bwf*sufvkyfief;pofwgif tm;vkh;yg0ifcgifh&aprnfh ... ·...
TRANSCRIPT
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 1 -
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
ျမနမာႏငငအတြက မေဘာငက ေရးဆြျခငး
ဤစာတမးသည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥတြင ျပညသမားႏင အရပဖကလမႈအဖြ႕အစညးဟေခၚေသာ သကဆင
သမား ပမပါဝငမႈက ျမႇငတငရန ကယျပန႔သည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး မဟာဗဟာတစရပ ျဖစေပၚလာေရးအတြက ကး
ေၾကာငးေဖာျပခကက တငျပထားသည။ ေလာေလာဆယတြင ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥသည ျပညေထာငစအဆင
၌ အေရးႀကးဆး ျဖစေနသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစေသာ ဘတဂကေရးဆြျခငးဟ မားေသာအားျဖင ၫႊနးဆၾကသည
အဆပါ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈသည ျပညေထာငစအဆငေအာက အစးရမားအား ဝငေငြ ပမေကာကခႏငရနႏင အသးစရတ
ပမသးစြခြငရရန အခြငအာဏာ ပမအပႏငးေပးမည ဗဟထနးခပမႈ ေလာခေရးလပငနးစဥကလညး အေထာကအကျပ
ႏငေပသည။ ယခမတဆကစာတမးသည ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကးအဆင ႏစမးစလးတြင
ယငးကသ႔ ေျပာငးလမႈမားက လမးၫႊနႏငရန ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈႏင မဝါဒစညးမဥးမားက တငသြငးလာမႈအား ရငးလငး
တငျပထားသည။ ထ႔အျပင လာမည ျပညေထာငစဘတဂကအတြက ကနဦး ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး အခြငအလမးအခ႕က
လညး အႀကျပထားပါသည။ ယခစာတမးမ ေဆြးေႏြးခကမားသည ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင ေအာကအဆင ႏစမးစလး
အတြက လာမည ဘတဂကႏစအလြန မဟာဗဟာခမတႏငရန ႏႈငးယဥေလလာရာတြင အသးျပမည ကယျပန႔ေသာ
ေဆြးေႏြးမႈစာတမးက လမးၫႊနရာတြငလညး အသးျပမည ျဖစသည။
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 2 -
The Renaissance Institute သည ျမနမာစးပြားေရးျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈက အေထာကအကေပးရန အဓကရညရြယေသာ
ပညာရငအဖြ႕ ျဖစသည။ အဖြ႕သည ျမနမာစးပြားေရး ပမသနစြမးလာေရးက အဓကအာရထားကာ မဝါဒခမတရာတြင
အေထာကအကျပေစရန ဆနးစစေလ႔လာမႈမားေပးလကရၿပး အစးရ၏ စြမးရညတညေဆာကေရးလပငနးစဥက ကည
ေဆာငရြကလကရသညအျပင၊ အစးရႏင အျခားသကဆငသမားအၾကား ဆကသြယေဆာငရြကမႈ လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေစ
ရနတ႔ကလညး ေဆာငရြကလက ရပါသည။ အထးသျဖင Renaissance Institute သည လကရအစးရ၏ ဦးစားေပး မဝါဒ
မားျဖစေသာ ဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရးႏင ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ခြမႈ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးတ႔က
ပ႔ပးကညလက ရသည။
aus;Zl;wifvTm
ယခစာတမးက ေရးသားေနစဥႏင ျပငဆငေနစဥအတြငး စာတမးက မားစြာအေထာကအကျပသည ထငျမငခကမားေပး
ခေသာ Asia Foundation မ Dr. Matthew Arnold ႏင႔ Bing Bonoan ၊ Duke University မ ပါေမာကၡ Robert Conrad ၊
International Budget Partnership မ Joel Friedman ႏင႔ Vicek Ramkumar ၊ Boise State University မ
ပါေမာကၡ Brain Wampler ၊ International Growth Center မ Sudhanshu Sharma ႏင Ian Porter တ႔အားလးက
ေကးဇးတငရပါသည။ ထ႔အျပင Renaissance Institute မ အထးသျဖင ဤသေတသနအတြက လမးၫႊနမႈေပးခေသာ
ဦးမးျမငႏင ဦးစးဝငးတ႔ကလညး ေကးဇးတငရပါသည။ ကြနေတာတ႔၏ အႀကဥာဏမားအား ပေဖာ၍အေခာကငရာတြင
အားလး၏ ပါဝငကညမႈသည အလြနတနဘးရၿပး စာတမးတြင အမားအယြငးပါရလာပါက ကြနေတာတ႔၏ တာဝနသာ
ျဖစသည။
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 3 -
ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥက ပမခငမာေစရန အားလးပါဝငမႈရေသာ နညးစနစက အသးျပျခငးသည ဒမကေရစ ေဖာေဆာင
ျခငးႏင ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကျခငးတ႔၏ ဆမတတြင ရေသာ မဝါဒျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး နညးလမးတစခ ျဖစသည။ မနကနတကစြာ
ဖြ႕စညးတညေဆာကပါက အားလးပါဝငမႈရေစေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈသည အထကေဖာျပပါ အေျပာငးအလလပငနးစဥ
ႏစခစလးက လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေစႏငသည။ အစးရအလစမားသာ အစဥအလာသဖြယ လပေဆာငခေသာ ဘတဂကေရးဆြ
ျခငးလပငနးစဥတြင ႏငငသားမားႏင အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးတ႔ တကကြစြာ ပါဝငလပေဆာငျခငးအားျဖင ျပျပငေျပာငး
လမႈက ေအာငျမငေစႏငသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင အပခပမႈအဆငတငးတြင အစးရ၏ ဆးျဖတခကမားက ပေဖာမည အခြင
အလမးက လထထ ေပးအပရမည။ ယငးကသ႔ ႏငငသားမားထ အခြငအာဏာအပႏငးမႈသည အစးရအေပၚ ယၾကညမႈတး
ေစျခငး၊ အရပဖကအသငးအဝငးက အားေကာငးေစျခငးႏင ျပညသမားမ တငးေရးျပညေရးတြင တကၾကြစြာ ပါ0ငေဆာင
ရြကသည အေလအထက ျပနလညႏႈးၾကားလာေစျခငးတ႔က ျဖစေပၚေစႏငၿပး ၎အခကအားလးသည ဒမကေရစ ေဖာ
ေဆာငေရးတြင မရမျဖစဟ ႏငငေရးအယအဆပညာရငမားက ဆေလသည။ အဆပါ လပငနးစဥမားသည ႏငငေရး
ေျပာငးလမႈက အားေပးရသာမကပ ဖြ႕ၿဖးမႈကပါ လႊမးမးျဖစေပၚေစႏငသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနး
စဥသည တာဝနယမႈ စနစသစမားျဖင အစးရအငစတကးရငးမားက အားေကာငးေစရန၊ လကရဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ ဗဟ
ခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရးလပငနးစဥက လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေစရန၊ အမနတကယ လအပေနေသာ စမကနးမားသ႔ အစးရ ရနပ
