e a r m e d f o r c e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , f o l l o w i n g 1 , 1 1 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

t h e S e c o n d S y r i a n War, when t h e a r m y a n d n a v y u n d e r w e n t t h e i r . ~

a f o r e m e n t i o n e d r e d u c t i o n s i n s i z e , a n u m b e r o f s c h o o l s were \

c l o s e d , L a t e r i n t h e same y e a r ( 1 8 4 1 ) t h e P a s h a s , I b r a h i m ,

A b b a s a n d S h a r i f ( ~ h a r i f P a s h a was a n e p h e w o f Oluhammad A l i ,

a n d h a d b e e n G o v e r n o r o f S y r i a ) s u b m i t t e d a p l a n o f e c o n o m y

m e a s u r e s t o t h e d i s i l l u s i o n e d Muhammad A l i , A c c o r d i n g t o H a m o n t ,

i t i n c l u d e d a m o n g i t s p r o p o s c l s t h e a b o l i t i o n o f a11 p r i m a r y ,

Page 82: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

were s o o n c l o s e d , 3 2 I n t h e l a s t y e a r o f Mul-lammad Ali's r e i g n ,

1 8 4 8 , o n l y f i v e p r i m a r y s c h o o l s ( t h e r e mere f i f t y o r i g i n a l l y )

a n d n i n e s p e c i a l s c h o o l s w o r e s t i l l o p e r a t i n g . T h e s p e c i a l

s c h o o l s were a s f o l l o ~ ~ ~ s : t h e S c h o o l o f A r t i l l e r y , t h e S c h o o l

o f I n f a n t r y , t h e S c h o o l o f C a v a l r y , t h o N a v a l S c h o o l , t h e S c h o o l

o f L a n g u a g e s , t h e V e t e r i n a r y S c h o o l , t h e S c h o o l o f E n g i n e e r s ,

t h e S c h o o l o f Arts a n d C r a f t s , a n d t h e H i g h S c h o o l a t a l - K h a n k a h

( c l a s s i f i e d a s a s p e c i a l s c h o o l ) ,33

Muhammad k l i ' s e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m s were t h e p r e c u r s o r s

o f m o d e r n e d u c a t i o n i n E g y p t . I t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e

f e f o r m s e n c o u n t e r e d f o r m i d a b l e p r o b l e m s , A t t h o t ime o f t h e

11

; P a s h a ' s a c c e s s i o n E g y p t i a n e d u c a t i o n was t o t a l l y r e l i g i o - c e n t r i c

a n d W e s t e r n e d u c a t i o n a l s u b j e c t s were v i r t u a l l y u n k n o w n , T h e

f a c t t h a t m o s t o f t h o s e e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s f o u n d e d b y t h e

P a s h a w e r e c l o s e d b e F o r e h i s a b d i c a t i o n u a s n o t , h o w e v e r , d u e s o

much t o i n t e r n a l p r o b l e m s a s it was t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s c h o o l s

h a d l a r g e l y b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d i n o r d e r t o t r a i n p r o s p e c t i v e o r

a c t i v e m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l . C o n s e q u e n t l y , s o o n a f t e r t h e P a s h a \

was c o e r c e d i n t o r e d u c i n g h i s a r m y , n u m e r o u s s c h o o l s were c l o s e d ,

N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e many p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d , a few n o t e w o r t h y

s t u d e n t s e m e r g e d f r o m t h e P a s h a ' s e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m , Some o f

t h e s e l a t e r a s s i s t e d K h e d i v e Ismai l i n h i s r e f o r m s .

3 2 ~ a m o n t , 3, c i t . , v o l . 11, p. 5 1 4 . I t i s d e b a t a b l e w h e t h e r I b r a h i m , t h e l e a d e r o f t h e q r o u p , was p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n e c o n o m y , o r w h e t h e r h e was m o t i v a t e d b y t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e a c t a g a i n s t t;ho i n n o v a t i o n s o f h i s f a t h e p , v a r i o u s o f w h i c h h e h a d l o n g o p p o s e d . H e y v ~ o r t h - D u n n e , -.- An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n i n M o d e r n E q y p t , p p . 130-131. -

3 3 ~ b i d - * I P * 234 a n d p p .

Page 83: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

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a c c o u n t e d f o r o v e r 8 0 p c r c e n t o f E g y p t ' s t o t a l e x p o r t s , w h i l s t

w h e a t - t h e f o r m e r p r i n c i p a l e x p o r t - a c c o u n t e d f o r o n l y 5 p e r -

c e n t , 2

T h e P a s h a was i n i t i a l l y i n s p i r e d t o c o n s i d e r d e v e l o p i n g

m o d e r n i n d u s t r i e s s e r i o u s l y b y t h e S w e d i s h c o n s u l , J o s e p h

B o k t y , i n 1 8 1 4 . 3 T h i s w-,s when E g y p t was u n d e r c o n s i d e r a b l e

f i n a n c i a l . s t r a i n d u e t o t h e war a g a i n s t t h e W a h h a b i s i n A r a b i a p

v ~ h i c h l a s t e d f r o m 1811 t o 1818. B o k t y h a d a r g u e d t h a t E g y p t i a n

m a n u f a c t u r e d c o t t o n t e x t i l e s w o u l d h a v e a d i s t i n c t p r i c e

a d v a n t a g e o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t , s i n c e c o t t o n c o u l d b e

g r o w n i n e x p e n s i v e 1 . y i n E g y p t a n d c h e a p l a b o u r w a s a v a i l a b l e ,

T h i s a r g u m e n t - s u p p o r t e d b y v a r i o u s E u r o p e a n m e r c h a n t s - p r e v a i l e d , d e s p i t e c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t s b y D r o v e t t i a n d m e m b e r s o f

t h e P a s h a ' s f a m i l y .

j u s t i f i c a t i o n , t h a t E g y p t i a n u o r k e r s c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y p r o d u c e --

m e r c h a n d i s e t o c u n p e t e i n p r i c e l i t y w i t h t h a t o f E u r o p e a n

f a

l e d g o a n d a s k i l l e d a r t i s a n c l a s s e 4

T h e l a c k o f a c h e a p a n d a d e q u a t e s o u r c e o f m o t i v e p o w e r ._ -----_- "-1- -- - - -

was n n o o f t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m " -

m o d e r n i n d u s t r i e s i n ~ ~ ~ ~ t . ~ I m p o r t s d steam e n g i n e s were u s e d ----

he P a s h a g a v e B u k t y a g i f t o f 6 7 , 5 0 0 p i a s t r e s f o r a d v i s i n g h i m t o d e v e l o p t e x t i l e i n d u s t r i e s . Fahmy, o p , c i t , , p . 1 0 .

' ~ u o t e d i n R i v l i n , o p . c i t . , p . 195,

5 ~ a p o l e o n ' s C o m m i s s i o n +- d e s Arts s t u d i e d a n d r e p o r t e d o n t h e i n d u s t r i a l . p o t e n t i a l o f E g y p t i n I 7 9 g - l 8 O C i e T h e s a v a n t s r e c o m - m e n d e d t h a t a s e a r c h f o r s o u r c e s o f p o w e r t o m o t i v a t e m a c h i n e r y

c o n t d :

Page 85: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

t o a c o n s i d e r a b 1 . e e x t e n t i n i t i a l l y . B e c a u s s o f a l a c k o f

c o m p e t e u t m e c h a n i c s t o s e r v i c e a n d r e p a i r t h e m , h o ~ u e v e r , m o s t -- ------- " -

o f them soo i i c e a s e d t o o p o ~ a i e . I n 1834 fit]: exzmplc , i t uas

r e p o r t e d t h a t o n l y t u ~ o o f a l l t h e steam e n g i n e s in E g y p t w e r e

s e r v i c e a b l e e 6 And R i c h a r d Cnbden o b s e r v e d , w h i i o h e was i n

t h e 1830 's t h a t :

T h e r e i s o n @ m i l l b u i l t a t t h e s i d e o f t h e r i v e r w h i c h p r e s e n t s a s p l e n d i d a p p e a r a n c e , t h e f i n e s t r oom o f S h a r p arid R o b e r t ' s l o o m s t h a t I e v e r s a w . T h e e n g i n e oS t h i s d o e s n o t w o r k , a n d t h e y h ~ v e t h e r e f o r e t u r n p d t h e s e po!~jpr lnorns i n k g hzxnxloarns, "I

T h e h i g h c o s t o f o p e r a t i n g s t e a m e n g i n e s was a n a d d e d

e c o m b u s t i b l

't. 't.'t.l-...""--m----- - - c o n s u m e d a t l e a s t $ 6 s t e r l i n g w o r t h o f c o a l d u r i n g a 1 2 h o u r

p e r i o d . I n a d d i t i o n , e n g i n e e r s a n d s t o k e r s h a d t o b e e m p l o y s d

t o o p e r a t e i t a n d t h e m a c h i n e d e p r e c i a t e d w i t h u s e . On t h e

o t h e r Rand, i t c a s t o n l y g 4 s t e r r l i n g t o e m p l o y 400 E g y p t i a n

f a c t o r y w o r k e r s f o r t h e same p e r i o d .

Once steam e n g i n e s h a d p r o v e d , t o b e u n f e a s i b l e u n d e r

5 contd:

was n e c e s s a r y , and t h a t a t t h e o u t s e t , c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h o u l d b e o n a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t .

6 h u g u s t e C o l i n , " L e t t r e s s u r l * E g y p t e . I n d u s t r i e rnanufac- t u r i \ e r e , " i n R e v u e d e s d e u x Mondes, XIV, 4 t h s e r i e s ( ~ a y 15, 1 8 3 8 ) ~ 521.

' ~ o h n M o r l e y , T h e L i f e o f R i c h a r d Cobden in on don, 1 9 0 3 ) ~ p . 67.

O ~ y t h e t ime t h a t t h e P a s h a h a d a c q u i r e d S y r i a , w h i c h h a d c o a l d e p a s i t s , m o s t f z c t o r i e s h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d f o r s o m e t i m e , a n d t h e i r m o t i . v e pou.ter o r g a n i z e d o n a b a s i s o f p r e v i o u s a v a i l a b l e s o u r c e s - l a r g e l y o x e n . ) I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e a v a i l - a b i l i t y o f S y r i a n c o a l h a d l i t t l e e f f e c t o n E g y p t i a n f a c t o r i e s .

Page 86: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

80

c u r r e n t c o n d i t i o n s , o x e n were e m p l o y e d t o m o t i v a t e t h e v a s t

m a j o r i t y O F i n d u s t r i a l m a c h i n e r y , T h i s i s s o r n s w h a t r e f l e c t i v e

o f t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f t h e B r i t i s h I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n , when

h o r s e s a n d m u l e s w e r e u s e d f o r t h e s a m e p u r p o s e . E i g h t o x e n

d r o v e a w h e e l , w h i c h i n t u r n o p e r a t e d a n u m b e r o f m a c h i n e s .

T h e teams o f o x e n w e r e c h a n g e d t h r e e t imes d u r i n g a t w e l v e h o u r

w o r k d a y e 9 I t c o s t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 p i a s t r e s d a i l y t o f e e d a n d

c z r e f o r a n o x , I n c o m p a r i s o n t o steam e n g i n e s , t h e y o s t e n s i b l y

p r o v i d e d c h e a p p o w e r . B u t t h e r e w e r e a n u n i b e r o f s e r i o u s

p r o b l e i r i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m . P e r i o d i c a l l y , l a r g e n u m b e r s o f

t h e m d i e d f r o m e p i d e m i c s o f c a t t l e d i s e a s e . T h e p o w e r t h e y

p r o v i d e d was v e r y l i m i t e d . B u t m o s t i m p o r t a n t , t h e j e r k y m o t i o n

a n d c h a n g i n g p a c e o f t h e a n i m a l s ( t h e y s l o w e d t h e i r p a c e when

t i r e d a n d s u d d e n l y q u i c k e n e d i t when g o a d e d ) was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

f r e q u e n t b r e a k d o w n s o f m a c h i n e r y . l

T h e t o t a l l a c k o f n a t i v e w o r k e r s , s k i l l e d i n m o d e r n p- "

- - I

' H

i n d u s t r i a l t e c h n i q u e s , p o s e d a n e v e n g r e a t e r p r o b l e m t h a n t h a t ---.- - - v - -

!I$

o f m o t i v e p o w e r , I n a n a t t e m p t t o o v e r c o m e t h i s , t h e P a s h a --- - - . - - _.x .

e m p l o y e d s o m e f o r e i g n s k i l l e d a n d s e m i - s k i l l e d w o r k e r s , I t is -..

n o t e w o r t h y t h a t w h e n , i n 1 8 1 7, t h e P a s h a s e n t a g e n t s t o E u r o p e - -

t o r e c r u i t s u c h p e r s o n n e l , t h e B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t s

p r o h i b i t e d a n y f r o m l e a v i n g t h e i r c o u n t r i e s , s i n c e t h e y w i s h e d - - -

9 ~ e f o r r i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y t o a f a c t o r y a t K e n e h , C o l o n e l C a m p b e l l s a i d : " d u r i n g w h a t is c a l l e d t h e b e r s i m s e a s o n , o r t h a t o f t h e g r a s s h a r v e s t , t h e o x e n a r e s u p p l a n t e d b y men o r b o y s . " B o w r i n g , - - o g , c i t . , p . 37.

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l o ~ o l o n e l C a m p b e l l e s t i m a t e d d u r i n g 1 8 2 9 t h a t 3 , 0 0 0 o x e n w e r e e m p l o y e d i n E g y p t i a n i n d u s t r i e s . I b i d , , p . 3 7 .

Page 87: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

t o a v o i d l e a k a g e s o f i n d u s t r i a l s e c r e t s . 1 q N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h i s , _-_-%.-^ . . -

__ICLC

s o m e B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h w o r k e r s c l a n d e s t i n e l y l e f t f o r ~ ~ ~ ~ t , ~ ~

I n a d d i t i o n , s e v e r a l M a l t e s e a n d I t a l i a n t o x t i l e w o r k e r s w e r e

e m p l o y e d , No a t t e n p t was made b y t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e g o v e r n m e n t s

t o p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m g o i n g t o Egyp t . T h e I t a l i a n s were p r o b a b l y

p e r m i t t e d t o l e a v e b e c a u s e t h e r e was a n e c o n o m i c r e c e s s i o n a n d

w i d e s p r e a d u n e m p l o y m e n t i n t h e i r c o u n t r y . l

D u r i n g 1 8 1 6 , t h e P a s h a a b o l i s h e d t h e s p i n n e r s ' a n d w e a v e r s '

g u i l d , a n d c o m p e l l e d i t s m e m b e r s t o b e c o m e s a l a r i e d g o v e r n m e n t

e m p l o y e e s , L a t e r t h e y were a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e n e w l y e s t a b l i s h e d

t e x t i l e f a c t o r i e s . A l s o i n 1 8 1 6 , t h e P a s h a s p p r o p r i a t e d a l l

s p i n n i n g a n d w e a v i n g c o t t a g e i n d u s t r i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y .

A new d i w a n was e s t a b l i s h e d t o s u p e r v i s e t h e m , a n d g o v e r n m e n t

c o - o r d i n a t o r s w e r e a p p o i n t e d . I 4 I n 1 8 2 3 , h o w e v e r , t h e Pasha

d e c r e e d t h e c l o s u r e o f t h e c o t t a g e i n d u s k r i e s i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t

t h e m f r o m c o m p e t i n g i n t h e d o m e s t i c m a r k e t a g a i n s t t h e n e w l y

e s t a b l i s h e d t e x t i l e f a c t o r i e s , i u h i c h were b y t h e n p r o d u c i n g

c o t t o n g o o d s o n a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e s c a l e ,

The F i r s t t w o t e x t i l e f a c t o r i e s were b u i l t d u r i n g 1 8 1 7 ,

- ? I D r i a u l t , La F o r m a t i o n d e 1 ' E m p i r e d e Mohammed A l y d g

1 ' A r a b i e a u S o u d a n , 1 8 1 4 - 1 8 2 3 - ( C a i r o , 1 9 2 3 ) ' ~ p . 1 ,

l z ~ r o v e t t i r e p o r t e d i n F e b r u a r y , 1 8 1 8 t h a t 5 F r e n c h i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s ( 5 b l a c k s m i t h s a n d 1 h y d r a u l i c s e n g i n e e r ) h a d a r r i v e d i n A l e x a n d r i a a b o a r d t h e f r i g a t e t h a t t h e y h a d c l a n - d e s t i n c l y b o a r d e d i n F r a n c e , I b i d . , p . 1 4 9 ,

1 3 ~ b i d . , p . 64 ; C o n s u l R o u s s i e a u Duc d e R i c h e l i e u , A l e x a n d r i a , 2 2 j u i l l e t 1 0 1 7.

A 4 b J i t h i n a y e a r o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s t a k e o v e r o f t h e w e a v i n g i n d u s t r y , c o t t o n c l o t h increased i n p r i c e f r o m 1 0 0 t o 3 0 0 p a r a s p e r p i e c e , a n d c a n v a s w e n t f r o m 2 0 0 t o 6 0 0 p a r a s p e r p i e c e . A l - J a b a r t i , o p . c i t . , v o l . IX, p , 1 9 2 .

Page 88: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

a t K h u r u n f i s h a n d B u l a q , B o t h Lzere i n t e n d e d f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e

o f f i n e s w o o l l e n g o o d s , E g y p t ' s m a j o r i m p o r t i tem. Wool b e i n g

d i f f i c u l t t o p r o c e s s , h o w e v e r , v a r i o u s v i r t u a l l y i n s o l u b l e

m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o b l e m s w e r e e n c o u n t e r e d . T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s

i n q u e s t i o n were c o n s e q u e n t l y c o n v e r t e d i n t o c o t t o n mills.

D u r i n g t h e e n s u i n g d e c a d e o r s o , s p i n n i n g , w e a v i n g a n d a n c i l l a r y

i n d u s t r i e s s u c h a s b l e a c h i n g a n d d y e i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , r a p i d l y

i n c r e a s e d i n n u m b e r , l 5 T h e n a s c e n t i n d u s t r i e s s u f f e r e d f r o m

a w i d e r a n g e o f p r o b l e m s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e i r n u m b e r a n d

d i v e r s i t y w e r e q u i t e r e m a r k a b l e . L a v i s o n e a R u s s i a n c o n s u l a r

o f f i c i a l , r e p o r t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s t o b o i n o p e r -

a t i o n d u r i n g 1 8 3 7 : 2 9 c o t t o n s p i n n i n g a n d w e a v i n g mills , 1 4

m u n i t i o n s f a c t o r i e s , 1 i r o n f o u n d r y , t h e A l e x a n d r i a A r s e n a l , 3

s u g a r r e f i n e r i e s a n d rum d i s t i l l e r i e s , I p r i n t i n g c e n t r e a n d 1

f e z f a c t o r y . I 6 A u g u s t S t . J o h n f u r t h e r m e n t i o n e d c h e m i c a l

w o r k s , c o p p e r mills a n d a p a p e r m i 1 1 , 1 7 I n a d d i t i o n , t r a d i t i o n a l

l 5 w h e n Muhammad A l i made h i s o c c a s i o n a l v i s i t s t o t h e t e x t i l e f a c t o r y a t B u l a q , a l l t h e w h e e l s w o u l d b e s e t i n m o t i o n s o t h a t t h e a c t i v i t y a n d n o i s e o f t h e p l a n t m i g h t a m u s e h i m . " E v e n g r e a t men h a v e t h e i r w e a k n e s s , " c o m m e n t e d D r o v e t t i . Q u o t e d i n R i v l i n , o p e c i t . , p . 1 9 5 .

\ I 6 c a t t a u i , o p , c i t . , t o m e 11, p a r t 2 , p p . 2 7 9 - 2 8 1 : L a v i s o n

a D u h a m e l , A l e x a n d r i e , l e 8 mars 1 8 3 7 ,

1 7 1 t i s n o t a b l e t h a t Muhammad A l i was a t o n e t ime i n t e n t u p o n d i s m a n t l i n g t h e P y r a m i d s a t G i z a h , i n o r d e r t o u s e t h e s t o n e s a s c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l . He w a s p e r s u a d e d a g a i n s t t h i s by E u r o p e a n s , who r e g a r d e d it a s i m p r a c t i c a b l e , F r e n c h e n g i n e e r L i n a n t d e B e l f o n d s , s a i d o f t h e P a s h a , c o n c e r n i n g h i s d e s t r u c - t i o n o f a n c i e n t m o n u m e n t s : "He r e m a i n e d t i l l h i s d e a t h i n t h i s r e s p e c t a r u d e T u r k . No man d e s t r o y e d m o r e o f t h e m , He p u l l e d down t h e T e m p l e s o f A b y d o s , o r A r s i r o a n d many o t h e r s t o b u i l d m a n u f a c t o r i e s , A t l a s t we p e r s u a d e d h i m t h a t t h i s w o u l d r e n d e r h i m u n p o p u l a r i n E u r o p e , a n d h e o r d e r e d t h e p r a c t i c e t o b e d i s - c o n t i n u e d , B u t a s h e c a r e d n o t h i n g f o r a r t o r f o r a n t i q u i t y , h e d i d n o t l o o k t o t h e e x e c u t i o n o f h i s o r d e r s ; h e d i d n o t p u n i s h t h e b r e a c h o f t h e m . " S e n i o r , o p . c i t . , v o l . 11, p p . 5 6 - 5 7 .

Page 89: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

n a t i v e i n d u s t r i e s s u c h a s i n d i g o p r o d u c t i o n , r i c e h u s k i n g ( t h e l e

w e r e 1 2 ' i n d i g o p r o c e s s i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a n d 4 r i c e mills i n

1837) , o i l p r e s s s s a n d f l o u r m i l l s w e r e a l s o u n d e r g o v e r n m e n t

c o n t r o l . E x p e n d i t u r e s on i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t a r e e s t i m a t e d

t o h a v e r e a c h e d ~ 1 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 s t e r l i n g b y 1 8 3 8 . 1 ~ A l a r g e p r o - I

p o r t i o n o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s w e r e c o n s u m e d b y t h e a r m e d

f o r c e s , Most o f t h e r e m a i n d e r were g i v e n t o c u l t i v a t o r s i n

p a y m e n t f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e , o r s o l d - s o m e t i m e s f o r c i b l y - t o d o m e s t i c m e r c h a n t s a n d r e t a i l e r s . A s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f

E g y p t i a n m a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s was e x p o r t e d , i n c l u d i n g some s p u n

c o t t o n t o E u r o p e a n d s o m e c o t t o n c l a t h t o v a r i o u s a r e a s of' t h e

O t t o m a n E m p i r e .

C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e r e w e r e n e i t h e r f e a s i b l e c o m b u s t i b l e

m a t e r i a l s , u s e f u l m e t a l d e p o s i t s , n o r s k i l l e d n a t i v e f o u n d r y

w o r k e r s i n E g y p t , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a l a r g e m e t a l f o u n d r y

a t B u l a y w a s , e v e n f o r Muhammad A l i , a v e n t u r e s o m e u n d e r t a k i n g . I I1

I t w o u l d make a w o r t h y s u b j e c t f o r a case s t u d y o f p r o b l e m s i n , l I I'

e s t a b l i s h i n g c o m p l e x i . n d u s t r y i n a t r a d i t i o n a l e t h o s were m o r e *

d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on i t a v a i l a b l e . B u i l t d u r i n g t h e e a r l y

1 8 2 0 ' s u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f E n g l i s h e n g i n e e r G a l l o w a y , i t

e m p l o y e d a r o u n d 4 0 0 w o r k e r s . M e t a l o r e s were s m e l t e d , a n d

n ~ a c h i n e tae.ls, s p i n n i n g e q u i p m e n t , w e a v i n g l o o m s a n d t h e l i k e ,

w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a n d r e p a i r e d t h e r e . 1 9 Not s u r p r i s i n g l y ,

1 8 ~ h a r l e s Issawip E q y p t i n R e v o l u t i o n ( o x f o r d , 1 9 6 3 ) ~ p . 23.

I 9 ~ h e i n d u s t r i a l m a c h i n e r y made i n E g y p t was c o p i e d f r o m E u r o p e a n m o d e l s , a n d d i d n o t h a v e a n y m o d i f i c a t i o n s t h a t would c o u n t e r a c t p r o b l e m s p e c u l i a r t o E g y p t ' s a t m o s p h e r i c a n d c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s , t h o u g h t h e s e p r o v e d t o b e d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e maeh- i n e r y . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e h i g h l e v e l o f a t m o s p h e r i c d u s t c a u s e d

c o n t d :

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h o w e v e r , t h e f o u n d r y was a l e s s t h a n e f f i c i e n t a p e r a t i . o n ,

I t s e i g h t f u r n a c e s , w h i c h h a d a p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y o f

50 cwt, o f i r o n p e r d a y , p r o p o r t i o n a J ~ o l y consumed t o o much f u e l

d u e t o f a u l t y d e s i g n , 20 C a s t i n g s were v e r y B r e q u c n t l y r u i n e d

d u e t o t h ~ n e g l i g e n c e o f w o r k e r s . T h e s a n d u s e d f o r c a s t i n g s ,

f o r i n s t a n c e , was f r e q u e n t l y i n s u f f i c i e n t l y s i f t e d a n d o f t e n

t h e m o u l d s h a d n o t b e e n a d e q u a t e l y d r i e d o u t . z q B o w r i n g

c o m m e n t e d t h a t when h e v i s i t e d t h e E u l a q f o u n d r y t h e f l o o r was

qrJ

s t r e w r ~ w i t h f a u i t y c a ~ t i n g s . " ~

L i k e t h e Bul.aq f o u n d r y , t h e P a s h a ' s a r m e m s n t manufactories

t h e o r e t i c a l l y r e q u i r e d a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f s k i l l e d p e r s o n n e l .

T h e s e , o f c o u r s e , were n o t f o r t h c o m i n g . Some c a n n o n s a n d s m a l l

arms h a d b e e n p r o d u c e d d o m e s t i c a l l y d u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s ~ f

Muhammad AliPs r e i g n , b u t b y t r a d i t i o n a l m e a n s a n d r i o t n e a r l y

e n o u g h f o r h i s r e q u i r e m e n t s , L a r g e q u a n t i t i t e s o f t h e m h a d t o

b e i m p o r t e d , S e n s i t i v e t o E g y p t ' s s t r a t e g i c v u l n e r a b i l i t y i n

t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t h e P a s h a g r e a t l y e x p a n d e d d o m e s t i c arms p r o -

d u c t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 8 2 0 ' s a n d e a r l y 1 6 3 0 ' s . ~ ~ A s m e n t i o n e d

19 c o n t d : c l o g g i n g i n m a c h i n e r y , w h i c h i n t u r n c a u s e d b r e a k d o w n s . T h i s was e s p e - i a l l y t r u e o f c a r d i n g a n d s p i n n i n g m a c h i n e s .

* O ~ h e c o a l m i n e d i n S y r i a , w h i c h came u n d e r t h e P a s h a ' s c o n t r o l d u r i n g t h e 1 8 3 0 ' s , wzs s u l p h u r o u s c o a l , a n d c o u l d n o t b e u s e d i n e x i s t e n t s m e l t i n g p r o c e s s e s , T h u s i t was n e c e s s a r y t o c o n t i n u e i m p o r t i n g c o a l f r o m E u r o p e , w h i c h was e x p e n s i v e . C a t t a u i , o p , c i t . , v o l . 11, p a r t 1, p . 292.

o p . c i t . ,

2 2 ~ o w r i n ~ o p i n e d t h a t a t B u l a q " t h e w a s t e m u s t b e v e r y g r e a t - t h e c o n t r o l i s s o i m p e r f e c t . " I b i d . , p , 4 3 ,

2 3 ~ t . J o h n r e p o r t e d o f t h e C a i r o M u s k e t F a c t o r y : "Here t h e y r e p a i r m o n t h l y 1 , 6 0 0 o l d m u s k e t s , a n d m a n u f a c t u r e 4 0 0 new

c o n t d :

Page 91: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

p r e v i o u s l y , t h e r e u e r e '14 m u n i t i o n s f a c t o r i e s i n o p e r a t i o n i n

1 8 3 7 . Metal f o r arms p r o d u c t i o n iuas, o f c o u r s e , d r a u ~ n f r o m

t h e B u l a q f o u n d r y . Due t o t h e i n a b i l i t y o f t h e i v o r k e r s , a n

i n o r d i n a t e n u m b e r o f f i r e a r m s p r o d u c e d h a d t o b e s c r a p p e d .

C o h o r n c o n t e n d e d , i n 1 8 2 9 , t a k i n g t h i s f a c t o r i n t o a c c o u n t , t h a t

a n E g y p t i a n r i f l e c o s t s i x t imes m o r e t o p r o d u c a t h a n a F r e n c h

o n e . 2 4

C o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e many p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s i n a l l

i n d u s t r i e s was t h e f a c t ' t h a t m a c h i n e r y was i n v a r i a b l y r u n u n t i l 'i

i t was t o t a l l y u n s e r v i ~ e a b l e , ~ ~ A c c o r d i n g t o Y u s u f H c k e k y a n , ------- -, -. ---+*---- " .'-+.-**.-"*- -

a n A r m e n i a n e n g i n e e r , t h i s was l a r g e l y d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t

r e p a i r s o r a d j u ~ t m e n t s . ~ ~ F o r i f a F a c t o r y ' s p r o d u c t i o n

2 3 c o n t d : o n e s , u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f A l i Aga, a F r e n c h r e n e g a d e , w i t h t h e r a n k o f c o l o n e l , " S t . J o h n , 9, c i t . , v o l . 11, p . 424..

2 4 ~ o u i n , L q E q y p t e d e I 8 2 8 \a 1 8 3 0 , p . 1 9 5 : L e R a p p o r t d e M o n s i e u r d e C o h o r n . B o w r i n g r e p o r t e d t h a t w h i l e h e was i n E g y p t t h e C a i r o C i t a d e l u a s p r o d u c i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y : 2 0 s a b r e s p e r d a y , 2 1 - 2 5 m u s k e t s p e r d a y , 6 2 5 b a y o n e t s p s r m o n t h a n d 3-4 c a n n o n s p e r m o n t h , B o w r i n y , op. c i t . , p . 4 3 .

2 5 ~ o i s l e c o m t e c l a i m e d t h a t t h e P a s h a was c o n s t a n t l y o v e r c h a r g e d f o r i m p o r t e d i n d u s t r i a l m a c h i n e r y a n d t h a t much o f i t was u s a l e s s , b e c a u s e i t l a c k e d e s s e n t i a l p a r t s o n a r r i v a l i n E g y p t , D o u i n , La M i s s i o n d u B a r o n d e B o i s l e c o m t e , p . 9 1 . S i m i l a r l y , B o w r i n g c l a i m e d t h a t Muhammad A l i was o v e r c h a r g e d b y o n e t h i r d o f t h e u s u a l p r i c e f o r i r o n n a i l s h e p u r c h a s e d i n E u r o p e f o r u s e i n m i n e s i n S y r i a . He a d d e d t h a t t h i s w a s n o r m a l p r a c t i c e f o r many E u r o p e a n c o m p a n i e s who s o l d t o t h e P a s h a , B o u ~ r i n g , o p . c i t . , p . 30.

2 6 ~ u s u f H e k e k y a n ' s v a r i e d e d u c a t i o n i s n o t e w o r t h y . He was b o r n i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , a n d d u r i n g h i s e a r l y y e a r s s t u d i e d A r m e n i a n , G r e e k a n d F r e n c h . I n 1 8 1 7 h i s f a t h e r , who h a d w o r k e d f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d f o r Muhammad A l i i n E g y p t , s e n t h i m t a E n g l a n d t o s t u d y . He s t a y e d a t t h e Clapham Academy f o r t h r e e y e a r s , w h e r e h e s t u d i e d E n g l i s h , F r e n c h , L a t i n , G e o g r a p h y , E l o c u t i o n , A r i t h m e t i c a n d G e o m e t r y , He r e c e i v e d a p r i z e f o r

c o n t d :

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q u o t a was n o t r e a c h e d , t h o m a n a g e m e n t a n d w c r k e r s were s e v e r e l y * - " - -. ----

s t h r e a t h a d n o t e x i s t e d , t h e r e were

n o t s u f f i c i e n t c o m p e t e n t m e c h a n i c s t o m a i n t a i n a n d r e -

m a c h i n a r y a d c q u a t e l y . I n a d d i t i o n , m a c h i n e s w e r e f r e q u e n t l y ." _I_,_ ^ " ---C__--

u n s e r v i c e a b l e f o r l o n g p o r i o d s d u e , t o . d i f f i c u l t y i n o b t a i n i n g

r e p l a c e m e n t p a r t s .

T h e r e were n e v e r , s u f f i c i e n t E u r o p e a n s k i l l e d i n d u s t r i a l

w o r k e r s i n E g y p t t o t r a i n a n d s u p e r v i s e E g y p t i a n p e r s o n n e l

a d e q u a t e l y . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h i s , t h e P a s h a o n o c c a s i o n d i s - -.-I_ .

m i s s e d a s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r o f t h e m f 3 r e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s , s i n c e

t h e y were p a i d c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e t h a n t h e m o s t h i g h l y t r a i n e d

E g y p t i a n s . S o o n a f t e r t h e F i r s t S y r i a n War f o r i n s t a n c e ,

B o i s l e c o m t e w r o t e t h a t : " t h e f o r e i g n e r s h a v e b e e n s e n t b a c k t o

E u r o p e , a n d t h e f a c t o r i e s a r a b e i n g r u n b y A r a b s , " S u c h m e a s u r e s -

26 c o n t d : p a i n t i n g a n d d r a w i n g , was i h e b c s t a t m i i i t a r y e x e r c i s e s a n d b e c a m e b u g l e r t o t h e Academy. His f a t h e r d i e d d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d a n d Muhammad A l i b e c a m e h i s p r o t e c t o r , a n d m a i n t a i n e d h i m i n E n g l a n d , He t h e n a t t e n d e d S t o n y h u r s t G o l l e g e f o r t h r e e y e a r s a n d i n 1 8 2 4 w e n t t o t h e C a t h o l i c S c h a o l a t C a r s h a l t o n . F rom t h i s t ime h c s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n a t t r a c t e d b y m i l i t a r y s u b j e c t s a n d h e g r a d u a l l y a b a n d o n e d h i s c l a s s i c a l s t u d i e s i n o r d e r t o r e a d m i l i t a r y w o r k s , h i s t o r y , w o r k s o n f o r t i f i c a t i o n a n d m a t h e m a t i c s . Muhammad A l i s e n t o r d e r s t h a t h e was t o s t u d y m e c h a n i c s , t h u s h e a t t e n d e d a s c h o o l i n P i m l i c o , a n d v i s i t e d f a c t o r i e s i n L i v e r - p o o l , M a n c h e s t e r , G l a s g o w a n d o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l c i t i e s . D u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t O F h i s s t a y i n E n g l a n d , h e l e a r n t F r e n c h a n d I t a l i a n we l l a n d s t u d i e d o t h e r s u b j e c t s o f h i s awn a c c o r d s u c h a s h y d r a u l i c s a n d h y d r o s t a t i c s . He a p p e a r s t o h a v e g o n e t o E g y p t ( f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e ) i n 1 8 3 0 , w h e r e h e was g i v e n a t e a c h i n g p o s t a t - M a d r a s a t a l - M u h a n d i s k h a n a h - a n e n g i n e e r i n g s c h o o l - o f . w h i c h h e b e c a m e t h e n a z i r i n 1 8 3 4 . H e y i u o r t h - D u n n e , An I n t r o - d u c t i o n t o t h e H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n i n M o d e r n E q y p t , p . 1 7 4 . -- ---

2 7 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , La M i s s i o n d u Baron d e B o i s l e c o m t e , p . 93: Le B a r o n d e B o i s l e c o r n t e a u M i n i s t r e , A l e x a n d r i e , l e 29 j u i n 1 8 3 3 . E u r o p e a n i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s i n E g y p t r e c e i v e d g e n e r o u s s a l a r i e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n 1 8 2 1 t w o E n g l i s h t e c h n i c i a n s a t a c o p p e r f o u n d r y a r e r e p o r t e d t o h a v e

c o n t d :

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h a d d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s u p o n i n d u s t r i a l o p u r a t i o n s , s i n c e t h e .& --

E g y p t i a h s who r c p l a c e d t h e m were i n v a r i a b l y i n e p t , T h i s l a t t e r . - -

p o i n t was p a r t l y d u e t o d e l i b e r a t e p o l i c y o n t h e p a r t o f E u r o p -

e a n s . T h e y kneuj t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e d i s m i s s e d a s s o o n a s a

s u f f i c i e n t n u m b e r o f E g y p t i a n s h a d a c q u i r e d t h e n e c e s s a r y i n d u s t -

r i a l s k i l l s , t h u s , i n t h e w o r d s o f a n E n g l i s h e n g i n e e r : " t h e

F r a n k . , . . d o e s a l l i n h i s p o w e r t o k e e p t h e A r a b i n t h e a r r e a r s

o f k n o w l e d g e . "28

W o r k e r s f o r t h e P a s h a ' s i n d u s t r i e s w e r e c o n s c r i p t e d i n - --.--*" .-*-. -- " -

t h e s a m e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y b r u t a l m a n n e r a s was u s e d f o r t h e - " Y L Y I - " e - - " - -

a r m e d f o r c e s . 2 Y O n c e p l a c e d i n f a c t o r i e s , n o a t t e ----

t o a c c l i m a t i z e t h e m t o t h e i r f o r e i g n s u r r o u n d i n g s , T h e f a c t o r i e s - .- -

w e r e e x t r e m e l y n o i s y , p o o r l y l i t a n d i n a d e q u a t e l y v e n t i l a t e d , , - _.----

a d r a s t i c c o n t r a s t t o t h e f e l l a h i n ' s n o r m a l e n ~ i r o n m e n t . ~ ~ -- - A

T h e c o n s c r i p t s ' d i f f i c u l t i e s i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y a d j u s t i n g t o

i n d u s t r i a l w o r k , a n d t h e i r d i s l i k e f o r i t , a r e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e

f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t made b y t h e f a c t o r y n a z i r a t E s n e h , a f t e r

B r i t i s h C o n s u l - G e n e r a l , C o l o n e l C a m p b e l l , h a d a s k e d h i m why h e

27 c o n t d : r e c e i v e d r e s p e c t i v e l y 1 , 8 7 5 a n d 3 , 5 0 0 p i a s t r e s p e r m o n t h a n d t w o s e m i - s k i l l e d E n g l i s h i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s r e c e i v e d 5 0 0 p i a s t r e s p e r m o n t h , I n a d d i t i o n t h e y p r o b a b l y g a t c l o t h i n g a n d f o o d a l l o w a n c e s a n d f r e e a c c o m m o d a t i o n , On t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e b e s t p a i d o f t h o s e E g y p t i a n s who s p e n t l o n g p e r i o d s i n E u r o p e s t u d y i n g i n d u s t r i a l t e c h n i q u e s , r e c e i v e d n o m o r e t h a n 5 0 0 p i a s t r e s p e r m o n t h , a n d s o m e were r e p o r t e d t o b e e a r n i n g a s l o w a s 1 2 5 p i a s - t r e s . Of t h e 1 0 0 s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e Egyp- t i a n G o v e r n m e n t b e t w e e n 1 8 2 9 a n d l e 4 0 , 69 w e r e s t u d y i n g v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f i n d u s t r y , H e y w o r t h - D u n n e , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n i n M o d e r n Eqypt, p . 176 , Madden , o p . c i t , , - - p . 49 a n d T o r n i c h e , o p . c i t . , p . 2 6 0 ,

2 8 ~ u o t e d i n B o w r i n g , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 9 7 - 1 9 9 .

2 9 ~ e e p a g e s 3 9 - 40 f o r m i l i t a r y c o n s c r i p t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . 3 0 ' ~ h ~ : A r a b s g e n e r a l l y s h o w l i t t l e a p t i t u d e f o r t h e l o o m ,

c o n t d :

Page 94: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

was c o n s t a n t l y w h i p p i n g h i s w o r k e r s : e----- -

HOUJ c o u l d i t b e o t h e r u ~ i s e ? T h e y a r e a l l i g n o r a n t p c o p l e , t h e y come f r o m t h e f i e l d s , many o f t h e m w i t h l o n g b e a r d s , a n d s e e a f a c t o r y f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e i r l i v e s , t h e y a r e v j h o l l y u n u s e d t o t h e e m p l o y m e n t , 31

T h e r e were a n u m b e r o f m a j o r c a se s o f s a b o t a g e o f f a c t o r y

p r o p e r t y a n d i n n u m e r a b l e m i n o r o n e s . A u g u s t S t . J o h n r e p o r t e d

t h a t a l l o f t h e 24 c o t t o n mills i n o p e r a t i o n w h i l e h e was i n

E g y p t h a d a t o n e t i m e o r a n o t h e r s u f f e r e d l a r g e s c a l e f i r e s ,

d u e t o a c c i d e n t s o r s a b y t a g e . 32 I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e was a

c o n s t a n t p r o b l e m o f w o r k e r s f l e e i n g f r o i n t h e i r f a c t o r y j o b s .

M o s t i n d u s t r i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s e m p l o y e d f i v e o r s i x mcn t o

s e a r c h f o r s u c h f u g i t i v e s .

As m a n p o w e r b e c a m e s c a r c e , d u e t o h c a v y c o n s c r i p t i o n f o r . - -~ -

t h e P a s h a ' s v a r i o u s o t h e r p r o j e c t s , women a n d c h i l d r e n ujere

c o n s c r i p t e d i n t o f a c t o r y w o r k . T h i s o f c o u r s e c o n s t i t u t e d a

d r a m a t i c s o c i a l c h a n g e f o r t h e wcmen i n v o l v e d , s i n c e t h e y

w h i l e w o r k i n g i n t h e f a c t o r i e s t h e y r e m a i n e d v e i l e d , Many

women, h o w e v o r , e x e m p t e d t h e m s e l v e s f r o m i n d u s t r i a l w o r k b y

m u t i l a t i n g o r b l i n d i n g t h e m s e l v e s . M o r e o v e r , t h e m o r t a l i t y

3 0 c o n t d : t h e y h a v e n o p r e v i o u s e d u c a t i o n o r h a b i t s t o f i t t h e m f o r i t . T h e y d o n o t b e g i n t h e i r m a n u f a c t o r y h a b i t s i n e a r l y l i f e , b u t a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e f i e l d s when t h e y h a v e r e a c h e d m a n h o o d , a n d d e v o t e d t o p u r s u i t s a l t o g e t h e r i n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h o s e t h e y a b a n d o n . " B o w r i n g , o p e c i t , , p p , 35-36.

3 2 " ~ h e f a c t o r y a t S i o u t , w h i c h e m p l o y e d a b o u t s i x h u n d r e d h a n d s , was p u r p o s e l y b u r n e d t o t h e g r o u n d ; a n d t o w a r d s t h e c l o s e o f D e c e m b e r , 1831, t h e p o w e r - l o o m w e a v i n g m i l l a f K h a n d - a l - M e r o o d was d e s i g n e d l y d e s t r o y e d b y f i r e , " I n t h e l a t t e r e s t a b - l i s h m e n t t h o l o s s was e s t i m a t e d a t 2!35,000 s t e r l i n g , S t . J o h n , o p , c i t . , v o l . 11, p . 413.

Page 95: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

r a t e a m o n g c h i l d r o n w o r k i n g i n f a c t o r i e s was e x t r e m e l y h i g h . 3 3 -

N o . w a g e i n c e n t i v e s were o f f e r o d t o f a c k o r y aoPkc?+s, 34

W e a v e r s were n o m i n a l l y p a i d I-$ p i a s t r e s a d a y , a t b e s t a

s u b s i s t e n c e wage, Yet v a r i o u s f a c t o r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d

t h e a m o u n t a n d r e a l v a l u e o f t h i s . 35 F a c t o r y admf n i s t r a t o r s

b i l k e d w o r k e r s b y d e d u c t i n g o s t e n s i b l e f a c t o r y e x p e n s e s f r o m

t h e i r w a g e s , s u c h a s m a c h i n e r y r e p a i ~ s . F u r t h e r m o r e , b e c a u s a

w a g e s were v i r t u a l l y a l . ~ ~ a y s s e v e r a l m o n t h s i n a r r e a r s , w o r k e r s

were f o r c o d t o b o r r o w money f r o m m o n e y l e n d e r s a t 15-25 p e r c e n t

i n t e r e s t , Had t h e y b e e n t r e a t e d m o r e h u m a n e l y , h a d s a l a r i e s -

b e e n f i n a n c i a l i n d u c e m e n t s f o r d i l i g e n t u ~ o r k r n a n s h i p , a f a r m o r e _"*. 0- --- t o l e r a n t a n d p r o d u c t i v e a t t i k u d e w o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y h a v e e v o l v e d

a m o n g E g y p t i a n s t o w a r d s i n d u s t r i a l w o r k , - .- -- __--- -

S o o n a f t e r t h e P a s h a h a d e m b a r k e d u p o n i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n ,

a c o m p l e x i n d u s t r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e b e g a n t o e v o l v e ,

T h e b o d y i n c h a r g e o f m o s t f a c t o r i e s , t h e F a c t o r y B o a r d , tuas I '

I " ' I

3 3 0 o u i n , La m i s s i o n d u B a r o n d e B o i s l . s c o m t e , p . 7 9 . C

3 4 " ~ v e n s u p p o s i n g t h e m a n a g e r s h o u l d w i s h t o r a i s e t h e w a g e s o f a m e r i t o r i o u s w o r k m a n , i t i s a t h i n g d i f f i c u l t t c a c c o m p l i s h . I t i s n e c e s s a r y f i r s t t o w r i t e t o h i s n e x t superior, t h e n t h e o r d e r p a s s e s t h r o u g h 3 o r 4 d i v a n s u n t i l i t r e a c h e s t h e B o a r d o f T r a d e , w h i c h i s c o m p o s e d o f men o f v e r y o r d i n a r y a b i l i t i e s , a n d a l m o s t t o t a l l y i g n o r a n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s u p o n w h i c h t h e y h a v e t o d e c i d e . H e n c e it m u s t p r o c e e d t o h i s H i g h - n e s s , a n d i f o n e o f t h e s e d i v a n s n e g a t i v e t h e o r d e r , t h e d e m a n d i s l o s t a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e p r o p o s e r g e t s a r e p r i m a n d f o r e x t r a v a g a n c e . " B o w r i n g , o p . c i t . , p p . 197-1 '38 , f r o m a r e p o r t o f a n u n n a m e d E n g l i s h e n g i n e a r .

3 5 ~ h e v a l u e o f t h e p i a s t r e , t o t h e w o r k e r , i s r e r l e c t e d i n t h e f o l l o u ~ j - n g l i s t o f p r i c e s f o r v a r i o u s i t o s d u r i n g 1 8 3 5 : 1 l i t r e o f r i c e - 1 . 3 p i a s t r e s , 1 r a t l e ( 1 5 ~ 7 4 o z s . ) o f m u t t o n - 1 p i a s t r e , 1 f o w l - 1 . 5 p i a s t r e s , 3 e g g s - 4- p i a s t r e , 1 r a t l e o f c o f f e e - 6 . 7 p i a s t r e s , 1 r a t l e o f s u g a r - ' 2 p i a s t r e s . L a n e , o p , c i t , , p , 312,

Page 96: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

f o u n d e d i n 1831. S u b s i d i a r y t o it w e r e t h e : " ( i ) C o n s e i l . d e

l ' i m p r e s s i o n d e s 6 t o f f e s ( i i ) C o n s e i l d e l a m 6 t a l l u r g i e

( i i i ) C o n s e i l d e s V e n t e s ( d e s p r o d u i t s f a b r i q u 6 s ) ( i v ) C o n s e i l

d e s b e s t i a u x . "36 A r s e n a l s a n d m u n i t i o n s m a n u f a c t o r i e s were

c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e " ( i ) C o n s e i l d c s a r s e n a u x e t ( i i ) C o n s e i l d e s

m u n i t i o n s d e g u e r r e , " w h i c h w e r e s u b s i d i a r y t o t h e Diwan a l -

J i h a d i y a h . - T h e n a s c e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was f r a u g h t w i t h i m p e r -

f e c t i o n s . T h e F a c t o r y B o a r d ' s m e m b e r s l a c k e d p r a c t i c a l know-

i e d g e of i n d u s t r i a i mat ters a n d p a c c o r d i n g t o C o l o n e l C a m p b e l l ,

f r e q u e n t l y a r r i v e d a t d e t r i m e n t a l d e c i s i o n s . T h o r e were,

m o r e o v e r , many i n s t a n c e s u ~ h c r e f a c t o r i e s h a d t o c l o s e dsun

t e m p o r a r i l y b e c a u s e t h e y h a d n o t r e c e i v e d r e q u i s i t i o n e d a u p p l l c s ,

d u e t o a c i i n i n i s t r a t i v e b l u n d e r s . T h o s e f r e q u e n t l y r e s u l t e d f r o m

f a u l t y c o - o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s a u t h o r i t i e s i n v a l v c d .

When h e n e e d e d raw m a t e r i a l s t h e n a z i r o f a w o o l p r o c e s s i n g

f a c t o r y , f o r e x a m p l - e , h a d t o o r d e r s u p p l i e s o f ralu m a t e r i a l s

f r o m t h e c o u n c i l h e Lvas r e s p o n s i b l e t o , u ~ h i c h i n t u r n c o n t a c t e d

t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f Commerce , w h i c h r e q u e s t e d a g e n t s i n E u r o p e t o

f o r w a r d t h e n e e d e d c o m m o d i t i e s o r e n d e a v o u r e d Lo p r o c u r e t h e m

d o m e s t i c a l l y , 37 T h i s p r o c e s s t o o k c o n s i d e r a b l e t ime a n d was

r i f e u ~ i t i , p i t f a l l s .

T h c f a c t o r y n a z i r s - a l l o f t h e m O t t o m a n s - o f f i c i a l l y . - -- --" -

h e l d s w a y o v e r a l l e m p l o y e e s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e i n d u s t r i a l

e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , e v e n t h o u g h many o f t h e i r E u r o p e a n s u b o r d i n a t e s

3 7 ~ l i a l - G i r i t l i , 'The H i s t o r y o f I n d u s t r y i n E g y p t , " i n C h a r l e s Issatui ( e d . ), T h e E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y o f t h e M i d d l e E a s t , 1800-1 91 4 ( c h i c a g o , 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 3 9 9 - 4 0 0 .

Page 97: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

r e c e i v e d much h i g h e r s a l a r i e s , 30 T h e y r e c e i v e d l i t t l e t r a i n i n g

i n t h e i r i n t e n d e d d u t i e s , a n d were g e n e r a l l y i g n o r a n t o f -- - -

i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e d u r e s , ~ ~ The f o l l o l r ~ i n g comment by C o l o n e l

C a m p b e l l i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e d i s d a i n among E u r o p e a n s f o r

n a z i r s :

a d i r e c t o r o f o n e o f t h e m a n u f a c t o r i e s ca res l i t t l e i f t h e men a r e w e l l o r ill p a i d , o r e v e n i f t h e y a r e p a i d a t a l l , o r e v e n i f t h e p l a c e i s me11 o r ill s u p p l i e d w i t h n e c e s s a r & f i s : a l l h e r e g a r d s i s h i s s a l a r y a n d t o e s c a p e b l a m e .

Some L u r o p e a n o b s e r v e r s u ~ e n t a s f a r a s t o b l a m e t h e n a z i r s f o r . ,

t h e s u b s e q u e n t f a i l u r e o f t h e P a s h a ' s i n d u s t r i e s , S u c h c l a i m s

r e v e a l t h o s e who made t h e m a s b e i n g i g n o r a n t o f t h e p r o f o u n d

a n d d i v e r s e c o m p l e x i t i e s i n v o l v e d i n i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t ,

i n s u c h a n e t h o s a s t h a t o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y E g y p t . None t h e

l e s s , i t is u n d e n i a b i e t h a t t h e i n d u s t r i e s c o u l d h a v e b e n e f i t t e d

g r e a t l y b y h a v i n g c o m p e t e n t managemen t p e r s o n n e l .

As a n economy m e a s u r e , a n d a l s o t o r e l e a s e ~ ~ 0 r k e r s f o r I I

m i l i % a r y c o n s c r i p t i o n , s e v e r a l f a c t o r i e s were c l o s e d down d u r i n g 111li. I

I \

3 8 ~ a z i r s -.. r e c e i v e d a s a l a r y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 500 p i a s t r e s a mon th . Torn iche , o p . c i t . , p , 26G,

3 9 ~ a z i r s -- a n d o t h e r f a c t o r y p e r s o n n e l i n c l u d i n g c l e r k s , w a r e h o u s e k e e p e r s a n d w e i g h e r s e n i u e z z l e d i n e s t i m a b l e a m a u n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l f u n d s a n d m a t e r i a l s . B u t c o r r u p t i o n was cornman t o a l l r e s p o n s i b l e p o s i t i o n s , C o l o n e l C a m p b e l l c l a i m e d t h a t i t was t h o u g h t t h a t a b o u t 4 0 % o f t h e t o t a l a m o u n t o f t a x e s c o l l e c t e d n e v e r r e a c h e d t h e T r e a s u r y , S i m i l a r l y , B o w r i n g r e p o r t e d t h a t G o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s p u r c h a s e d i n d i g o f r o m t h e c u l t i v a t o r s a t a r o u n d 1 0 0 p i a s t r e s p e r o k e a n d s o l d i t a t t w o o r t h r e e t imes t h a t a m o u n t b u t t h e g o v e r n m e n t r e c e i v e d o n l y 40 p e r c e n t p r o f i t o n t h e o r i g i n a l p u r c h a s e p r i c e , L a t e r i n h i s r e p o r t h e s t a t e d t h a t : "The a m o u n t o f g r a f t i s i m m e n s e - i n e s t i m a b l e . " B o w r i n g , o p . c i t , , p p , 44 a n d 4 7 , R i v l i n , o p , c i t , , p . 83.

Page 98: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

1 8 3 9 - t h e S e c o n d S y r i a n War b r a k e o u t i n May o f t h a t y e a r . 4 1

O f t h e ~ 2 9 c o t t o n t e x t i l e mills t h a t were o p e r a t i n g i n 1 8 3 7 ,

o n l y 1 5 w e r e s k i l l o p e n i n t h e o a r l y m o n t h s o f 1 8 4 0 . D u r i n g t h e

l a t t e r . p a r t o f 1 8 4 0 , w h i l e t h e War was s t i l l i n p r o g r e s s , t h e

P a s h a i s s u e d a n o r d e r t h a k a l l f a c t o r i e s n o t o p e r a t i n g a t a

p r o f i t m u s t c l o s e down, Many c l o s e d i m m e d i a t e l y . T h e r e m a i n -

B e c a u s e o f e x c e s s i v e p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a n d i n e p t workman-

s h i p , m o s t i n d u s t r i e s h a d b e e n o p e r a t i n g u n d e r h e a v y d e f i c i t s .

Yet t h e P a s h a was f o r a l o n g t ime d e l u d e d by d i s t o

f r o m s u b o r d n t o t h i n k i n g o t h e r w i s e . S u c h d e c e i t was

b o l s t e r e d b y t h e e r r o n e o u s c o s t a s s e s s m e n t s y s t e ~ n t h e n i n

o p e r a t i o n , When c o s t i n g a m a n u f a c t u r e d i tem, o n l y l a b o u r a n d

mater ia ls wsre t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . No a l l o w a n c e u a s made f o r

f a c t o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s , o v e r h e a d s , w a s t e d m a t e r i a l s ,

i n t e r e s t o n i o a n c a p i t a l , o r d e p r e c i a t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s a n d mach-

i n e r y , B o w r i n g , among o t h e r s , c o n t e n d e d t h a t e v e n t h e c o t t o n

d e r s t r u g g l e d o n f o r a f e w m o r e y e a r s . 4* By 1 8 5 0 - t h e y e a r

a f t e r Muhammad AliOs d e a t h - a c c o r d i n g t o F r e n c h h i s t o r i a n

G a b r i e l Gui rnard : " A l l t h e S t a t e owned f a c t o r i e s h a v e b s e n

d e s t r o y e d , " 4 3

4 1 y a t e s w r o t e : "No l e s s t h a n 1 2 , 0 0 0 workmen were s e n t a t o n e t ime f r o m t h e C a i r o m a n u f a c t o r i e s t o t h e camp o f T a u r a , w h e r e t h e y were e x a r c i s e d . V a c a n c i e s l e f t i n t h e m a n u f a c t o r i e s were f i l l e d u p b y C o p t s . " B u t , many o f t h e f a c t o r i e s were l e f t a b a n d o n e d , a n d s o m e o f t h e m h a d b e e n t h a t way f o r some t i m e . Yates, pp. c i t . , v o l . I , p . 4 3 2 .

4 2 ~ r o u c h l e y , o p . c i t . , p . 7 4 .

4 3 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : Gugmard, o p . c i t . , p. 445 .

Page 99: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y l;!as o p e r a t i n g a t a h e a v y

T h e P a s h a r e p e a t e d l y o r d e r e d a l l g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s

t o p u r c h a s e E g y p t i a n q o o d s w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e , e v e n i f t h e y

were l o u j e r i n q u a l i t y a n d h i g h e r i n p r i c e t h a n i m p o r t e d g o o d s . 4 h

N e v e r t h e l e s s , e l s e w h e r e i n t h e d o m e s t i c m a r k e t - w h i c h was, o f

c o u r s e , e x t r e r n e z y weak i n p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r - E g y p t i a n g o o d s h a d

t o c o m p e t e a ~ a i n s t E u r o p e a n i m p o r t s . F o r b y t h e P o r t e ' s - ----- - I m p e r i a l D e c r e e o f 1820 , f o r e i g n g o o d s w e r e p e r m i t t e d t o e n t e r - -..--. - --

i n t o a n y p a r t o f t h e U t t o m a n t m p i r e , o n p a y m e n t o f a 3% i m p o r t --- - . .

d u t y , T h e P a s h a h a d s t r i *- -- - - d e c r e e , b u t t h e

j_*- -- --

p r e s s u r e d h i m i n t o a b i d i n g b y i t s p r i n c i p l e s , H e n c e , u n l i k e

s o m s e m e r g i n g i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n s o f a l a t e r p e r i o d , s u c h a s "- - - __

G e r m a n y a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , E g y p t Mas n o t a b l e t o p r o t e c t

h e r n a s c e n t i n d u s t r i e s ~ ~ i t h h i g h i r n ~ o r t t a r i f f s .

I t h a s b e e n a r g u e d b y s o m e h i s t o r i a n s t h a t t h e A n g l o -

T u r k i s h C o n v e n t i o n o f 1838 was t h e p r i n c i p a l - c a u s e o S t h e

f a i l u r e o f E g y p t i a n i n d u s t r y , By t h e C o n v e n t i o n , B r i t i s h mer-

c h a n t s w e r e p e r m i t t e d t o : ( i ) i m p o r t a n d s e l l g o o d s i n a n y p a r t

o f t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e u p o n p a y m e n t o f 5 p e r c e n t d u t y a n d , ( i i )

4 4 ~ o ~ r i n g , o p . c i t . , p p . 30-37. " D r . B o a r i n g f o u n d i n 1838 t h a t c o t t o n c l o t h p r o d u c e d i n E g y p t c o s t 8 . 7 p i a s t r e s p e r y a r d , w h e r e a s En l i s h c l o t h o f t h e same q u a l i t y c o u l d b e b o u g h t i n 2 E g y p t a t 7 , p i a s t r e s p e r y a r d . E v e n t h i s d i d n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e e n o r m o u s c o s t o f new f a c t o r i e s , m a c h i n e r y , s p a r e p a r t s , t o s a y n o t h i n g o f t h e r e s t r i c t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e b e c a u s e o f t h e l a b o u r e m p l o y e d i n t h e f a c t o r i e s , " C r o u c h l e y , o p , tit., - p * 73,

4 5 ~ 0 1 i n s t a n c e , h e i s s u e d a n o r d e r t o t h e s u p e r v i s o r o f b u i l d i n g s p r o h i b i t i n g t h e u s e o f E u r o p e a n g l a s s . He a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e g l a s s b e i n g p r o d u c e d a t a g l a s s f a c t o r y i n A l e x a n d r i a was c r u d e , h o w e v e r , h e a d d e d t h a t " o n e s h o u l d p r e f e r t h e f r u i t s o f o n e ' s own l a b o u r t o t h o s e o f o t h e r s . " A l - G i r i t l i , o p , c i t . , pa 391.

Page 100: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

b u y p r o d u c t s o f t h e s o i l u r i n d u s t r y d i r e c t l y f r o m p r o d u c e r s - .

w i t h i n ; t h e E m p i r e , T h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e a b o v e VJES m e r e l y - -

a r e v i s i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l D e c r e e o f 1 8 2 0 , w h i c l l h a d h e e n i n

e f f e c t f o r n e a r l y t w o d e c a d e s . T h e o t h e r p a r t , f a r m o r e c r u c i a l

t o E g y p t , was i n t e n d e d b y T u r k e y a n d B r i t a i n ( ~ r i t a i n b e i n g i n

c l o s e l i a i s o n w i t h T u r k e y , f o r s t r a t e g i c r e a s o n s ) t o r e d u c e

Muhammad Ali's m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h , b y d e s t r o y i n g h i s m o n o p o l y

s y s t e m - h i s p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f r e v e n u e . S o o n a f t e r t h e t r e a t y ' s - ---. .- - - -

p r o m u l g a t i o n , F r a n c e a n d o t h e r m a j o r E u r o p e a n p o w e r s c i a m o u r e d

f o r , a n d were g r a n t e d , s i m i l a r c o n c e s s i o n s .

Muhammad A l i d i d n o t a b i d e b y t h e terms o f t h e A n g l n - - - -

T u r k i s h Convention - a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t t r e a t i e s - u n t i l 1 8 4 2 ,

t w o y e a r s n F t e r h i s d e f e a t i n t h e S e c o n d S y r i a n War. A t t h a t

t i m e h e s u c c u m b e d t o h a a v y p r e s s u r e f r o m f o r e i g n c o n s u l s and I

1

p e r m i t t e d E u r o p e a n m e r c h a n t s t o b u y E g y p t i a n c o t t o n a n d o t h s r

p r o d u c e d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s . By 1 8 4 2 , h o w e v e r , --- ---

a l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f E g y p t i a n f z c t o r i e s h a d c l o s e d down, a n d

t h e r e m a i n d e r were f l o u n d e r i n g . I t i s t h e r e f o r e e v i d e n t t h a t

t h e C o n v e n t i o n d i d n o t p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n t h e f a i l u r e O F

E g y p t i a n i n d u s t r y . I t d i d , h o w e v e r , i n a d v e r t e n t l y a s s u r e t h a t

t h e r e u ~ o u l d n o t b e s u f f i c i e n t c a p i t a l a v a i l a b l e f o r it t o r e v i v e ,

Muhammad A l i 8 s i n d u s t r i e s f a i l e d l a r g e l y b e c a u s e t h e y were

d e v e l o p e d t o o p r e c i p i t a t e l y a n d o n t o o l a r g e a s c a l e i n r e l a t i o n

t o a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s , e s p e c i a l l y human r e s o u r c e s . T h e s e

p r o b l e m s , a f u n c t i o n o f h i s a m b i t i o n p p l a g u e d a l l o f t h e P a s h a ' s

m a j o r r e f o r m s .

Page 101: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

I s m a j - l . ' s A m b i t i o n .--

T h e f i n a l e i g h t y e a r s o f Muharnri~ad Ali's r e i g n , 1 8 4 0 - 1 8 4 8 - f o l l o w i n g t h e S e c o n d S y r i a n War - w e r e e s s e n t i a l l y a p e r i o d o f

p e a c e a n d r e t r e n c h m e n t . D i s i l L u s i o n e d , i n p o o r h e a l t h a n d

h a v i n g b e e n f o r c e d t o r e d u c e h i s a r v y - f o r m e r l y h i s --- r a i s o n -

d ' z t r e - t o l 8 , O O O men, t h e P a s h a l o s t i n t e r e s t i n t h e r e f o r m s

h o ha$ i n s t i ~ z t c d . Thc f i f t ~ ~ n years b a t s ~ z r i t h e end 97

Muhammad A l i ' s r e i g n a n d l s m a i l i s a c c e s s i o n w e r e l a r g e l y u n e v e n t -

f u l a s f a r a s m o d e r n i z a t i o n was c o n c e r n e d , b u t t h a r e w e r e a

f e w n o t e w o r t h y d e v e l o p m e n t s ,

I b r a h i m P a s h a b e c a m e l e a d e r o f t h e E g y p t i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

i n J u l y , 1 8 4 8 , a f t e r Muhammad A l i h a d a b d i c a t e d d u e t o f a i l i n g

p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l h e a l t h . T h e neN r u l e r d i e d i n November o f L

t h e same y e a r , h o ~ v e v e r , a n d was s u c c e e d e d b y h i s n e p h e w , A b b a s

I . A r e a c t i o n a r y , A b b a s a b h o r e d E u r o p e a n s a n d E u r o p e a n i n n o - II

v a t i o n s , We c l a s e d down a n u m b e r OF t h e r e m a i n i n g i n s t i t c t i o n s

f o u n d e d b y h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , d i s m i s s e d many o f t h e m o s t a b l e E

E g y p t i a n s a n d f o r e i g n e r s f r o m g o v e r n m e n t s e r v i c e a n d r e d u c e d

t h e s i z e o f t h e a l r e a d y s m a l l a r m y . O n l y i n o n e i n s t a n c e ? a n

h e b e c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e c a r r i e d f o r w a r d Muhammad Ali's r e f o r m s ,

n a m e l y t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o n t h e A l e x a n d r i a t o

S u e z r a i l w a y . I t h a d b e e n t e n t a t i v e l y d i s c u s s e d f o r m o r e t h a n

t w o d e c a d e s b u t h a d n e v e r m a t e r i a l i z e d . A b b a s w a s n o t i n f a v o u r

o f t h e s c h e m e , b u t h e s u c c u m b e d t o h e a v y p r e s s u r e f r o m B r i t a i n ,

who w i s h e d t o s p e e d t r a v e l a n d t h e s h i p m e n t o f g o o d s f r o m E n g l a n d

t o t h e F a r East - p r i m a r i l y I n d i a - a n d v i c e v e r s a .

Page 102: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

C o n c o m i t a n t l y , t h e F r e n c h h a d b e e n p r e s s i n g h im, u ~ i t h ~ u t s u c c e s s ,

t o p e r n i t t h e m t o c u t a c a n a l f r o m t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o t h e Red

S e a . C o n s t r u c t i o n on t h e r a i l w a y b e g a n i n l8Ejl. G e o r g e

S t e p h e n s o n , v ~ h o s c f a t h e r h a d i n v e n t e d t h e S t e p h e n s o n R o c k e t ,

was a p p o i n t e d c h i e f e n g i n e e r . Unde r h im w e r e a number o f

E u r o p e a n t r a i n o d E g y p t i a n e n g i n e e r s .

A b b a s d i e d i n 1854 a n d was s u c c e e d e d t o t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f

E g y p t b y S a i d P a s h a . U n l i k e A b b a s , S a i d h a d u n d e r g o n e a

E u r o p e a n f o r m o f e d u c a t i o n a n d was a n a d m i r e r o f w e s t e r n

c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d i n n o v a t i o n s , He was, m o r e o v e r , i n t e n t u p o n

c a r r y i n g o u t m a j o r r e f o r m s b u t was i m p e d e d , i n i t i a l l y , b y t h e

f a c t t h a t A b b a s h a d b e q u e a t h e d him a t r e a s u r y d e f i c i t o f

$E. 2 , 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 ( n o t f o r e i g n , b u t i n t e r n a l d e b t ) . l One n o t a b l e

economy m e a s u r e t a k e n b y S a i d e a r l y i n h i s r e i g n t o c o u n t e r t h i s

d e f i c i t was t h e c l o s u r e o f a l l s c h o o l s n o t d i r e c t l y t r a i n i n g

p e r s o n n e l f o r t h e a r m e d f o r c e s . He r e o p e n c d t h e m l a t e r , 2

T h e m o s t o u t s t a n d i n g p r o j e c t u n d e r t a k e n i n E g y p t d u r i n g

S a i d ' s r e i g n was t h e commencement o f t h e d i g g i n g o f t h e S u e z

C a n a l , F e r d i n a n d d e L e s s e p s , d i r e c t o r o f t h e S u e z C a n a l Company,

h a d b e e n a b l e t o p e r s u a d e S a i d - who c o u l d e a s i l y b e s w a y e d - t o a p p r o v e t h e p r o j e c t a n d t o g r a n t h i s company e x t r e m e l y

g e n e r o u s c o n c e s s i o n s . Tho C a n a l is d i s c u s s e d i n m o r e d e t a i l

l a t e r i n t h i s t k e s i s . O t h e r m a j o r p r o j e c t s c a r r i e d o u t , i n S a i d ' s

r e i g n i n c l u d e d t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e A l e x a n d r i a t o S u e z r a i l w a y

i n 1 8 5 7 ( o n e o f t h e f i r s t r a i l w a y l i n e s t o b e b u i l t o u t s i d e o f

Abdel-milaksud Hamza, T h e P u b l i c D e b t g f Eqyp t , 1054-1 .-- 8 7 6 ( ~ a i r ~ , 1 9 4 4 ) ~ p . 7.

' ~ i f a a t , o p . c i t e , - p. 96 .

Page 103: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

E u r o p e ) , t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t e l e y r a p h s e r v i c e s , t h e d e e p e n i n g

o f m a j o x r i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s ~ n d ti le c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a l a r g e

g r a v i n g d o c k a t S u e z f o r t h e r e p a i r o f o c e a n - g o i n g v e s s e l s ,

I smai l P a s h a s u c c e e d e d S a i d a s l ~ a d e r o f E g y p t i n J a n u a r y ,

1 8 6 3 , B a r n i n 1 8 3 0 , h e r e c e i v e d a u i e s t e r n e d u c a t i o n , t h e

l a t t e r p a r t o f i t i n ~ u r o ~ e . ~ A f t o r c o m p l e t i n g h i s s t u d i e s

i n E u r o p e i n 1 8 4 9 , h e r e t u r n e d t o E g y p t a n d d e v o t e d h i r n s c l f '

i n i t i a l l y t o f a r m m a n a g e r n c n t , b e i n g t h e ovJner o f e x t e n s i v e l a n d -

I..-'I . . I ? - , I

I I U L L J J . I I ~ ~ . B u r i n y ~ n i s p e r i o d h e i n c r e a s e d h i s n o i u i n g s i ; n r e e -

f o l d a n d b y p r o g r e s s i v e e f f i c i e n t f a r m i n g m u l t i p l i e d h i s i n c o m e

f i v e f o l d . H i s c o t t o n was t h e f i n e s t i n E g y p t a n d h i s s u g a r

r e f i n e r y t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d .

S o o n a f t e r b e c o m i n g h e i r a p p a r e n t , f o l l o u ~ i n g t h e d e a t h o f

h i s o l d e r b r o t h e r , I s r n a i l was g i v e n a m i n i s t e r i a l p o r t f o l i o i n

S a i d ' s g o v e r n m e n t . Later h e was a p p o i n t e d P r e s i d e n t o f t h e

D e l i b e r a t i v e C o u n c i l t o w h i c h was s u b m i t t e d i m p o r t a n t , n o n -

r o u t i n e g o v e r n m e n t b u s i n e s s . When, i n 1 8 6 1 a n d 1 8 6 2 , S a i d

v i s i t e d Mecca a n d E u r o p e , I s m a i l s c t e d a s R e g e n t a n d r e v e a l e d ,

h i m s e l f t o b e a s t r i k i n g l y m o r e e f f i c i e n t a d m i n i s t r a t o r t h a n h i s

u n c l e . 4

A t h i s i n v e s t i t u r e a s r u l e r ~ ; f E g y p t i n 1 8 6 3 , Ismail n o t a b l y

e m p h a s i z e d e c o n o m y - b e g i n n i n g w i t h h i m s e l f :

. T h e b a s i s o f a l l g o o d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s o r d e r a n d

3 ~ e g a r d l s s s o f h i s p o s i t i o n a s a N u s l i m r u l e r , I smai l c o n t i n u e d s u c h h a b i t s a s e a t i n g ham a n d d r i n k i n g w i n e , t h a t h e h a d a c q u i r e d i n E u r o p e . H i s f a v o u r i t e v i n t a g e s were S a u t e r n e a n d V e u v e C l i q u o t . J . C . McCoan, E q y p t u n d e r Isrnail ondo don, 1 8 8 9 ) , p . 2 8 ,

avid 5 . L a n d e s , B a n k e r s a n d P a s h a s - ondo don, 1 9 5 8 ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 ,

Page 104: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

e c o n o m y i n f i n a n c e ; T s h a l l s e e k t h f s o r d e r and t h i s e c o n o m y b y e v e r y m e a n s p o s s i b l e , 2 n d t o g i v e a n / x e x a m p l e t o a l l , a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s a p r o o f o f my 7 f i r m i n t e n t j o n s , L h a v e d e c i d z d a s cf now t o a b a n d o n ,

C t h e s y s t e m f o l l o w e d b y my p r e d e c e s s o r s , a n d t o s e t m y s e l f a c i v i l l i s t t h a t I s h a l l n e v e r e x c e e d .