ေငြမား တကရကေရာကရေအာင စြမးေဆာငႏငေပသည။ ေရရညတညတၿပး အားလးအတြက သာတညမ အခြငအေရး
ရရေစေသာ စးပြားေရး ဖြ႕ၿဖးမႈက အားေပးျမႇငတငရန အဆပါ အငစတကးရငးဆငရာ ေျပာငးလမႈမား မရမျဖစ လအပ
သညဟ ႏငငေရး ေဘာဂေဗဒပညာ ရငမားက ယၾကညသည။
အားလးပါဝငမႈရေစသည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥသည အရာရာေျပလညသြားေစမည ေဆးတစခြက မဟတပါ။
၎သည ႏငငေရးႏင စးပြားေရး စဥဆကမျပတ ေျပာငးလမႈက ျဖစေပၚလာေစသည အျပသေဘာ တန႔ျပနမႈမား အဆင
ဆငျဖစေပၚေျပာငးလေစသည လပငနးစဥက လကေတြ႕ေဖာေဆာငေပးႏငမည ကယျပန႔ေသာ မဝါဒအစအေဝးမားထမ
1 See, for example, Fukuyama, Trust, 1995 and Putnam, Making Democracy Work, 1993. ႏစမးစလးသည ေအာငျမငေသာ လမႈ-
ႏငငေရးႏင႔ စးပြားေရးလပေဆာငမႈမားအတြက ယၾကညမႈႏင႔ လ႔ယဥေကးမႈကသ႔ေသာ မရမျဖစ လအဖြ႕အစညးဆငရာ လကၡဏာမားအတြက ျငငး
ခကထတမႈမား ထြကေပၚေစသည။ 2 See, for example, North, Structure and Change in Economic History, 1981 and Kuran, The Long Divergence, 2010. ႏစမးစလးသည
စးပြားေရးဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကမႈက ထနးထားႏငသည ႏငငေရးႏင႔ စးပြားေရးအငစတကးရငးမား၏ အမးမးေသာ သြငျပငလကၡဏာမားအတြက ျငငးခက
ထတမႈမား ျဖစေပၚေစသည။ 3 Jason Lakin and Mokeira Nyagaka., “Deliberating Budgets: How Public Deliberation Can Move Us Beyond The Public
Participation Rhetoric.” 2016, 1.
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 4 -
အစတအပငးငယတစခသာ ျဖစသည။ ေဖာျပပါ အျပသေဘာေဆာငသည အကးသကေရာကမႈမား ရေစကာမ အားလး
ပါဝငမႈရေစသည လပငနးစဥမားသည လတစစ၏ အကးအတြက ထနးခပမႈ ခရျခငး သ႔မဟတ အငစတကးရငးဆငရာ
ဖြ႕ၿဖးမႈ အလးစရပတန႔ေနမႈအတြက အေပၚယဟနျပမဝါဒ ေျပာငးလမႈ ျဖစလာႏငသညက သတျပရေပမည။ ေအာငျမငမႈ
ရရရနအတြက အေျခအေနအားလးႏင သငေတာေသာ တစခတညးေသာ နညးလမးဆၿပး မရပါ။ ယငးအစား ရငးလငးေသာ
စနစမားႏင တညဆအငစတကးရငးမား၏ စြမးေဆာငရညႏင ကကညမႈရၿပး ျမနမာႏငင၏ အေျခအေနမားက ေသခာ
စဥးစားထားသည စမခကမားသည အားလးပါ0ငမႈရေစသည ဘတဂက လပငနးစဥ ေအာငျမငမႈရရေရး အတြက
အလြနအေရးႀကးပါသည။
အားလးပါဝငမႈရေစသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈအတြက အခြငအလမးႏင စနေခၚမႈ ႏစမးစလးရေနသညအခနတြင Renaissance
Institute သည ျမနမာႏငငႏင ကကညေသာ ပစရရေရးအတြက ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမားက အားေပးရန ယခ မတဆကစာတမးက
ထတေဝချခငး ျဖစပါသည။ ျမနမာႏငင၏ ကယျပန႔ေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအစအစဥက လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေစၿပး အားလး
ပါဝငမႈရေစသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးကလညး ျဖစေစမည ပစျဖစသည။ ဤပထမစာတမးသည “အားလးပါဝငမႈရေစ
သည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ” ဆတာ ဘာလ။ ဘယလ အခြငအလမးေတြ ေပးသလ။ ဘယလစနေခၚမႈေတြ ရမလ” စသည
တ႔က နားလညသေဘာေပါကႏငရန အေျခခမားက ချပထားသည။ ထ႔ေနာကတြင ျမနမာႏငငအတြက အားလးပါဝငခြင
ရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး မဟာဗဟာေရးဆြရာမာ အေထာကအကျဖစေစမည လမးၫႊနမမားက အဆျပသြားမည
ျဖစသည။ ထ႔အျပင လာမည ဘတဂကအတြက ခကျခငးစဥးစားထညသြငးႏငမည ရးရငးေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး
အတြက ေရြးခယစရာနညးလမးမားက ထမမားႏငအည အႀကျပသြားဦးမည ျဖစသည။ ဆကလကတငျပေဆြးေႏြးမည
စာတမးတြင ျမနမာႏငငအတြက ပမ၍ ျပညစစြာ ပါဝငသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး မဟာဗဟာက ေလလာတငျပမည ျဖစပါ
သည။ အထးသျဖင ဆကလကေဆြးေႏြးတငျပမည စာတမးတြင ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင တငးေဒသႀကးႏင ျပညနယ
အဆင စမအပခပမႈ ႏစမးစလးအတြက ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး နညးလမးအမးမးက ေလလာရနအတြက အျခားတငးျပည
မားမ သငခနးစာမားႏင ယခစာတမးပါ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး လမးၫႊနစညးမဥးမားက အသးျပေဆြးေႏြးသြားမည ျဖစပါသည။
အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥအတြက အထကမ ေအာကသ႔ သြားေသာ ျပညေထာငစအဆင၏ ျပျပင
ေျပာငးလမႈႏင ေအာကေျခမ အထကသ႔ သြားေသာ ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကးမားအဆင၏ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈ နညးလမး
မားသည အလယတြင လာဆႏငေသာေၾကာင ဒမကေရစနညးလမးကေသာ ဖြ႕ၿဖးေဖာေဆာငေရးအတြက ကယျပန႔ေသာ
မဟာဗဟာမား ခမတရာတြင အေထာကအကျဖစေစျခငး၊ အစးရအေပၚ ယၾကညမႈ တးေစျခငး၊ ျပညသ႔က႑တြင ပမ
တာဝနယမႈက ျမႇငတငျခငးတ႔က ျဖစေပၚေစႏငသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥသည အရာ
အားလးက မၿပးေျမာကေစႏငေသာလညး ရငးလငးေသာ စညးမဥးမားျဖင မနကနစြာ ေရးဆြခပါက ဒမကေရစ ေဖာေဆာင
ေရး၊ ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရး၊ ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကေရး စေသာ ကယျပန႔သည ရညမနးခကမားအတြက အတငးအတာတစခ
ထ အလြနအေရးႀကးေသာ ေျခလမးတစခ ျဖစလာႏငသည။
tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aponfh bwf*sufvkyfief;pOf qkdwm bmvJ
အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥဆ သညမာ “အမားပငရငးျမစမားက ခြေဝျခငးႏင ပတသက၍ ႏငငသား