H i s a c c e s s i o n e n g e n d e r e d h i g h h o p e s f o r Egypt a m o n g v a r i o u s -- -

p e r c e p t i v e E u r o p e a n o b s e r v e r s . T h e f a l l o w i n g c o m m e n t , r e f l e c - -----_- _ .

t i v e o f t h i s a t t i t u d e , i s b y E d o u a r d D e r v i e u , a F r e n c h f i n a n -

c i e r :

W i t h I s m a i l P a s h a a s V i c e r o y o f E g y n t , we a r e g o i n g t o s e e t h e c o u n t r y p r o s p e r m o r e t h a n e v e r . He h a s a s e r i o u s , t h r i f t y d l s p u s i t i o n . Wc s h a l l n o l o n g e r s e e t h o s e g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r a c t s y i e l d i n 9 a n i n c r e d i b l e p r o f i t , t h o s e m o n s t r o u s law s u i t s , t h o s e r a p i d f o r t u n e s w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e r e i g n o f S a i d , '

P a s h a , We s h a l l s e e b u s i n e s s done r e g u l a r l y , c o h e r e n t l y ; we s h a l l s e e t h e c r e d i t o f E g y p t e s t a b l i s h a n d f o r t i P y i t s e l f . 6

O n c e i n p o w e r , h o w e v e r p I s m a i l ' s i m a g e a s a p a r s i m o n i o u s , ----

c a u t i o u s a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o c n d i s s i p a t e d . S o l i d a n d m e t h o d i c a l

i n h i s e v e r y d a y l i f e , h e was, n e v e r t h e l e s s , a v i s i o n a r y . L i k e

h i s _ _ - g r z n d f a t h s r , . - - Muhammad ALi, he isi ired t o a c c o m p l i s h i n y e a r s ,

w h a t r e a l i s t i c a l l y s h o u l d h a v e e v o l v e d o v e r d e c a d e s . Some o f

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s - t h a t h e i n d u c e d - n o t a b l y p u b l i c w o r k s - were

fa_r_-too p s e - c - L p i t a t e a n d g r a n d i o s e . E g y p t ' s e c o n o m i c r e s o u r c e s - l _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ X _

were i n a d e q u a t e f o r t h e s e u n d e r t a k i n g s , a n d t h e c o

w h i c h I smai l b o r r o w e d t o s u p p l e m c n t t h e s e r e s o u r c e s w e r e r u i n o u s ,

/ 1 H i g h a m o n g I s m a i l ' s p r i o r i t i e s was h i s i n t e n t t o i n c r e a s e

1-

E g y p t ' s a u t o n o m y a n d p e r h a p s e s t a b l i s h h i s own s o v e r e i g n t y ,

T h i s w o u l d e n t a i l f r e e i n g E g y p t f r o m T u r k i s h s u z e r a i n t y a n d

5 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : G e o r g e s D o u i n , H i s t o i r e d u r G q n s d u K h e d i v e I smai l ( ~ o m e , 1933), v o l , I , p , 1 ,

g 6 ~ u o t e d i n L a n d e s , i b i d . , p . 135.

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1 0 0

o n e o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e a n d p e r m i t t e d t h e E g y p t i a n a r m e d f o r c e s

t o b e r a i s e d t o a maximum s t r e n g t h o f 3 0 , 0 0 0 men, I t a l s o

s t i p u l a t e d t h a t E g y p t ' s a n n u a l t r i b u t e t o T u r k e y was t o b e

r a i s e d f r o m $ T . 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o B T . 7 5 0 , 0 0 0 ( e q u i v a l e n t t o $681 , D l 8

s t e r l i n g ) , I s m a i l h a d w a n t e d t h e l a w o f s u c c e s s i o n c h a n g e d

i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t t h e h e i r s a p p a r e n t , h i s b r o t h e r M u s t a f a

F a d e 1 a n d h i s u n c l e A b d u l t-laliin - b o t h of-' whom h e d e t e s t e d - f r o m s u c c e e d i n g h im t o t h e t h r o n e .

Two d a y s a f t e r t h e F i r rnan o f 1 8 6 6 h a d b e e n i s s u e r l , some

o f t h e E g y p t i a n t r o o p s I s m a i l h a d p r o m i s e d t o p l a c e a t t h e

. S u l t a n ' s d i s p o s a l , s a i l e d f o r C o n s t a n L i n o p l e . I n J u l y o f t h c

same y e a r t h e P o r t e o r d e r e d I s m a i l t o s e n d t r o o p s , i n a d d i t i o n

t o t h o s e a l r e a d y p r o m i s e d , t o Cre te . I r o n i c a l l y - s i n c e I s m a i l

h i m s e l f was b e n t o n f r e e i n g E g y p t f r o m O t t o m a n s u z e r a i n t y - t h e s e were t o a s s i s t in s u p p r e s s i n g t h a t i s l a n d ' s r a p i d l y

g r o w i n g i n d e p e n d e n c e movement . I s m a i l a t f i r s t a g r e e d t o c o m p l y

w i t h t h e o r d e r , b u t t h e n r e n e g e d . O n l y a f t e r t h e S u l t a n h a d

a p p l i e d p o l i t i c a l p r e s su re u e r e t w o r e g i m e n t s d i s p a t c h e d t o

c r e t e . 1 0

9 c o n t d : i n I s m a i l ' s p a y , a s iuere v a r i o u s T u r k i s h G o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s a n d r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s , McCoan, o p , cit., p , 37, The 1 5 , 0 0 0 t r o o p s were t o b e s t a t i o n e d i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , B o s n i a a n d a l o n g t h a t p a r t o P t h e Danube t h a t was s t i l l u ~ i t h i n t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e .

I O ~ h c r e w e r e o t h e r o c c a s f o n s when E g y p t s u p p l i e d t r o o p s t o a s s i s t T u r k e y d u r i n g I s m a i l ' s r e i g n . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n 1 0 6 4 , i n c o m p l i a n c e w i t h a n o r d e r f r o m t h e P o r t e , I s m a i l s e n t 4 b a t t a l i o n s o f i n f a n t r y a n d 4 0 0 i r r e g u l a r c a v a l r y m e n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 , 5 0 0 men i n a l l , t o q u e l l a n u p r i s i n g i n t h e H e j a z . T h e y r e m a i n e d t h e r e f o r m o r e k h a n t w o y e a r s . M o r e o v e r , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 , 0 0 0 E g y p t i a n t r o o p s f o u g h t i n t h e R u s s o - T u r k i s h War o f 1877-1 878, D o u i n , H i s t o i r e d u ~ & ~ n e du K h e d i v e I s r n a i l v o l , I , p p , 3 1 7 a n d -, 3 5 1 - 3 5 3 a n d R i f a a t , o p . c i t . , p . 1 5 0 ,

Page 107: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

Ismai l s e c u r e d t h e t i t l e o f ' k h e d i v e ' i n 1 8 6 7 , I t i s

n o t k n o e n h o ~ much h e s p e n t o n t h i s , b u t h i s g i f t s t o t h e P o r t e

i n c l u d e d an i r o n c l a d s h i p c o s t i n g $ 1 6 0 p 0 0 0 . We h a d d e s i r e d a

m o r e r e g a , l t i t l e , b u t A b d u l Aziz was n o t w i l l i n g t o c o n f e r o n e . l l

W i t h t h e f i r r n a n p r o m o t i n g h i m came t h e p o w e r t o m a k e t r e a t i e s

o f a n o n - p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e a n d t o i n i t i a t e l aws a n d r e g u l a t i o n s

f o r t h e i n t e r n a l g o v e r n m e n t o f E g y p t , i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e P o r t e ' s

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n 1 8 6 9 . W i t h o u t c o n s u l t i n g t h e P o r t e Isrnail

t r a v e l l e d t o E u r o p e t o i n v i t e c r o w n e d h e a d s a n d d i g n i t a r i e s t o

t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h e S u e z C a n a l , T h e d e l i b e r a t e b r e a c h o f

p r o t o c o l i n r u r i a t e d A b d u l A z i z , I s m a i l w e n t f u r t h e r , h o w e v e r ,

h e n e g l e c t e d t o i n f o r m t h e S u l t a n o f f i c i a l l y o f t h e C a n a l ' s

i n a u g u r a t i o n u n t i l a f t e r i t h a d t a k e n p l a c e . S u c h o v e r t d i s -

r e s p e c t , a n d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y was r a p i d l y e x p a n -

d i n g , c o n v i n c e d A b d u l Aziz t h a t Ismail was t h r e a t e n i n g a m i l i t a r y

c o n f r o n t z t i o n w i t h T u r k e y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , h e i s s u e d t h e I m p e r i a l

F i r m a n o f N o v e m b e r 2 9 , 1 8 6 9 , w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f p r e v e n t i n g

Ismail f r o m i m p o s i n g a n y new t a x e s a n d , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , c o n t r a c -

t i n g a n y new f o r e i g n l o a n s , w i t h o u t t h e P o r t e ' s c o n s e n t , T h e s e

p r o h i b i t i o n s were, o f c o u r s e , c o n t r a r y t o t h e d e c r e e o f 1 8 6 7 .

A b d u l Aziz h a d e v e n w a n t e d t o s t r i p I s r n a i l o f h i s new t i t l e .

He r e f r a i n e d f r o m d o i n g S O , h o w e v e r , a f t e r t h e B r i t i s h C o n s u l -

G e n e r a l , C i a r e n d o n , a n d o t h e r E u r o p e a n d i p l o m a t s i n T u r k e y ,

w a r n e d t h a t d a n g e r o u s i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p e r c u s s i o n s m i g h t e n s u e .

Page 108: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

D e s p i t e t h o F i r m a n o f 1 3 6 3 , a n d t h e p r o t e s t s o f t h e P o r t e ,

I s m a i l c o n t r a c t e d , i n t h e f o l f e u i n g y e a r , a l o a n o f

c a p i t a l v ~ i t i i t h e F r a n c o - E g y p t i a n Bank, The n o m i n a l - -- a--- - - I-"-

f o r e i g n - ,)

sum was

$t , 7 , 1 4 2 , 8 6 0 , w h i l e t h e e f f e c t i v e amount was $E. 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , ~ ~ ( . -I *-

N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h i s l o a n , u h i c h f l a g r a n t l y c o n t r a v e n e d t h e

i- - I m p e r i a l F i r m a n o f \ l 8 6 0 ; ? ~ s m a i l -- j o i l r n e y e d t o C o n s t a n t i n o p l e i n

-

1 8 7 2 , i n t e n t upon p e , r s u a d i n g t h o S u l t a n t o p e r m i t him t o l e g a l l y

c o n t r a c t f o r e i g n l o a n s . W h i l c i n C ~ n s t a n t ~ n o p l e - a c c o r d i n g t o - -

S i r " -.--.. " 1 2 I I U I I L Y L L L J . U ~ ~ t h s G r i t i s h Ambasszcior t o T u r k e y - h e g a v e

f 9 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o Abdul A z i z , $ 2 5 0 ~ 0 0 ~ t o t h e Grand V i z i e r , A o l i - P a s h a , g 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 t o t h c M i n i s t e r o f War a n d ~ Z U , O O O e a c h t o

v a r i o u s o t h e r o f f i c i a l s . I n a d d i t i o n h e p r e s e n t e d t h e S u l t a n

w i t h 50 ,000 r i f l e s a n d a F r e n c h d i n n e r s e r v i c e o f g o l d a n d

p r e c i o u s s t o n e s . l 3 Abdul A z i z r e c i p r o c a t e d on S e p t e m b e r 1 0 ,

1 8 7 2 by r e s c i n d i n g "Le r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e F i r m a n o f 1 8 6 7 .

He i n f o r m e d I s r n a i l t h a t :

I n t h i s s t a t e o f t h i n g s , t h o u h a s t s u b m i t t e d t o me t h a t some r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d exceptions c o n t a i n e d i n ,"1"

,#id1 my Firrnan o f t h e 22nd Chaban 1 2 8 6 (November 29, 1 8 6 9 \ , w o r e c r e a t i n g s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e s t o t h e c o m p l e t e d e v e l - opment o f t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f E g y p t .

I t i s e v i d o n t t h a t t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e c o u n t r y a n d t h e w e l f a r e o f my s u b j e c t s a r e b o t h , i n my e y e s , of t h e h i g h e s t i m p o r t a n c e , a n d t h e o b j e c t o f my d e a r e s t w i s h e s ,

The r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h c s e w i s h e s n a t u r a l l y d e p e n d s on t h e mEans a n d f a c i l i t i e s g r a n t e d t o s a t i s f y r e q u i r e - m e n t s u h i c h r e s u l t f r o m them.

A s s u c h h a s b e e n my I m p e r i a l will, i t i s c o n t r a r y t o my d e s i r e t h a t t h e p r o g r e s s a n d p r o s p e r i t y o f Egyp t

1 2 s e e p a g e 1 3 6 o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r a t a b l e o f I s m a i l ' s f o r e i g n l o a n s .

13 i i l c~oan , 9 g ~ t a s i t i s (New York, 1 9 0 2 ) ~ pp.

Page 109: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s h o u l d b e o b s t r u c t e d b y r e s t r i c t i o n s p l a c e d o n t h e p r i v i l e g e s u ~ h i c h my s o v e r e j y n r n u n i f i c e r ~ c e h a d g r q n t e d t o t h e E g y p t i a n G o v e r n m e n t i n i t s m a t e r i a l a n d f i n a n c i a l i n t e r e s t ,

I h a v e t h e r e f o r e o r d c r e d t h e m a i n t e n a n c e i n f u l l o f t h c p r i v i l e e s g r a n t e d b my F i r r n a n d a t e d t h e 5 t h S a r e r 1 2 0 4 ?.June 8, 1 8 6 7 Y , a n d I h a v z i s s u e d t h i s s u p r e m e o r d e r f r o m my S i ~ b l i ~ ~ e P o r t e , a n d g i v e n i t t o t h e e . 1 4

A n o t h e r f i r m a n , t h a t o f J u n e 8, 1 8 7 3 , o b t a i n e d a f t e r

I smai l h a d d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r $ 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n g i f t s t o t h e S u l t a n

a n d t o h i g h r a n k i n g O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l s , c o n f i r m e d t h e p e r m a n e n c y

of a l l t h e c o n c e s s i o n s g r a n t e d t o Isniai l . iS T h e s o o f c o u r s e

i n c l u d e d t h e t i t l e u f ' k h e d i v e ' , t h e o r d e r o f s u c c e s s i o n o f

l e a d e r s h i p , i n t e r n a l a n d f i n a n c i a 1 , a u t o n o r n y . E g y p t ' s i n d e p e n -

d e n c e was on1.y c i r c u m s c r i b e d i n t h a t s h e c o u l d n o t s e n d

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o f o r e i g n c o u r t s , s h e was o b l i g a t e d t o t h e

y e a r l y t r i b u t e a n d was p r o h i b i t e d f r o m p o s s e s s i o n o f a r m o u r e d

. g h i p s . 1 6 W i t h m o n e y a l o n e I smai l h a d b e e n a b l e t o a t t a i n a

s t a t u s oP q u a s i . - i n d e p e n d e n c e f o ~ E g y p t ,

He d i d n o t 9 h o w e v e r , a c h i e v e s u c h m a r k e d s u c c e s s w i t h t h e

o t h e r m a j o r i n f r i n g e m e n t o f h i s s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e c a p i t u l a t i o n s ,

T h e s e were e x t r a - t e r r i t o r i a l . r i g h t s g r a n t e d b y t h e P o r t e t o

v a r i o u s E u r o p e a n p o w e r s t h r e e c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e I s m a i l ' s a c c e s s i o n .

T h e y h a d n o t a f f e c t e d E g y p t much u n t i l t h e t ime o f S a i d P a s h a .

T h e n , f o r e i g n a d v e n t u r e r s , who h a d g r a v i t a t e d t o E g y p t i n t h e

I 4 s e e McCoan, E q y p t u n d e r I sma i l , p p . 3 1 0 - 3 1 1 .

I 5 ~ i f a a t , o p . c i t . , p . 115, I t i s t i m c l y a t t h i s j u n c t u r e t o m e n t i o n t h a t v i r t u a l l y n o n e o f t h e s u b s t a n t i a l e x p e n d i t u r e s o n b r i b e r y a n d g i f t s , u s e d t o i n d u c e t h e i s s u a n c e o f i m p e r i a l f i r m a n s , a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e o f f i c i a l f i n a n c i a l r e c o r d s . One m u s t a s s u m e t h a t t h e m o n e y c a m e From I smai l ' s p r i v a t e a c c o u n t ,

Page 110: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

w a k e o f d e L o s s e p s , b e g a n t o d e m a n d t h e i r c a p i t u l a t o r y privileges,

S a i d , m o r e d o c i l e t h a n h i s p r c d e c e s s n r s , s u c c u m b e d t o t h e s e

d e m a n d s . F o r e i g n e r s w e r e t h u s l i t e r a l l y p l a c e d a b c v c t h e 1 2 : ~ o f

t h e l a n d , F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i r c o n s u l a r o f f i c i a l s , t o w h o s e

l e g a l j u r i s d i c t i o n t h e y w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e , w e r e f l a g r a n t l y o p e n

h t o b r i b e s . f o r e i g n e r s c o u l d b e a s s u r e d o f o b t a i n i n g a f a v o u r -

a b l e d e c i s i o n o n a n y l e g a l ma t t e r . I n f a c t n u m e r o u s E u r o p e a n s

w e n t a s f a r a s b r i n g i n g l u d i c r o u s c h a r g e s a g a i n s t I sma i l i n

i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x t r a c t f r o m a l e t t e r t o T h e - T i m e s :

C o n s u l s - G e n e r a l . , . . h a v e m a d e h i m ( ~ s m a i l ) p a y e n o r m o u s s u m s t o f o r e i g n c l a i m a n t s o n claims o f t e n w i t h o u t a s h a d o v ~ o f f o u n d a t i o n , Edmond A b o u t d i d n o t e x a g g e r a t e when h e q u o t e d t h e i n s t a n c e o f t h e F r e n c h m a n who g o t h a l f a m i l l i o n f r a n c s f o r a c a r 6 b u i l t t o o n e a r t h e sea , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y w a s h e d anzy . N u b a r P a s h a o n c e p u t t h e sum i m p r o p e r l y p a i d a t t h e i n s t a n c e o f C o n s u l s a t t w o m i l l i o n s s t e r l i n g , a n d t h e s t a t e m e n t p a s s e d ~ n c h a 1 l e n ~ e d . l

W i t h t h i s t r a v e s t y o f j u r i s d i c t i o n p r e v a i l i n g , E u r o p e a n s c o u l d

v i r t u a l l y d o w h a t e v e r t h e y d e s i r e d w i t h o u t l e g a l a c t i o n b e i n g

t a k e n a g a i n s t t h e m , a s i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m m e n t :

I f a E u r o p e a n c o m m i t s a n o u t r a g e i n t h e s t r e e t s i n t h e o p e n d a y , t h e n a t i v e p o l i c e w o u l d a s s o o n t a k e u p a r e d - h o t p o k e r a s l a y h a n d s o n h i m , T h e many m u r d e r s c o m m i t t e d i n A l e x a n d r i a b y f o r e i g n e r s a r e p r a c t i c a l l y u n p u n i s h e d , a n d j u s t i c e i s p a r a l y s e d .

T h e r e w e r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 E u r o p e a n s i n E g y p t d u r i n g

t h e 1 0 7 O V s . M o s t oi-' t h c n h a d g o n e t h e r e ~ v i t h t h e h o p e o f

1 7 ~ r o r n a l e t t e r s i g n e d F i a t J u s t i t i a , T h o T i m e s , A u g u s t 28, 1 8 7 8 , p . 3.

1 8 ~ h e T i m e s , - J u n e 3 0 , 1874, p . 1 0 .

Page 111: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

g e t t i n g some o f t h e eDsy money t h a t was r u m o u r e d t o b e

a v a i l a l ~ $ e . ~ ~ E u r o p e a n s ow~ned m o s t o f t h e c o m m e r c i a l a n d

f i n a n c i a l e n t e r p r i s e s i n E g y p t a t t h i s t ime, y e t p r o t e c t e d b y

t h e c a p i t u l a t i o n s , t h e y p a i d n o t a x e s a p a r t f r o m m i n i m a l c u s t o r n s

d u t i e s , Even t h e s e w e r e e a s i l y c i r c u m v e n t e d s i n c e E u r o p e a n

s h i p s w e r e immune f r o m c u s t o m s i n s p c c t i o n , C o n v e r s e l y , t h e

f e l l a h i n , t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f whom l i v e d i n a b j e c t p o v e r t y ,

w e r e - d u e t o I sma i l ' s i n o r d i n a t e s p e n d i n g - b u r d e n e d ~ u i t h a

p i t e o u s t a x l . o a d , T h e i r p a t h e t i c s i t u a t i o n i n t h e m i d - 1 8 7 0 ' s

Mas d e s c r i b e d b y W i l f r e d B l u n t a s f o l l o w s :

I t was r a r e . ,. , t o s e e a man i n t h e f i e l d s u ~ i t h a t u r b a n o n h i s h e a d , o r m o r e t h a n a s h i r t on h i s b a c k . ,.. T h e p r i n c i p a l t o w n s o n m a r k e t d a y s were f u l l o f Momen s e l l i n g t h e i r c l o t h e s a n d t h e i r s i l v e r o r n a m e n t s t o t h e G r e e k u s u r e r s , b e c a u s e t h e t a x c o l l e c t o r s were i n t h e i r v i l l a g e s , w h i p i n h a n d e Z 0

D e s p i t e I s m a i l t s r e p e a t e d p l e a s , n o n e o f t h e E u r o p e a n

pou je r s w o u l d r e v o k e t h e i r e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l p r i v i l . e g e s . Neve r -

t h e l e s s , E g y p t made somc h c a d s z y in t h i s area , A f t e r y E a r s o f <.,

I 9 ~ h e number o f E u r o p e a n s i n E g y p t d u r i n g Muhammad Ali's r e i g n r e a c h e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n t h o u s a n d , i n c l u d i n g 5,000 G r e e k s a n d 2 , 0 0 0 I t a l i a n s , T h e f i n a n c i a l a n d e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s c r e a t e d b y t h e c o t t o n boom o f t h e 1 8 6 0 ' s c a u s e d a l a r g e i n f l u x OF E u r o p s a n s : i n 1 8 6 2 , 3 3 , 0 0 0 f o r e i g n e r s , i n c l u d i n g v i s i t o r s , e n t e r e d E g y p t , i n 1 8 6 3 , 4 3 , 0 0 0 , i n 1 8 6 4 , 5 6 , 0 0 0 a n d i n 1 8 6 5 , 8 0 , 0 0 0 . Many o f t h c i m m i g r a n t s h o w e v e r , we're o f l i t t l e o r n o r e a l b e n e f i t t o E g y p t , a s i s i n d i c a t e d b y D i c e y : " a l l t h e a d v e n t u r e r s o f E u r o p e s w o o p e d down o n E g y p t , , . . t h e k n i g h t s n f i n d u s t r y - t h e i n v e s t o r s who o n l y r e q u i r e d t e m p o r a r y a d v a n c e s t o p r o v e f a b u l o u s w e a l t h f o r t h e i r p a t r o n s , t h e p r o m o t i o n s o f i m p r a c t i c a b l e s c h e m e s , t h e h o l d e r s o f u n a p p r e c i a t e d p a t e n t s , t h e j a c k a l s o f f i n a n c e . , , . t h e a p p l i c a n t s f o r c o n c e s s i o n s , t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l g a m b l e r s , t h e p u r v e y o r s o f a l l k i n d s o f e n t e r t a i n - m e n t s , t h e d r a m z t i c a q e n t s , t h e s o l d i e r s o f f o r t u n e , t h e p a r a - - s i t e s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n , t h e s o c i a l o u t c a s t s . " D i c e y , oy . c i t . , p.. 97 a n d L a n d e s , o p . c i t . , p . 88.

2 0 ~ . ~ . B l u n t , S e c r e t H i s t o r y o f t h e B r i t i s h O c c u p a t i o n -- o f E g y p t (New~ ~ o r ~ < , 1 9 2 2 ) , pp . 8 - 9 .

Page 112: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

h a g g l i n g w i t h E u r o p e a n d i p l o m a t s , N u h a r P a s h a , t h e E g y p t i a n

f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , m a n a g e d , i n 1 8 7 6 , t o qe ' i t h e p o u J e r s t o a g r e e

t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f m i x e d c o u r t s i n E g y p t , T h e s c w a r e

e m p o u ~ e r e d t o a d j u d i c a t e c i v i l a n d c o m m e r c i a l cases , when o n e

o r b o t h o f t h e p a r t i e s w e r e E u r o p e a o s . C r i m i n a l cases , h o w e v e r ,

c o n t i n u e d t o b e t r i e d a t c o n s u l a r c o u r t s ,

T h e E g y p t i a n j u d i c i a l s y s t e m , w h i c h h a d l o n g b e e n i n a

s t a t e o f d i s a r r a y , g r e a t l y b e n e f i t t e d f r o m t h e p r e s u n c c o f

-. m i x e d c o u r t s . ~ n e iaw a d m i n i s t e r e d i n t h e m i x e d c o u r t s was a

m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n o f t h e F r e n c h c i v i l a n d c o m m e r c i a l c o d e s , I t

was s o o n a p p l i e d t o t h e c o u n t r y a t l a r g e , t h u s e n s u r i n g E g y p t

a u n i f o r m j u d i c i a l s y s t e m , T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t c a u s e d w h o l e

g e n e r a t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s , l a w y e r s a n d j u d g e s t o l o o k t o F r a n c e ,

a n d E u r o p e i n g e n e r a l , a s s o u r c e s o f i n s p i r a t i o n f o r l e g a l

p r i n c i p l e s a n d p r a c t i c e s . T h u s i t uJas i n s t r u m e n t a l i n i n s t r u c -

t i n g t h e m i n t h e c o n s t i L u t i o n a 1 f o u n d a t i o n s o f m o d e r n w e s t e r n

law, a n d i n t h e i d e a s o f n a t i o n a l r i g h t s , s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e

p e o p l e a n d c i v i l l i b e r t y , w h i c h b e c a m e , t h e b a s e s o f t h e E ~ y p t i a n

n a t i o n a l i s t m o v e m e n t o f a l a t e r p e r i o d . I t a l s o p r e p a r e d t h e

g r o u n d f o r s u b s t i t u t i n g m o d e r n s e c u l a r c o d e s f o r -- S h a r i a law.

W h i l e Isrnail h a d a l l b u t g a i n e d E g y p t ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e From

t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e , a n d h a d , b y e s t a b l i s h i n g m i x e d c o u r t s , a t

l e a s t p a r t i a l l y c u r b ~ d t h e p o w e r o f E u r o p e a n s i n Egypt , h i s m i s -

m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s f i n a n c e s w a s t o s u b v e r t h i s r e a l

s o v e r e i g n p o w e r . E a r l y i n 1 8 7 6 t h e C a v e R e p o r t was r e l e z s e d t o

t h e p u b l i c , T h i s s t u d y o f E g y p t ' s f i n a n c i a l r e c o r d s - u n d e r -

t a k e n b y t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t - r e v e a l e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e

t h e f u l l e x t e n t o f E g y p t ' s o u t s t a n d i n g d e b t t o b e fi 7 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0

Page 113: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s t e r l i n g . I t e n g e n d e r e d a p a n i c o n t h e E u r o p e a n m a r k e t , w h i c h

was a l r e a d y a l a r m e d b y T u r k e y ' s i m m i n e n t b a n k r u p t c y . E g y p t ' s

i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r e d i t c o l l a p s e d , l e a v i n g h e r i n s o l v e n t . U n d e r

i n t e n s e p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e m a j o r c r e d i t o r n a t i o n s , I s m a i l d e c r e e d

t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e O a i s s e d e l a D e t t e P u b l i q u e . D i r e c t e d b y -- --- a n E n g l i s h m a n , a F r e n c h m a n * ari A u s t r i a n a n d a n I t a l i a n , t h i s

b o d y was g i v e n c o n t r o l o v e r c e r t a i n o f E g y p t ' s m a j o r r e v e n u e

s o u r c e s , i n o r d e r t o o r g a n i z e t h e l i q u i d a t i o n o f h e r c u r r e n t

d e b t a n d h e r b o n d s a n d debenture^.^' I n s h o r t t h e b a l i f f s h a d

moved i n , 2 2

T h e C a i s s e q s p r e s e n c e p r o v o k e d p r o f o u n d d i s c o n t e n t a m o n g

t h e E g y p t i a n i n t e l l i g e n t s i a . I t was n o t o n l y d i r e c t e d b y

a p p o i n t e e s f r o m t h e m a j o r c r e d i t o r n a t i o n s , b u t E u r o p e a n s h e l d

m o s t o f t h e s u b s i d i a r y p o s i t i o n s , I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e f a c t o r s ,

E u r o p e a n s a t a l l l e v e l s o f t h e Caisse were p a i d i n o r d i n a t e l y

h i g h s a l a r i e s . T h e d i r e c t o r s , f o r e x a m p l e , v o t e d t h e m s e l v e s

C o n c e r n i n g s u c h s u p r a n a t i o n a l r o p r c s e n t a t i o n , i t was r e p o r t e d t h a t : " I n t e r n a t i o n a l j e a l o u s y i s s t r o n g i n E g y p t a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , 2 o r 3 men m u s t b e n a m s d t o w h a t i s o n l y t h e u o r k o f o n e , i n o r d e r t h a t e a c h n a t i o n a l i t y s h o u l d h a v e i t s p r o p e r i n f l u e n c e i n t h e c o u n t r y , T h u s a n E n g l i s h m a n a n d a F r e n c h m a n m u s t a t t e n d t o t h e t a x a t i o n ; 2 E ~ q l i s h m e n a n d a F r e n c h m a n c o n t r o l t h e r a i l w a y s ; a n E n g l i s h m a n , a F r e n c h m a n , an I t a l i a n a n d a n A u s t r i a n a t t e n d t o t h e p u b l i c d e b t ; a n d a s many a s 1 2 n a t i o n a l - i t i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d o n t h e j u d i c i a l b e n c h . , . . O f c o u r s e a l l t h i s E u r o p e a n t a l e n t is v e r y h i g h l y p a i d . " - T h e T i m e s , J a n u a r y 1, 1877, p a 9 .

2 2 ~ r o u c h l e y , o p . c i t . , p . 1 2 3 . W h e r e f o r e i g n d e b t was c o n c e r n e d , Ismai l m i g h t w e l l h a v e t a k e n w a r n i n g f r o m e v e n t s s u b s e q u e n t t o T u n i s P f a i l u r e t o p a y s e r v i c e c h a r g e s o n h e r f o r e i g n l o a n s o f 1 8 6 3 a n d 1 8 6 5 . A s p e c i a l f i n a n c i a l c o m m i s s i o n o f E u r o p e a n s u a s e s t a b l i s h e d - c h i e f l y F r e n c h m e n , t o e n s u r e t h a t t a x e s w e r e s e t a s i d e f o r t h e p a y m e n t o f i n t e r e s t o n , a n d r e d e m p t i o n o f , t h e l o a n s . T h i s E u r o p e a n i n t e r f e r e n c e r e s u l t e d i n t h e t a k i n g o v e r o f t h r e e p o r t s o f T u n i s b y F r a n c e , E n g l a n d a n d I t a l y , i n o r d e r t h a t t h e y m i g h t c o l l e c t t h e c u s t o m s r e v e - n u e s f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f c r e d i t o r s f r o m t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o u n . t r i e s .

c i t e , p , 1 4 7 . Hamza, 9, c A

Page 114: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

l o 8

$ 3 0 , 0 0 0 ( A m e r i c a n d o l l a r s ) p e r a n n u m . 23 T h e f o l l o u ~ i n g c o m m e n t

b y a T i m e s ' c o r r e s p o n d e n t a d e q u a t e l y s u m m a r i z e s t h e s a l a r y

s i t u a t i o n :

T h e neuJ C o n t r o l l e r s G e n e r a l o f T a x a t i o n , . . . a r e p a i d a s h i g h l y a s t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , o r a B a r o n o f t h o E x c h e q u e r . E v e n t h e i r d e p u t i e s a r e t o r e c e i v e $ 2 , 5 0 0 a y e a r , v ~ h i l e $ 3 , 0 0 0 a y e a r is n o t a n uncammon s a l a r y t o E u r o p e a n s i n o t h e r b r a n c h e s , 24

T h e Caisse e m p l o y e d 1 1 9 E u r o p e a n s i n 1 8 7 6 a n d a d d e d 7 6 i n 1 8 7 7

a n d 131 i n 1 8 7 8 . ~ ~

D e s p i t e t h e g e n e r o u s s a l a r i e s , t h e Ca i sse d e La D e t t e

i n s t i t u t e d s t r i n g e n t r e t r e n c h m e n t i n o t h e r a r e a s o f g o v e r n m e n t

s p e n d i n g , Some o f t h e e f f e c t s o f t h i s - i n C a i r o - a r e i l l u s -

t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o u ~ i n g r e p o r t :

T h e c o n s e q u e n t c h e c k t o b u s i n e s s h a s t h r o u j n h u n d r e d s o u t o f e m p l o y m e n t , a n d t h e u ~ a n t o f r e a d y m o n e y h a s b r o u g h t t h e t r a d e o f t h o r e t a i l d e a l e r s t o a min imum a s r e g a r d s t h e n e c e s s a r i e s o f l i f e , a n d t o a s t a n d s t i l l a s r e g a r d s l u x u r i e s , T h e s t o r e s o f t h e f u r n i t u r e b r o k e r s a r e c r a m m e d w i t h s e c o n d - h a n d f u r n i t u r e ; wel.1.- t o - d o p e o p l e a r e l i v i n g o n t h e jewels o f t h o f a m i l y ; c a r r i a g e s a r e t~ b e h a d f ~ r h a l f t h e i r p r i c e . T h e o l d b o o k s t a l l s a r e f i l l e d w i t h b o o k s t h a t 1 . a t e l y a d o r n e d t h e s h e l v e s o f l i b r a r i e s . H u n d r e d s o f c l e r k s a r e s t r u g g l i n g t h r o u g h t h e b a d t imes u ~ i t h n o t h i n g t o d o . , . . Economy h a s b e e n p r a c t i s e d i n c v e r y d e p a r t m e n t ( o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t ) ; s a l a r i e s h a v e b e e n d i m i n i s h e d ; o f f i c e s h a v e b e e n a b o l i s h e d ; t h e V i c e r e g a l c o n c e r t s a n d b a l l s h a v e b e e n p o s t p o n e d t o m o r e p r o s p e r o u s t i m e s , t h e e x t r a v a g a n c e o f t h e h a r e m s h a s b e e n c h e c k e d , a p o r t i o n o f t i l e a r m y h a s b e e n d i s b a n d e d ; e v e r y p a y m e n t t h a t was n o t a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y h a s b e e n p u t 'off? t o a m o r e c o n v e n i e n t s e a s o n . 2 5

2 3 W,S, L o r i n g , A C o n f e d e r a t e S o l d i e r i n E q y p t - ( ~ e w Y o r k ,

1 8 a 4 ) , p . ? ? 8 .

2 4 ~ h e T i m e s , J a n u a r y 1 , 1 0 7 7 , p . 7 .

2 5 ~ e t w e e n I 8 6 4 a n d 1 8 7 0 , 1 6 0 E u r o p e a n s r e c e i v e d a p p o i n t m e n t s i n t h e E g y p t i a n c i v i l s e r v i c e , a n d b e t w e e n 1 8 7 1 a n d 1 8 7 5 , 201. T h e T i m e s , -- J a n u a r y 2 3 , 1 8 7 9 , p , 1 0 .

2 6 ~ h e - T i m e s , - J a n u a r y 3, 1 8 7 7 , p . 5.