မားက ပါဝင၍ ညႇႏႈငးေဆာငရြကၿပး ဆးျဖတခကခမတသည လပငနးစဥ” ဟ ကမာၻ႔ဘဏက အဓပၸါယဖြငဆသည။ ဤ
လပငနးစဥသည အစးရ၏ ဝငေငြရာေဖြျခငးႏင အသးစရတ ႏစမးစလး အတြက ဆးျဖတခကမား ပါဝငေသာ ႏစစဥ
4 Brian Wampler, Participatory Budgeting, World Bank: Public Sector Governance and Accountability Series, 2007, 21.
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 5 -
ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရး လပငနးစဥႏင အဆေလာဆး
ျဖစသည။ ျမနမာႏငငသည တငပငႏးေႏာ၍ မဝါဒခ
မတသည အေတြ႕အႀကမရသေလာက နညးပါးေသာ
ေၾကာင အစးရ၏ ေရြးခယမႈမားအေပၚ နငငသား
မား ပါဝငညႇႏႈငးေဆာငရြကရန လမးေၾကာငးသစမား
ျဖညဆညးေပးမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရး လပငနးစဥ
တြင သကဆငသမား ပမပါဝငရန နညးလမးမားစြာ
ရေပသည။ ထ႔အျပင ျမနမာႏငငတြင လကရလပ
ေဆာငေနေသာ ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရး လပငနး
စဥမားေၾကာင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည လပငနးစဥ
မားသည အစးရ၏ အဆငအမးမးတြင ဖြ႕ၿဖးလာႏင
သည။
အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ ဟ
ဆလင အမားအားျဖင႔ ဘရာဇးႏငင Porto Alegre
တြင ပထမဆး ကငသးခေသာ ပစႏင ဆကစပၿပး
နားလညေလရသည။ ယခအခါ ကမာၻတစလႊား ျမန
စပယနယေျမမားတြင အသးျပေနေသာ ၎လပငနး
စဥတြင ဘ႑ာေငြသးစြေသာ စမကနးမား၊ အထးသ
ျဖင အမားျပညသအတြက တညေဆာကေရးလပငနး
မားတြင သးစြမႈမားအတြက ႏငငသားမားက အၾက
ဥာဏေပးျခငးႏင တကရကမေပးျခငးတ႔က ျပလပႏင
ၾကသည။ ျမနမာႏငငတြင လကရအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏
စြမးေဆာငရညေပၚ မတည၍ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး
ရညမနးခကမားက ေကာငးစြာ လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေစ
ႏငသည အျခားေရြးခယစရာ နညးလမးမားစြာရေပ
သည။ ကနဦးပငးအဆငမားမာမ အစးရက ဘတဂက
ဆငရာ အခကအလကမားက လထသ႔ ပမထတ
ျပနေပးျခငး၊ ႏငငသားမား ပါဝငလႈပရားရန တကတက
ကြကြအားေပးျခငး စသညျဖင ရးရငးလြယကမႈ ရ
သည။
သ႔ေသာ ရႈပေထြးသည ေျပာငးလမႈ မနသမ ေဆာင
ရြကဖ႔ရန အေျခခေကာငးမား လအပသည။ ဥပမာ
အားျဖင လထပမပါဝငႏငေရးက လထအေနႏင
ျမနမာႏငင၏ လကရ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥက တနဖးျဖတျခငး
ပြငလငးဘတဂကစစတမး ေပးမတ
ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ
၂/၁00
လထပါဝငမႈ
၆/၁00
လႊတေတာ၏ ႀကးၾကပမႈ
၂၇/၁00
စာရငးစစႀကးၾကပမႈ
၂၅/၁00
Renaissance Institute ၏ မတခကမား
ယခငက ျမနမာႏငငသည ဘတဂက
လပငနးစဥ၏ လကၡဏာမနသမႏင
ပတသကသည အခကအလကမားက
ရဖနရခါသာ အသေပးချပတတသည။
အစးရအေနႏင ဘ႑ာေရးစမခန႔ခြမႈ
မဟာဗဟာမားက အစးရမဟတေသာ
သကဆငသမားအား ရငးျပရန အဖြ႕အစညး
ဆငရာ လပငနးစဥ အနညးငယသာရသည။
ဘတဂကေရးဆြသည လပငနးစဥတြင
လထပါဝငရန အခြငအလမးမရသေလာကပင
ျဖစသည။ လထပါဝငမႈက အားမေပးေသာ
ကာလရညၾကာစြာ ရေနသည ဓေလေၾကာင
ျဖစသည။ ၂ဝ၁၅ UNDP စစတမးအရ
ျပညသသးပတစပ နးပါးက အစးရႏင
ပတသကသည ထငျမငခကက ေျပာရာတြင
သတထားရသညဟ ေျပာၾကားခၾကၿပး
ျပညသေလးပတစပက ၎တ႔၏ အျမငက
လသရငၾကားထတေျပာရန လြတလပခြငမရဟ
ယဆေၾကာငး ေျပာၾကားခသည။
ျမနမာႏငငတြင လႊတေတာဆငရာ ျပျပငေျပာငး
လမႈမားက ျပလပေနၿပ ျဖစသည။ လႊတေတာ
မားအတြက ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥသည အသစ
အဆနးျဖစေသာေၾကာင ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင
ေအာကအဆင လႊတေတာႏစမးစလးအား သင
တနးေပးျခငးသည အေရးႀကးေသာ တာထြက
မတ ျဖစသည။ လႊတေတာမား ဘတဂကက
ေကာငးစြာ ကြမးကငႏ႔စပလာလင လထထမ
ျပနလာေသာ ထငျမငခကမားက ထငဟပေၿပာ
ၾကားလာႏငမည ျဖစသည။
စာရငးစစခပရး၏ စြမးေဆာငရညက တည
ေဆာကေနၿပ ျဖစရာ ၎တ႔၏ အလပတြင လထ
ပါဝငႏငမည ကြျပားေသာ စနစမားလညး ရလာ
မည ျဖစသည။ အျခားႏငငမားစြာသညလညး
တာဝနယမႈႏင ေကာငးမြနေသာ အပခပမႈက
ျမႇငတငရနအတြက အေရးႀကးသည ၎ကစၥ
အတြက မတညေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက
မၾကာေသးမက ေရ႕ေျပးစမးသပခၾကသည။
5 Alta Fölscher, Participatory Budgeting, World Bank: Public Sector Governance and Accountability Series, 183.
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 6 -
အထကအေလာက လလလားလားရမႈႏင ႏငငေရးလပငနးစဥတြင ပါဝငလႈပရားႏငမႈ၏ ထေရာကမႈကလညး လထ
အၾကားယၾကညမႈတ႔ ရရမည။ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမားႏင အစရအဖြ႕အစညးမားအေနႏငလညး ယငးသ႔ ကယကယ
ျပန႔ျပန႔ပါဝငမႈက လလလားလားရရမညအျပင လြြယကေအာင ျပလပေပးႏငရမည။ ထသ႔ လပေဆာငရနအတြက လထ
အေနႏင အေျခခဘတဂကဆငရာ အခကအလကမား ရရႏငမႈ၊ ဘတဂကႀကးၾကပရာတြင ၎တ႔ ေဘးကငးစြာ ပါဝငႏင
မည ဝနးကငအေျခအေန၊ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ၏ အေျခခဗဟသတတ႔က ဦးစြာ လကလမးမရန လအပသည။ ၎တ႔
သည အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥမနသမ (ျပညစမႈမရသည တငေအာင) ေအာငျမငႏငရနအတြက
အရငဦးစြာ တညေဆာကထားရမည အေျခခမား ျဖစသည။ တစခနထတြင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည လပငနးစဥမား
သည အစးရအဖြ႕အစညးမား၊ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးႏင လထယၾကညမႈတ႔က အားျဖညေပးႏငေသာလညး ဗလာနတ
အေျခအေနမးမ စတငေဆာငရြကဖ႔ မျဖစႏငပါ။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားအေနႏင ၎တ႔၏
ရညမနးခကမား ေအာငျမငမႈရရနအတြက အေျခခအေဆာကအဦးရၿပးသား ျဖစရမည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ျပျပင
ေျပာငးလမႈမားသည ႏငငေရးႏင စးပြားေရး ေျပာငးလမႈအေပၚ အကးအေၾကာငး အျပနအလနသကေရာကမႈက အရန
ျမႇငေပးႏငေသာလညး ယငးတ႔ သးသန႔ရေနယျဖင႔ ယၾကညမႈႏင အဖြ႕အစညးဆငရာ စြမးေဆာငရညကမ တညေဆာက
မေပးႏငေၾကာငး အတတက အေတြ႕အႀကမားက ၫႊနျပေနသည။ ေအာငျမငမႈရသည အခါတြငမ ေနာကတဆင တကႏင
ရန ျငမးသဖြယ အဆငသစတစခက ထပတးေပးႏငသည။
ပြငလငးဘတဂကစစတမးမ ရလာဒမားက ေဖာျပထားေသာ ဇယားတြင ေတြ႕ရသညအတငး ျမနမာႏငငတြင အေျခခ
အတျမစ သသသာသာအားနညးမႈေၾကာင ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥတြင ပါဝငလာေရးအတြက စနစမား အေကာငထညေဖာ
ရန အခနတစခေပးရမည ျဖစသည။ ခပေသးေသးျဖင စတငကာ အငစတကးရငးမား ပမအားေကာငးလာကာ၊ ယၾကညမႈ
ေၾကာင ပါဝငခြင႔ရရန ပမေတာငးဆလာသညႏင႔အမ တစျဖညးျဖညး ႀကးထြားလာမည ျဖစသည။ အခကအလက မေဝ
ျခငး၊ ပါဝငလႈပရားရန ေဘးကငးေသာ ပတဝနးကငႏင အေျခခဘတဂက ဗဟသတျဖန႔ေဝျခငးကသ႔ေသာ ကနဥး
အေသးစားအဆငမားသည ေနာကပငးတြင ပမရႈပေထြးေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားအတြက အေျခခအတျမစက
တညေဆာကေပးႏငေပသည။ တစႀကမတညးျဖင ႀကးႀကးမားမား ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈႀကးတစခက ေဆာငရြကလပကငျခငး
ထက ဘတဂတ ဆးျဖတခကခမတေသာ လပငနးစဥတြင ပါဝငလာမည သကဆငသ အသစမားက မနမနကနကနႏင႔
ရးသားစြာ ခတဆကေပးႏငမည အဓပၸါယျပည0ေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈ အနညးငယက ေဇာကခေဆာငရြကျခငးသည
ပမ အေရးႀကးပါသည။
ထကသ႔ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥအတြက စနစမားက ခမတရာတြင အားလးပါဝငေစမည နညး
စနစမားက ကညပပးမည လကရအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏ အေျခအေနက နားလညသေဘာေပါကဖ႔လညး လသည။ ကယျပန႔
လြနးေသာ၊ သကေရာကမႈႀကးေသာ၊ ျမနဆနလြနးေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားသည ေနာကဆးတြင ဆန႔ကငဖက ရလဒ
က ျဖစေပၚေစႏငသည။ သ႔ျဖစရာ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ၏ လမးၫႊနေျမပသည ပထမဆး
ကင႔သးသည စနစမား စမခန႔ခြရလြယကမႈရေစရန ဂရျပသင႔သည။ သ႔မသာ အရညအေသြးျမငၿပး၊ စစမနေသာ ပါဝငမႈ
ရႏငမည ျဖစသည။
ဥပမာအားျဖင ကငညာႏငင၏ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥတြင အားလးပါဝငလာမႈက ျမႇငတငရနအားထတမႈသည ေလးနက
မႈမရပ ဟနျပသေဘာျဖစေသာေၾကာင ျမနမာႏငငအေနျဖင႔ ေရာငရားရမည နမနာျဖစသည။ ၎တ႔၏ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈ
မားသည ဥပေဒတြင ျပဌာနးထားေသာလညး အမနတကယတြင ပမပါဝငလာမႈက ေဖာေဆာငမေပးႏငခ႔ေပ။ ကငညာ
ႏငင၏ ျဖစရပသည အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည လပငနးစဥမားက စတငရာ၌ အခကအခမားရေၾကာငး ျပသေနသည။
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 7 -
အားလပါဝငခြငရေစမႈက တြနးအားေပးသည ဥပေဒ မေဘာငႏင ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥတြင ႏငငသားမား၏ အဓပၸါယ
ရေသာ ထညဝငမႈတ႔အၾကား အခတအဆက ျပတေတာကေနသညက ေလလာဆနးစစသညအခါ စစမနသည တငပင
ႏးေနာလပေဆာငေသာ လပငနးစဥမားက ဖနတးဖ႔ရန လအပေၾကာငး ေတြ႕ရရသည။ ဤအခကသည အေရးမႀကး
ေလာကပါဟ၍ ယဆႏငေသာလညး၊ ခမတလကေသာ ဘတဂတ ဆးျဖတခကမားအတြက ေပးေသာ အေၾကာငးျပခက
မားႏင႔ ပတသက၍ အေၾကာငးရငးမား၏ အရညအေသြးႏင ဂရတစစကလပေဆာငမႈ အတငးအတာတ႔က အေရးႀကး
ေၾကာငး ျပသလက ရသည။ ေသးငယၿပး ေျခႏငလကႏင ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားျဖင စတငျခငးသည ဂရတစက ေဆာငရြက
ႏငမႈက ေသခာေစသညအျပင ျမနမာႏငငတြင ရရငးစြ အေျခခအတျမစအားနညးမႈေၾကာင အနာဂါတတြင အားလးပါဝင
ခြင႔ရေစမည ျပညစေသာ စနစမား ဖြ႕ၿဖးလာရနအတြက မနကနေသာ စတငမႈ ျဖစပါလမမည။
tmvkH;yg0ifcGifh&aponfh bwf*sufa&;qGJa&;vkyfief;pOftwGuf rlrsm; - jrefrmEkdifiH\ jyKjyifajymif;vJa&; tpDtpOf
အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥႏင ပတသက၍ ႏငငအမးမးတြင နညးလမးမား လြနစြာ
စလငကြျပားမႈရေသာလညး ေအာငျမငမႈရသည စနစမားက ဖနတးရာတြငမ တစသမတတညး တညေသာ ပစတစခ