Page 115: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

By 1 8 7 9 , t h e E g y p t i a n p o p u l a c e was g e n e r a l l y i n c e n s c d

a g a i n s t t h e E u r o p e a n i n t e r l o p e r s . A s c a n b e s e e n i n t h e

f o l l o u ~ i n g e x c e r p t f r o m a l e t t e r f r o m Ismai l t o C h e r i f P a s h a ,

u ~ h o h a d r e s i g n e d f r o m a k e y government p o s i t i o n i n d e f i a n c e o f

t h e C a i s s a , I s m a i l h a d b y t h i s j u n c t u r e a d o p t e d t h c g u i s e o f a

p o p u l a r l e a d e r :

A s t h e h e a d of S t a t c a n d a s a n E g y p t i a n , I c o n s i d e r i t my s a c r e d d u t y t o f o l l o w t h e o p i n i o n o f my c o u n t r y a n d t o g i v e c o m p l e t e s a t i s f a c t i o n t o i t s l e g i t i m a t e Espirztfcns.27

I n a n a t t e m p t t o e v a d e t h e v i r t " a 1 s t r a n g l e h o l d o f h i s F o r e i g n

c r e d i t o r s , I s m a i l a d a m a n t l y r e f u s e d t h e i r d e m a n d s t o d e c l a r e

E g y p t b a n k r u p t , T h i s , o f c o u r s e , i n f u r i a t e d t h e c r e d i t o r n a t i o n s ,

S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r B r i t a i n a n d F r a n c e j o i n t l y a d v i s e d h i m t o

a b d i c a t e . I n t h e m e a n t i m e B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h d i p l o m a t s were

p r e s s i n g t h e S u l t a n t o d e p o s e h i m . When i t b e c a m e known t h a t

t h e S u l t a n h a d d e c i d e d u p o n t h i s c o u r s e o f a c t i o n , t h e K h e d i v e

a b d i c a t e d , He was r e p l a c e d b y h i s son T e w ~ f i k , c o n s i d e r a d b y

t h e p o w e r s t o b e m o r e m a l l e a b l e .

I s m a i l ' s i m p r u d e n t s p e n d i n g h a d s a d d l e d E g y p t w i t h a t o t a l

c o n s o l i d a t e d d e b t o f [E. 9 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , w h i c h w o u l d t a k e f i v e

d e c a d e s t o l i q u i d a t e , T h e i m m e n s e s t r a i n t h a t t h i s e x e r t ~ i o n

t h e E g y p t i a n e c o n o m y i s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t

a l o n e a c c o u n t e d f o r 3 5 . 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e n a t i o n a l r o v s n u e f r o m

1 8 8 0 - 1 8 9 9 . ~ ~ T h e K h e d i v e ' s c e l e b r a t e d s t a t e m e n t made i n 1 8 7 8 :

2 7 ~ r a n s l . a t e d f r o m F r e n c h , q u o t e d i n R i f a a t , o p . c i t , ,

2 8 ~ r o u c ! l l e y , c~p. c i t . , p. 21, --

Page 116: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

"My c o u n t r y i s n o l o n g e r i n A f r i c a ; we a r e now p a r t o f m o d e r n

E u r o p e , " was a n inadvertent ---.--- d o u b l e e n t e n d r e t h a t was m o r e t r u e

i n i t s u n i n t e n d e d t h a n i n i t s i n t e n d e d W h i l e t h e

K h e d i v e m e a n t t o canvcy t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t E g y p t h a d t o a

l a r g e e x t e n t m o d e r n i z e d , t h e s t a t e m e n t c o u l d b e t a k e n t o mean

t h a t E u r o p e was d o m i n a n t i n E g y p t , t u h i c h i n f a c e it was r a p i d l y

b s c o m i n g .

2 9 ~ r a n s l a t e d f rom F r e n c h , q u o t e d i n R i f a a t , o p . c i t e , p . 161.

Page 117: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

C h a p t e r V i I I

P r o b l e m s a f P r o d u c t i v i t y i n A q r i c u l t u r c

I s m a i l t s a c c e s s i o n o c c u r r e d i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e c o t t o n

boom o f 1 8 6 1 - 1 8 6 6 , a p e r i o d o f u n p r e c e d e n t e d p r o s p e r i t y f o r

E g y p t . ~ h o u c j h t h e c o t t o n m a r k e t l a t e r u n d e r w e n t w i d e

f l u c t u a t i o n s , a n d s u g a r c a n e c u l t i v a t i o n was g r e a t l y e x p a n d e d ,

c o t t o n r e m a i n e d t h e m a i n s t a y o f t h e E g y p t i a n e c o n o m y t h r o u g h o u t

I s m a i l ' s r e i g n , a s i t h a d b e e n f o r m o s t o f t h e Muhammad A l i

E r a .

I n 1 8 6 0 , f i v e - s i x t h s o f t h e c o t t o n p u r c h a s e d b y E u r o p e a n

c o u n t r i e s c a m e f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . When c o t t o n c r o p s were

d i s r u p t e d b y t h s A m e r i c a n C i v i l War o f 1 8 6 1 - 1 8 6 5 , E u r o p e a n

i n d u s t r i a l i s t s , i n a s t a t e o f p a n i c , h u n t e d f o r a l t e r n a t i v e

s o u r c e s o f s u p p l y . I n i t i a l l y , S a i d P a s h a d i d n o t h i n g t o s p u r

E g y p t i a n a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s i n t o e x p a n d i n g t h e i r c o t t o n o u t p u t ,

t h o u g h h e a n d m e m b e r s o f h i s f a m i l y i n c r e a s e d t h e c o t t o n

a c r e a g e o n t h e i r own f a r m s , A s t h e c r i s i s i n t e n s i f i e d h o w e v e r ,

B r i t i s h i n d u s t r i a l i s t s p r e s s e d S a i d , who i n t u r n u r g e d a l l

f a r m e r s t o s o w a t l e a s t o n e f o u r t h o f t h e i r l a n d w i t h c o t t o n , 1

B e t w e e n 1 8 6 1 a n d 1 8 6 5 c o t t o n e x p o r t s m o r e t h a n q u a d r u p l e d ,

--

I D u r i n g S a i d ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f e l l a h i n , who h a d h i t h e r t o h e l d t h e i r f a r m p l o t s by u s u f r u c t , were r e c o g n i z e d , b y t h e D e c r e e o f A . H . 1 2 4 7 ( 1 8 5 8 ) a s o w n e r s o f t h e i r l a n d , w i t h f u l l . r i g h t s o f s e l l i n g , b e q u e a t h i n g , l e t t i n g a n d m o r t g a g j . n g . T h i s d e c r e e , c o m b i n e d r u i t h t h e r e d u c t i o n o f e x p o r t d u e s f r o m 1 0 % t o I$, p a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p e t u s t n a g r i c u l t u r e . C r o u c h l e y , GJ. c i t p . 111. O t h e r c o u n t r i e s w h i c h b e n e f i t t e d f r o m t h e c o t t o n -* 9

c r i s i s d u e t o t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l War i n c l u d e d : I n d i a , B r a z i l , a n d T u r k e y , O ~ u e n , o p , c i t . , p p , 92-97,

Page 118: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

v ~ h i l e t h e i r v a l u e i n c r e a s e d m o r e t h a n t e n f o l d . T h e s e i n c r e a s e s

a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e , w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e

a n n u a l v o l u m e o f c o t t o n e x p o r t s , a n d t h e i r v a l u e , d u r i n g t h e

boom p e r i o d :

Y E A R K A N T A R S

I sma i l was aware, e a r l y i n h i s administration, t h a t t h e 1 J A m e r i c a n C i v i l War w o u l d s o o n e n d a n d t h a t c o t t o n p r i c e s w o u l d I

1 s u b s e q u e n t 1 . y d e c l i n e . He was o p t i m i s t i c , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h a t 1

i

t h e y w o u l d m a i n t a i n a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l e v e l , s i n c e h e r e a s o n e d I

t h a t America c o u l d n o t r e g a i n i t s f o r m e r p r e - e m i n e n c e o n t h e a

3 a w o r l d m a r k e t w i t h o u t s l a v e l a b o u r . 6

Id ' lill I n t h e m i d s t o f t h e boom, hc;lf iever, a m u r r a i n e p i d e m i c

k i l l e d t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f E g y p t ' s o x e n - t h e p r i n c i p a l m o t i v e

p o w e r f o r i r r i g a t i o n d e v i c e s a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l i m p l e m e n t s .

I n i t i a l l y , t h e d i s e a s e h a d b e e n i ~ n o r e d , s i n c e a n i m a l , a s we1.l

a s human, m o r t a l i t y r a t e s w e r e a l w a y s h i g h a n d p l a g u e s w e r e

2 ~ r o u c h l e y , op. c i t . , p . 135, a n d O u e n , o p . c i t . , p. 90. A t t h i s t i m e a n E g y p t i a n p o u n d was w o r t h a l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a p o u n d s t e r l i n g .

3 ~ . ~ . H e s s e l t i n e a n d H . C . W o l f , - T h e B l u e a n d t h e G r a y - o n t h e Ni le oron onto, 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 3 1 ,

Page 119: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

113

e n d e m i c t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y , By J u n e i t was a p p a r e n t t h a t

t h i s d i s e a s e was m o r e s e v e r e t h a n a n y w i t h i n l i v j . n g rnErno1.y.

P r e v i o u s l y u n k n o w n t o E g y p t , t h e m u r r a i n d e f i e d a n y t h c n c u r r e n t

t r e a t m e n t a n d k i l l e d w i t h i n n f f e h o u r s o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f

s y m p t o m s , T h e r e w o r e , m o r e o v e r , v e r y f e w v e t e r i n a r i a n s

a v a i l a b l e t o d e v i s e a n d s u p e r v i s e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s , s i n c e t h e

V e t e r i n a r y S c h o o l , o p e n e d i n 182 '1 , h a d b e e n c l o s e d d u r i n g t h e

1 8 5 0 ' s . ~ A l t o g e t h e r t a c c o r d i n g t o I s m a i l , 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n i m a l s d i e d .

T h e m u r r a i n m o m e n t a r i l y i n d u c e d r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e s c a l ~

a g r i c u l t u r a l m o d e r n i z a t i o n i n E g y p t . To c o u n t e r t h e s e v e r e 1111

s h o r t a g e o f a n i m a l s , I sma i l a n d o t h e r r i c h l a n d o i j ~ n e r s i m p o r t e d 4 1

If .d

l a r g e n u m b e r s o f steam pumps f o r i r r i g a t i o n , a n d steam p l o u g h s , ,a\ ill

T h e c o s t o f s u c h i m p l e m e n t s f r o m E n g l a n d a l o n e , d u r i n g t h e 1 0 6 4 -

1 8 6 5 p e r i o d , a m o u n t e d t o $ 6 5 0 , 0 0 0 s t e r l i n g . I s m a i l , ~ h o b y May

1 8 G 4 o w n e d 200 steam p l o u g h s , h a d t a k e n t h e i n i t i a t i v e i n t h i s

r a p i d m e c h a n i z a t i o n w 6 He r e m a r k e d t o a B r i t i s h d i p l o m a t o n t h i s

4 ~ h i l e t h e V e t e r i n a r y S c h o o l h a d b e e n i n e x i s t e n c e , i t h a d b e e n o b s t r u c t e d a n d r i d i c u l e d b y O t t o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .

' ~ o u i n , H i s t o i r e d u ~ 6 q n e d u K h e d i v e I s m a i l , v o l . 1, P O 2 7 2 s

6 1 b i d . , p. 2 6 2 . A f t e r h i s a c c e s s i o n I s m a i l s e e m i n g l y - b e c a m e o b s e s s e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g h i s l a n d h o l d i n g s . N c i t h o r h i s r e l a t i v e s n o r h i s f r i e n d s w e r e s a f e f r o m h i s c o v e t o u s e y e , Af'ter h @ h a d o f f e r e d w h a t h e f e l t w a s a r e a s o n a b l e p r i c e f o r a p i e c e o f l a n d , t h e p r o p r i e t o r made h a s t e t o a c c e p t t h e h o n o u r , I

h o w e v e r much h e may h a v e b e e n o t h e r w i s e i n c l i n e d t o r e j e c t i t . I f h e r e f u s e d , h e f o u n d h i s i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s c u t o f f a n d h i s f e l l a h i n g o n e i n t h e n i g h t . By s u c h m e a n s I s m a i l q u i c k l y d o u b l e d , t r i p l e d , e v e n t u a l l y d e c u p l e d t h e a l r e a d y e n o r m o u s d o m a i n s h e h e l d o n h i s a c c e s s i o n . By t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f h i s r e i a n h e

a

o w n e d o n e f i f t h o f E g y p t ' s c u l t i v a b l e l a n d , L a n d e s , o p . c i t . , p w 1 8 9 , a n d T h e T i m e s , J u n e 2 8 , 1 8 7 9 , p , 5 ,

Page 120: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

matter : " I w i s h t o g i v e a n e x a m p l e t o my ~ o r n ~ a t r i o t s . " ~

E g y p t i a n a g r i c u l L u r e F s p r e c a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n d u e t o t h e m u r r a i n

a n d t h e s c a l e o f t h e r e s u l t a n t m e c h a n i z a t i o n , a r e i n d i c a t e d i n

t h i s r e p o r t o f F e b r u a r y , 1 8 6 4 :

o n l y 20 d a y s now r e m a i n , b y w h i c h t ime a l l s e e d m u s t b e i n t h e g r o u n d . E v e r y k i n d o f a n i m a l i s p r e s s e d i n t o s e r v i c e - s o m e t i m ~ s e v e n f e l l a h i n a r e y o k c d t o t h o p l o u g h s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , b u t f e w steam e n g i n e s h a v e a r r i v e d . H u n d r e d s a r e o n t h e way , b u t t h e y w i l l . b e t o o l a t e f o r t h i s s e a s o n , B

t o m e c h a n i z e d f a r m i n g w a s t h e a l m o s t t o t a l l a c k o f E g y p t i a n

p e r s o n n e l who c o u l d o p e r a t e a n d / o r r e p a i r t h e m a c h i n e r y

i n v o l v e d , S u c h a p r o b l e m i s o f c o u r s e r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e

Muhammad A l i E r a . A n u m b o r o f E u r o p e a n m e c h a n i c s were h i r e d

t o m a i n t a i n a n d r epa i r f a r m m a c h i n e r y . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h i s ,

a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f i t s o o n c e a s e d t o f u n c t i o n a n d iuas

s u b s e q u e n t l y a b z n d o n e d , W i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t t ime o f t h e

b e g i n n i n g o f t h e m e c h a n i z a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t , m o s t o f t h e l a n d -

o w n e r s i n v o l v e d h a d c o m p l e t e l y r e v e r t e d t o t h e u s e o f t r a d i t i o n a l

f a r m i m p l e m e n t s . I t i s n o t a b l e , h o w e v e r , t h a t a t o n e e s t a b l i s h -

m e n t w h e r e m e c h a n i z e d f a r m i n g p e r s i s t e d , t h e m a c h i n e r y i s

c o n j e c t u r e d t o h a v e b e e n a s t i m u l u s t o i n c r e a s e d m e n t a l a c u i t y

a m o n g t h e f e l l a h i n t h e r e :

I l a t e l y h e a r d t h a t Halim P a s h a , i n c o n v e r s i n g w i t h h i s f a r m l a b o u r e r s h a d f o u n d t h e i n t e l l e c t o f t h e l a d s who h a v e g r o u n u p s i n c e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e new m e c h a n i c a l a p p l i a n c e s uJas g r e a t l y i n a d v a n c e

7 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , H i s t o i r e d u ~ J ~ n e d u K h e d i v e I s m a i l , v o l . I , p. 262.

6 T h e T i r n e z , F e b r u a r y 2 9 , 1 8 6 4 , p. 1 2 .

Page 121: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

o f t h a t o f t h e men who h a d r e a c h e d m a n h o o d u n d e r t h e f o r m e r p r i m i t i v e s y s t e m o f c u l t i v a t i o n , when t h e o x was t h e a l l - i n - a l l t o t h e f e l l a h , a n d when m i c d h a d n o s t i m u l u s a n d n o c a u s e f a r t h o u g h t o r i n q v i r y . 9

T h e l a c k o f d o m e s t i c f u e l s was a n a d d i t i o n a l b a r r i e r

t o t h e development o f m e c h a n i z e d f a r m i n g . C o a l c o s t i n g 1 2 $

f r a n c s a t o n a t Neu~castLe o r C a r d i f f , r e t a i l e d a t 75-100 f r a n c s

i n t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e De l t a . O w i n g t o u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e

E g y p t i a n r a i l w a y s y s t e m , a n d t h e l a c k o f o t h e r a d e q u a t e m e a n s

o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , d e l i v e r y o f f u e l was n o t r e l i a b l e . l o C o a l

t h a t a r r i v e d a t A l e x a n d r i a i.n A p r i l p o f t e n d i d n o t r e a c h i t s

f i n a l d e s t i n a t i o n u n t i l A u g u s t o r S e p t e m b e r , b y w h i c h t i m e t h e

c o t t a n h a d b e e n h a r v e s t e d . l l

T h e f e l l a h i n , who h e l d t h e g r e a t e r p a r t OF E g y p t ' s a r a b l e

l a n d , w e r e F o r t h e m o s t p a r t u n a f f e c t e d b y t h e m e c h a n i z a t i o n

v e n t u r e , T h e y c o n t i n u e d t o u s e a g r i c u l t u r a l i m p l e m e n t s a n d

t e c h n i q u e s t h a t d a t e d f r o m a n t i q u i t y . T h e s i m p l e p l o u g h m e r e l y

s t i r r e d t h e t o p s o i l , l e a v i n g t h e s u b s ~ i l S R E X ~ C S ~ ~ t o a i r , sun

and water . T h o u g h c o t t o n c u l t i v a t i o n r a p i d l y e x h a u s t e d t h e

e a r t h , c r o p r o t a t i o n was o n l y u s e d t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t , a n d

n e i t h e r n a t u r a l n o r a r t i f i c i a l f a r t i l i z e r s were a p p l i e d t o t h e

9 ~ h e T i m e s , M a r c h 2 9 , 1 8 7 8 , p . 5 .

l 0 1 s m a i l s e n t e x p e d i t i o n s t o t h e e a s t a n d s o u t h o f t h e c o u n t r y i n s e a r c h o f c o a l d e p o s i t s , T h e y w e r e u n s u c c e s s f u l .

" ~ u r i n g t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y h i g h Ni le f l o o d o f S e p t e m b e r , 1 8 6 3 , t h e C a i r o t o A l e x a n d r i a r a i l w a y l i n e a n d i t s b r a n c h l i n e were b r o k e n f o r s o m e m o n t h s . I smai l r e q u i s i t i o n e d t h e s e r v i c e s o f a l l s teamers o n t h e Nile i n a n a t t e m p t t o ease t h e t r a n s p o r t - a t i o n p r o b l e m . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a h u g e b a c k l o g o f f r e i g h t c h o k e d t h e r a i l w a y s y s t e m f o r s o m e t ime a f t e r f u l l s e r v i c e was r e s u m e d . I t w a s e s t i m a t e d t h a t 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o 2 5 , 0 0 0 b a l e s o f c o t t o n w e r e d e s t r o y e d b y t h e f l o o d a n d t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s o f b u s h e l s o f g r a i n . S e r i o u s f o o d s h o r t a s e s e n s u e d ; t h u s f o o d s t u f f s , i n c l u d i n a w h e a t , h a d t o b e i m p o r t e d . - L a n d e s , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 4 8 - 1 5 0 , a n d Gwen, o p e c i t . , p p . 1 1 0 - 1 f 1 .

Page 122: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

11 6

s o i l . S u c h f a c t o r s l e d t o t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f s u c c c s s j , v e

c r o p s a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a b a n d o n i n g l a n d u n t i l i t h a d

r e c u p e r a t e d . 1 2 T h e e x t e n t o f t h e b a c k w a r d n e s s o i p e a s s n t

a g r i c u l t u r e i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h u c la im, m a d e b y a F r e n c h

o b s e r v e r , t h a t t w o F r e n c h m e n w i t h t w o h o r s e s h a r v e s t e d a s much

w h e a t i n a d a y a s n i n e t y t o a h u n d r e d f e l l a h i n . I s m a i l , who

g r e a t l y r e l i e d u p o n r e v e n u e f r o m t h o t o t a l a g r i c u l t u r a l

c o m m u n i t y , n e v e r a t t e m p t e d t o i n t r o d u c e a g r i c u l t u r a l r e f o r m s

t o t h e f e l l a h i n . S u c h r e f o r m s , e v e n t h o u g h u n s p c c t a t u l a r a n d

s l o ~ t o f r u c t i f y , u l t i m a t e l y c o u l d h a v e b e e n o f g r e a t b e n e f i t

t o E g y p t ,

T h e v o l u m e o f c o t t o n e x p o r t s f e l l f r o m 2 , 5 0 7 , 0 0 0 k a n t a r s

a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e c o t t o n boom i n 1 8 6 5 , t o 1 , 2 6 0 , 9 4 6 k a n t a r s

i n 1 8 6 7 - t h e y e a r i m m e d i a t e l y s u c c e e d i n g t h e boom p e r i o d . 1 3

S i m i l a r l y , t h e p r i c e o f a p o u n d o f E g y p t i a n ' f a i r ' q u a l i t y

c o t t o n F e l l f r o m a h i g h o f 32 p e n c e i n 1 8 6 4 , t o a l o u ~ o f 73 /4

p e n c e i n 1 8 6 7 ( t h e a v e r a g e p r i c e i n 1 8 6 7 was 1 3 ~ / 8 p e n c e ) . l 4

S u c h a s l u m p i n t h e c o t t o n v a r k e t i n d u c e d a n u m b e r o f E g y p t i a n

f a r m e r s t o r e v e r t t o t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f c e r e a l p r o d u c t s .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t s o o n b e c a m e a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e r e was n o l o n g e r

a s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r s e a s m a r k e t f o r E g y p t i a n , g r a i n s . I n r e c e n t

y e a r s g r a i n s f r o m s u c h d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a s A u s t r a l i a *

C a n a d a , A r g e n t i n a a n d R u s s i a h a d i n u n d a t e d t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l

m a r k e t . T h e s e were o f much b e t t e r q u a l i t y a n d c h e a p e r t h a n

I 2 ~ h e T i m e s , A p r i l 1 7 , 1 8 7 8 , p . 5.

1 3 ~ w e n , o p . c i t . , 6. 9 0 . 1 4

Hamza, o p . c i t . , p. 1 1 2 , a n d L a n d e s , ap. c i t . , p . 2 3 4 ,

Page 123: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

t h o s e g rown i n E g y p t . W i t h m o s t o f h e r a g r i c u l t u r e i n a

p r i m i t i v e s t a t e , E g y p t c o u l d n o t h o p e t o c o m p e t e i n t h i s m a r k e t .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , m o s t E g y p t i a n f a r m e r s were v i r t u a l - l y con ipeL led

t o r e l y u p o n c o t t o n c u l t i v a t i o n f o r t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d , w i t h a11

t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s t h a t t h i s r e l i a n c e came t o i m p l y . T h e

f l u c t u a t i o n s i n c o t t o n e x p o r t s a n d p r i c e s f o l l o w i n g t h e r e c o r d

y e a r o f t h e boom p e r i o d , 1 6 6 5 , a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g

t a b l e :

1 5

F e a r i n g t h e e c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s o f d e c l i n i n g c o t t o n

s a l e s a n d p r i c e s d u r i n g 1 8 6 6 , I s m a i l i n i t i a t e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f l a r g e s c a l e s u g a r c a n e a n d s u g a r p r o c e s s i n g i n d u s t r i e s . l 6

Only f o u r s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , w h i c h h a d o p e n e d b e f o r e h i s a c c e s s i o n ,

1 5 ~ r o u c h l e y , o p . c i t - . , p . 135, a n d Owen, o p e c i t . , p . 9 0 .

I 6 1 n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e t h o c u l t i v a t i o n o f s u g a r c a n e , t h e I b r a h i m i e h C a n a l , 1 8 0 miles l o n g a n d 7 4 metres u ~ i d e , was d u g f r o m A s s i u t t o B i b i e h , b y 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 c s r v g e l a b o u r e r s . V i r t u a l l y a l l o f t h e l a n d b o r d e r i n g i t mas p u r c h a s e d b y I s m a i l a n d a d d e d t o h i s p r i v a t e e s t a t e s . T h o s e l a n d o w n e r s who d i d n o t r e a d i l y s e l l t h e i r p r o p e r t y w o r e c o e r c e d i n t o d o i n g s o . R i f a a t , o p , c i t , , - p , 1 0 4 .

Page 124: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

were i n o p e r a t i o n a t t h i s t i m e . 1 7 T h e s e p r o d u c e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y

5 5 , 0 0 0 k a n t a r s o f s u g a r a n n u a l l y , f a r b e l o ~ u t h e a m o u n t c o n s u m e d

d o m e s t i c a l l y . T h e b a l a n c e was i m p o r t e d f r o m E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e .

By t h e m i d - . 1 0 7 0 ' s , t w e n t y - t w o s u g a r p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t s w e r e

o p e r a t i n g , T h e y h a d a c o m b i n e d c a p a c i t y o f 3 , 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 k a n t a r s ,

a n d w e r e e s t i m a t e d t o h a v e c o s t a r o u n d $ E , 6 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o c o n s t r u c t

a n d f i t w i t h m o d e r n m a c h i n e r y ( a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t o f t h i s

sum was w a s t e d ) . 1 8 E g y p t f i r s t e x p o r t e d p r o c e s s e d s u g a r i n

1 8 6 7 , c o m p e t i n g r e l a t i v e l y s u c c e s s f u l l y a g a i n s t s e v e r c f o r e i g n

c o m p e t i t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h r o u g h o u t I s m a i l ' s L i m e o v e r -

s u p p l y k e p t s u g a r p r i c e s o n t h e w o r l d m a r k e t a t a l o w l e v e l .

I t s o o n b e c a m e a p p a r e n t , i n f a c t , t h a t t h e s u g a r v e n t u r e

h a d b e e n e m b a r k e d o n t o o h a s t i l y a n d h a d e x p a n d e d t o o r a p i d l y .

Of t h e t w e n t y - t w o f a c t o r i e s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e m i d - 1 8 7 0 ' s , o n l y

t e n w e r e s t i l l o p e n i n 1 8 7 8 . T o o f e w c a p a b l e a n d e x p e r i e n c e d

management . p e r s o n n e l h a d b e e n a v a i l a b l e t o o r g a n i z e t h e

n a s c e n t i n d u s t r y . I t h a d e x p a n d e d w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f

t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u g a r c a n e a n d o f l a b o u r , s k i l l e d o r

I 7 ~ h e s e f a c t o r i e s h a d b e e n b u i l t S e t u ~ ~ e n 1 8 4 5 a n d 1 8 5 9 . Owen, c i t e * p . 153.

he o r i g i n a l c a s t i n E u r o p e o f m a c h i n e r y f o r t h e l a r g e r f a c t o r i e s i s s a i d t o b e a b o u t $ 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 e a c h . B e s i d e s t h e m a c h i n e r y n e e d e d f o r t h e f a c t o r i e s t h e r e h a s b e e n b r o u g h t o u t a n e x t r a v a g a n t q u a n t i t y o f e x t r a m a c h i n e r y o f a l l k i n d s , w h i c h i s l y i n g a b o u t a s s o much waste o v e r t h e w h o l e e x t e n t o f t h e s u g a r c o u n t r y . T h i s e x t r a v a g a n c e h a s d o u b t l - e s s a r i s e n t o g r e a t p a r t f r o m t h e r i v a l r i e s o f t h e F r e n c h a n d E n g l i s h who h a v e b e e n i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e e r e c t i o n o f t h e f a c t o r i e s . T h e c a n a l ( I b r a h i m i e h ) h a s e n t i r e l y d e s t r o y e d t h e u s e o f t h e p u m p i n g e n g i n e s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e y hava b e e n a lmss t f r o m t h e t ime o f t h e i r e r e c t i o n l y i n g i d l e . No c a r e i s t a k e n o n t h e m a n d t h e y a r e now q u i t e u o r t h l e s s , t h e s m a l l e r w o r k i n g p a r t s h a v i n g b e e n s t o l e n . T h e a v e r a q e c o s t o f t h e s e was a b o u t 8 2 3 , 0 0 0 s o t h a t t h e t o t a l l o s s is. n o t i n c o n s i d e r a b l e . " T h e T i m e s , -- May 5 , 1 8 7 7 , p a 6,

Page 125: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

u n s k i l l o d . l 9 S h o r t a g e s i n bb th t h e s e a r e a s f o r c e d f r a q u e n t

t empora ry c l o s u r e s of f a c t o r i e s . The s h o r t a g e of s k i l l e d

l a b o u r was e s p e c i a l l y a c u t e . E n g l i s h and French e n g i n e e r s

were employed t o t r a i n Egypt ian p e r s o n n e l i n v a r i o u s r e l e v a n t

methods and t e c h n i q u e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e problems t h e s e

a d v i s o r s e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e i r t a s k were n o t documented i n t h e

s t u d i e s a v a i l a b l e t o t h i s s t u d e n t .

The i n e f f i c i e n t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sys t em t h r o u g h o u t t h e

s u g a r e s t a t e s owned by I s m a i l was a n o t h e r a s p e c t of bad

management. The f a c t o r i e s were l o c a t e d i n t h e c e n t r e s a f t h e

l a r g e p l a n t a t i o n s , f a r away from t h e r a i l w a y t h a t bo rde red

t h e n . 20 A p p a r e n t l y t h e p l a n n o r s of t h e f a c t o r i e s f a i l e d t o

r e a l i z e t h a t e f f i c i e n t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n l i n k s a r e e s s e n t i a l t o

modern i n d u s t r i e s . T h i s o v e r s i g h t f o r c e d t h e u s e of an ima l

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o v e r r e l a t i v e l y l o n g d i s t a n c e s , f r e q u e n t l y an

i n a d e q u a t e means of s u p p l y f o r t h e f a c t o r i e s .

Apart From t h e s u g a r p r o c e s s i n g i n d u s t r y , e s s e n t i a l l y

an e x t e n s i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y , I s m a i l under took o n l y

I 9 1 t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r e was no o v e r t h o s t i l i t y from t h e f e l l a h i n t o working i n t h e s u g a r f a c t o r i e s . F a c t o r i e s were no l o n g e r a t o t a l l y new concep t t o them, a s t h e y had been d u r i n g Muhammad Ali's r e i g n , though o n l y a few wsre i n o p e r a t i o n - between Muhammad Ali's and I s m a i l ' s r e i g n s . A Monsieur G a r n l e r . wro te of workers i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y a t Rhoda: "11s m'ont pa ru de bonne humeur, s a t i s f a i t de l e u r c o n d i t i o n e t ne s u b i r aucune c o n t r a i n t e . " Douin, H i s t o i r e du ~ b ~ n e du Khedive I s m a i l , v o l . I , -- tome I , D. 263. S o l d i e r s were sometimes used f o r h a r v e s t i n o

2

s u g a r c a n e , S tephen Cave r e p o r t e d t h a t : "On one e s t a t e we saw s o l d i e r s engaged i n c a n e c u t t i n g , and ue h e a r d t h a t t h e work performed by t h e s o l d i e r s was f a r s u p e r i o r t o t h a t of t h e o r d i n a r y l a b o u r e r . " P u b l i c Records O f f i c e , F,O. 407, v o l . 7, p . 64 , L e t t e r 117: Mr. Cave t o t h e E a r l of Derby, C a i r o , ~ e b r u a r ~ 1 2 , 1876.

2 0 ~ i f a a t , op. c i t . ,

Page 126: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

o n e o t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i a l p r o j e c t . T h i s p r o v e d an a b o r t i v e

u n d e r t a k i n g . A l f r e d G a r w o o d , a B r i t i s h e n g i n e e r , d e s c r i b e s .

t h e u n a s s e m b l e d m a c h i n e r y f o r an e n t i r e s t e e l m i l l he f o u n d

a t B u l a q :

I m a g i n e , i f y o u c a n , r o l l i n g mills t o m a n u f a c t u r e i r o n , w i t h n o t a s c r a p o f i r o n o r e i n t h e c o u n t r y , p u d d l i n g f u r n a c e s u ~ i t h n o t h i n g t o p u d d l e , r o l l s a n d m i l l s u i t h n o i r o n t o r o l l , ... e n g i n e s w h i c h h a d n e v e r p u t down; m a c h i n e r y s t i l l u n p a c k e d , . . H i s ( 1 s m a i l 1 s ) a d v i s e r s m u s t h a v e known t h a t t h e ~ u h o l e t h i n g was a g i g a n t i c f r a u d e 2 1

O u t s i d e o f t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y , m o s t o f t h e m a n u f a c t o r i e s

. a p e r a t i n g d u r i n g 1 s m a . i l ' s r e i g n w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e h i s

a c c e s s i o n . T h e s e i n c l u d e d t w o c o t t o n w e a v i n g mills, a t a r -

b o o s h f a c t o r y , a t a n n e r y , a p a p e r m i l l , t h e N a t i o n a l P r i n t i n g

P r e s s , a n u m b e r o f b a k e r i e s a n d s e v e r a l a r m a m e n t m a n u f a c t o r i e s . 2 2

A l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t s o f a l l o f t h e s e e n t e r p r i s e s

w e n t t o t h e a r m e d f o r c e s .

T h e f a i l u r e o f t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y t o d e v e l o p i n t o a

p r o f i t a b l e u n d e r t a k i n g m e a n t t h a t E g y p t e s s e n t i a l l y h a d a o n e

c r o p e c o n o m y , a s h a d b e e n t h e c a s e d u r i n g Muhaulmad Ali's

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , C o t t o n o u t p u t h a d g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d s i n c e t h e n ,

T h e h i g h e s t v o l u m e o f c o t t o n e x p o r t e d d u r i n g t h s Muhammad A l i

E r a was 3 1 5 , 4 7 0 k a n t a r s i n 1 8 3 7 . U n d e r I s m a i l i t was 3 , 0 0 7 , 7 1 9

2 q ~ l f r e d E . G a r w o o d , F o r t y Y e a r s o f - a n E n q i n e e r ' s - L i f e ( ~ e w ~ o r t , n. d . ), p p , 98-1 0 1 ,

2 2 ~ c c o r d i n g t o t h e A m e r i c a n C o n s u l - G e n e r a l , t h e m a n u f a c - t u r e o f c o t t o n c l o t h w a s a l m o s t w h o l l y d i s c o n t i n u e d a r o u n d 1 8 7 2 . He f e l t t h a t t h i s was l a r g e l y d u e t o t h e h i g h c o s t o f c o a l a n d t h e f a c t t h a t s k i l l e d l a b o u r h a d t o b e i m ~ o r t e d f r o m E u r o p e a t i n f l a t e d r a t e s o f p a y . Owen, o p . c i t . , p. 155. S m a l l a m o u n t s o f p a o e r w e r e e x p o r t e d t o t h e H e i a z a n d I n d i a , . . "

J.C. McCoan, E q y p t a s i t i s , p p . 3 2 5 - 3 2 6 .

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121

k a n t a r s i n 1 3 7 6 , ~ ~ Yet t h i s w i d o p r o d u c t i v i t y d i f f ~ r e n t i a l

is a m i s l e a d i n g i n d i c a t o r o f g o v e r n m e n t r e v e n u e , as Muhammad

A l i h a d e n j o y e d t h e p r a f i t s o f a m o n o p o l y system, a n a d v a n t z g e I t h a t I s m a i l neve r p o s s e s s e d ,

2 3 ~ r o u c h l a y , op . c i t . , p . 93 a n d p . 135.

Page 128: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

C h a p t e r IX - P u b l i c Works a n d t h e P u b l i c Dob t

A t t h e time o f I s m a i l ' s a c c e s s i o n i n 1 8 6 3 , E g y p t ' s n a t i o n a l

d e b t was a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ E . 6 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 , b y t h e e n d o f h i s r e i g n ,

i n 1 8 7 3 , i t h a d r e a c h e d 8 E. 91 9 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . 1 A l a r g e p a r t o f t h e

i n c r e a s e c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o e x t e n s i v e p u b l i c w o r k s p r o j e c t s .

T h c s e i n c l u d e d b e a u t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e k e y c i t i e s a n d t h e c o n -

s t r u c t i o n o f p a l a c e s a n d o t h e r m o n u m e n t a l b u i l d i n g s , a s we l l

a s t h e e x p a n s i o n o f E g y p t ' s i n f r a s t r u c t u r e .

S p u r r e d i n t o e m b a r k i n g on e x t e n s i v e p u b l i c w o r k s p r o j e c t s

b y t h e c o t t o n boom, w h i c h i n f l a t e d h i s c o n c e p t o f E g y p t ' s

e c o n o m i c p o t e n t i a l b e y o n d r e a s o n , I s m a i l made n o a t t e m p t t o

g e a r p u b l i c w o r k s e x p e n d i t u r e s t o t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e n a t i o n a l

r e v e n u e . Even when t h e c o t t o n m a r k e t was i n a p r e c a r i o u s

c o n d i t i o n ? d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e 1 8 6 0 • ‹ s , t .he p u b l i c w o r k s

b o n a n z a c o n t i n u e d u n a b a t e d , Ismai l - p r o f o u n d e g o t i s m b e i n g a

f a c e t o f h i s c o m p l e x n a t u r e - u s e d h i s p u b l i c w o r k s p r a j e c t s

a s a m e a n s o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t h e was a p r o g r e s s i v e l e a d e r .