ရသည။ ဘတဂကေရးဆြျခငးအတြက အလရေသာ ရလဒက ေဖာေဆာငေပးႏငသည႔ စနစမားက ေလလာၿပး သတခ
လကရင ရးရငးေသာ အဆငႏစဆငပါဝငသည ပစကေတြ႔ရပါလမ႔မည -
အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥက စတဝငစားေသာ အစးရမားႏင အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမား
သည စနစကေသာ လပငနးစဥ ေလလာမႈႏင အေကာငအထညေဖၚမႈက ေကာငးစြာ ေနရာခထားရမည။ ပထမ
အဆငတြင မညသညမမားက ၎တ႔၏ ဘရညမနးခကမားႏင အကကညဆးျဖစမညက နားလညသေဘာ
ေပါကရန ႀကးစားျခငးႏငအတ မမားက ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ ေဆြးေႏြးမႈအစအစဥ ပါဝငသည။ ဒတယအဆငတြင
ေဒသဆငရာ စနေခၚမႈမား၊ လအပခကမား၊ ရညမနးခကမားက လကရဥပေဒစညးမဥးမားႏင႔ အဝငမႈရေအာင
လပေဆာငမႈမားပါဝငသည။
ယခေလလာဆနးစစမႈ၏ ကနရေသာ အပငးသည အထကေဖာျပလပငနးစဥ၏ ပထမအဆငက ၿပးစးေအာင ကညလမ႔
မည ျဖစသည။ ဤအတြက ၿမနမာႏငင၏ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥက မညသည အေျခခ
မမားက လမးၫႊနေပးသငသနညးဆသညက စဥးစားရေပမည။ ထ႔အျပင မညမကယျပန႔သည ေျပာငးလမႈမားက ၎
ျဖစစဥအား လြယကေခာေမာေစမညနညးကလညး စဥးစားရမည။ ေနာကလာမည ေဆြးေႏြးမႈစာတမးတြင ဦးတညခက
ေျပာငးလကာ ျမနမာႏငင၏ လကရအပခပမႈစနစအတြငး လႊမးမးေနေသာ မမားက တးတကေစႏငမည အငစတကးရငး
ဆငရာ ဖြ႕စညးပမားက ေလလာသြားမည ျဖစသည။
အစးရက မၾကာေသးမက ထတျပနေသာ စးပြားေရးျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး အစအစဥသည ထသ႔ေသာ လမးျပအေျခခမမား
က ေဆြးေႏြးရနအတြက အေထာကအကျပျဖစေပသည။ အစးရအေနၿဖင႔ ႏငငေတာစးပြားေရးမ0ါဒ၏ ပထမ ေဒါကတင
အား အေကာငထညေဖာလကရရာ အားလး ပါဝငခြငရေစေသာ ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥသည အစးရအတြက
ယငးမဝါဒသေဘာအေလာက လပေဆာငရန ျဖစလာသည ေနာကထပေျခလမးတစခပင ျဖစသည။ ႏငငေတာစးပြားေရး
မဝါဒ၏ ပထမဆးအခကတြင “ပြငလငးျမငသာၿပး ေကာငးမြနေတာငတငးသည ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာေရး စမခန႔ခြမႈစနစျဖင႔
6 Lakin and Nyagaka, “Deliberating Budgets,” 17.7 Brian Wampler, “Participatory Budgeting: Core principles and Key Impacts,” Journal of Public Deliberation, 2.
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 8 -
မတဆင ဘ႑ာေရးအရငးအၿမစမား တးတကပြားမားလာေအာင ေဆာငရြကရန” ဆၿပး တကတြနးထားသည။ ျမနမာ
ႏငငတြင ႏငငေရး အသြင ကးေျပာငးမႈ စတငၿပးေနာကပငး အခနတ အတြငး ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကးအဆင ျပညသ႔
ဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ ခြမႈအတြက စြမးေဆာငရညတညေဆာကျခငးအပါအဝင ၎လပငနးစဥစတငရန အဆငမားက လပ
ေဆာငႏငၿပးသား ျဖစသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥသည အဆပါစြမးေဆာငရညတညေဆာက
မႈက ထငသာျမငသာသည႔ေျခလမးအျဖစ အသြငေျပာငးရန ကညႏငေပသည။ ထေျခလမးက မၾကာမက အာဏာ ေျဖေလာ
ေပးကာ လပပငခြင႔အာဏာတးေပးခ႔ေသာ အစးရအလႊာအမးမးအား ၎တ႔နယေျမအတြငး ေနထငသမားအေပၚ ပမ
တာဝနယေစလမမည။ ထ႔အျပင ထြကေပၚလာေသာ ေအာကအဆငအစးရမား မညမအေရးပါသညကလညး ေပၚလြင
ေစလမ႔မည။ ယငးသ႔ လပေဆာငရာတြင အစးရႏင ႏငငသားမားအၾကား ပမတရားဝငေသာ၊ စတခရေသာ မၾကာခဏ
ဆကသြယေဆာငရြကမႈက ျဖညဆညးေပးမည အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစသည လမးေၾကာငးမားက ဖနတးျခငးျဖင လပေဆာင
သည။ သ႔ရာတြင ၎မတငမ အစးရ၏ ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာေငြ စမခန႔ခြမႈက ပမႀကးၾကပႏငေစမည ပထမဆးအဆငအေနျဖင႔
မရမျဖစ လအပေသာ အစးရ၏ ဘတဂကလပထးလပနညး အေျခခအခကအလကမားက ျဖန႔ ျဖးျခငးအားျဖင အစးရ
ႏင လထအၾကား အခကအလကမကကညမႈက အဆးသတရမည ျဖစသည။ ဤအဆငမားသည တစႏငငလး ျပညသ႔
ဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ခြမႈ အားေကာငးခငမာေရးတြင အဓကအပငးတစချဖစေသာ လကရ ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရးလပငနး
စဥတြင ဆးျဖတခကခမတမႈႏင တာဝနခမႈ ႏစမးစလးအတြက တရားဝငမႈႏင ခငမာမႈတ႔က ေပးႏငသည။
“ အစးရက မၾကာေသးမက ထတျပနေသာ စးပြားေရးျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး အစအစဥသည ထသ႔ေသာ လမးျပအေျခခမမားက ေဆြးေႏြးရနအတြက
အေထာကအကျပျဖစေပသည။ ”
ထ႔အျပင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥသည လကရစးပြားေရးမဝါဒ၏ ဒတယေဒါကတငက ကည
ျဖညဆညးေပးသည။ မဝါဒမာ “ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကးအားလး၏ ဟနခကညေသာ ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကမႈအတြက စးပြား
ေရးအခြငအလမးမား ဖနတးေရး” ျဖစသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစသည လပငနးစဥမားသည အသငးအဝငးတြင အေရး