T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o F t h e S u e z C a n a l , t h o u g h i t was e s s s n -

t i a l l y a F r e n c h u n d e r t a k i n g , a n d was a d i s a p p o i n t m e n t t a Ismai l ,

A t t h e C a n a l ' s i n a u g u r a t i o n h e d i d v i r t u a l l y e v e r y t h i n g h e

c o u l d t o i m p r e s s f o r e i g n g u e s t s i n E g y p t o f h i s p o r s o n a l g r e a t -

n e s s , I n t h i s m a n n e r h e h o p e d t o g e n e r a t e p o p u l a r i t y f o r him-

s e l f among E u r o p e a n h e a d s o f s t a t e f o r p r a g m a t i c a s w e l l a s

h he $ E. 6 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 d o e s n o t i n c l u d e c o n t i n g e n t l i a b i l i t i e s l e f t b y S a i d , w h i c h l a r g e l y e n t a i l e d h e a v y e x p e n d i t u r e s on t h e S u e z C a n a l . Hamna, o p . c i t . , p. 64.

Page 129: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

123

e g o t i s t i c a l e n d s , I n t h e p r a g m a t i c v e j n , h e w i s h e d t o w i n t h e i r

a s s i s t a n c e , o r a t l e a s t t h e i r m o r a l s u p p o r t , i n h i s a t t e m p t s t o

g a i n i n d e p e n d e n c e From t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e . H E a l s o w a n t e d t o

p r o j e c t a n a f f l u e n t i m g e i n o r d e r t h a t h e m i g h t , when n e c e s s a r y ,

r a i s e l o a n s o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l money market . Among t h e g u e s t s

a t t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n w e r e : F r a n c i s J o s e p h , E m p e r o r o f A u s t r i a ,

E m p r e s s ~ u ~ g n i o o f F r a n c e , t h e Crown P r i n c e o f R u s s i a a n d

v a r i o u s l e s s o r r o y a l F i g u r e s . T h e r e were i n a l l 3 , 0 0 0 o f f i c i a l

F o r e i g n g u e s t s , e a c h o f whom was F u r n i s h e d w i t h a F r e e r a t u r n

p a s s a g e t o E g y p t , f r e e b o a r d a n d l o d g i n g a n d F r e e p a s s e s f o r

r a i l r o a d t r a v e l , A c c o r d i n g t o E d ~ a r d D i c e y a n y " o f t h e K h e d i v e ' s

v i s i t o r s m i g h t h a v e s p e n t t c ~ o m o n t h s i n E g y p t w i t h o u t e v e r

n e e d i n g t o p u t h i s h a n d i n h i s p o c k e t f o r a n y t h i n g e x c e p t

p e r s o n a l e x p e n s e s . "2

Tho S u e z C a n a l was t h e m o s t s p e c t a c u l a r p u b l i c w o r k s

p r o j e c t t o b e c o m p l e t e d i n E g y p t d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ;

n e v e r t h e l e s s , I s m a i l was a v e r s e t o i t , H i s a n t i p a t h y s t e m m e d

f r o m t h e e x t r e m e l y g e n e r o u s c o n c e s s i o n s t h a t S a i d h a d a w a r d e d t o

t h e C a n a l Company a n d f r o m h i s j u s t i f i a b l e c o n c e r n t h a t t h e

Company ~ s o u l d i n f r i n g e o n h i s s o v a r e i g n t y . T h e c o n c e s s i o n s

i n c l u d e d a g u a r a n t e e t o p r o v i d e f o u r - f i f t h s o f t h e l a b o u r

r e q u i r e d - t h i s was c o r v g e l a b o u r - a n d t h e g r a n t i n g t o t h e

Company o f a l l l a n d o n e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e C a n a l w i t h i n one k i l o -

meter OF t h e c e n t r e o f t h e c h a n n e l ( t h e l a n d i n v o l v e d was e x e m p t

f r o m t a x a t i o n f o r t e n y e a r s ) , The l a b o u r c l a u s e , w h i c h h a d

o r i g i n a l l y b e e n e s t i m a t e d t o i n v o l v e 6 , 0 0 0 men, a c t u a l l y

- 2 0 i c e y , o p . c i t . , p. 75.

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1 2 4

i n v o l v e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y € 1 0 ~ 0 0 0 men: 2 5 , 0 0 0 - 3 0 , 0 0 0 w o r k i n g ,

w h i l e t h e r e m a i n d e r were t r a v e l l i n g t o o r f r o m t h e s i t e e Y T h e

Company was c o n t e n t t o d i g t h e w h o l e c a n a l u i t h t h e c o r v Q o

l a b o u r e r s p r o v i d e d , s i n c e t h e m a c h i n e r y n e c e s s a r y t o r e p l a c e

t h e m w o u l d h a v e b e e n e x t r c m e 2 y e x p e n s i v e . 4 S u c h a s y s t e r n was,

h o ~ e v o s ~ a s e v e r e d r a i n on E g y p t ' s l a b o u r r e s o u r c e s , w h i c h

were i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r h e r own n e e d s .

S o o n a f t e r h i s a c c e s s i o n , Ismai l r e c e i v e d a f o r m a l l a t t e r

f r o m t h e P o r t e w h i c h c o n t a i n e d t h r e e s a l i e n t r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s

c o n c e r n i n g t h e C a n a l . F i r s t l y , t h a t i t s h o u l d b e u s e d e x c l u s -

i v e l y f o r c o m m e r c i a l p u r p o s e s ; s e c o n d l y , t h a t t h e l a n d a w a r d e d I I

t o t h e C a n a l Company s h o u l d b e r e p o s s e s s e d b y E g y p t a n d t h i r d l y , i I

t h a t t h o u s e o f f o r c e d l . a b o u r o n t h e C a n a l s h o u l d b e a b o l i s h e d . HI

"1 T h e P o r t e h a d u n d o u b t e d l y b e e n i n d r ~ c e d t o make t h e s e r e c o m m e n -

It

8 nl d a t i o n s b y t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t , who were i n t e n t u p o n d o i n g I

"1

w h a t t h e y c o u l d t o p r e v e n t t h e C a n a l f r o m b e i n g c o m p l e t e d . 1 1

I 11

B r i t a i n was e x t r e m e l y a p p r e h e n s i v e a b o u t a F r e n c h c o m p a n y c o n t r o l - I1

, ~?1 / l i n g t h e s h o r t e s t r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o t h e F a r E a s t , f o r i t

3 ~ u e t a c r u e l t y a n d n e g l e c t o f human n e e d s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e C a n a l Company, t h e m o r t a l i t y w t e a m o n g m e m b e r s o f t h e c o r v g e was h i a h . And many o f t h o s e w o r k e r s who s u r v i v e d , t o o k ~ c ~ e k s t o r e c o v e r : f r o m t h e o i d e a l . E l b e r t E . F a r m a n , b p t a n d i t s B e t r a y a l (New York, 1 9 0 8 ) ~ p p . 203-206.

4 ~ e e i n P i e r r e C r a b i t e s , I s m a i l t h e M a l i q n e d hed dive h on don, 1 9 3 3 ) , p , 48. T h o u g h t h i s was f o r c e d l a b o u r , t h e Company p a i d e a c h l a b o u r e r 1 f r a n c ( 5 ~ i a s l r a s ) a d a y , u l h i c h is s a i d t o h a v e been a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h w a g e . A t t h i s t ime, 1 kg. o f b r e a d c o s t $ f r a n c , 1 k g , o f b e e f 0 , 9 9 f r a n c s , a n d 1 k g . O F m u t t o n 1 . 6 f r a n c s . Yet s u c h u~0rkmt .n u s u a l l y s u p p o r t e d n u m e r o u s m e m b e r s o f t h e i r f a m i l y as w e l l a s t h m s e l v e s . Z , Y . H e r s h l a a , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e ~ o h a r n ---- E c o n o m i c -- H i s t o r y o f t h e M i d d l e ~ a s t -=den, 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 1 0 9 ,

Page 131: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

w o u l d b e o f f o r m i d a b l e s t r a t e g i c v a l u e t o F r a n c e s h o u l d s h e

c h o o s e t o i n v a d e I n d i a . I s m a i l was e s s e n t i a l l y i n a c c o r d w i t h

t h e P o r t e ' s suggestions, y e t h e was r e l u c t a n t t o e x p o s e h i m s e l f

t o F r e n c h h o s t i l i t y , N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h i s , h e a i r e d g r i e v a n c e s

a g a i n s t t h e Company, a n d u n i l a t e r a l l y r e d u c e d t h e number o f .

c o r v d c l e b o u r e r s u ~ o r k i n g on t h e C a n a l t o 6 , 0 0 0 men. B r i e f l y

t h e r e a f t e r h e a n d d e L e s s e p s a g r e e d t o p e r m i t E m p e r o r ~ a ~ o l e b n

111 t o a r b i t r a t e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n E g y p t a n d t h e C a n a l Company.

I s m a i l a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e d t h a t a man o f s u c h r e n o w n as t h e

E m p e r o r c o u l d b e r e l i e d u p o n t o b e j u s t , t h o u g h h i s E m p r e s s was

a c o u s i n o f d e ~ e s s e ~ s . ~ The j u d g e m e n t , r e l e a s e d on J u l y 6 ,

1 8 6 4 , was f l a g r a n t l y b i a s e d i n f a v o u r o f t h e Company. A c c o r d i n g

t o J u d g e Fa rman , t h e A m e r i c a n C o n s u l - G e n e r a l . a t C a i r o , "it

a s t o n i s h e d t h o j u r i s t s o f a l l E u r o p e , a n d h a d i t n o t b e e n o f s o

s e r i o u s a c h a r a c t e r , w o u l d h a v e b e o n r e g a r d e d a s a j u d i c i a l

c u r i o s i t y . "? E g y p t was o r d e r e d t o p a y 0 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 f r a n c s t o t h e

Company, a l m o s t h a l f o f i t s o r i g i n a l c a p i t a l . T h i r t y - e i g h t

m i l l i o n f r a n c s o f t h i s were d e s i g n a t e d f o r t h e h i r i n g o f E u r o p e a n

p e r s o n n e l a n d t h e p u r c h a s i n g o f m a c h i n e r y , w h i c h was i n t e n d e d

t o r e p l a c e t h e E g y p t i a n c o r v g o l a b o u r e O T h i r t y m i l l i o n f r a n c s

? q u o t e d , i n Harnza, o p . c i t . , p. 77. I s m a i l s p e n t a l a r g e sum a n p r e p a r i n g E g y p t ' s c a s e i n t h e a r b i t r a t i o n a n d a f u r t h e r l a r g e sum i n p a y m e n t s t o v a r i o u s E u r o p e a n n e w s p a p e r s f o r p r o - p a g a n d a p u r p a s e s . I b i d , , p . 7 8 .

8 ~ o r k a r s were i m p o r t e d f r o m S o u t h e r n E u r o p e a n d t h e L e v a n t a n d v a r i o u s steam d r i v e n m a c h i n e s were i n v e n t e d t o t a k e t h e p l a c e o f E g y p t i a n m a n p o c e r . T h e Company s p e n t & 2 , 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 s t e r l i n g o n m a c h i n e r y and a p p r o x i m a t e l y &!40,000 p e r m o n t h o n f u e l . L o r d K i n r o s s , B e t w e e n Two S e = ondo don, 1 9 6 8 ) , p. 2 2 1 .

Page 132: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

1 2 6

w o r e f o r l a n d r e t u r n e d t o E g y p t i a n o w n s r s h i p ( t h e Company

r e t a i n e d s i x t y metres o f l a n d o n o i t h c r s i d e o f t h e C Z R ~ L ) . ~

T t ~ e r e z m i n i n g s i x t e e n r n i 3 l i o n f r a n c s wero f o r v a r i o u s i ndem-

n i t i e s v i n c l u d i n g t h e Cornpni?y% r e v o c a t i o n u f f i s h i n g r i g h t s

t o t h e Canal, w h i c h i t h s d n e v e r t e c h n i c a l l y p o s s e s s e d , 1 c 1

T h e 8 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 3 0 f r a n c s i n d e m n i t y , t o b e p a i d o v e r s i x t e e n

y e z r s , sas a boom t o t h e C a n a l Cori~pany, a n t h e v e r g e o f bank-

r u p t c y a t t h e t ime o f t h e a w a r d . N e ~ e r t h e l c s s ~ b y 1 8 6 6 t h e

Company f u n d s were a g a i n e x h a u s t e d , De L e s s e p s managed , h o ~ u e v e r ,

t o p r e s s I s m a i l i n t o a g r e e i n g t o pay o f f t h e r e m a i n d e r o f L h e

i n d e m n i t y much more r a p i d b y t h a n h a d o r i g i n a l l y bcon a g r e e d ,

e v e n t h o u g h k h c E g y p t i a n T r e a s u r y c o u l d i l l a f , f o r d t h i s ( t h e

N a t i o n a l D z b t was a b o u t E E . 1 9 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t

o f 1 8 6 6 ) . F i f t y s E v e n m i l l i o n , s e v e n h u n d r e d a n d f i f t y t h o u s a n d

f r a n c s were Co b e p a i d sTf i n m o n t h l y p a y m e n t s o v e r t h r e e y e a r s .

Ten r n i l . l i o n s were t o b e p a i d i n s i x o n e m o n t h l y i n s t a l m e n t s

f r o m J u l y t o December , 1 8 6 6 , "To g i l d t h e l i l y , " I s r r m i l a g r e e d

t o p a y 1 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 8 0 f r a n c s f o r same b u i l . d i n g s a n d l a n d v a c a t e d b y

t h e Company, i n s i x o n e m o n t h l y payments,

T h e C a n a l was e s t i n i a t . e d t o h e v s c o s t E g y p t $1 2 , 0 9 8 , 6 1 6

s t e r l i n g ( t h i s i s t h e t o t a l e x p e n s e a f t e r I s m a i l h a d s o l d h i s

9 ~ h e Company was a u a r d e d $20 p s r a w e f o r t h e b a r r e n d s s s r t l a n d w h i c h h a d b e e n g i v e n t o i t . Some y e a r s l a t e r t h e Company r e q u i r e d same o f t h o s a m e l a n d t o b u i l d w h a r v e s o n ; h o w e v e r , u h e n t h e E g y p t i a n G o v e r n m e n t a s k e d $20 a n a c r e f o r i t , t h e Company p r o t e s t e d t h a t t h i s uas a n a b s u r d p r i c e Far s u c h l a n d , T h e y p a i d z s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f t h e p r i c e t h e y h a d e a r l i e r r e c e i v e d f o r i t . D i c e y , o p . c i t , , p , 3 4 ,

1 0 ~ r o u c h l c y , 9. c i t . , p. 1 1 9 a n d R i f a a t , o p . c i t . , pp . 1 3 0 - 1 3 1 ,

Page 133: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s h a r e s t o t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t i n 1 8 7 5 f o r $ 3 , 9 7 6 p 5 8 3 ) . 1 1

t i e r e x p e n d i t u r e i n c l u d e d t h e 8 4 , 0 0 0 , @ 0 0 f r a n c i n d e m n i t y ,

& 6 , 6 6 3 , 1 0 3 i n t e r e s t on l o a n s r a i s e d i n o r d e r t o p a y e x p e n s e s I

i n v o l v i n g t h e C a n a l a n d . i$ l9011 ,193 f o r i n a u g u r a t i o n f e s t i v -

i t i e s . B e c a u s e o f c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e Company a n d t h e n t h e s a l e

o f I s m a i l ' s C a n a l s h a r e s , E g y p t r e c e i v e d l i t t l e o r n o n e o f

t h e p r o f i t s f r o m t h e C a n a l " t r a n s i t o p e r a t i o n s . M o r e o v e r , t h e

p r o f i t a b l e r a i l t r a n s i t b u s i n e s s , i n v o l v i n g p a s s e n g e r s , m a i l

a n d g o o d s f r o m E u r o p e e n r o u t e t o t h e F a r E a s t , a n d v i c e v e r s a o

was a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y d i s s i p a t e d d u e t o c o r n p o t i t i o n f r o m s h i p s

u s i n g t h e C a n a l . C o s t l y f a c i l i t i e s h a d b e e n b u i l t s p e c i f i c a l l y

f o r t h i s s e r v i c e , i n c l u d i n g t h e A l e x a n d r i a t o S u e z r a i l r o a d .

But t h e C a n a l was m o r e t h a n a h u g e f i n a n c i a l l i a b i l i t y f o r

~ g y p t . ~ t s s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e Luas a m a g n e t F o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l 7 I

r i v a l r y , When B r i t a i n o c c u p i e d E g y p t i n 1 8 8 2 , i t was e s s e n t i a l l y

t o s a f e g u a r d u s e o f t h e C a n a l .

U n l i k e t h e C a n a l , t h e l a r g e a m o u n t o f r a i l r o a d c o n s t r u c -

t i o n c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g I s m a i l ' s r u l e was , d e s p i t e s h o r t c o m i n g s ,

o f p o s i t i v e v a l u e t o E g y p t . A t h i s a c c e s s i o n t h e r e w e r e 245

mi les o f r a i l w a y , b u t t h e r a i l s a s w e l l a s t h e r o l l i n g s t o c k

were i n a d i l a p i d a t e d c o n d i t i o n a n d f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e s t o r a g e

I 1 ~ a m z a , o p . c i t , , p . 2 7 8 . I n 1 8 7 5 , d r a s t i c a l l y s h o r t o f money t o p a y h i s c r e d i t o r s , a n d t r i b u t e t o I s t a n b u l , I s m a i l s o l d h i s S u e z C a n a l s h a r e s t o B r i t a i n , S a i d h a d p a i d f o r 1 7 7 , 6 4 2 s h a r e s . When t h e s h a r e s w e r e r e s o l d , h o ~ u e v e r , i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e r e were o n l y 1 7 6 , 6 0 2 , What h a p p e n e d t o t h e m i s s i n g 1 , 0 4 0 s h a r e s h a s r e m a i n e d a m y s t e r y . C r o u c h l e y , op, c i t . , p , 1 2 2 . A F r e n c h m a n , l a R o s e , w r o t e a f a r c e c a l l e d -- "C'es t l e V i c e - r o i q u i p a i e , " a p e r f o r m a n c e o f u ~ h i c h was p r e s e n t e d d u r i n g t h e C a n a l ' s i n a u g u r a t i o n f e s t i v i t i e s . I t u a s a g r e a t s u c c e s s , b u t was s u p p r e s s e d b e f o r e a s e c o n d p e r f o r m a n c e was i v e n , C . C h a i l l g - L o n g , L L i f e i n f o u r C o n t i n e n t s ondo don, 1912'7, V O ~ . I , p . 35.

Page 134: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

a n d t h e l o a d i n g and u n l o a d i n g o f m e r c h a n d i s e were c x t r e m e l y

l i m i t e d . 1 2 D u r i n g I s m a i l ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a l l o f t h e s e were

g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d a n d i m p r o v e d , I t i s n o t a b l e , m o r e o v e r , t h a t

b y t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f t h e 1 R 7 0 P s , a l l o f t h a E u r o p e a n e n g i n e

d r i v e r s h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d by E g y p t i a n s . 13

N i n e h u n d r e d a n d s e v e n t y - o n a miles o f r a i l v ~ a y u c 2 e c o n s l -

r u c t e d b e t w e e n 1 8 6 3 a n d t h e m i d - 1 8 7 0 t s , a t a c o s t o f 4~~ 1 3 , 0 0 3 , 0 0 0 .

A l a r g e p a r t o f t h e new r a i l c o m p l e x , b u i l t p r i m a r i l y t o t r a n s -

p o r t a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e , l i n k e d t h e m a j o r c e n t r e s o f t h e De l ta

R e g i o n . T h e r e m a i n d e r c o n s i s t e d o f a l i n e f r o m C a i r o t o Uppe r

~ ~ ~ ~ t . ~ ~

E a r l y i n I sma i l ' s r e i g n , when a n e x t r e m e l y h e a v y F low o f

f r e i g h t was b e i n g c a r r i e d on t h e r a i l s y s t e m d u e t o t h e c o t t o n

boom, t h e r a i l w a y ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p r o v e d i t s a l f t o b e n o t a b l y

i n e f f i c i e n t . 1 5 F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e N a s a n i n o r d i n a t e number o f

q 2 ~ . Sarnrnarco, H i s t o i r e d e 1' E q y p t e m o d e r n e ( ~ a i r o , 1 9 3 7 ) , t o m e 111, p , 139.

l 3 ~ c ~ o a n , k y p t u n d e r I s m a i l , p. 2 5 3 . T h e f o l l o a i n g con - c e r n i n g w a g e s o f E u r o p e a n e n g i n e d r i v e r s i n E g y p t , was w r i t t e n b y M o b e r l y B e l l , a n E n g l i s h m e r c h a n t : "Among t h e e n g i n e - d r i v e r s a n t h e A l e x a n d r i a , C a i r o a n d S u e z l i n e o f t h e r a i l u ~ a y , a v e r y l a r g e p r a p o r t i o n a r e E n g l i s h m e n , T h e s e men tuho t o o k s e r v i c e u n d e r t h e E g y p t i a n G o v e r n m e n t - d e c e i v e d b y t h e p r o m i s e o f w a g e s h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e i n E n g l a n d , n o t t a k i n g i n t o p r o p o r t i o n t h e m o r e t h a n p r o p o r t i o n a t e e x p e n d i t u r e - h a v e f o u n d t h a t n o t o n l y a r e t h e s e w a g e s s m a l l , b u t t h a t t h e y a r e s e l d o m i f e v e r p a i d , w h i l e t h e o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i r c o n t r a c t a r e d e l i b - e r a t e l y n e g l e c t e d . " T h e T i m e s , J u l y 2 3 , 1 8 6 7 , p . 1 2 .

I 4 ~ c ~ o a n n o t a d t h a t p a s s e n g e r a n d f r e i g h t r a t e s mere much h i g h e r i n E g y p t t h a n i n E u r o p e , e v e n t h o u g h l a b o u r was c h e a p , a n d t h e ra i lways were e s t i m a t e d t o h a v e c o s t 46q0-53% l e s s t h a n c o m p a r a b l e ~ u r b ~ e n n r a i l w a y s t o c o n s t r u c t . ~ c c b a n , ' E ~ Y P ~ u n d - z I s m a i l , pp. 253-256,

I 5 ~ h e M c C a r t h y c o t t o n g i n , w h i c h was a c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p r o v e - m e n t o n p r e v i o u s g i n n i n g t e c h n i q u e s , tuas i n c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g u s e d i n E g y p t , T h u s t h e b u l k o f t h e c o t t o n c r o p was r e a d y f o r s h i p -

c o n t d :

Page 135: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

r a i l a c c i d e n t s d u e t o f a u l t y s c h e d u l i n g , I n J a n u a r y , 1 8 6 4 a

T i m e s c o r r e s p o n d e n t o p i n e d t h a t t h e r a i l w a y c o m p l e x "is i n a

s t a t e o f c o n f u s i o n t h a t h a s n e v e r b e e n A r e c o r d

s i x t e e n t r a i n c o l l i s i o n s i n March o f t h e same year g i v e s

c r e d e n c e t o t h i s s t a t e m e n t , I n a n s w e r t o s u c h p r o b l e m s , Ismail

a p p o i n t e d t w o u r t h r e e o f h i s m o s t c a p a b l e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t o

k e y r a i l w a y m a n a g e r i a l p o s i t i o n s . A l F r e d G a r w a o d ' s d a s c r i p t i o n

o f t h e r a i l r o a d u o r k s h o p s i n B u l a q i n 1 0 7 7 i n d i c a t e s , h o w e v e r ,

I was a s t o n i s h e d z t t h e i m m e n s e q u a n t i t i a s o f v a l u a b l e m a t e r i a l o f e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e d e s c r i p t i o n f o r t h e r e p a i r a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f r o l l i n g s t o c k , r a i l w a y p l a n t , t e l e g r a p h s , e k c , . , , I n a l l my e x p e r i e n c e n o t h i n g I h a v e s e e n h a s e v e r a p p r o a c h e d t h i s , , , . T h e n when o n e ums i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e r e were l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f s t o r e s a t Ga la r r i a l s o , o n e h a d t o m a r v e l how s u c h t h i n g s c o u l d b e . I t was i n c r e d i b l e , t h o u s a n d s o f p o u n d s w o r t h o f e y u i p m s n t d e c a y i n g i n t h e o p e n a i r e l 7

As l a t e a s 1 8 7 7 t h e r e Lucre n o r e g u l a r t i m e t a b l e s f a r

g o o d s t r a i n s . T h i s was l a r g e l y b e c a u s e t h e r e was a n i n s u f f i c i e n t

n u m b e r OF t e c h n i c i a n s t o s e r v i c e a n d r s p a i r e n g i n e s , F r e q u e n -

t l y , f o r e x a m p l e , a l o c o m o t i v e w a s d i s c o v e r e d t o b e u n s e r v i c e -

a b l e J u s t p r i o r t o i t s e x p e c t e d d e p a r t u r e w i t h a g o o d s t r a i n .

T h e r e w o u l d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , b e a l o n g d e l a y w h i l e a r e p l a c e m e n t

was f o u n d , Unde r s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t was f u t i l e t o drau! u p

15 c o n t d : p i n g w i t h i n s i x m o n t h s o f h a r v e s t i n g ; w h e r e a s p r e v i o u s l y t h e t o t a l c r o p w o u l d h a v e t a k e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y a y e a r t o g i n . T h e e x t e n t o f t h e f r e i g h t c r i s i s o f t h e c o t t o n boom p e r i o d is i n d i c a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t i t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t a b a c k l o g o f 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 f r e i g h t p a c k a g e s u a s a w a i t i n g s h i p m e n t i n J a n u a r y , 1 8 6 4 . D o u i n , H i s t o i r e d u ~ h ~ n e d u K h e d i v e Ismai l , v o l e I , p . 2 6 8 a n d Owcn, o p . c i t , , pp . 1 1 0 - 1 1 1 .

I 6 ~ h e T i m e s , J a n u a r y 14 , 1 8 6 4 , p. 9.

1 7 ~ a r w o o d , a p . c i t . , pp . 98-99.

Page 136: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

1 3 0

a s c h e d u l e . T h e r a i l u ~ a y t e c h n i c i a n s ' j o b s w e r e c o m p l i c a t e d b y

t h e n o l e s s t h a n 6 2 d i f f e r e n t models a m o n g t h e 240 l c - t co rno t~ves

i n E g y p t i n 1 8 7 7 5 ~ ~

D u r i n g t h e e a r l y p a r t o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p I smai l was

a s s a i l e d w i t h c o m p l a i n t s f r o m E u r o p e a n b u s i n e s s m e n a n d d i p l o m a t s

c o n c e r n i n g r a i l r o a d s , I n r e p l y t o c r i t i c i sms o f t h e

s y s t a m f r o m t h e M a n c h e s t e r C h a m b a r o f Commerce , he ~ o r o t e :

r a i l

P e o p l e s a y t h a t t h e r a i l w a y i s i n a d e q u a t e , h u t d e s p i t e s t a t e o f t h e T r e a s u r y , h a v e we n o t o r d e r e d f r o m E n g l a n d a c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t y o f e q u i p m e n t t o i n c r e a s e t h e m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ? And f u r t h e r m o r e c a n o n e do e v e r y t h i n g i n a n i n s t a n t ? l g

D e s p i t e t h e a p p a r e n t l a c k o f s e n s i t i v i t y o n t h e p a r t o f many 0

E u r o p e a n s t o I s m a i l ' s p r o b l e m s , h o p c r s i s t c d i n h i s e f f o r t s t o

a c h i e v ~ h i s e n d ,

A t I s m a i l ' s a c c e s s i o n t h e h a r b o u r f a c i l i t i e s a t A l e x a n d r i a ,

E g y p t ' s m a j o r p o r t , were g r o s s l y i n a d e q u a t e . T h e r e w e r e , f o r

i n s t a n c e , ne c c v e r z d s t o r a g z f a c i l i t i e s a n d o n l y one sma l l q u a y

a n d o n e c r a n e , G o o d s t h e r e f o r e h a d t o b e s t o r e d i n t h e o p e n a n d

t h e l o a d i n g a n d u n l o a d i n g o f t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f s h i p s h a d Lo

b e d o n e v i a l i g h t e r s . S u c h F a c t o r s p r o v o k e d b i t t e r c o m p l a i n t s

t o t h e V i c e r o y f r o m f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s , a s d i d t h e b a d r o a d

c o n d i t i o n s f r o m t h e A l e x a n d r i a r a i l t e r m i n u s t o t h e d o c k a r e a - t h e r o a d s b e i n g u n p a v e d , a n d o f t e n l i t t l e m o r e t h a n q u a g m i r e s . 2 0

- I 8 1 b i d . , pp. 100-103.

I 9 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o u i n , H i s t o i r e d u ~ d ~ n e d u K h e d i v e I sma i l , v o l . I , p. 2 7 3 .

' O ~ h e T i m e s , P la rch 25, 1866, p . 6 . F o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s a l s o c o m p l a i n e d b i t t e r l y a b o u t o b s t r u c t i v e c u s t o m s o f f i c i a l s , who h e l d u p s h i p m e n t s o f g o o d s f o r i n o r d i n a t e p e r i o d s o f t ime , M o r e o v e r , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t s o m e c u s t o m s o f f i c i a l s were e x t r e m e l y c o r r u p t . I t was e s t i m a t e d , b y a n i n d e p e n d e n t

c o n t d :

Page 137: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

The m a g n i t u d e o f t h e h a r b o u r i n p r o v o m e n t s u n d e r t a k e n b y I s m a i l

i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o u ~ i n g r e p o r t :

H u n d r e d s o f l i g h t e r s , ~ i t h t u g s t e a m e r s , h a v e b e e n o r d e r e d i n E u r o p e . . . . t h o c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a new p i e r s u i t e d t o l a r g e s h i p s w i t h s t e a m c r a n e s , h a s b e e n c o n F i d e d t o E u r o p e a n s . . , , t h e p l a n s f o r t h e new c u s t o m s - h o u s c a n d d o c k s h a v e b e e n a p p r o v e d , a n d t h e f i n a n c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i r e x e c u t i o n a r e n e a r l y . , . . c o m p l e t e d . 2 1

T h e n e u d o c k s , 1 , 4 0 0 a c r e s i n a r e a , c o n t a i n i n g new j e t t i e s p

w h a r v e s , w a r e h o u s e s , s p a c i o u s a r e a s o f d e e p water a n d a l a r g o

b r e a k i u a t e r , were c o m p l e t e d i n 1 8 8 0 . Bu t a s was s o o f t e n t h e

case , I s r r r a i l uJas t h e v i c t i m o f E u r o p e a n c u p i d i t y . I t was

e s t i m a t e d t h a t h e was o v e r c h a r g e d b y a t l e a s t 8 0 % by G r e e n f i e l d !

a n d Company9 t h e E n g l i s h f i r m t h a t c o n s t r u c t e d t h e d o c k s ( t h e ,

t o t a l c o s t was g E . 2 , 9 0 5 , 0 0 0 i n c l u d i n g IE. 3 8 3 , 0 0 0 i n t e r e s t o n I

l o a n s ) . 22 E x t e n s i v e h a r b o u r f a c i l i t i e s , c o s t i n g LE. 1 , 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 I * !I' were a l s o c o n s t r u c t e d a t ~ u e z , ~ ~ I,

11 I s m a i l d e v o t e d a t t e n t i o n t o m o d e r n i z i n g C a i r o a n d o t h e r I I

m a j o r u r b a n c e n t r e s , a l l o f w h i c h were i n a d e p l o r a b l y b a c k w a r d "1 )

s t a t e a t t h e t ime o f h i s a c c e s s i o n . M a j o r s t r e e t s were u ~ i d e n e d ,

2 0 c o n t d : a u t h o r i t y , t h a t t h e r e c e i p t s f r o m t h e c u s t o m s - h o u s e a t A lex - a n d r i a , f o r t h e y e a r 1 8 7 2 a l . o n e , o u g h t t o h a v e a m o u n t e d t o g 5 5 8 , 7 2 7 ; u ~ h e r e a s , t h e r e t u r n o f r e c e i p t s f r o m a l l t h e p o r t s r e a c h e d o n l y & S ~ I , 2 1 5 . S t e p h e n Cave , "The Cave R e p o r t , " i n McCoan, E q y p t a s it is , p . 426 ,

2 1 ~ h e T i m e s , May 25,

225 imi la r ly , I s m a i l was s a i d t o h a v e b e e n g r e a t l y o v e r - c h a r g e d b y c o n t r a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n , s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , w a t e r c o r k s , a n d s o f o r t h . N.G. M u l h a l l , " E g y p t i a n F i n a n c e , " i n - C o n t e m p o r a r y Rev iew ( ~ c t o b e r , 1 8 8 2 ) , 530 -531 arid T , R o t h s t e i n , E ~ & R u i n , A f i n a n c i a l - a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e c o r d ( l o n d o n , 1 9 1 0 ) , ~ , 4 2 .

2 3 ~ r o u c h l e y , o p . c i t . , p . 1 3 9 .

Page 138: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s t r a i g h t e n e d , p a v e d a n d p r o v i d e d w i t h g a s l i g h t i n g . 2 4 Water

a n d g a s d i s t r i b u t i o n f a c i l i t i e s a n d seoJers Lucre i n s t a l l e d . 2 5

A d d i t i o n a l nesJ p u b l i c a m e n i t i e s i n c l u d e d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n

s e r v i c e s , p a r k s , s q u a r e s , p u b l i c f o u n t a i n s , r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s

a n d a n u m b e r o f m o n u m e n t a l b u i l d i n g s , i n c l u d i n g t h c C a i r o O p e r a

H o u s e a n d t h e C a i r o R a i l w a y s t a t i o n s z 6 A l s o , a n u m b e r o f

p a l a c e s u e r e e r e c t e d .

S u n d r y o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c w o r k s p r o j e c t s were u n d u r -

t a k e n b y I s n a i l , T h e s e i n c l u d e d t h e d i g g i n g o f 8 , 4 0 0 mi les o f

new c a n a l s a n d t h e d r e d g i n g o f t h o u s a n d s o f mi les o f o l d e r o n e s . 2 7

2 4 1 1 ~ a i r o a n d A l e x a n d r i a a r e w e l l l i t a n d t h e i r c h i e f s t r e e t s h a v e r e c e n t l y b e e n p a v e d . " T h e T i m e s , J a n u a r y 6 , 1 8 7 6 , p , 8 , " A l l t h e new q u a r t e r o f C a i r o i s w e l l s u p p l i e d w i t h g a s a n d w a t e r , a n d t h e r o a d s a r e a s s u m i n g a s m o o t h m a c a d a m i z e d s u r f a c e b y t h e I

c o n s t a n t a c t i o n o f o x e n d r a w i n g h e a v y r o l l e r s o v e r t h e m a t e r i a l 1

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o f w h i c h t h e y a r e c o m p o s e d . " T h e T i m e s , M a r c h 4, 1 8 7 3 , p. 4 ,

'%n C a i r o , water, f o r a l l p u r p o s e s , h a d p r e v i o u s l y b o o n I! t a k e n d i r e c t l y From t h e Nile, o r a C a n a l t h a t t r a v e r s e d t h e c i t y . " I n o n e r e s p e c t , d r a i n a g e , 1 f e a r t h e t o w n s a rE s t i l l s a d l y w a n t i n g - t h u s d i s e a s e d e a t h s a r e s t i l l h i g h . " T h e T i m e s , I - I I

J a n u a r y 6 , 1 8 7 6 , p . 8 ,

2 6 ~ o v e r n f n e n t s u b s i d i e s t o C a i r o ' s o p e r a h o u s e a n d i t s w c s t o r n s t y l e t h e a t r e w e r e h i g h , a s is s h o w n i n t h e f o l l o ~ u i n g r e p o r t w r i t t e n d u r i n g t h e r e t r e n c h m e n t p e r i o d O F t h e m i d - 1 8 7 0 ' s : " ~ 9 0 , 0 0 0 a y e a r w i l l b e s a v e d b y t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h s o p e r a a n d t h e a t r e a t C a i r o . " T h e T i m e s , D e c e m b e r 13, 1 8 7 6 , p . 4 . -

"Many o f t h e s t r e e t s a n d s q u a r e s f a m i l i a r t o C a i r o ' s p r e s e n t r e s i d e n t s a n d v i s i t o r s a l i k e - ~ u h d m m a d A l i S t r e e t a n d S q u a r e , E z b e k i a h , ' A b i d i n , Bab a l - L u q a n d a 1 F a j j a l a h - t o o k s h a p e a t t h i s t i m e , " L.M. K e n n y , " A l i M u b a r a k : N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y E g y p t i a n E d u c a t o r a n d ~ b h i n i s t r a t o r ~ l l i n ------ M i d d l e E a s t J o u r n a l . , XXI ( ~ i n t e r , 1 9 6 7 ) , 4 5 , S a m m a r c o w r o t e o f E z b e k i a h , t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f I s rnai l ' s r e i g n , i t was: " a n i n e x t r i - c a b l e j u m b l e o f v e g e t a t i o n ; t r e e s , h e d g e s a n d b r a n c h e s were i n t e r m i n g l e d t h e r e i n t h e m i d d l e o f d i t c h e s w h i c h d u r i n g t h e f l o o d , were t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a v a s t swamp; i t was a c e n t r e o f i n f e c t i o n a n d d e p r a v i t y , w h e r e a s s a s s i n a t i o n was n o t u n k n o u n , Isrnail p u r i f i e d i t a n d C a i r o g a i n e d o n e o f i t s m o s t b e a u t i f u l g a r d e n s a n d o n e o f i t s m o s t b e a u t i f u l s q u a r e s . " T r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : Samrnarco , o p . c i t . , v o l . 111, p p . 2 8 3 - 2 0 4 .