တႀကး အလအပဆးဟ ရႈျမငၾကသည စးပြားေရး အခြငအလမးမားက ဦးစားေပးရနႏင လထႏင ဆငေသာ ဖြ႕ၿဖးေရး
ရညမနးခကမားက ကညသတမတရနအတြက ႏငငသားမားႏင ၎တ႔၏ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးကယစားလယမားက
လပပငခြငမား ေပးႏငသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင အားလးပါဝငလာေစႏငမႈအတြက ျပညေထာငစအဆငေအာက ဖရမမားသည
ႏငငသားမား၊ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးႏင ၎တ႔၏ ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကးအစးရမားအၾကား ဆကသြယႏငသည
တရားဝငေနရာမား ျဖစေစႏငသည။
ႏငငသားမားအား ၎တ႔၏ ျပညနယမား၊ တငးေဒသႀကးမားႏင ရပရြာမားအတြငး ၎တ႔ႏငဆငသည ဖြ႕ၿဖးေရး ဦးစား
ေပးကစၥမားက ပေဖာရန အခြငအေရးေပးျခငးသည ဒမကေရစေဖာေဆာငေရးလပငနးစဥက ဆကလက တရားဝငေအာင
လပေဆာငေပးႏငသည။ ၎သည ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကေရး အခြငအလမးမားက ဒမကေရစလပငနးစဥမားမ ထြကေပၚလာ
ေသာ လအပခကမားႏင အဝငေအာင ညႇေပးသည။ အဆးစြနအားျဖင ဤသဟဇာတျဖစမႈသည အစးရအား ယၾကညမႈ
8 ျပညေထာငစသမၼတ ျမနမာႏငငေတာ၊ အမးသားစးပြားေရးမဝါဒ၊ ၂ဝ၁၆ ဇလငလ ၂၉ ရက။9 ၄ငး
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 9 -
တညေဆာကေပးျခငးျဖင တငးျပည၏ အမးသား ျပနလညသငျမတမႈ လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေအာင ေသးငယေသာ အစတ
အပငးမ ပါဝငႏငသည။ အထးသျဖင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥသည သမငးေၾကာငးအရ ေျပာေရး
ဆခြငမရေသာ ခြျခားဆကဆခရေသာ လနညးစမားပါဝငေရးက ဦးတညျခငးေၾကာင ျဖစသည။ ယငးလပေဆာငမႈသည
စဥဆကမျပတ ျပနလညသငျမတမႈ၏ အဓကအစတအပငးျဖစသည တရားဝငလပငနးစဥမားမတဆင အစးရ ဆးျဖတ
ခကမားထသ႔ ရႈေဒါငအျမငမား ပမပါဝငေစသည မရမျဖစ လပငနးစဥမားစြာအနကမ ေသးငယေသာ အဆငတစခ ျဖစ
သည။
အစးရ၏ စးပြားေရး ဦးစားေပးအစအစဥမားတြင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးႏငဆငသည မမား ခမတ
ျခငး သည ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရး၊ ဖြ႔ၿဖးတးတကေရး၊ ဒမကေရစေဖာေဆာငေရး ရညမနးခကမားတြင အဆပါျပျပင
ေျပာငးလမႈမားက မညသ႔ ပါဝငကညႏငမညက ေဖာျပေပးျခငး ျဖစသည။ ထ႔အျပင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငး
လမႈမားက အသးျပ၍ အစးရ၏ စးပြားေရးဥးစားေပးမားက အေကာငအထညေဖာမႈအေပၚ အမားျပညသထမ ျပနလာေသာ
ထငျမငခကမားသည ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကမႈက ဒမကေရစ နညးကေစရန ကညေပးၿပး လကရလပေဆာငေနေသာ ဗဟခပ
ကငမႈ ေလာခေရးလပငနးစဥက ဆကလက၍ တရားဝငေစျခငးအားျဖင ပမႀကးမားေသာ အပငးက အေထာကအကျပမည
ျဖစသည။
zdvpfykdif - tajccHrlrsm;ukd r[mAsL[mwpfckjzpfvmatmif tokH;csjcif;
အျငငးပြားဖြယရေသာ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥတြင အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမား၏ အျပညစဆးဟဆရမည ပစ
သည ဖလစပငတြင ၂0၁0 မ ၂0၁၆ အထ သမၼတ အကြႏလကထကတြင ျဖစေပၚခသည။ ၎၏ အစးရသည အဂတလကစားမႈ
မားက ေလာခရနအတြက အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည႔ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက အသးျပရန ဦးစားေပးချခငး ျဖစသည။ ဤျပျပင
ေျပာငးလမႈသည ၎၏ ေရြးေကာကပြ မဆြယသည အစအစဥႏင အာဏာရသညအခန ျပျပငေျပာငးလသည အစအစဥ ႏစမး
စလးအတြက အဓကအေျချပရာျဖစၿပး အကြႏသည အဂတလကစားမႈ ရပတန႔ေရးႏင ဆငးရမြေတမႈ တကဖကေရးက ခတဆက
ထားကာ အဂတလကစားမႈက စစစရနႏင ကန႔သတရန နညးလမးအျဖစ အသးျပခသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည စနစ
မားက ရငးလငးေသာ အေရးႀကးသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမအနညးငယႏင ခတဆကျခငးသည အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည
ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥအတြက ခငမာ၍ ေအာငျမငေသာ မဟာဗဟာတစရပ ဖြ႕စညးရန အေအာငျမငဆးနညးလမးျဖစေၾကာငး
ဖလစပငတ႔က သကေသျပခသည။
အခနတအတြငး တထြငဆနးသစေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားစြာက စတငလပေဆာငရာတြင ဖလစပငသည ျမနမာတ႔အတြက
အေရးႀကးသည ေလလာစရာနမနာတစခ ျဖစသည။ ဖလစပငသည ဘတဂကဆငရာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ၊ အားလးပါဝငႏငမႈ၊ ႀကး
ၾကပမႈတ႔တြင ေဒသတြငး၌ အားအေကာငးဆး ဖြ႕ၿဖးဆႏငငျဖစသညဟ ၂0၁၅ တြင International Budget Partnership က အဆင
သတမတခသည။ ဖလစပငတ႔သည ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင ေအာကအဆင ႏစမးစလးတြင ခငမာေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးညလမႈ
မားက စနစတက ဖြ႕စညးလပေဆာငခၾကသည။ ထသ႔ ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင ေအာကအဆငတ႔ အဝငေအာင ၫႇႏႈငးမႈသည
ျမနမာႏငငအတြက နမနာေလလာရန လအပသည ေနာကထပအေၾကာငးရငးတစခ ျဖစသည။ တစခနထတြင ၂0၁၆ ဇြနလက
အာဏာရလာေသာ ဖလစပငအစးရသစသည ေရ႕မ အစးရအဆကဆက၏ အားထတမႈမားရခ႔ေသာလညး အစးရ၏ ပြငလငး
ျမငသာေရးႏင တာဝနယမႈရေရးတ႔တြင ျမနဆနစြာ ရလဒထြကေပၚမႈအား အႏရာယေပးလာခသည။ သ႔ျဖစရာ ထေရာကေသာ
ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈအစအစဥတြင ေအာငျမငမႈ ရရေရးအတြက လအပေသာ အေျခအေနတစခအေနျဖင႔ အားေကာငးၿပး တသမတ
တညးရမည ႏငငေရး သဓဌာနႏင႔ စနစကေသာ ေရရည အငစတကးတညေဆာကမႈလပငနးမား လအပသည။
ျမနမာႏငငသည ဖလစပငက ပတကးမညအစား ႏစႏငငအၾကား ကြျပားျခားနားမႈမား၊ အထးသျဖင အဖြ႕အစညးဆငရာ စြမးေဆာင
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 10 -
10 ျပညေထာငစအဆငေအာက အစးရမား၏ လကရတးတကမႈမား၊ ၎တ႔၏ တးတကေနဆ အဖြ႕အစညးစြမးရညတ႔ရၿပး ျဖစရာ ၎တ႔မာ ျပညေထာင
စအဆင ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးက ေမာငးႏငမည အဆျပမႈႏစခ ျဖစသည။ ရးရငးေသာ ေျခလမးမားကပငလင ဆးျဖတခကခသည လပငနးစဥမားတြင
ျပညသထမ ျပနလာေသာ အသမားက ထညသြငးရန အစးရ၏ အေလးအနကဆႏၵျပငးပမႈက ခကျခငးျပသႏငသည။
a&SUvmrnfh bwf*suftwGuf ueOD; jyKjyifajymif;vJrI vkyf&ef a½G;cs,fp&mrsm;
ေနာကထပလာမည ေဆြးေႏြးမႈစာတမးတြင ေရတ၊ ေရလတႏင႔ ေရရညျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတြက ေရြးခယစရာမားက
ကယျပန႔စြာ ခြျခမးသးသပထားမႈမား၊ ျမနမာႏငငအတြက လမးၫႊနမမားက အသြငေျပာငးေပးရန မေဘာင၊ အျခားႏငင
မားမ သငခနးစာယ၍ ေရးဆြထားေသာ ေၾကာငးကးဆေလာသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး မဟာဗဟာတ႔က ထညသြငး
ေဆြးေႏြးထားမညဆေသာလညး ေရ႕လာမည ဘတဂကအတြက ခကျခငးစဥးစားသငသည ကနဥးေျပာငးလမႈ ႏစခ ရပါ
သည။
ပထမဆးအေနျဖင႔ အစးရသည ဘတဂကအႀက ထတျပနခက (Pre-budget statement) (PBS) က ပထမဆး ေျခလမး
အျဖစ လပေဆာငသင႔သည။ ႏငငအမားစသည ေရ႕ႏစဘတဂကအေပၚ ကယကယျပန႔ ျပန႔ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမား ထြကေပၚ
လာရန အားေပးသညအေနျဖင႔ PBS က ထတျပနရန ေရြးခယေလရသည။ PBS သည ေရ႕ႏစ ဘတဂကအတြက ဥးစား
ေပးမားက ရးရငးၿပး စကားလးအနညးငယသာ အသးျပထားသည လြယကစြာ နားလညေအာင လပထားေသာ တငျပ
ခကတစခ ျဖစသည။ ၎သည ဘတဂကလာထားခကတြင ထညသြငးထားေသာ အဓကကေသာ မဝါဒေျပာငးလမႈမား
က ထငဟပပါသည။ PBS တြင ပငမအသးစရတဥးစားေပးမား၊ ဝငေငြရေအာင လပေဆာငမည မေဘာငမား၊ အစးရ၏
စးပြားေရးခန႔မနးခကမားက ထညသြငးထားရသည။ အဆပါ စးပြားေရးခန႔မနးခကမားတြင အစးရ၏ အလယအလတ
ကာလ စးပြားေရးရညမနးခကမား ပါဝငသငသည။ ထခန႔မနးခကမားသည ပမကယျပန႔ေသာ စးပြားေရးလမးေၾကာငးမား
ႏင႔ ေရရညမဝါရညမနးခကမားႏင႔ ခန႔မနးခကမားက ဘတဂကတြင ေျပာငးလထားမႈမားႏင႔ အဝငေအာင လပေဆာင
ရည၊ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ၏ ရညမနးခကမား၊ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏ အငအား အစရေသာ
ကစၥမားက ဦးစြာ စဥးစားသးသပရန လအပသည။ ျမနမာႏငငတြင အသအမတျပသငေသာ၊ ေသခာထညသြငး စဥးစားသငေသာ
ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမား ျဖစေပၚေနေသာလညး ဖလစပငတ႔၏ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈ စစဥတက လပေဆာငပနညးလမးမားက ဦးစြာ
ေလလာသငသည။ ယငးသ႔ ေလလာမႈသည ျမနမာႏငငတြင ျဖစေပၚေနေသာ အျခားေျပာငးလမႈမားႏင ကကညမႈရေသာ
(ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင ေအာကအဆင ႏစမးစလးပါဝငသည) ကယျပန႔သည မဟာဗဟာ၏ အေရးႀကးဆးအပငး ျဖစလမ
မည။ ဤနညးအားျဖင ျမနမာႏငင၏ ရညမနးခကႀကးေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအစအစဥသည လကေတြ႕အမနတကယ ရငသန
လာႏငသည။ ျမနမာႏငငအေနႏင ထညသြငးစဥးစားႏငေသာ အျခားႏငငမားတြင အသးျပခသည (အမားစမာ ေကာငးမြနပ ရ
ေသာ) ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈ အေျမာကအမားရသညအေလာက ၎တ႔၏ ျဖစႏငေျခႏင ပတသကသည ဆကလကေဆြးေႏြးမႈမား
က အေျခအေနလက၍ ဂရတစကထညသြငးသငသည။ အဖြ႕အစညးစြမးေဆာငရညႏင ကကညမည ဦးစားေပးကစၥရပမား
သတမတျခငး၊ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက အစအစဥချခငးတ႔သည ျမနမာႏငငအေနႏင ဖလစပငအပါအဝင အျခားႏငငမားႏင
ႏႈငးယဥေလလာရာမ သငယႏငမည အေရးႀကးဆးအရာျဖစသည။ ဤအခကသည ရငးလငးတကေသာ ရညမနးခကမားက
ေအာငျမငရနအတြက အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက စစညးထားသည ျပညစေသာ မဟာဗဟာတစရပက
စဥးစားသညအခါ သကဆငသမားက ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမားက စတငသငသည ေနရာပငျဖစသည။
Francisco A. Magno, “Public Participation and Fiscal Transparency in the Philippines,” 35. Global Initiative for Fiscal Transparency, May 2015.