2 7 ~ h e i n c r e a s e i n c a n a l s , c o m b i n e d w i t h I smai l ' s p o l i c y o f c o n t d :

Page 139: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

F o u r h u n d r e d a n d t h i r t y b r i d g e s , f i f t e e n l i g h t h o u s e s , manned

f o r t h e m o s t p a r t b y Eng l i sh r r i en , a n d t t ~ n u s a n d s o f mi les of r o a d s

were c o n s t r u c t e d , A l s o , 5 , 2 0 0 mi l e s o f t e l e g r a p h l i n e s were

l a i d , W i t h t h e a i d o f r a i l w a y , r o a d s , t e l e g r a p h snd s e a , r i v e r ,

a n d c a n a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , a l a u d a b l e m a i l s e r v i c e was e s t a b l i s h e d . 2 9

Ismail a c c o m p l i s h e d i m p r e s s i v e o v e r t c h a n g e s i n E g y p t w i t h

h i s p r e c i p i t a t e p u b l i c w o r k s s c h o m e s , T h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e s e

w e r e o f f s e t , h o s e v e r , b y h i s i n a b i l i t y t o p a y f o r t h e m f r o m

o r d i r i a ~ y r e v e n u e s , E g y p t i a n e c o n o m i s t A . M . Hanlza c a l c u l a t e d ,

2 7 c o n t d : i s s u i n g c o n c e s s i o n s OF l a r g e a r e a s o f u ~ a s t e - l a n d t o w e a l t h y l a n d o w n e r s a t r e d u c e d r a t e s o f t a x a t i o n , o n c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e y were b r o u g h t u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n p l e d t o a s i g n i f i c a n t e x p a n s i o n i n a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d , The maximum a m o u n t o f l a n d u n d e r c u l t i v - a t i o n d u r i n g Muhammad Ali's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a d b e e n 3 , 8 5 6 , 0 0 0 f e d d a n s , i r ? 1 8 3 3 . I n 1 8 6 3 , 4 , 3 9 5 , 0 0 0 f e d d a n s were u n d e r c u l t i v - a t i o n a n d i n 1 8 7 9 4 , 8 1 0 , 0 0 0 f e d d a n s , T h e s y s t e m O F i r r i g a t i o n , h o w e v e r , r e m a i n e d d e f e c t i v a a n d w a s t e f u l . The l e v e l o f water i n summer was many metres b e l o w t h e g r o u n d a n d t h e c a n a l s t e n d e d t o s i l t u p e v e r y y e z r a t t h e e n d OF t h e f l o o d . A g r e a t p a r t o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o u r f o r c e h a d t o b e e n i p i o y s d i n c l e a r i n g mud f r o m t h e c a n a l s i n s p r i n g a n d i n l i f t i n g t h e u ~ a t e r t o t h e l a n d i n summer . T h e r e were o v e r 3 0 , 0 0 0 s a k i a s , 7 0 , 0 0 0 s h a d o o f s , ? 9 0 0 0 t a b o u t s , a n d 5 0 0 steam pumps i n u s e d u r i n g I s m a i l ' s r e i g n . C r o u c h l e y , o p . c i t . , p p , 1 3 1 - 1 3 2 a n d O ' B r i e n , o p . c i t . , p. 1 7 2 .

2 8 ~ h e T imes . J a n u a r y 6, 1 8 7 8 , p . 8.

2 9 1 s m a i l uas a d e v o t e e o f t h s s ea a n d s h i p s a n d o n e o f h i s many a m b i t i o n s was t o g i v e E g y p t a m e r c h a n t m a r i n e , I n May 1 8 6 3 , h e e n g i n e e r e d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a s y n d i c a t e c o n s i s t i n g o f E g y p t ' s m o s t p o w e r f u l n o b l e s , E u r o p e a n b a n k e r s Oppenhe im a n d D e r v i e u a n d a C a i r o b a n k e r named S a k a k i n i , T h i s g r o u p s e r v e d a s f o u n d - e r s a n d d i r e c t o r s o f t h e A z i z i e h Company - a l s o known a s t h e E g y p t i a n S t e a m N a v i g a t i o n Company, T h o f i r m was s h o w e r e d w i t h f a v o u r s b y Ismai l . F o r i n s t a n c z , h e a c c o r d e d i t a t h i r t y y e a r m o n o p o l y f o r s e r v i c e s i n t h e Red S e a a n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , A s im i l a r m o n o p o l y o f s t e a m h a u l a g e a n d n a v i g a t i o n o n t h e Ni le was p r o m i s e d a n d a n i n t e r e s t o f 6 p e r c e n t o n t h e Company ' s s h a r e s was g u a r a n t e e d b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t , I n r e t u r n , t h e company t o o k o v e r t h e n e g l e c t e d f l e e t s o f t h e M e d j i d i e h a n d Ni le N a v i g a t i o n c o m p z n b e s , w h i c h h a d b e g u n o p e r a t i o n a n d c o l l a p s e d d u r i n g S a i d P a s h a ' s administration, I t was r e p o r t e d t h a t i n 1 8 7 3 t h e A z i z i e h Company h a d 1 6 s h i p s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n

c o n t d :

Page 140: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

1 3 4

f r o m o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s , t h a t Ismzi l s p e n t $ 4 7 , ~ 7 0 , 9 4 3 s t e r l i n g

o n p u b l i c ~ u o r l t s - i n c l u d i n g t h e S u e z C a n a l - f r o m 1 8 6 3 t o 1 8 7 4 .

D u r i n g t h e szme per iod , he p a i d $ 4 1 , 5 2 0 , 5 5 4 o n i n t e r e s t a n d

s e r v i c e c h a r g e s f o r a l l g o v e r n m e n t l o a n s a n d s i n k i n g f u n d s .

T o g e t h e r t h e s e s u m s e q u a l $ 8 0 , 7 0 7 , 4 9 7 , w h i c h s i g n i f i c a n t l y

s u r p a s s e s t h e a c c u m u l a t e d f i n a n c i a l d e f i c i t o f 2 6 3 , 9 4 8 , 4 0 9 f a r

t h e s a m e p e r i o d . J 0 W i t h o u t h e a v y e x p e n d i t u r ~ s o n p u b l i c w o r k s ,

I s m a i l w o u l d h a v e l a r g e l y b e e n a b l e t o a v o i d t h e n e e d f o r

f i n a n c i a l l ~ a n s a n d s i n k i n g f u n d s . G o v e r n m e n t r e v e n u e s f r o m

o r d i n a r y s o u r c e s d u r i n g t h e 1 8 6 3 - 1 8 7 4 p e r i o d a m o u n t e d t o

$ 9 4 , 2 8 1 , 4 0 1 , w h i l e t o t a l G o v e r n m e n t e x p e n d i t u r e s e q u a l l e d

~ 1 5 8 , 2 2 9 , 8 1 0 . ~ ~

29 c o n t d : a n d 9 i n t h e Red S e a . T h e company r a n i n t o s e v e r e f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s d u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1 8 7 0 q s , a p p a r e n t l y l a r g e l y d u e t o i n c o m p e t e n t m a n a g e m e n t . t a n d e s , o p e c i t . , pp . 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 a n d R i f a a t , o p e c i t . , p p , 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 ,

30111 a d d i t i o n t o t h e $ 4 7 , 1 7 8 , 9 4 3 f o r p u b l i c w o r k s a n d t h e h 1 , 5 2 8 , 5 5 4 f o r i n t e r e s t a n d s e r v i c e c h a r g e s f o r l o a n s a n d s i n k i n g f u n d s , t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s o t h e r e x p e n s e s were: $ 4 8 , 5 9 2 , 3 1 1 f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , k 7 , 5 9 2 , 8 7 2 f o r t r i b u t e t o t h o P o r t e a n d 81 3 , 3 3 8 , 1 6 6 f o r m i s c e l ~ l a n e o u s items i n c l u d i n g m i l i t a r y e x p e n s e s . Hamza, o p , c i t . , p p . 2 7 8 - 2 8 1 ,

311t i s o f c o u r s e i m p o s s i b l e t o e s t ima te how much money g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s p o c u l a t e d , b u t t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t it was , c o l l e c t i v e l y , a l a r g e sum, N o t a b l e a r iong t h o e m b e z z l e r s uas Isrnail S a d d y k , B o r n a T e l l a h , f o r many y e a r s a c o n f i d a n t o f I s m a i l , h e was a p p o i n t e d M i n i s t e r o f F i n a n c e i n 1 8 6 9 . He r e c e i v e d l i t t l e i f a n y f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n , b u t h e was s a i d t o h a v e b e e n a g e n i u s i n e c o n o m i c matters , M o r e o v e r , h e was e x t r e m e l y c a p a b l e when it czme t o d e v i s i n g m e t h o d s o f w r i n g i n g t a x e s f r o m f e l l a h i n . I n 1 8 7 6 t u ~ o E u r o p e a n f i n a n c i e r s J o u b e r t a n d G o s c h e n t r a v e l l e d t o E g y p t t o e x a m i n e t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s f i n a n c i a l r e c o r d s . T h e y were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f E g y p t ' s E u r o p e a n c r e d i t o r s , ~ u h o h a d r e c e n t l y become e x t r e m e l y c o n c e r n e d a b o u t E g y p t ' s f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n , T h e y f o u n d g l a r i n g i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e a c c o u n t s t h a t S a d d y k p r e s e n t e d t o t h e m a n d a c c u s e d him o f m a l v e r s a t i o n o f g o v e r n m e n t f u n d s . S a d d y k r e t a l i a t e d b y t h r e a t - e n i n g t o d i s c l o s e c o n f i d e n t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e

c o n t d :

Page 141: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

A l a r g e p a r t o f t h e d e f i c i t b e t w e e n r e v e n u e s a n d e x p e n s e s

was made u p b y t h e e f f e c t i v e p r o c e e d s o f F o r e i g n l o a n s . S u c h

l o a n s w a r e m o b i l i z e d b y t h e r e l e a s e o f d e b e n t u r e s t o t h e

E u r o p e a n p u b l i c , who p a i d much b e l o w t h e n o m i n a l v a l u e . T h e

t o t a l f a c e v a l u c o f I smai l ' s f o r s i g r l l o a n s was $ 7 3 , 7 0 4 , 3 6 0 ,

b u t i t was e s t i m a t n d t h a t o n l y $ E , 4 7 , 9 4 9 , 0 0 0 was a c t u a l l y

r e c e i v e d b y E g y p t , T h e e x t . r a o r d i n a r i 3 . y l a r g e d i f f e r e n t i a l

b e t w e e n t h e t w o s u n s was a c c o u n t e d f o r b y d i s c o u n t s , i n t e r e s t ,

c o m m i s s i o n s a n d s o f o r t h , S u c h h y p e r - g e n e r o u s t e r m s o f t h e

l o a n s i n f l a t e d c o n f i d e n c e among f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s . Even d u r i n g

t h e l a t e 1 8 6 0 F s , when E g y p t was o b v i o u s l y i n f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l -

t i e s , t h e f l o w o f i n v e s t m e n t c a p i t a l f r o m London a n d P a r i s ,

w h e r e t h e r e was a n a b u n d a n c e o f f l u i d c a p i t a l a t t h i s L ime, d i d I

n o t d i m i n i s h , T h e p r i n c i p a l f o r e i g n l o a n s , a n d t h e a p p r o x i m a t e ?I

4 a m o u n t s r e c e i v e d w e r e a s F o l l o w s : Yl

31 c o n t d : K h e d i v e a n d a t t e m p t i n g t o i n c i t e p u b l i c o p i n i o n a g a i n s t G o s c h e n a n d J o u b e r t , W i t h i n a s h o r t t i m e S a d d y k was a r r e s t e d a n d g i v e n a summary t r i a l b y t h e P r i v y C o u n c i l , A feic h o u r s a f t e r h l s a r r e s t , Re was p l a c e d u n d e r g u a r d o n a Nile s t e a m e r e n r o u t e t o D o n g o l a , w h e r e h e was t o b e i m p r i s o n e d . I t a p p e a r s t h a t h e n e v e r r e a c h e d h i s d e s t i n a t i o n . A m o n t h a f t e r h i s a r r e s t , t h e G o v e r n m e n t a n n o u n c e d t h a t h e h a d d i e d o f n a t u r a l c a u s e s , t h o u g h , o f c o u r s e , i t was g e n e r a l l y b o l i e v z d t h a t I s m a i l h a d o r d e r e d h i s e x e c u t i o n . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l S t e p h e n Cave, who h a d b e e n i n E g y p t a s h o r t t ime b e f o r e G o s c h e n a n d J o u b e r t , h a d a l s o f o u n d c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d - e n c e o f c o r r u p t p r a c t i c e s a n d h a d s t r o n g l y s u s p e c t e d S a d d y k , I s m a i l c o n f i s c a t e d S e d d y k ' s p r o p e r t y , w o r t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y ZE. 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . Leon , ye -- c i t pp . 1 9 6 - 1 9 8 , L o r i n g , o p . c i t . , p. 186 a n d R i f a a t , o p , c i t , , p p , 1 5 5 - 1 6 0 .

Page 142: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

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- I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d l o a n s , I smai l a c c u m u l a t e d a

l a r g e f l o a t i n g d e b t , d u e t o h i s i n a b i l i t y t o p a y F o r m u l t i f a r i o u s

g o o d s , s e r v i c e s , p r o j e c t s a n d s h o r t t e r m c r e d i t t r a n s a c t i o n s .

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i n 1873. T h a t y e a r a l o n e , t h e s e r v i c e c h a r g e s o n t h e f u n d e d

d e b t a n d t h e f l o a t i n g d e b t c o m b i n e d were 1 E, 7,206,544. T h i s

was a l m o s t 70 p e r c e n t o f E g y p t ' s t o t a l r e v e n u e f o r t h e p r e v i o u s

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Page 143: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

yearp ZE. 1 0 , 3 6 3 , 8 1 5 9 w h i c h i n c l u d e d &E. 1 , 5 7 5 , 7 3 0 f r o m t h e

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T h e f o r e i g n f i n a n c i e r s who e n g i n e e r e d I s m a i l ' s l o a n s

o b v i o u s l y h a d f e w , i f a n y , c o m p u n c t i o n s a b o u t m a k i n g i n o r d i n a t e

p r o f i t s f r o m t h e t r a n s a c t i e n s . On t h e o t h e r h z n d , I s r n a i l was

f o r a l o n g t ime h e e d l e s s o f L ~ E c o s t o f t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s a n d

t h e i r c o n t i n g e n t p i t f a l l s , T h e r e a r e o f c o u r s e n u m e r o u s cases

i n m o d e r n h i s t o r y where p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h a v e f i n a n c e d

i n d u c e d d e v e l o p m e n t s f r o m l a r g e f o r e i g n l o a n s . T h e u l t i m a t e

c o n s e q u e n c e s h a v e o f t e n b e e n d i s a s t r o u s f o r t h e d e b t o r

c o u n t r i e s , a s t h e y were w i t h E g y p t d u r i n g Ismail ' s a d m i n i s t -

r a t i o n ,

I n a c u t e c o n t r a s t t o Ismail - w h o s o d o b t s f i n a l l y a m o u n t e d

t o i! 9 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 - Muhammad A l i l e f t E g y p t d e b t f r e e . He made /' v a r i o u s l o a n s , b u t t h e y uJere a l w a y s r e l a t i v e l y m o d e s t , s h o r t

term o n e s , f r o m b u s i n e s s m e n w i t h i n E g y p t . A l - J a b a r t i n o t e d a s

e a r l y a s 1 8 0 0 f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t t h e P a s h a h a d a s k e d a g r o u p o f

C a i r o m e r c h a n t s t o l o a n h im 2 , 0 0 0 p u r s e s , He was o n a n u m b e r

o f o c c a s i o n s o f f e r e d l a r g o l o a n s b y f o r e i g n f i n a n c i e r s , b u t h e

n e v e r c o n t r a c t e d a n y . I n O c t o b e r 1833, a f t e r t h e Firs t S y r i a n

War (1 832-1 8 3 3 ) , mhen E g y p t was i n f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t y , a

3 3 ~ h e K u q a b a l a Law o f 1 8 7 1 , a d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t t o m i t i g a t e a g r o u i n g f i n a n c i a l c r i s i s , r e f l e c t s E g y p t ' s p r e c a r i o u s f i n a n c i a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e e s l r l y 1 8 7 0 q s , I t o f f e r e d a n y o n e who p a i d s i x y e a r s ' t a x i n a l u m p s u n , o r b y i n s t a l m e n t s , f r e e d o m f r o m h a l f o f h i s l a n d t a x l i a b i l i t y i n p e r p e t u i t y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t o g a i n u r g e n t l y n e e d e d c a p i t a l , t h e G o v e r n m e n t was p r e p a r e d t o h a l v e i t s i n c o m e f r o m l a n d t a x - a p p r o x i r n a k c l y ~ S , D O O ~ O O O p a r annum a t t h i s t ime - s i x y e a r s h e n c e . Even w i t h s u c h g e n e r o u s terms, t h e G o v e r n m e n t h a d t o a p p l y p r e s s u r e o n t h e l a n d o w n e r s b e f o r e a m a . i o r i t v of t h e m w o u l d a c c e d e , ' T h e sum e v e n t u a l l v g a t h e r e d v i a ~ u ~ i h a l - a t o t a l l e d 2 ~ , ~ D O , O O O . C r o u c h l e y , o p e Z c i t . , pp . 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 a n d llamza, o p . c i t , , pp, 1 8 9 - 1 9 0 .

Page 144: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

M o n s i e u r d o C a d a B v e n e o f f e r e d t h o P a s h a , o n h e h a l f o f a company

o f E u r o p e a n c a p i t a l i s t s a n d b a n k o r s p i n c l u d i n g t h e R s t h s c h i l d s ,

a l o a n o f o n e h u n d r e d m i l l i o n f r a n c s . T h i s u~cs t o b c p a i d o v e r

t h i r t y - s i x y e a r s a t f i v e p e r c e n t a n n u a l interest, T h e P a s h a ,

h o ~ ~ e v e r , r e f u s e d t h e o f f e r . I n s t e a d , h a g e n e r a t e d c a p i t a l b y

s e l l i n g g l l o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e t h a t h a d a c c u m u ~ a t o d

i n g o v e r n m e n t w a r e h o u s e s , A t t h e same tinre, h e e c o n o m i z e d b y

a l l o u ~ i n g t h e p a y o f g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s a n d t h e a r m y t o f a l l

i n t o a r r e a r s a n d b y n o t p a y i n g h i s a n n u a l t r i b u t e t o t h e P o r t e .

T h e n e x t y e a r M o n s i e u r d e C a d a b v e n e , a r m e d w i t h l e t t e r s o f

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n f r o m M o n s i e u r Mimaut , t h e F r e n c h C o n s u l - G e n e r a l

t o E g y p t a n d t h e Duke o f B r o g l i e , t h e F r e n c h M i n i s t o r o f F o r e i g n

A f f a i r s , o f f e r e d t h e P a s h a a l o a n o f 3 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 f r a n c s . B u t ,

a s o n t h e p r e v i o u s o c c a s i o n , t h e P a s h a d e c l i n e d t h e o f f e r . 34

Ismail w o u l d h a v e b e e n we l l a d v i s e d , o f c o u r s e , t o h a v e

e m u l a t e d h i s g r a n d f a t h e r f s c o n d u c t w h e r e f o r e i g n l o a n s were

c o n c e r n e d , T h o u g h h e c o u l d n o t a v o i d t h e l a r g e l y i n h e r i t e d

c o m m i t m e n t s t o t h e C a n a l Company, b o r r o w i n g l a r g o a m o u n t s o f

money f o r o t h e r p u b l i c w o r k s e n t e r p r i s e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e o f

a n u n p r o d u c t i v e n a t u r e , was r e c k l e s s . His e c o n o m i c p r i o r i t i e s

s h o u l d h a v e b e e n t o l i q u i d a t e t h e d e b t t h a t h e h a d i n h e r i t e d

f r o m h i s . p r e d e c e s s o r a n d t o work u ~ i t h i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f h i s

g o v e r n m e n t r e v e n u e . He w a s . h o w e v e r , i n t e n t u p o n c a r r y i n g o u t

v a r i o u s c o s t l y r e f o r m s a n d was n o t p r e p a r e d t o c o o r d i n a t e t h e m

w i t h b u d g e t s u r p l u s e s , s i n c e t h i s w o u l d h a v e e n t a i l o d g r a d u a l ,

3 4 ~ . ~ . C r o u c h l e y , "The D e v e l o p m e n t o f Commerce i n t h ~ R e i g n o f Mahamcd A l i , " i n E q y p t e c o n t e m p o r a i n r , - XXVIII, No. 168 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 7 ) , 309 a n d Hamza, o p . c i t . , p p , 3-5,

Page 145: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

l i m i t e d d e v e l o p m o n k . T h u s h e c h o s e L o f i n a n c e t h e m from

f o r e i g n l o a n s - p a y i n g l i t t l e h e e d t o t h e a b n o r m a l l y h i g h

i n t e r e s t r a t e s a n d s e r v i c e c h a r g e s , E v e n t u a l l y t h e a c c u m u l a t ~ d

f o r e i g n d e b t r e a c h e d a l e v e l w h e r e E g y p t was u n a b l e Lo meet

t h e a n n u a l p a y m e n t s o n i t , To e n s u r e t h e e v e n t u a l l i q u i d a t i o n

o f t h e d e b t , t h e C a i s s e de l a Det te , u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f

European p o w e r s , t o o k o v e r t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f m a j o r a r e a s o f

E g y p t ' s e conomy.

Page 146: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

I 4 0

C h a p t e r X

T h e O r q a n i z a t i n n a n d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f E d u c a t i o n --- - -I__IXI-I-________ 1111 --- - --- ---

Himself t u t o r e d b y E u r o p e a n s , I s m a i l h a d a h i g h r e g a r d

f o r w e s t e r n e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h , o n t h e d a y o f h i s i n v e s t i t u r e ,

h e r e f e r r e d t o a s " l a b a s e d e t o u t p r o g r ' e s . " ' His r e i g n

u ~ i t n e s s e d c o n s i d e r a b l e e d u c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . New

i n s t i t u t i o n s w e r e o p e n e d , o t h e r s were r e v i v e d , a n d m a j o r

r e f o r m s w e r e p r o m u l g a t e d ,

D u r i n g h i s f i r s t w e e k s i n o f f i c e I smai l r e - e s t a b l i s h e d

t h e C o u n c i l o f S c h o o l s - Diwan - a l - M a d a r i s - - v ~ h i c h h a d b e e n

d i s s o l v e d b y A b b a s i n 1854. Muhammad S h a r r i f , o n e o f t h e

P a s h a ' s m o s t a c c o m p l i s h e d o f f i c i a l s , was a p p o i n t e d d i r e c t o r

o f t h i s b o d y . I t a p p e a r s t h a t a t t h i s t ime n o p r i m a r y o r

s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s w e r e o p e n a n d t h a t t h e S c h o o l o f M e d i c i n e

was t h e on1.y s p e c i a l s c h o n l f u l l y i n o p e r a t i o n C 2 C o n v e r s e l y i

t h e n u m b e r o f k a t a t i b i n o p e r a t i o n h a d m a r k e d l y i n c r e a s e d

s i n c e t h e Muhammad A l i Era, B e c a u s e t h e y l a c k e d a d e q u a t e

f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t , h o w e v e r , t h e y w e r e g e n e r a l l y i n a s e v e r e l y

d e g e n e r a t e c o n d i t i o n ,

A p l a n t o i n t e g r a t e t h e k a t a t i b i n t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s

e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m a n d t o b r o a d e n t h e i r c u r r i c u l a , was p r e p a r e d

by Adkam P a s h a , t h e D i r e c t o r o f E d g c z t i o n , d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r

p a r t o f Muhammad A l i ' s r e i g n , b u t i t was s h e l v e d . Adham P a s h a

a n d a l - T a h t a w i a t t e m p t e d t o h a v e i t i n s t i t u t e d d u r i n g S a i d ' s

' ~ o u i n , H i s t o i r e d u ~ L ~ n e d u K h e d i v e I s m a i l , v o l . 1, p . 2 .

2 ~ c ~ o a n , E q y p t a s i t is , p . 2 2 7 .

Page 147: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

r e i g n , b u t w i t h o u t s u c c e s s . H s w c v e r , k e y e l e m e n t s o f i t w e r e t

i n c l u d e d i n t h e Lau~ o f t h e 1 0 t h R a j a b , 1 2 8 4 ( ~ o v e r n b e r 7, 1 8 6 7 ) 1 - p r o m u l g a t e d b y I sma i l , T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h i s law w e r e b a s e d

I

u p o n r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s p u t f o r w r d b y a s p e c i a l c o m m i t t e e o n

e d u c a t i o n . T h e c o m m i t t e e ' s c h a i r m a n was A l i N u b a r a k , t h e

A s s i s t a n t D i r e c t o r o f ducati ion.^ He was a n E g y p t i a n who h a d

s t u d i e d i n E g y p t a n d E u r o p e u n d c r t h e a u , s p i c e s o f Kuhammad A l i

a n d s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m .

T h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t s o f t h e Law o f t h e 1 0 t h Ra. jab9

3 ~ h e s p e c i a l c o m m i t t e e o n e d u c a t i o n h a d b e e n a p p o i n t e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y , a q w a s i - d e m o c r a t i c b o d y , T h e A s s e m b l y ' s d e p u t i e s w e r e e l e c t e d b y t h e n o t a b l e s o f v i l l a g e s a n d t o w n s . T h e y s e r v e d i n a p u r e l y c o n s u l t a t i v e c a p a c i t y , I t a p p e a r s t h a t I smai l h a d a r r a n g e d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e A s s e m b l y i n o r d e r t o a d d a d e m o c r a t i c f a c a d e t o h i s s e v e r e t a x a t i o n s y s t e m , From t h e o u t s e t , h o w e v e r , h e h a d i n t e n d e d t h a t t h e A s s e m b l y s h o u l d p l a y a r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n . E v e n b e f o r e i t c o n v e n e d f o r i t s f i r s t s e s s i o n , w e l l i n f o r m e d E u r o p e a n n e w s - p a p o r s p r o g n o s t i c a t e d t h a t i t w o u l d i n s t i q a t e e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m s , S t e p p a t , o p . c i t , , p . 292. T h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t i q u e o f t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y a p p e a r e d i n t h e L e v a n t H e r a l d , o n e o f t h e f e w u n s u b s i d i z e d C o n s t a n t i n o p l e j o u r n a l s : " t h e V i c e r o y h a s s u r r e n d e r e d h i s a b s o l u t e p r e r o g a t i v e t o a C h a m b e r o f S e v e n t y , c h o s e n - t o t o p a l l - b y b a l l a t , H e n c e f o r t h , n o m o r e a r b i t r a r y t a x a t i o n , n o a b u s e o f p e r s o n a l l i b e r t y i n E g y p t , By a s t r o k e o f t h e V i c e r e g a l p e n , f o r c e d l a b o u r , t h e c o u r b a s h , a n d f i s c a l s p o i l a t i o n s h a v e b e e n b l o t t e d o u t f r o m N u b i a t o P o r t S a i d , a n d a new o r d e r o f f r e e d o m , s o c i a l p r o g r e s s a n d i n c r e a s i n g r e v e n u e i n a u g u r a t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e d o m i n i n n s o f I smai l . Mais r ' b e l l e m e n t , M o n s i e u r N u b a r , t o u t c e c i n ' e s t p a s t r o p d r o l e . T h e c l e v e r g e n t l e m a n t o whom t h e c r e d i t o f t h i s d e v i c e is d u e h a s d o n e many smart t h i n g s i n f i n a n c e , b u t i n t h i s l a t e s t s t r o k e o f g e n i o u s h e h a s r e c k o n e d t o o f a r o n t h e c r e d u l i t y o f E u r o p e . No9 E x c e l l e n c y , y o u r C h a m b e r w i l l d e c e i v e n o b o d y , a n d w i l l c e r t a i n l y n o t r e m o v e a s i n g l e d i f f i c u l t y i n t h e way o f a new l o a n . " Q u o t e d i n McCoan, E q y p t u n d e r - I sma i l , p . 47.

l i ~ a r B e y , a E u r o p e a n i n t h e K h e d i v e ' s e m p l o y , s a i d o f A l i M u b a r a k , who a t d i f f e r e n t t imes s e r v e d a s a g o v e r n m e n t a d r n i n i s t - r a t o r , a n e n g i n e e r , a t e a c h e r a n d a n e d u c a t i o n a l e x e c u t i v e : " T h e p r e s e n t N i n i s t e r o f P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n h a s m o r e t h a n a n y o n e t a k e n t o h e a r t t h e w e l l b e i n g o f t h e s c h o o l s a n d e f f e c t i v e l y w o r k e d f o r t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t . " T r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : V , E d o u a r d D o r , L S I n s t r u c t i o n p u b l i q u e e n E q y p t e ( p a r i s , 1872) , p , 21 5.

Page 148: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

142

1 2 8 4 were a s f o l l o w s , U r b a n k u t t a b s w i t h m o r e t h a n s e v e n t y

p u p i l s were t o a d o p t a c u r r i c u l u m s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e tma

p r i m a r y s c h o o l s t h a t h a d b e e n o p e n e d e a r l y i n I s m a i l ' s r e i g n , 5

T h i s e n t a i l e d k a r a n i c s t u d i e s , r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g a n d e l e m e n t a r y

a r i t h m e t i c . T h e s t a n d a r d o f e d u c a t r o n a t t h o s m a l l e r u r b a n a n d

r u r a l k u t t a h s was t o b e improved. C e n t r a l s c h o o l s , u ~ h i c h ware

t o p r e p a r e p r i m a r y s c h a o l g r a d u z t e s f o r e n t r a n c e i n t o s e c o n d a ~ y

s c h o o l s ( t v ~ o s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s h a d b e s n o p e n e d e a r l y i n I s m a i l ' s

. \ -. r e i y r l ) , w e r u io b o e s t a b i i s n e d i n e a c h p r o v i n c e , t n e s y i i a b u s

w o u l d b e a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h a t o f t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l s , p l u s

z o o l o g y , b o t a n y a n d a g r i c u l t u r e , T h e p r i m a r y a n d c e n t r a l

s c h o o l s were t o b e s u b s i d i z e d t o a l a r g e e x t e n t b y r e l i g i o u s

e n d o w m e n t s a n d p u b l i c d o n a t i o n s , t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s

f i n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . 6

T h e o b s t a c l e s t h a t c o n f r o n t e d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e

Law o f t h e 1 0 t h R a j a h w e r e f o r m i d a b l e , Some k u t t a b t e a c h e r s

were i l l i t e r a t e , T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e m were t o t a l l y i g n o r a n t o f

a r i t h m e t i c a n d many o f t h e m a d a m a n t l y r e f u s e d t o s t u d y i t . ? I t

TWO p r i m a r y s c h o o l s h a d b e e n o p e n e d d u r i n g t h e e a r l y m o n t h s o f I sma i l ' s r e i g n , H e y w o r t h - D u n n e , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n i n M e d e r i : E o y p t , p. 340.

6 ~ h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d o n a t i o n t o t h e C o u n c i l O F S c h o o l s was t h e l a n d i n W a d i T u m i l a t b o u g h t b y I sma i l f r m t h e S u e z C a n a l Company , I t s g r o s s r e t u r n s w e r e s a i d t o b e 2 E, 5 0 , 0 0 0 p e r a n n u m . R i f a a t , o p e c i t , , p . 1 2 2 . T h e La~u o f t h e 1 0 t h Ra , j ab a l s o s t a t e d t h a t p a r e n t s o f s t u d e n t s h a d t o c o n t r i b u t e m o n e y f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s e d u c a t i o n , t h o u g h n o f e e s were f i x e d b y t h e Law. On t h i s s u b j e c t d e L e o n n o t e d t h a t : " T h e b o a r d e r s who a r e a b l e , pay f 2 6 p e r y e a r ; t h o s e who c a n p a y a p a r t o n l y , d o s o ; t h e p o o r p a y n o t h i n g . T h e same i s t h e c a se w i t h t h e d a y s c h o l a r s , T h e n o n - p a y i n g p u p i l s h o w e v e r , a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e c a l l o f t h e G o v e r n - m e n t , w h i c h p a s s e s t h e m o n t h r o u g h o t h e r s c h o o l s a n d p r e p a r e s t h e m f o r p u b l i c s e r v i c e . " De L e o n , o p . c i t , , p. 2 7 4 .

Y o o r , op. c i t , , p . 111.

Page 149: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

w a s s a i d of s o m e O F t h e m o r e f l a g r a n t l y d b s t r u c t i v e t e a c h e r s

F

t h a t a r u m o u r o f a s c h o o l i n s p e c t o r ' s a p p r o a c h t o a v i l l a g e

was o f t e n s u f f i c i e n t c a u s e T o r t h e s c h o o l t o b e t e m p o r a r i l y

c l o s e d down. T h o u g h t h e G o v e r n r r ~ c r ~ C m a d e a g r e a t e f f o r t t o

c a r r y o u t r e f o r m s i n t h e k u t t a b ? , p r o g r e s s was v e r y s l o ~ u .

A p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 p r i r r i a r y s c t ~ u o ? s , 9 o f Lhern o u t s i d e C a i r o ,

were i n o p e r a t i o n a t t h e t ime o f I s m a i l ' s a b d i c a t i o n . 0

S e v e r a l s p e c i a l s c h o o l s M e r e r e o p e n e d a n d s o m e new o n e s

e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g I s n a i l ' s r e i g n . I t was r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e

f o l l o w i n g n u m b e r s o f s t u d e n t s w e r e a t t e n d i n g s p e c i f i c s p e c i a l

/-

.- s c h o o l s d u r i n g 1 9 7 0 : t h e S c h o o l o f Lav~ a n d L a n g u a g e s ( f o r m e r l y

c a l l e d t h e S c h o o l o f A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d ~ a n g u a g e s ) , 50 s t u d e n t s ;

t h e P o l y t e c h n i c ~ n s t i t u t e , 60 s t u d e n t s ; t h e C h e m i s t r y S c h o o l ,

25 s t u d e n t s ; t h e S c h o o l o f Arts a n d C r a f t s , 1 0 0 s t u d e n t s ; t h e

S c h o o l o f M e d i c i n e a n d P h a r m a c y , 50 s t u d e n t s ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y

s e v e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t b o d y s t u d i e d m e d i c i n e ) ;

t h e S c h o o l o f M i d w i f e r y , 4 0 s t u d e n t s a n d t h e O b s e r v a t o r y , 4

s t u d e n t s . 1 • ‹ S p e c i a l s c h o o l s t h a t were n o t m e n t i o n e d i n t h i s

1 0 B a r o n d e M a l o r t i e , E q y p t ondo don, 1 8 8 2 ) , p , 8 9 , A c c o r d i n g

t o B a r o n d e M a l o r t i e , t h e b e s t s t u d e n t s were s e l e c t e d f o r t h e P o l y t e c h n i c a l a n d M e d i c a l s c h o s l s , w h i l s t t h e p o o r e r o n e s w e r e s e n t t o m i l i t a r y s c h o o l s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e g r a d u a t e s o f m i l i t a r y s c h o o l s w e r e g e n e r a l l y p a i d h i g h e r s a l a r i e s t h a n t h o s e o f P o l y t e c h n i c a l a n d M e d i c a l s c h o o l s . A t e a c h e r s a i d t o M a l o r t i e : " I was f i r s t i n my c l a s s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y d r a f t e d i n t o t h e

c o n t d :

' s t e p p a t , o p . c i t . , 9

T h e c u r r i c u l u m a t t h e P o l y t e c h n i c I n s t i t u t e , w h i c h h a d 1 5 i n s t r u c t o r s o n i t s s t a f f , 3 o f whom w e r e E u r o p e a n s , i s n o t e - w o r t h y f o r i t s b r e a d t h o f c o n t e n t : m e c h a n i c s , h y d r a u l i c s , a l g e b r a , d i f f e r e n t i a l c a l c u l u s , d e s c r i p t i v e g e o m e t r y , p h y s i c s , c h e m i s t r y , A r a b i c , T u r k i s h . a n d t h e s t u d e n t s c o u l d c h o o s e t o s t u d y e i t h e r € n g l i s h o r ~ r e n c h . H c y w o r t h - D u n n e , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n i n M o d e r n E q y p t , p p . 354-355.

Page 150: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

r e p o r t i n c l u d e s t h e S c h o o l o f S u r v e y i n g a n d A c c o u n t a n c y , t h e

I n d u s t r i a l S c h o o l , t h e S c h o o l o f D r a w i n g , a n d t h e S c h o o l o f

E g ~ ~ t o l o 9 ~ * A p p a r e n t l y , I s m a i l f s s p e c i a l s c h o o l s were

g e n e r a l l y b e t t e r t r a i n i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s t h a n t h o s e o f t h e

Muhammad A l i E r a . A m a j o r a d v a n t a g e t h e y e n j o y e d w a s t h e F a c t

t h a t t h e y p o s s e s s e d a s m a l l n u c l e u s o f E g y p t i a n a n d O t t o m a n

i n s t r u c t o r s , who h a d b e e n t r a i n e d a t i n s t i t u t i o n s i n i t i a t e d

b y Muhammad A l i .

R e m a r k a b l y f e w E u r o p e a n s t a u g h t i n E g y p t i a n G o v e r n m e n t

s c h o o l s d u r i n g I s m a i l ' s r e i g n . A t t h e S c h o o l o f M c d i c i n e a n d

P h a r m a c y , f o r e x a m p l e , a l l f o u r t e e n o f t h e m e d i c a J i n s t r u c t o r s

were E g y p t i a n s . I t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o a s c e r t a i n u ~ h e t h e r t h e

m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e d i d m o s t o f t h e i r m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g i n E u r o p e

o r i n E g y p t . H e y t u o r t h - D u n n e c l a i m e d t h a t i n 1875 t h e r e were

o n l y t h i r t y - o n e E u r o p e a n s t e a c h i n g i n E g y p t i a n s c h o o l s ( 4 a t

m i l i t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d 2 7 a t o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l e s t a b l i s h -

m e n t s ) . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h i s f a c t , t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e

f r i c t i o n b e t w e e n E g y p t i a n a n d O t t o m a n i n s t r u c t o r s o n t h e o n e

h a n d , a n d E u r o p e a n i n s t r u c t o r s o n t h e o t h e r . D o r Bey, a S w i s s

1 0 c o n t d : P o l y t e c h n i c a l S c h o o l ; a g a i n a m o n g t h e f i r s t , t h e m i n i s t e r p i c k e d me o u t a s a p u p i l - t e a c h e r ; I h a v e now b e e n t o i l i n g f o r 1 2 y e a r s a n d I g e t i 9 p e r m o n t h , ~ h i l s t t h o s e o f my s c h o o l f e l l o w s who d i d n o t q u a l i f y f o r t h e t e c h n i c a l c l a s s e s a n d who e n t e r e d a m i l i t a r y s c h o o l a r e m o s t o f t h e m c o l o n e l s w i t h $ 4 0 a m o n t h : a n d I c a n a s s u r e y o u t h a t i f I h a d t o b e g i n a g a i n , I s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e f o u n d a m o n g t h e i d l e r s . " I b i d . , p p . 1 0 1 - 1 0 2 ,

l l I s m a i l t o o k a p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n E g y p t o l o g y a n d r e l a t e d f i e l d s o f s t u d y , His p a t r o n a g e o f E g y p t o l o g y r e v i v e d w i d e r i n t e r e s t i n i t , He a l s o e x t e n d e d h i s p a t r o n a g e t o m u s i c , p o e t r y , p u b l i c l i b r a r i e s , l e a r n e d s o c i e t i e s a n d s c h o l a r l y r e s e a r c h . M o r e o v e r , h e f o u n d e d t h e G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , t h e N a t i o n a l L i b r a r y , a n o b s e r v a t o r y i n C a i r o a n d a museum a t B u l a q . V a t i k i o t i s , o p . c i t , , - p p . 86-88.

Page 151: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

e d u c a t o r who was a p p o i n t e d b y Isrnail t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f

I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f S c h o o l s , n o t e d t h i s f r i c t i o n e n g e n d e r e d .

i n t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m ,

a l a c k o f t o g e t h e r n e s s a n d e s p r i t d e c o r p s w h i c h c a n n o t b e f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s t u d i e s . 1 2

A m a j o r r e a s o n why feu^ E u r o p e a n i n s t r u c t o r s were' e m p l o y e d ,

was t h a t i t h a d b e e n r e c o g n i s e d b y k e y E g y p t i a n e d u c a t i o n a l

o f f i c i a l s t h a t t e a c h i n g v i a c o n s e c u t i v e t r a n s l a t i o n w a s l a r g e l y

< , . n P P m P . 4 . , , - , 1 . L I I b I I UUIIUU.,..

T o o v e r c o m e t h e c o n s t a n t s h o r t a g e o f t e a c h i n g p e r s o n n e l ,

a t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g c o l l e y e , - Dar a l - U l u m , was e s t a b l i s h e d i n

1872, l a r g e l y d u e t o t h e e f f o r t s o f A l i M u b a r a k , I t was d e c r e e d

b y Ismai l t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n ,

w o u l d i n i t i a l l y b e l i m i t e d t o f i f t y , t h a t t h e y u e r e t o b e

b e t w e e n 20 a n d 30 y e a r s o f a g e , a n d t h a t o n c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e i r

s t u d i e s t h e y w o u l d b e a p p o i n t e d t o t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n s i n t h e

n a t i o n a l s c h o o l s y s t e m . A z h a r i t e s were e n c o u r a g e d t o e n r o l l a s

s t u d e n t s a t t h i s e s t a b l i s h m e n t ( n o c o e r c i o n was u s e d ) , T h s y

were r e g a r d e d a s t h c m o s t s u i t a b l e g r o u p o f p e r s o n n e l a v a i l a b l e ,

T h e s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r s s t u d i e d m a t h e m a t i c s , g e o g r a p h y , h i s t o r y ,

p h y s i c s , c h e m i s t r y , c a l i g r a p h y , A r a b i c a n d r e l i g i o u s s u b j e z t s .

A l i N u b a r a k d e v i s e d a n i n g e n i o u s m e t h o d o f d r a w i n g

A z h a r i t e s t o t h e D a r a l - U l u r n . T h e y were f i r s t a t t r a c t e d t o

t h e D a r b a l - G a m a r n i z , a c u l t u r a l c e n t r e i n C a i r o , b y a s e r i e s o f

I z ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o r , op. c i t . , p. 2 4 4 .

Page 152: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

p u b l i c l e c t u r e s , a r r a n g e d b y M u b a r a k . T h e s u b j e c t s o f t h e

l e c t u r e s , g i v e n b y E g y p t i a n a n d E u r o p e a n s c h o l a r s , i n c l u d e d ,

f i k h , Q u r a n i c E x e g e s i s a n d h a d i t h , l i t . e r a t u r e , p h y s i c s , a s t r o n - - -

omy, c h e m i s t r y , r a i l u a y s , a r c h i t e c t u r e , m e p h a n i c s , b o t a n y a n d

h i s t o r y . l 3 E x p o s u r e t o Westerr, s c i e n t i f i c a n d c u l t u r a l i d e a s ,

r e i n r o r c e d b y e n c o u r a g e m e n t f r o m A l i M u b a r a k , h e l p e d t o

p e r s u a d e a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f A m h a r i t e s t o v o l u n t e e r f o r

t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g .

J u d g e d b y t h e g o n e r a l l o w s t a n d a r d o f i t s g r a d u a t e s , Dar

a l - U l u m was n o t a s u c c e s s d u r i n g I s m a i l ' s r e i g n , I t s m a j o r

p r o b l e m was o n e t h a t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d c o n c e r n i n g

e d u c a t i o n d u r i n g t h e Muhammad A l i E r a , n a m e l y t h e r o t e m e t h o d

o f e d u c a t i o n . I t was t h e p r i n c i p a l m a n n e r o f t e a c h i n g o f

v i r t u a l l y a l l o f t h e E g y p t i a n a n d O t t o m a n i n s t r u c t o r s a n d i t

was t h e h a b i t u a l l e a r n i n g m e t h o d of' t h e s t u d e n t s , D o r Bey

o b s e r v e d t h a t " m e m o r i z a t i o n p l a y s t o o p r e p o n d e r a n t a r o l e , "

a n d M a l o r t i e r e m a r k e d t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s "seem o n l y t o l a y s t r e s s

on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f memory ."14 R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e f a c t t h a t

t h e r o t e m e t h o d was kr ioun t o b e i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r much O F m o d e r n

e d u c a t i o n , n e i t h e r l e a r n i n g n o r t e a c h i n g t e c h n i q u e s were p a r t

o f t h e curriculum a t Dar a l - U l u m . B e t l f ~ e e n 1873 a n d 1 8 7 8 o n l y

2 7 s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r s g r a d u a t e d f r o m t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n .

W i l l i n g n e s s t o u n d e r g o a w e s t e r n i z e d f o r m o f e d u c a t i o n w a s

1 3 ~ e y w a r t h - ~ u n n e , --- An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n i n M o d e r n E g y p t , p , 377.

1 4 ~ r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h : D o r , p p . c i t . , p. 86 a n d d e M a l o r t i e , o p . c i t . , p , 1 0 2 .

Page 153: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

n o t u n i q u e t o A z h a r i t e s , i t p e r m e a t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f

E g y p t i a n S o c i e t y . Due l a r g e l y t o g o v e r n m e n t e f f o r t s t o

p o p u l a r i z e W e s t e r n e d u c a t i o n , t h e r e was a g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s

a m o n g ~ ~ ~ ~ t i a n s t h a t i t c o u l d b e i n s t r u m e n . L a 1 i n i m p r o v i n g

o n e ' s s o c i a l l o t . I n s o m z i n s t a n c e s y o u t h s c l u b b e d t o g e t h e r

t o m a i n t a i n o n e s t u d e n t a t a s c h o o l , s o t h a t h e m i g h t t e a c h

t h e m d u r i n g t h e e v e n i n g s , I n t h e v e s t m a j o r i t y o r c a s e s ,

h o w e v e r , t h e S t a t e s u b s i d i s e d s t u d e n t s . I n 1 8 7 5 , f o r e x a m p l e ,

7 9 p e r c e n t o f s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g n a t i o n a l s c h o o l s were f i n a n c e d

b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t . S u c h s t u d e n t s were i n d a n t u r e d t o w o r k f o r

t h e G o v e r n m e n t a f t e r g r a d u a t i o n , i 3 e t u ~ e e n 1 8 6 5 a n d 1 8 7 5 , 63

p e r c e n t o f a l l g r a d u a t i n g s t u d e n t s w e r e a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e a r m y ,

w h i l e a f u r t h e r 1 9 p e r c e n t e n t e r e d t h e c i v i l s e r v i c e , 1 6

A s c h o o l o f M u s l i m g i r l s , i n i t i a l l y p l a n n e d i n 1 8 6 7 , was

o p e n e d i n J a n u a r y , 1 8 7 3 , T h i s w a s t h e s e c o n d s c h o o l f o r M u s l i m

females t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d i n Islam, t h e f i r s t h a v i n g b e e n /

Muhammad Ali's S c h o o l o f M i d w i f e r y . U n l i k e t h e S c h o o l O F Mid-

w i f e r y , h o t u e v e r , i t c o n c e n t r a t e d on p r o v i d i n g i t s p u p i l s w i t h

a g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n , S t u d e n t s were a t f i r s t r e c r u i t e d f r o m a m o n g

w h i t e s l a v e s b e l o n g i n g t o I smai l , m e m b e r s o f h i s f a m i l y a n d

g o v e r n r n e n t o f f i c i a l s , I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e r e w e r e 2 9 8 s t u d e n t s , 2 0 3 o f

t h e m b o a r d e r s , T h r e e s k a y k h s t a u g h t t h e Q u r a n , o n e l a y m a n

C a u g h t T u r k i s h a n d a n o t h e r d r a w i n g , F o u r f e m a l e i n s t r u c t o r s

t a u g h t n e e d l e w o r k , o n e p i a n o a n d o n e l a u n d r y . A s e c o n d g i r l s q

1 5 ~ o u n g . o p . c i t . , p . 7 7 .

1 6 c h a r l e s I s s a s i , Q y p t a t M i d - C e n t u r y , An Economic S u r v e y ondo don, 1954 ) , p . 2 8 .

Page 154: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s c h o o l - , o n t h c same l j - n e s a s t h e f i r s t , was o p e n e d d u r i n g 1 0 7 5 .

I t i n i t i a l l y h a d I 4 7 s t u d e n t s , I n 1 8 7 8 c o n s t r u c t i o n on a t h i r d 1

o n e was commenced , b u t o v ~ i n g t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s l a c k o f c a p i t a l

i t was n o t ~ o m ~ l e t e d , 1 ~ The e m e r g e n c e o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n

i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r f e m a l e s t u d e n t s a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a f i r s t

s t e p b e y o n d t h e s t a g e w h e r e b y E g y p t i a n s c h o o l s e s s e n t i a l l y

e x i s t e d i n o r d e r t o p r e p a r e s t u d e n t s f o r g o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y m e n t .

Wad I s m a i l n o t become e n m e s h e d i n a web o f f i n a n c i a l p r o b l e m ,

i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t h e w o u l d h a v e i n s t i g a t e d a s t a t e s y s t e m

o f p o p u l a r e d u c a t i o n i n E g y p t .

D e s p i t e p r o b l e m s , I s m a i l ' s s c h s o l s p o s s e s s e d c o n s i d e r a b l e

p o t e n t i a l , t h o u g h e d u c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g I s m a i l ' s

r e i g n f e l l f a r s h o r t o f t h e i m a g e p r o p o g a t e d b y "The Cave R e p o r t , " ,

T h i s s t a t e d i n p a r t :

E d u c a t i o n h a s b e e n c a r e f u l l y a t t e n d e d t o , t h e n u m b e r o f s c h o o l s e s t a b l i s h e d o n a E u r o p e a n m o d e l h a v i n g i n c r e a s e d f r o m 185 i n 1 8 5 2 , t o 4 , 8 1 7 i n 1 8 7 5 . i

I n t h e l a t t e r y e a r t h e r e w e r e 4 , 8 1 7 s c h o o l s w i t h 6 , 0 4 8 n ~ a s t e r s a n d 1 4 0 , 9 7 7 p u p i l s . , . , T h e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a t i o n n e c e s s a r i l y v a r i e s , b u t , . . , i s i n some c a s e s o f a v e r y s u p e r i o r c h a r a c t e r . 1 8

C a v e ' s i m p r e s s i v e f i g u r e s , r e p e a t e d v e r b a t i m b y a n u m b e r o f

h i s t o r i a n s , a r e h igh1 .y m i s l e a d i n q i f n o t e r r o n e o u s , M r , C a v e ' s I m i s s i o n t o E g y p t was r a t h e r h u r r i e d , t h u s h e h a d l i t t l e t i m e t o I

I v e r i f y t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d t o h im b y I s r n a i l and h i s I o f f i c i a l s ,

C a v e ' s f i g u r e s o f 4 , 8 1 7 s c h o o l s o p e r a t i n g i n E g y p t d u r i n g I 1 1 7 ~ e y s o r t h - ~ u n n o , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e H i s t o r y o f

I

I

E d u c a t i o n i n Modern E q y p t , p. 377 a n d S t e p p a t , o p . c i t e , p p . 291- , - 2 9 2 .

1 8 s t e p h e n Cave , "The Cave R e p o r t , ' A p p e n d i x G , McCoan, E q y p t a s i t is, p, 4 3 0 .

Page 155: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

1 8 7 5 was p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t , The claim t h a t t h e y wcjre a l . l of a

"European model." can h e d i s c o u n t e d , @ o r Bey r e c o r d s 4,685

t r a d i t i o n a l l y o r i e n t e d -- k u t t a b s i n Egypt d u r i n g 1875. I f t h e s e

a r e s u b t r a c t e d from Cave's t o t a l , 1 3 2 modern s c h o o l s remain.

Of t h i s number, howeverp 93 were w e s t e r n m i s s i o n s c h o a l s .

Hence i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r e were 39 government c o n t r o l Z e d

s c h o o l s on t h e "European model" i n a p e r a t i o n i n 1875 - a more

c r e d i b l e f i g u r e , The f o l l o w i n a t a b l e p r o v i d e s e s t i m a t e s of

t h e numbers of s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g t h e s e s c h o o l s d u r i n g 11368 and

1869, and from 1872 t o 1878:

There is no doubt t h a t I s m a i l u s e d u c a t i o n a l reForms

have been c a r r i e d o u t on a l a r g e r s c a l e had t h e y n o t been

impeded b y r e c u r r e n t f i n a n c i a l c r i s e s . During t h e f i r s t y e a r s

o f I s m a i l ' s r e i g n , t h e Government c o n t r i b u t e d ZE. 75,000 p e r

annum t o e d u c a t i o n . Soon a f t e r t h e c o t t o n . b o o m h a d r e c e d e d ,

t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n dropped t o Z E . 67,000, and i n 1871 t o

$ E , 50,000, The bot tom was r e a c h e d i n 1878, however, u~hen

1 9 t i e y w o r t h - ~ u n n e , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e H i s t o r y o f Educa t ion i n Modern Egw, pp, 387-388. A hundred and s e v e n t y - - two s t u d e n t s t&nt t o Europe f o r f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n d u r i n g I s m a i l ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . S t e p p a t , op. e i t , , pp, 292-293.

Page 156: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

150

f ~ . 35,000 uJas budgeted f o r educat i iun, 20

* ' A r t i n ~ r o v i d e d t h e f o l l o w i n a s t a t i s t i c s on souernmenta l c o n t , r i b u t i o n s ' t o e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e d y e a r s 1871-1 879-

YEAR

v 'Artin, op. c i t . , p . Isrnai l c o u l d h a r d l y be d e s c r i b e d a s a m i l i t a r i s t , never-

t h e l e s s , i t is n o t a b l e t h a t h i s annual. m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e s f a r exceeded h i s a n n u a l educat ional . e x p e n d i t u r e s . For example t h e m i l i t a r y budget f o r t h e 1876/187'7 f i s c a l yea r - a f i n a n c i a l c r i s i s p e r i o d i n Egypt - was & E . 750,000, w h i l e A r t i n contended t h a t t h e Government 's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o e d u c a t i o n i n 1876 was $E, 61,309, T h e Times, - February 1 7 , 1876, p , 4 , -

Page 157: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

C h a p t e r XI.

T h e E x p a n s i o n a n d O r q a n i z a t i o n o f t h e M i l i t a x -------- P - .

I sma i l ' s m i l i t a r y r e f o r m s were o f a much more l i m i t e d

s c a l e t h a n t h o s e o f Muhammad A l i , I s m a i l s t r o n g l y d e s i r e d t o

g a i n E g y p t ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e , b u t , a s

h a s a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d , h e p r o g r e s s e d i n t h i s b y b r i b e r y

r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y r c t i o n . T h i s was o f c o u r s e t h e m o r e

p r u d e n t o f t h e t w o 9 e s p e c i a l l y s . i n o e t h e O t t o m a n a r m y h a d

u n d e r g o n e m o d e r n i z a t i o n a n d h a d b e e n g r e a t l y s t r e n g t h e n e d s i n c e

t h e S e c o n d S y r i a n War .

A t I s m a i l ' s a c c e s s i o n t h e E g y p t i a n Army c o n s i s t e d o f

3 , 0 0 0 d i s o r g a n i z e d , p o o r l y t r a i n e d a n d i l l - e q u i p p e d t r o o p s . 1

T h e E g y p t i a n Navy h a d 3 o r 4 s h i p s a n d a b o u t 6 0 0 men. T h e l o w

s t a n d a r d o f s e a m a n s h i p was r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p r a c t i c e , common

For a g r o u p of o f f i c e r s a t sea, t o yjork gut i n d i v i d u a l l y t h e i r

s h i p ' s p o s i t i o n f r o m i n s t r u m e n t r e a d i n g s a n d t h e n t o a c c e p t t h e

a v e r a g e o f a l l t h e p o s i t i o n s s o c a l c u l a t e d a s t h e s h i p ' s r e a l

2 p o s i t i o n .

D u r i n g 1863, r e f o r m s mere i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e n a v a l t r a i n i n g

s c h o o l a n d a s c h o o l o f s h i p b u i l d i n g was o p e n e d . T h e s t u d e n t s

f o r b o t h i n s t i t u t i o n s were d r a u ~ n f r o m p r i m a r y s c h o o l s . T h e

c o u r s e a t t h e n a v a l s c h o o l was o f t h r e e y e a r ' s d u r a t i o n , T h e

s u b j e c t s t a u g h t ware g u n n e r y , n a v i g a t i o n , s h i p s ' m a n a g e m e n t ,

1 ~ h e T i m e s , J a n u a r y 28,

Z A . sacre* a n d L . O u t r e b o n , - L t E q y p t e e t I sma i l P a c h a ( p a r i s , 1 8 6 5 ) ~ p , 175.

Page 158: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

m i l i t a r y law, m a t h e m a t i c s , g e o g r a p h y , p h y s i c s , c h e m i s t r y ,

T u r k i s h a n d E n g l i s h . Most o f t h e t e a c h e r s w e r e E g y p t i a n s a n d

Q t t o m a n s , b u t t h e r e w e r e s a m e E u r o p e a n s among t h e m , 3

D e s p i t e t h e e a r l y r e f o r m s , t h e E g y p t i a n Navy r e m a i n e d a

v e r y n e g l i g i b l e f o r c e t h r o u g h o u t I s m a i l ' s r e i g n . T h i s was

p a r t l y d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a t e S u l t a n , Abdu l A z i z , h a d

d e c r e e d t h a t E g y p t c o u l d n o t p o s s e s s a n y i r o n c l a d s , I s m a i l

a t t e m p t e d o n n u m e r o u s o c c a s i o n s t o h a v e t h i s d e c r e e r e s c i n d e d

w i t h o u t s u c c e s s . McCoan l i s t e d E g y p t ' s n a v a l s t r e n g t h f o r t h e

e a r l y 1 8 7 0 % a s f o l l o w s : t w o screw f r i g a t e s , t m o c o r v e t t e s ,

f o u r g u n b o a t s , t w o s l o o p s , o n e d e s p a t c h b o a t a n d t h r e e V i c e r e g a l

y a c h t s w h i c h f l e e t h e E g y p t i a n N a v y ' s c o l o ~ r s . ~ A l l o f t h e s e

were wooden s h i p s , Somo were c o n s t r u c t e d a t A l e x a n d r i a , w h i l e

t h e r e m a i n d e r w o r e p u r c h a s e d f r o m E u r o p e a n p o w e r s , I t i s n o t

c l e a r i n w h a t y e a r t h i s l i s t o f s h i p s was c o m p i l e d , b u t i t i s

e v i d e n t t h a t I smai l ' s f l e e t was n e v e r much l a r g e r t h a n t h i s . 5

U n a b l e t o d o much w i t h h i s Navy b u t c o n c e r n e d a b o u t h i s

o v e r a l l m i l i t a r y w e a k n e s s , I s m a i l r a p i d l y e m b a r k e d o n a p r o g -

ramme o f e x p a n s i o n , e q u i p m e n t a n d r e f o r m i n h i s army.= D u r i n g

h i s f i r s t y e a r a s P a s h a o f E g y p t f i f t e e n a r m y o f r i c e r s were

3 ~ e ~ ~ u o r t h - ~ u n n e , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n i n Modern Eqy&, pp . 348 -349 .

~ M C C O ~ ~ , E q y p t a s i t is , p. 1 2 1 ,

5 1 t was r e p o r t e d i n 1 8 7 7 t h a t "a11 t h a t E g y p t p o s s e s s e s b y way o f a m a r i n e i s a small f l e e t o f wooden' s h i p s . " The T i m e s , J u n e 1 , 1 8 7 7 , p . 4 .

6 ~ c c o r d i n g t o I sma i lp t h e a r s e n a l s c o u l d o n l y h a v e e q u i p p e d a n a r m y o f 1 5 , 0 0 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 men w i t h o u t d a t e d e q u i p m e n t , T h e T i m e s , J a n u a r y 2 8 , 1 8 7 0 , p , 1 0 .

Page 159: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

I 5 3

d i s p a t c h e d t o F r a n c e t o s t u d y m i l i t a r y t e c h n i q u e s . T h e y

r e t u r n e d t o E g y p t i n 1 8 7 0 , D u r i n g 1 8 6 4 , f o u r r r e r i c h o f f i c e r s ,

u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e i r G o v s r n n ~ a n t , a r r i v e d i n E g y p t a n d

c o m m e n c e d m i l i t a r y r e u r y a n i z a t i o n , A d d i t i o n a l F r e n c h i n s t r u c -

t o r s were s o o n e m p l o y e d a n d t h e a r m y was r a p i d l y e x p a n d e d t o

1 8 , 0 0 0 mon, t h e maximuin s t r e n g t h p e r m i t t e d b y t h e k h a t t - i - s h a r r i f

o f 1841. T h e F r e n c h m i l i t a r y m a n u a l p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i s f o r

t h e t r a i n i n g o f t h e E g y p t i a n Army u n t i l s o o n a F t e r t h e F r a n c o -

P r u s s i a n war o f I t l iU-18' /1, . A t t h i s t ime a t r a n s l a t e d e d i t i o n

o f t h e P r u s s i a n m i l i t a r y m a n u a l was a d o p t e d a n d o n e o r t u ~ o

P r u s s i a n i n s t r u c t o r s were e m p l o y e d , Due t o I sma i l ' s r e c u r r e n t

f i n a n c i a l p r o b l e m s , h o u e v e r , t h e a r m y ' s o p e r a t i o n a l m e t h o d s

were o n l y p a r t l y P r u s s i a n i z e d .

D u r i n g 1 8 6 4 a n d 1 8 6 5 i n f a n t r y , c a v a l r y , a r t i l l e r y ,

m i l i t a r y engineering, a n d s t a f f s c h o o l s were o p e n e d . ? I n

a d d i t i o n t o m i l i t a r y s u b j e c t s , p h y s i c s , c h e m i s t r y , m e c h a n i c s ,

m a t h e m a t i c s , g e o g r a p h y , F r e n c h , E n g l i s h , T u r k i s h a n d c a l i g r a p h y

w e r e s t u d i e d a t t h e s e i n s t i t ~ t i o n s . ~ T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e

i n s t r u c t o r s were e i t h e r O t t o m a n s o r E g y p t i a n s . I n 1 0 7 4 a n

7 ~ u r i n g 1 8 7 0 t h e r e were 5 0 0 t r a i n e e s a t t h e I n f a n t r y S c h o o l a t A b b a s i e h , 1 0 0 t r a i n e e s a t t h e C a v a l r y S c h o o l , 1 0 0 a t t h e A r t i l l e r y S c h o o l a n d 3 0 a t t h e M i l i t a r y E n g i n e e r i n g S c h o o l ; m o r e - o v e r , t h e r e were 1 0 0 s t u d e n t s f r o m E g y p t a t t e n d i n g a m i l i t a r y s c h o o l i n P a r i s , De M a l o r t i e , o p . c i t , , p , 8 9 .

~ F O U ~ o t h e r s c h o o l s were c o n n e c t e d ' t o t h e m i l i t a r y s c h o o l s . An a g r i c u l t u r a l s c h o o l , 1 8 6 7 a n d a v e t e r i n a r y s c h o o l , 1 8 6 8 , were a t t a c h e d t o t h e C a v a l r y S c h o o l , A s c h o o l o f a c e a u n t a n c y , 1 8 6 7 , was j o i n e d t o t h e S c h o o l o f C a v a l r y , t h o u g h t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t m e s n t h e t u o i s o b s c u r e . T h e f o u r t h s c h o o l , w h i c h mas a t t a c h e d t o t h e S c h o o l o f A r t i l l e r y a n d M i l i t a r y E n g i n e e r i n g , was o p e n e d i n 1 8 6 6 . S t u d e n t s t h e r e were t r a i n e d i n i r r i g a t i o n a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a l a n d r n i l i t a r y e n q i n e a r i n q . H e y w o r t h - D u n n e , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e ist tory of- ducati ion i n M o d e r n Egypt, p. 3 5 0 .

Page 160: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

N , C , O . ' s s c h o o f was o p e n e d . R e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , 8 r i t h m c t j . c a n d

t h e k e e p i n g o f r e g i m e n t a l r e c o r d s were t a u g h t t h e r e , 9

A f t e r Ismail h a d p l i e d t h e P o r t e a n d v a r i o u s T u r k i s h

o f f i c i a l s w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l g i f t s , a n i m p e r i a l f i r m a n was i s s u e d

i n 1 8 6 6 , w h i c h , among o t h e r t h i n g s , r a i s e d t h e p e r m i s s i b l e

maximum number o f t r o o p s i n t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y f r o m 1 8 , 0 0 0 t o

3 0 , 0 0 0 . Nut s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h i s c o n c e s s i o n , I s m a i l i n t r o d u c e d

a s h o r t - s e r v i c e s y s t e m , Most o f t h e c o n s c r i p t s , a f t e r u n d e r -

g o i n g t r a i n i n g a n d a s h o r t p e r i o d o f s e r v i c e , r e t u r n e d home o n

l e a v e f o r an i n d e f i n i t e p e r i o d a n d were r e p l a c e d b y f r e s h

r e c r u i t s , T h e s e i n t u r n Lcere l a t e r s i m i l a r l y r e l i e v e d b y o t h e r s .

I n 1 8 7 2 , a n o t h e r i m p e r i a l f i r m a n r e m o v e d a l l l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e

s i z e o f t h e E g y p t i a n a r m e d f o r c e s , T h o a r m y r a p i d l y e x p a n d e d t o

6 0 , 0 0 0 men. l o Due t o t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f E g y p t ' s f i n a n c i a l

p o s i t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e r e were w i d e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e n u m b e r

o f men u n d e r a r m s . ' ? N e v e r t h e l e s s , s u f f i c i e n t o f f i c e r s a n d n a n -

c o m m i s s i o n e d o f f i c e r s were r e t a i n e d i n r e g u l a r s e r v i c e t o command

a l a r g e n u m b e r o f r e s e r v e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t r o o p s a l r e a d y

s e r v i n g , 1 2

g ~ e s s e l t i n e a n d Wol f , o p . cit., p. 8 6 .

~ O A S i n t h e Muhammad A l i Era c o n s c r i p t e d men w e r e e s s e n - t i a l l y i n t h e a r m e d s e r v i c e s f o r l i f e , s i n c e n o t ime l i m i t a t i o n was p u t u p o n t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e i r p e r i o d o f s e r v i c e . F e l l a h i n c o u l d l e g a l l y p u r c h a s e e x e m p t i o n f r o m s e r v i c e b y p a y i n g t h e G o v e r n m e n t $!E. 8 0 . A s e r v i c e m a n c o u l d p u r c h a s e h i s d i s c h a r g e b y p a y i n g a sum o f money t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t , b u t t h e l o n g e r h e s e r v e d , t h e m o r e h e h a d t o p a y . T h e T i m e s , S e p t e m b e r 20 , 1 8 7 8 , p. 1 2 .

I 1 I t was r e p o r t e d i n F e b r u a r y , 1 8 7 0 , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t t h e a r m y h a d b e e n r e d u c e d f r o m 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o 1 5 , 0 0 0 men, T h e T i m e s , F e b r u a r y 4, 1 8 7 0 , p , 8 ,

1 2 ~ n l i k e Muhammad A l i , I s m a i l u s e d t r o o p s , when necessary, c o n t d :

Page 161: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

155

V a r i o u s c o n t e m p o r a r y E u r o p e a n o b s e r v e r s s h a r c d t h e

o p i n i o n t h a t t h e o f f i c e r c o r p s was o f o v e r y l o s s t a n d a r d . 1 3

O t t o m a n s f i l l e d i t s u p p e r a c h o l o n s , b u t t h e r a n k s u p t o t h a t o f

c o l o n e l b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y a c c e s s i b l e t o E g y p t i a n s a s I sma i l ' s

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p r o g r e s s e d . I t i s n o t e w o r t h y t h a t i n 1 8 7 0 t w o -

t h i r d s o f t h e o f f i c e r c o r p s w e r e s a i d t o b e l i t e r a t e . T h i s

r e p r e s e n t s a d r a m a t i c i n c r e a s e i n l i t e r a c y a m o n g c o m m i s s i o n e d

p e r s o n n e l s i n c e t h e Muhammad A l i E r a . I smai l r e i n f o r c e d t h i s

t r e n d when , u p o n t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f o n e o f h i s A m e r i c a n

a d v i s o r s , G e n e r a l S t o n e , h e d e c r e e d i n 1 8 7 0 , t h a t n e i t h e r

o f f i c e r s n o r n lcmbers o f t h e l o w e r r a n k s c o u l d b e p r c j m o t e d i f t h e y

were i l l i t e r a k e . 1 4 I n t h e same y e a r , S t o n s o r g a n i z e d a n e d u c -

a t i o n p r o g r a m m e f o r t h e n o n - c o m m i s s i o n e d r a n k s . T h e men a t t e n -

d e d c l a s s e s f o r I * h o u r s a d a y , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r r e g u l a r

d u t i e s , I t was l a t e r c l a i m e d t h a t 1 a r g e l . y b e c a u s e o f t h i s

1 2 c o n t d : f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k a n d f o r s u c h t a s k s a s b u i l d i n g r o a d s a n d r a i l w a y s , T h e y were s a i d t o b e c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e p r o d u c t i v e t h a n t h o s e f e l l a h i n who h a d n o t s e r v e d i n t h e a r m e d f o r c e s . T h e T i m e s , - F e b r u a r y 2 9 , 1 8 6 4 , p . 1 2 a n d T h e T i m e s , F e b r u a r y 1 6 , 1 8 7 7 , p, 8.

l 3 ~ o l o n e l Dye, a n A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y a d v i s e r a n d i n s t r u c t o r t o t h e E g y p t i a n Army, s a i d o f i t s o f f i c e r s i n g e n e r a l : " T h e y h a v e a n i n o r d i n a t e a m o u n t o f m e n t a l , a s we l l a s p h y s i c a l i n e r t i a - l y i n g , d u p l i c i t y a n d i n t r i g u e b e i n g a s n e c e s s a r y t o t h e i r d i s - t i n c t i v e m a n n e r o f e x i s t e n c e a s m a r v e l i n a n E g y p t i a n s t o r y , . , , Nor i s t h e r e a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e i r d a i l y l i f e , o r i n t h e i r m a n n e r o f e x e c u t i n g t h e i r d u t i e s , c a l c u l a t e d t o i n s p i r e c o n f i d e n c e . " He a l s o s a i d t h a t t h e E g y p t i a n Army was " f u l l o f . . , . c l i q u e s a n d c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s , w h o s e d i s o r g a n i z i n g i n t r i g u e s a r e r e n - d e r e d m o r e a n d m o r e i n t e n s e b y t h e i n c r e a s i n a a o s s i b i l i t i e s

a

even p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f s u c c e s s . " W , McE. Dye, M o s l e t m E q y p t a n d -- C h r i s t i a n A b y s s i n i a ( ~ e w Y o r k , 1 8 8 0 ) ~ p p . 62 a n d 402.

1 4 1 s m a i l d e c r e e d i n t h e l a t e 1 8 6 0 ' s t h a t , i n t h e f u t u r e , c a n d i d a t e s w o u l d n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r m i l i t a r y c o m m i s s i o n s u n l e s s t h e y h a d g r a d u a t e d f r o m b o t h s p e c i a l s c h o o l s a n d m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , I t a p p e a r s , h o ~ u e v e r , t h a t t h i s was n o t w h o l l y i m p l e m e n t e d .

Page 162: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

s c h e m e 7 0 % o f t h e r a n k a n d f i l e " c o u ? d u ~ r i t e w e l l e n o u g h t o

m a k e t h e i r own o r i t t g n a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r l e a v e o f a b s e n c e a n d .

a p p e a l s f o r j u s t i c e , " l 5 S t o n e ' s e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m m e was u l t i r n -

a t e l y i n t e n d s d t o d s v e l o p s o m e p e r s o n n e l t o a l e v e l w h e r e t h e y

w o u l d b e a b l e t o r e p l a c e t h e l a r g e n u m b e r o f c i v i l i a n C o p t i c

c l e r k s w o r k i n g a t E g y p t i a n m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . l6 s t o n e

o p i n e d t o Ismai l t h a t t h e s e c l e r k s , r e n o w n e d f o r t h e i r c o r r u p t

p r a c t i c e s , were t h e a r m y ' s " w o r s t e v i l . 1 1 1 7

T h r o u g h o u t I s m a i l a s r e i g n . t h e samc b r u t a l c o n s c r i p t i o n

t e c h n i q u e s were u s e d a s h a d b e e n a p p l i e d b y Muhammad Aliss

p r e s s g a n g s . 1 8 Men were c l ~ a i n o d t o g e t h e r a n d h e r d e d t o a n

i n d u c t i o n c e n t r e , f o l l . o w e d b y a m u l t i t u d e o f k i n . l g Yet i t .

a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r o were n o p e a s a n t u p r i s i n g s a g a i n s t c o n s c r i p -

t i o n d u r i n g I s m a i l ' s r e i g n . 2 0 Nevertheless, men s t i l l m u t i l a t e d

I 6 ~ c j a i n d u e t o S t o n e , f r e e e d u c a t i o n was o f f e r e d f o r s o n s o f s e r v i c o r r ~ e n , w i t h f r e e r o o m a n d b o a r d i f t h e f a m i l y l i v e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e f a t h e r ' s camp. M o s t of t h e t e a c h i n g was d o n e b y a r m y o f f i c e r s . A p p a r e n t l y i t was h o p e d t h a t s o m e o f t h e s t u d e n t s w o u l d v o l u n t e e r f o r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e when o l d e n o u g h t o d o s o . H e s s e l t i n e a n d W o l f , np. c i t . , p p , 0 5 - 8 6 .

I O O u r i n g 1878, when war b e t w e e n T u r k e y a n d R u s s i a s e e m e d i m m i n e n t , i t was r e p o r t e d t h a t " t h e r e s e r v e s a r e a l l c a l l e d o u t , a n d o l d s o l d i e r s o f t h e t ime o f Muhammad A l i h a v e b e e n f o r c e d t o r e s u m e t h e i r t r a d e , " T h e T i m e s , J a n u a r y 2 1 , 1 8 7 8 , p . 1 0 .

1 9 ~ o n - ~ o s l e r n s u e r e e x e m p t f r o m c o n s c r i p t i o n , E d u i n d e L e o n r e m a r k e d t h a t : " A t C a i r o a n d A l e x a n d r i a y o u s e e n u m b e r s o f S y r i a n s , o f C o p t s , o f A r m e n i a n s , o f I s r a e l i t e s , o f B e r b e r s , o f N u b i a n s P G r e e k s a n d T u r k s a l l o f whom n u m b e r i n g p r o b a b l y 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 a r e e x e m p t e d f r o m c o n s c r i p t i o n i n t h e s e t u o c i t i e s a l o n e . T h i s i s a m o n g many u n a c c o u n t a b l e a n o m a l i e s o f t h e Egy- p t i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . " De L e o n , o p . c i t , , p . 3 7 1 .

2 0 ~ f a s e r v i c e m a n d e s e r t e d , h i s f a m i l y was h s l d r e s p o n - c o n t d :

Page 163: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

t h e m s e l v e s i n o r d e r t o a v o i d c o n s c r i p t i o n a n d s o m e m o t h e r s

p u r p o s e l y i n j u r e d t h e i r o f f s p r i n g s o t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e u n f i t

f o r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e l a t e r i n l i f o e Z 1 A T i n t ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n t

a p t l y d e s c r i b e d t h e f e l l a h ' s a t t a c h m e n t t o h i s home a n d h i s

r e p u g n a n c e f o r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e t h u s :

He h a s a c a t l i k e i n s t i n c t i n h i s a t t a c h n ; e n t t o h i s b i t oF a mud h u t , w h e r e o t h e r men w o u l d f i n d n o t h i n g b u t m i s e r y , N o t t u i t h s t a n d i n g much b e t t e r f o o d a n d s u c h c l o t h e s a s t:e n e v e r g e t s a t home, h e h a t e s e n l i s t m e n t a n d w i l l h i d e f o r w e e k s r a t h e r t h a n t a k a a ~ m s . 2 2

S e v e r a l i n f a n t r y r e g i n i e n t s . o f S u d a n e s e c o n s c r i p t s were

f o r m e d d u r i n g I s r n a f l q s r e i g n . T h e s e d i d n o t s u f f e r t h e i n o r -

d i n a t e l y h i g h m o r t a l i t y r a t e d u e t o s i c k n e s s a r id m e l a n c h o l y

t h a t h a d b e f a l l e n S u d a n e s e r e g i m e n t s d u r i n q t h e Muhammad A l i

Era. T h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s p h e n o m e n o n a r e n o t c l e a r , s i n c e i t

seems t h a t t h e r e was l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e b c t ~ u e e n b a s i c c o n d i t i o n s

i n Ismail ' s a n d Muhammad Ali's armies ,

I s n a i l d i s m i s s e d mast F r e n c h o f r i c e r s f r o m h i s employ soan

a f t e r N a p o l e o n 111 h a d i s s u e d h i s j u d g e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e S u e z

C a n a l . D u r i n g t h e l a t o 1 8 6 O W s , h e h i r e d 2 0 - 30 A m e r i c a n

20 c o n t d : s i b l e f o r h i s a c t i o n . T h e y e i t h e r h a d t o f i n d h i m , o r t o p r o v i d e t w o r e l a t i v e s t o r e p l a c e h i m . I f t h e d e s e r t e r h a d n o r e l a t i v e s , h i s n a t i v e v i l l a g e h a d t o p a y a f i n e , T h e T i m e s , S e p t e m b e r 2 0 , 2878, p . 4 ,

2 f C o l o n e l C h a i l l 6 - i o n g , who h a d w i t n e s s e d a n u m b e r o f i n c i d e n t s w h e r e r e c r u i t s u n d e r g o i n g t r a i n i n g h a d h a d p a r t s o f h a n d s b l o u ~ n o f f b y m i s f i r i n g r i f l e s , r e p o r t e d t h e i n c i d e n t s t o h i s C o m m a n d i n g - G e n e r a l . T h e G e n e r a l i n f o r m e d h i m t h a t s o m e s o l d i e r s p u r p o s e l y d r o p p e d t h e i r g r e a s e d c a r t r i d g e s i n t o s a n d , s o t h a t t h e r i f l e w o u l d b e c o m e b l o c k e d a n d w o u l d e x p l o d e when f i r e d , t h u s m u t i l - a t i n g t h e s o l d i e r s i n v o l v e d , a n d g a i n i n g t h e m

c i t , , v o l . I , p . 6 0 . d i s c h a r g e s f r o r n t h e a r m y , ~ h a i l l & ~ o n ~ , o p e

2 2 ~ h e T i m e s , F e b r u a r y 1 6 , 1877, p . 8 , .

Page 164: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

o f f i c e r s , v e t e r a n s o f t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l :413r. T h i s a p p e a r s t o

h a v e b e e n a d e l i b e r a t e l y s h r e w d move b y Ismai l , s i n c e t h e U n i t e d

S . t a t e s was u n l i k c l y t o d e v e l o p a n y i m p e r i a l i s t i c d e s i g n s o n

A f r i c a . T h e m a j o r E u r o p e a n p o w e r s e i t h e r h a d i m p e r i a l p o s s e s -

s i o n s t h e r e , o r were i n t e n t u p o n a c q u i r i n g s o m e . I t was p o l i t i c

o f I smai l t o h i r e A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y i n s t r u c t o r s , r a t h e r t h a n

e m u l a t e h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s p r e c e d e n t o f e m p l o y i n g a l a r g e p r o p -

o r t i o n o f E u r o p e a n o n e s ,

T h e A m e r i c a n s were e s s e n t i a l l y a d v e n t u r e r s who h a d f o u n d

i t d i f f i c u l t t o a d j u s t t o p e a c e t i m e c o n d i t i o n s . When h i r e d b y

I smai l ' s a g e n t , T h z d e u s M o t t , t h e y w e r e l e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y

w o u l d b e f i g h t i n g t o f r e e E g y p t f r o m " T u r k i s h t y r a n n y , " One o f

t h e A m e r i c a n s , C o l o n e l ~ h a i l l 6 - ~ o n g r e c a l l s I s m a i l ' s i n j u n c t i o n ,

t o h i m a t t h e i r f i r s t m e e t i n g : " I c o u n t u p o n y o u r d i s c r e t i o n , I

d e v o t i o n a n d z e a l t o a i d me i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e i n d e p e n -

d e n c e o f E g y p t , When t h i s s h a l l h a v e b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d , a s i t

w i l l b e w i t h G o d ' s h e l p , I s h a l l b e s t o w u p o n y o u t h e h i g h e s t

h o n o u r s . "z3 S o o n a f t e r t h e A m e r i c a n s h a d v ~ i t n e s s e d t h e c o n d i t i o n

o f t h e a r m y h o w e v e r , t h e y c o n c l u d e d t h a t i t w o u l d b e f o o l h a r d y

f o r E g y p t t o p r o v o k e a war . F o r t u n a t e l y a w a r b e t w e e n E g y p t a n d

t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e d i d n o t m a t e r i a l i z e ,

A d o z e n A m e r i c a n s , u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f G e n e r a l L o r i n g ,

w o r k e d o n s t r e n g t h g n i n g E g y p t v s d i l a p i d a t e d c o a s t a l d e f e n c e s , 2 4 I

2 3 ~ u o t e d i n P i e r r e C r a b i t e s , A m e r i c a n s i n t h e E q y p t i a n Army o on don, 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 4 3 .

2 4 ~ o r n e A m e r i c a n h e a v y a r t i l l e r y g u n s , c o s t i n g m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 f r a n c s e a c h , were u s e d f o r c o a s t a l d e f e n c e s i n a d d i t i o n t o p r e v i o u s l y i n s t a l l e d g u n s . T h e d e f e n c e s m e r e m o d e r n i z e d , s t r e n g t h e n e d , r e o r g a n i z e d a n d p l a c e d u n d e r a s i n g l e s y s t e m o f

c o n t d :

Page 165: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

T h e r e m a i n d e r w o r k e d o n t h e g e n e r a l s t a f f , o r g a n i z e d a n d com-

m a n d e d b y G e n s r a l S t o n e . 25 T h o u g h m o s t o f t h e A m e r i c a n s h a d

h a d considerable b a t t l e e x p e r i e n c e , n o n e o f t h e m w e r e g i v e n

l i n e c o m m a n d s i n t h e E g y p t i a n Army. T h i s was l a r g e l y b e c a u s e

Isrnail d i d n o t w i s h t o e x a c e r b a t e t h e a l r e a d y i n f l a r n a t o r y

r e s e n t m e n t o f t h e O t t o m a n a n d E g y p t i a n o f f i c e r s t o t h e p r e s e n c e

o f A m e r i c a n s i n ~ g ~ p t . 2 6

24 uurl iu ' :

c o n t r o l . T h o u g h i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o e s t i m a t e , w i t h a n y a c c u r a c y , t h e c o s t o f arms i m p o r t e d i n t o E g y p t d u r i n g I s m a i l ' s r e i g n , i t was n o d o u b t a l a r g e f i g u r e . F o r i n s t a n c e , a r e l - a t i v e l y l a r g e n u m b e r o f h e a v y f i e l d g u n s , m a n u f a c t u r e d b y t h e K r u p p a n d W a h r e n d r o f f c o m p a n i e s , werE p u r c h a s e d , a s were same G a t l i n g g u n s , l a r g e q u a n t i t , i e s o f R e m i n g t o n r i f l e s a n d P r u s s i a n n e e d l e r i f l e s , E g y p t i a n m u n i t i o n s ' f a c t o r i e s m a n u f a c t u r e d a m m u n i t i o n f o r a l l o f t h e w e a p o n s u s e d b y E g y p t i a n t r o o p s . NcCoan, h y p t a s i t is , p. 1 1 9 a n d Sarnmarco , o p . c i t . , v o l . 111, p. 157,

2 5 ~ f t c r b e i n g a p p o i n t e d c h i e f c f t h e a r m y g e n e r a l s t a f f i n 1 8 7 0 , G e n e r a l S t o n e was s u r p r i s e d t o f i n d t h a t t h e r e ms n o g e n e r a l s t a f f a c t u a l l y i n e x i s t e n c e , I n f a c t o n e h a d n o t e x i s t e d s i n c e t h e ~ n d o f Mvhammad AliDs r e i g n , T h e r e m s one F r e n c h c o l o n e l o f s t a f f i n o f f i c e , b u t h e was i n E n g l a n d p u r - c h a s i n g m i l i t a r y mater ia ls a n d d i d n o t r e t u r n t o E g y p t u n t i l 1 8 8 0 . T h u s S t o n e a p p o i n t e d t o h i s s t a f f m e m b e r s o f t h e i n i t i a l m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n t o F r a n c e , 1 8 6 3 - 1 8 7 0 a n d A m e r i c a n o f f i c e r s , s o m e O F whom h a d s t a f f w o r k e x p e r i e n c e . C o l o n e l Dye d e s c r i b e d t h e d u t i e s o f t h e g e n e r a l s t a f f a s : "To s u p p l y t h e a r m y , move i t , d i s t r i b u t e t h e c o m m a n d e r ' s o r d e r s i n s u c h a way a m o n g t h e s e v e r a l u n i t s a s t o p r e s e r v e t h e f ~ a r m o n i o u s r e l a t i o n s o f t h e p a r t s , a n d t h e i r u n i t y i n a n d o n t h e f i e l d , T h e y a r e t o k e e p t h e c o m m a n d e r u ~ e l l i n f o r m e d o f t h e e n e m y ' s c o n d i t i o n s a n d move- m e n t s , t o l e a r n t h e m i l i t a r y n a t u r e o f t h e c o u n t r y t o b e p a s s e d o v e r , a n d i t s v i c i n i t y , t h a t is t o s a y , i t s f a c i l i t i e s f o r s u p p l y i n g , m o v i n g o r r e s i s t i n g a n a r m y , " T h e m o s t n o t a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f t h o g e n e r a l s t a f f a e r e t h e s u r v e y i n g , e x p l o r i n g a n d m a p p i n g o f v a r i o u s a r e a s o f C e n t r a l Africa. T h i s w o r k was d o n e p r i m a r i l y a s p r e p a r a t i o n f o r E g y p t i a n e x p a n s i o n i n t o t h i s r e g i o n , b u t i t p r o v e d t o b e a g r e a t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e g e o g r a p h y o f t h i s v i r t u a l l y u n e x p l o r e d - b y w h i t e men - a rea o f A f r i c a . Dye, o p . c i t , , p . 6 9 a n d l o r i n g , o p . c i t , , p . 3 4 9 ,

2 6 ~ s m a i l w a r n e d t h e A m e r i c a n o f f i c e r s t o e x p e c t j e a l o u s y f r o m t h e E g y p t i a n a n d O t t o m a n o f f i c e r s , b u t i m p l o r e d t h e m t o : "Bear i t w i t h p a t i e n c e a n d i n d u l g e n c e , " Nnne o f t h e A m e r i c a n s

c o n t d :

Page 166: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

1 6 0

A c t u a l l y , d u r i n g e a r l y 1 8 7 6 , G e n e r a l L o r i n g was t e n t a t i v e l y

a p p o i n t e d c o r r ~ m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f o f a I 2 , O O O rnan f o r c e t h a t was ,

d o s t i n e d t o i n v a d e A b y s s i n i a . I sma i l h o p e d t o e x t e n d h i s d o m a i n

i n t o t h a t c o u n t r y . B u t when t h e m i l i t a r y h i e r a r c h y e x p r e s s e d

p r o f o u n d d i s c o n t e n t o v e r h i s a p p o i n t m e n t , L o r i n g was n a m e d

c h i e f - o f - s t a f f , w h i l e R a t i b P a s h a was a p p o i n t e d c o r n m a n d e r - i n -

c h i e f . T h e s t a f f h a d v i r t u z l l y n o t a c t i c a l i n f l u e n c e o n t h e

e x p e d i t i o n , s i n c e t h e O t t o m a n a n d E g y p t i a n l i n e o f f i c e r s r e m a i n e d

h o s t i l e t o L o r i n g a n d h i s A m e r i c a n a i d e s . D e s p i t e t h i s , t h e

f o r e i g n e r s were b l a m e d f o r t h e e x p e d i t i o n ' s h u m i l i a t i n g f a i l u r e .

I : T h e o n l y b a t t l e e n d e d i n a s t a l ema te , w i t h t h e E g y p t i a n f o r c e

s u f f e r i n g h z a v y l a s s o s .

I t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t m e m b e r s o f t h e m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r

c o r p s s t a r t e d t o b e c o m e p o l - i t i c a l l y a c t i v e d u r i n g 1 8 7 9 , t h e

l a s t y e a r o f I s m a i l s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , I n t h a t y e a r a n u m b e r o f

o f f i c e r s r i o t e d i n o p p o s i t i o n t o s d e c r e e w h i c h , a s a n e c o n a m y

m e a s u r e , p l a c e d 2 , 5 0 0 o f t h e m a n h a l f - p a y . P h i s was b u t o n e o f

many g r i e v a n c e s t h a t t h e o f f i c e r c o r p s h a d a g a i n s t t h e E u r o p e a n

c o n t r o l l e d g o v e r n m e n t . S o o n a f t e r t h i s i n c i d e n t , a m i l i t a r y -

p o l i t i c a l g r o u p , t h a t c a m e t o b e known a s t h e A r a b i s t s , f o r m e d

2 6 c o n t d : a t t e m p t e d t o l e a r n T u r k i s h o r A r a b i c . T h e y r e m a i n e d a s a l o o f a s p o s s i b l e f r o m O t t o m a n s a n d E g y p t i a n s a n d a b h o r r e d many E a s t e r n c u s t o m s . F o r i n s t a n c e , o n e o f t h e m w r o t e t h a t : " A l l t h e e f f o r t s His H i g h n e s s c n n make t o c i v i l i z e h i s p a a p l e t ~ i l l b e u s e l e s s u n t i l h e a b o l i s h e s a l l t h e Harems a n d E u n u c h s f r o w t h e L a n d . " E q u a l l y r e p u g n a n t t o t h e A m e r i c a n s were p o l y g a m y a n d t h e ease o f d i v o r c e . G e n e r a l L o r i n g , who h a d f o u g h t a g a i n s t t h e Mormons o n t h e U t a h f r o n t i e r , was p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c a l o f p l u r a l m a r r i a g e s . He was i n v i t e d a s t h e g u e s t o f h o n o u r t o t h e s e c o n d w e d d i n g o f o n e o f h i s E g y p t i a n o f f i c e r s , b u t w h i l e a t t h e c e r e m o n y p e r s i s t e d i n l e c t u r i n g h i s h o s t o n t h e v i r t u e s o f monogamy, H e s s e l t i n e a n d W o l f , o p . c i t e , p p . 4 9 a n d 64 .

Page 167: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f C o l o n e l Ahmad A r a b i , P h i s g r o u p r a p i d l y

g a i n e d u ~ i d e s p r c a d s u p p o r t . D u r i n g 1882, b y t h e u s e OF f o r c e

and t h r e a t s , i t a t t a i n e d p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l o f E g y p t , T h e v i c t o r y

was e p h e m e r a l , I n t h a t same y e a r A r a b i ' s g o v e r n m e n t was o v e r -

t h r o w n b y t h e B r i t i s h i n t . h e i r o c c u p a t i o n o f E g y p t .

T h o u g h c o n s i d e r a b l e monoy a n d e f f o r t were s p e n t o n m o d e r -

n i z i n g a n d o x p a n d i n g t h e a r m y , I sma i l d e m o n s t r a t e d f a r l e s s

c o n c e r n f o r E g y p t ' s m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h t h a n h i s g r a n d f a t h e r h a d

d o n e . i ' l o reover , Ismail 's a r m y was s i n g u l a r l y u n s u c c e s s f u L i n

t h e f i e l d . I n its m a j o r e x p e d i t i o n s i t vJas s o u n d l y d e f e a t e d b y

a n A b y s s i n i a n a r m y i n 1875 a n d , a s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , f o u g h t

a n i n d e c i s i v e b a t t l e a g a i n s t a n A b y s s i n i a n f o r c e i n 1876 . I t s

m o s t s a l i e n t p o s i t i v e F e a t u r e was t h e f a c t t h a t i t was a k e y

c h a n n e l f o r l i t e r a c y a n d f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n i n E g y p t ,

Page 168: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

The p r e c i p i t z t e c h a n g e s a n d r e f o r m s i n d u c e d b y Muhammad

A l i w e r e f r a u g h t w i t h s h o r t c o m i n g s , C o r i s i d e r i n g t h a t E g y p t

was a p r o f o u n d l y t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y , h o w c v e r , i t i s r e m a r k a b l e

t h e y d e v e l o p e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y d i d , S u c h c h a n g a s w e r e

t o t a l l y i n c o n c e i v a b l e t o t h e e l e m e n t s o f E g y p t i a n S o c i e t y t h a t

p r e v a i l e d p r i o r t o Muhammad Ali's a d v e n t .

The P a s h a s $ p a r a m o u n t a m b i t i o n was d y n a s t i c a n d p o l i t i c a l ,

F o r t h i s ho s o u g h t t o c r e a t e a m o d e r n a r m y s imi ia r t o t h o s e o f

F r a n c e a n d B r i t a i n , u n i t s o f w h i c h h e h a d s e e n i n a c t i o n . Hc

was n o t t h e f i r s t O t t o m a n l e a d e r t o i n s t i g a t e ~ o s t e r n m i l . i t a r y

r e f o r m s , S u l t a n S e l i m I11 h a d p r e c e d e d h im i n t h i s b y mare t h a n

t w o d e c a d e s , Muhammad A l i , h o w e v e r , was m o r e i n i n e d i a t c l y

s u c c e s s f u l , u~l- erea as r e a c t i o n 1 ong d e l e y e d t h e c h a n g e s i n i t i a t e d

b y S e l i m a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r Mahrnud 11, C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e 1

Pasha had m a n o e u v r e d h i s way t o poGJer i n d c f i a n c e o f the P o s t e ,

and t h a t N a p o l e o n h ~ d d e m o n s t r a t e d how s t r a t e g i c a l l y v u l n e r a b l e

E g y p t wzs, h i s p r e p o n d e r a n t i n t , e r e s t i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a modern

army was j u s t i f i a b l y e x p e d i e n t ,

The t a n g i b l e r e s u l t s o f t h s p r a c i p i t a i ; e c h a n g e s and reforms

i r l d u c e d b y Muhammad A l i w e r e l a r g e l y d i s s i p a t e d b y t h e t ime o f

h i s a b d i c a t i o n . Y e t , b y p l a n t i n g t h o r o o t s o f a t r a d i t i o n s f

c h a n g e a n d r e f o r m , h e p r o v i d e d t h e less t a n g i b l e p r e c e d e n t s a n d

i n c e n t i v e s t h a t e n s u r e d a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f s u c c e s s f a r s i m i l a r

u n d e r t a k i n g s i n t h e f u t u r e . T h e c r u c i a l s t u m b l i n g b l o c k t o t h c

Pasha" r reforms was t h e c n n s e r v a t i s m and i n e x p e r i ~ n c e o f a l m s s t

Page 169: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

163

a l l t h e O t t o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d t h e e n t i r e E g y p t i a n l a b o u r

F o r c e . The m a g n i t u d e o f t h e p r o b l e m i s u n d e r l i n e d by t h s f a c t

t h a t tic was a t t e m p t i n g t o e s t a b l i s h m o d e r n f a c t o r i e s t h e p r o d u c t s

o f d e c a d e s a n d c e n t u r i e s U P W e s t e r n t e c h n o l o g i c a l ~ v ~ l u t . i o n , i n

a s o o i o t y t h a t h a d o n l y r e c e t ? t l y r e - e s t a b l i s h e d c o n t a c t w i t h t h e

- w h e e l . r h e v a s t m a j o r i t y oP t h e l a b o u r f o r c e l a c k e d a r i y f u r m a i

e d u c a t i o n , s k i l l s a n d work e x p e r i c n c c v a g u e l y r e l e v a n t t o t h e

w i d e s p e c t r u m o f r e f o r m s u n d e r t a k e n , No t s u r p r i s i n g l y , s i n c e

t h e t r a d i t i o n a l I s l a m i c c u l t u r e was m a r k e d l y a n t i t h e t i c a l t o

t h a t o f t h e West, T h o s s E g y p t i a n s a n d Ottomans who r e c e i v e d

w e s t e r n i z e d t r a i n i n g p r o g r e s s e d extremely s l o w l y , much m o r e s o

t h a n t h e P a s h a a n d a n u m b e r o f h i s a d v i s o r s h a d a n t i c i p a t e d ,

A l a r g e a m b e r o r s k i l l e d p e r s o n n e l were n e e d e d F o r Lhe w i d e

r a n g e o f i ~ s t i t u t i o n s t h e P a s h a s o r a p i d l y s e t i n t o m o t i o n .

T h e s e i n c l u d e d e n g i n e e r s , m e c h a n i c s , T i t t e r s , m a i n t e n a n c e

p e r s o n n e l , a r m o u r e r s , s h i p - w r i g h t s , p h y s i c i a n s a n d s c h o o l

t e a c h e r s . I n a c t u a l i t y t h e r e were f r o m t h e o u t s e t t o o Few s o

e n d o ~ ~ ~ e d , a n d m o s t o f t hem were E u r o p e a n s a t t r a c t e d t o E g y p t b y

h i g h w a g e s , T h a t t h e r e F o m s ius ru f a r Loo a m b i t i o u s f o r t h e

n u m b e r o f s k i l l e d p e r s o n n e l a v a i l a b l e , a c c o u n t e d f o r a n i n o l d i n a t e

p r o p o r t i n n o f t h e p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d .

To s a n e e x t e n t t h e p r o b l e m s o f c r a s s - c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n

were s l o w l y a l l e v i a t e d . T h e s t a n d a r d o f g r a d u a t e s f r o m s o n e o f

t h e s p c c i a l s c h o o l s i m p r o v e d c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t imc , T h a t

c o m p e t e n t t e c h n i c i a n s w e r e e m e r g i n g i s i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e f a c t

t h a t e n q i n c e r s t r a i n e d d u r i n g t h e Muhammad A l i Era p l o y c d

major r o l e s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f E g y p t ' s f i r s t r a i l w a y , i n t h e

g o v e r n o r s h i p o f h i s s u c c e s s o r Abbas, U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h 9 F o u n d e r

Page 170: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

of t h e d y n a s t y h a d only b e e n i n t e r e s t e d i n p r o g r e s s as f a r a s

i t c o n c e r n e d s t r e n g t h e n i n g h i s m i l i t a r y p o w e r , When f o r c e d

t o r e d u c e h i s a r m y t o a f r a c t i o n o f i t s f o r m e r s i z e , a f t e r t h e

S e c o n d S y r i a n War, h e P o s t i n t e r e s t i n a l l o t h e r a r eas o f

d e v o l o p r n e n t , Few o f h i s u n d e r t a k i n g s were i n o p e r a t i o n a t t h e

t ime o f h i s a b d i c a t i o n , A s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e e a r l i e r e x a m p l e o f

s u c c e s s i n c r o s s - c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n , Muhammad A l i , h a v i n g c o e r c e d

E g y p t a s i g n i f i c a n t s t e p f o r w a r d t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n -

s i t i o n , f a i l e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e c r u c i a l momentum. The l a s t i n g

e F f e c t i v e n e s s o f h i s r e f o r m s was jeopardized when h e a l l o w e d

t h e m t o r e t r o g r e s s d u r i n g t h e l a s t s i x G r s e v e n y e a r s s f h i s

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . ,. -

U n l i k e Mullanmad A3.1, I smai l was n o t e s s e n t i a l l y a m i l i - .;i ,

t a r i s t , His p r i m a r y a m b i t i o n s w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l y n o r e d i v e r s e

t h a n t h o s e o f h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , No d u u b t t h i s was p a r t l y d u e t o

h i s r e l a t i v e l y a o p h i s l i c a k . e d u p b r i n g i n g , He was t u t o r e d by

W e s t e r n e r s i n E g y p t , s t u d i e d F o r t h r r e y e a r s i n F r a n c @ a n d

t r a v e l l e d w i d e l y i n E u r o p e , OF c o u r s e Muhammad A l i e x p e r i e n c e d

n o s u c h e d u c a t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e s . He w a s c a m p l e t e l y i l l i t e r a t e

u n t i l l a t e i n l i f e , h a d w o r k e d a s a t a b a c c o m e r c h a n t i n C a v a l l a

b e f o r e j o i . n i n g t h e O t t o m a n a rmy a n d h a d n s v e r t r a v e l l e d o u t s i d e

o f t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e , I s r n a i l . , a p a r t f r o m h i s m o d e r n u p b r i n g i n g ,

was t e c h n i c a l l y m o r e s e c u r e i n h i s p o s i t i o n o f l e a d e r s h i p t h a n

Muhammad A l i h a d b e e n f o r m o s t o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Hence h e

c o u l d a f f o r d t o b e m o r e d i v e r s e i n h i s a m b i t i o n s , His b a s e o f

p o w e r was p r o t e c t , e e t e d b y i n t e r n a t i o n a l g u a r a n t e e s , s e c u r e d b y

h i s g r a n d f a t h e r a t t h e e n d o f t h e S e c o n d S y r i a n War. The f a c t

t h a t h e was t h e f i f t h msrnber o f t h e Muhammad A l i d y n a s t y t o

Page 171: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

g o v e r n E g y p t , t e s t i f i e d t o h i s p o s i t i o n o P r e l a t i t ~ e s e c u r i t y ,

T h e a r m y was j u s t o n e o f h i s l i s t o f p r i o r i t i e s ,

I s m a i l P s r e f o r m s d i d n e t s u f f e r n e a r l y a s s e v e r e l y a s

Muhan~mad Aliqs h a d d o n e f r o m a l a c k o f E ? X P G T ~ G I Y C € ? ~ a d r ~ i ~ - l i s t r a ~ b x ~

a n d s k i l l e d L a b o u r . T h i s was, o f c o u r s e , l a r g e l y d u e t o t h e

f a c t t h a t t h e r e h a d b e e n some c o n t i n u i t y o f d e v e l o p m e n t ,

t h o u g h s p a s m o d i c , b e t w e e n t h e t v ~ o z d r n i n i s t r a t i o n s , A t t h e

t ime o f h i s a c c e s s i o n I s m a i l h a d a t h i s d i s p o s a l a s m a l l g r o u p

o f s k i l l e d i n d i g e n o u s p e r s o n n e l , a s we l l a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e

n u m b e r o f s e m i - s k i l l e d w o r k e r s who h a d worked o n s u c h d e v e l o p -

m e n t a l p r o j e c t s a s r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e Susz Cana l ,

E q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t , Ismail p r u d e n t l y r e f r a i n e d f ram a t t s n p t i n g

t o e s t a b l i s h c o r n p l c x i n d u s t r i e s , w h i c h r e q u i r e d a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n

o f s k i l l e d l a b o u r , P r e s u m a b l y h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s e x p e r i e n c e i n

t h i s a r e a r e p e l l e d h im f r o m a t t e m p t i n g s u c h u n d e r t a k i n g s , T h e

s u g a r f a c t o r i e s were t h e o n l y m a j o r m a n u f a c t n s i e s h e e s t a b l i s h e d ,

T h e s e r e q u i r e d a r e l a t i v e l y l o w p r o p o r t i o n o f s k i l l e d t o u n s k i l l e d

u ~ o r k e r s .

I t h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a t d e v a l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s o u % s i d e o f

E u r o p ~ a n d N o r t h America t e n d t o p a s s t h r o u g h t h r e e d e v e l o p -

m e n t a l s t a g e s . I n i t i a l l y t h e y go f r o m a s u b s i s t e n c e t o a n

e x p o r t - o r i e n t e d e c o n o m y , a n d f r o m t h e r e t o a c o m p l e x economy.

A s u b s i s t e n c e economy o f c o u r s e i s b a c k w a r d , few b r a n c h e s p r o d u c e

a s u r p l u s a n d i n t e r n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k s a r e p o o r . On t h e

o t h e r h a n d , i n a n e x p o r t - o r i e n t e d economy o n e s e e t o r i s u s u a l l y

d e v e l a p c d f a r m o r e i n t e n s i v e l y t h a n o t h e r s f o r o v e r s e a s m a r k e t s - c o t t o n i n E g y p t ' s sass - a n d a n e t w o r k o f t r a n s p o r t , c o m m e r c i a l

and f i n a n c i a l s e r v i c e s i s e s t a b l i s h e d , p r i m a r i l y t n f a c i l i t a t e

Page 172: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

166

e x p o r t t r a d e , Mh~iLe a c o m p l e x s c o n o n y is c t ; a r a c t e r i r e d b y a

d e v e l o p e d m a n u f a c t t j r i n g s o c t o r a n d t h e u s s o r p r o g f e s s i v e

m e t h o d s i n o t i l e r a r e a s , t h o u g h p a c k e t s OF u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t may

e x i s t , 1

Muhammad-Ali e s s e n t b a l l y _ a t t e m p t e d -- . t o i n d u c r ? EgyptJ+om

s t a g e o n e , a s u b s i s t e n c e ecnr>r;rzy, t o s t a g e t h r e e a modern.

.complex -- .-- ecorrorny, I r , t h i s he r a i l e d , b u t i n s t e a d i r s i t i a h d h e r

i n t o s t a g e t v ~ o , a n a x p a r t - o r i e n t e d economy. I s m a i l d e v e l o p e d

t h i s s t a g e b y s u c h s i g n i f i c a n t u n d a r k a k i n g s a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

of m o d e r n h a r b o r ~ r f a c i l i t i e s , t h e improvsrnen 'c a n d l a r g e s c a l e

e x p a n s i o n of i n t e r n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k s , a n d t h e c u t t i n g o f

new i r r i g a t i o n a r t e r i e s , w h i c h a l l f a c i l i t a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l

e x p a n s i o n , S u c h c h a n g e s i n t u r n p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i s f o r

s u b s e q u e n t s o c i o - e c o n o m i c d e v e l n p r n e n t s , .. I s m a i l , e --.----- s 9 ~ ~ i a . d

c o n s t i t u t a s a n i m p o r t a n t l i n k i n t h c r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t r a d -

i t i o n a l s o c i e t y u n d e r t h e i m p a c t o f E u r o p e a n i n f l u e n c e s , a

p r o c e s s t c r m o d m o d e r n i z a t i o n . T h i s p r o c e s s , h o i u e v e r p a f f e c t s

a v a s t e n t a n g l o n e n t o f F a c t o r s , p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l a n d e c a n o m i c , -

I s m a i l q s p o l i c i e s h e l p e d t r i g g e r many o f t h e s e by h i s i m p r u d e n t

h a s t e a n d f i n a n c i a l c o m m i t m e n t s . I t t o o k a b e u t h a l f a c e n t u r y

a l o n e f o r E g y p t t o l i q u i d a t e t h e d c h t h e a c c u m u l a t e d , More

c o m p l i c a t e d was t h e c h a i n o f o v c n t s t r i g g e r e d o f T b y t h e d i r e c t

i n t e r v e n t i o n i n E s p p t i s n a f f a i r s by E u r o p e a n s a n d soma E u r o p s a n

powers a c t i n g o n b e h a l f o f t h e c r e d i t o r s , T h i s i n t e r v e n t i o n

' ~ h a r l e s I s s a w i , " E g y p t s i n c e 1800: A s t u d y o f l a p - s i d e d d e v e l o p m e n t , " i n T h e J o u r n a l o f E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y , X X I , No, 1 arch, 1961 ) 2-3,

Page 173: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

1 6 7

ul t i rnat ;e ly c l a s h e d w i t h t h e soc i a l . a n d p a l i t i c a l changes

a s s o c i a t e d i n Egypt w i t h the f i g u r c o f R r a b i Pasha, a n d

culminated i n t h e British o c c u p a t i o n t h a t i n t r s d u c z d a neiu

phasa in t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f Egyp t ,

Page 174: by Derek. B,A,, Columbia, 1967 - CORE · Ismail acceded to leadership in Egypt fifteen years after the abdication of his grandfather, Muharnrr~ad Ali. Though he had previously appeared

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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D i c e y , E d u a r d . S t n r y of.' t h e K h e d i v a t e , London , 1902, -.---- ---

O u r , V, E d o u a r d . -.-.-- L ' I n s t r u c t i o n p u b l i q u e e n E q y p t e , P a r i s , 1872.

D u f f - G o r d o n , Lady L, LgtLers f r o m E g p t . - London , 1902 a n d 1969, 2 e d s ,

Dye, WiLliam R c E . - Nosl.cm b p t ---- a n d C h r i s t i a n - A b y s s i n i a , New York, 1 8 8 0 ,

Fa rman , E l - b e r t E. E q y p t a n d i t s R e t r a y a l , - New York , 1908.

Garwood, A l f r e d E . F o r 9 Y c a r s o f an E n p i n e s r ' s L i f e . -. --.--..---..---- 9.- --- N e w p o r t , M o n m o u t h s h i r e , Wales, n. d .

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