International Budget Partnership, “Open Budget Survey 2015.”
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 11 -
ရန ျဖစသည။ ထသ႔လပေဆာငျခငးသည အစးရက ေရ႕လာမည ဘတဂကသ႔ ထညသြငးထားသည အလယအလတ
ကာလႏင႔ ေရရညက ေမာမနးထားသည ျဖစႏငေသာ မဝါဒျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက ေဖာျပခြငရေစသည။
PBS က အသးျပ၍ ပမအေရးပါေသာ ပါဝငမႈမားက အားေပးႏငရန PBS က ထတျပနသည အခနသည အခနကကျဖစ
ရန လအပလပါသည။ PBS က ထတျပနရန အေကာငးဆးအခနမာ ဘ႑ာႏစမစတငမ အနညးဆး ေလးလ ႀကတင
ထတျပနသငၿပး ျပညသမားထမ ျပနလာေသာ အျမငမားက ရယႏငရန အစးရ၏ ဘတဂက အဆျပမႈ မတငမ တစလ
ႀကတင၍ ထတျပနသငသည။ ဆလသညမာ လႊတေတာသည ဇနနဝါရလတြင ဘတဂကက အဆးအျဖတေပးရန ေဆြးေႏြး
ၾကေသာေၾကာင႔ PBS က ဒဇငဘာလအေစာပငးတြင ထတျပနသငသည။ ဤအခနဇယားအတငးဆလင ျပညသမား
အေနျဖင႔ အစးရ၏ ဘတဂကအဆျပမႈက ထငျမငခကမားေပးရန လေလာကေသာ အခနရပါသည။ ဤလပေဆာငမႈ
သည အစးရအား လႊတေတာသ႔ ေနာကဆးဘတဂကအဆျပမႈမတငမ ျပညသမားထမ ထငျမငခကမားက အေျချပ
ကာ ျပနလညသးသပမႈမားျပလပရန အေထာကအက ျဖစပါသည။ ဤအခနဇယားသည လႊတေတာ ကယစားလယ
မားအတြကလညး ၎တ႔ လႊတေတာတြင ဘတဂကက အေျခအတငမေဆြးေႏြးမ အမားျပညသႏင လညးေကာငး၊ အရ
ပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမားႏငလညးေကာငး တငပငေဆြးေႏြးရန အခနရပါသည။
PBS ၏ ေအာငျမငမႈသည ၎၏ အခနကကထတျပနႏငမႈ တစခတညးအေပၚတြငသာ မတညေနသည မဟတေပ။
PBS တြင ပါဝငေသာ အခကမားသည အစးရက ဘတဂကဥပေဒက အသးျပရန ျပညျပညစစရရသကသ႔ ထေရာကစြာ
ေဖာျပထားႏငရနလညး လအပပါသည။ ထတျပနခကက ပႏပထတေဝကာ ကယျပန႔စြာ ျဖန႔ခ၍ လတငး လြယကစြာ
လကလမးမရမည။ ထ႔အျပင အစးရသည ထငျမငခကမားေပးရန အားေပးရာတြင လလလားလား ေတာငးခရပါမည။ ဤ
အခကမာ PBS ၏ ပထမႏစတြင အေရးႀကးပါသည။ အစးရအေနျဖင႔ အေရးပါေသာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမား စတငႏငကာ အစးရ
၏ ဆးျဖတခကခမတရာတြင အခကအခကမားေပးႏငရန ျဖစသည။ အမားျပညသပါဝငမႈက အျပေကာငးရ လပေဆာင
ျခငး မျဖစသင႔။
စမကနးႏင ဘ႑ာေရးဝနႀကးဌာနသည ၿပးခ႔သည ႏစမားက ဘတဂကႏင ပတသကေသာ ထတျပနခကက ျပငဆငခ
သည။ အဆအရ ၂0၁၆-၁၇ ဘတဂကအတြက ထတျပနခကက PBS အျဖစ ၂0၁၅ ဒဇငဘာလတြင လႊတေတာသ႔ ပ႔
ခေသာလညး ဘတဂကအတညျပၿပးသညအထ ျပညသသ႔ မထတျပနခ႔ဟ သရသည။ ၿပးခ႔ေသာ ႏစက ဘတဂကအတြက
ထတျပနခကသည ျပညသမားမ ထညဝငမႈႏင႔ အရပဖကအဖြ႕မားမ ကၽြမးကငမႈမား၏ ထငျမငခကက အားေပးရနႏင႔
အစးရ၏ တန႔ျပနေဆာငရြကမႈက ျပသရနတ႔က လပေဆာငျခငးမရပ ေရာငသြားခသည။ ျမနမာႏငငသည PBSအျဖစ
ထတျပနႏငေသာ ထတျပနခကက ေရးသားခသည အေတြ႕အႀကရၿပးျဖစရာ ျပညေထာငစအဆင႔ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ
တြင အမားျပညသပါဝငမႈအတြက ျမႇငတငေပးရန ေသးငယေသာ ေျခလမးအနညးငယသာ လမးရ ကနပါေတာသည။
ျပညသမားထမ ျပနလာေသာ ထငျမငခကမားက အေရးတယေပါငးထညစဥးစားေပးရန အစးရ၏ အေလးအနက ကတ
ျပမႈက ျပသရန ႏငငတကာ၏ စသတမတခကမားက လက၍ လပေဆာငျခငးျဖင႔ အလြယတက လပေဆာငႏငသည။
ဒတယအခကအားျဖင႔ စမကနးႏင ဘ႑ာေရးဝနႀကးဌာနႏင ျပညသ႔ေငြစာရငးဆငရာ လႊတေတာႏစရပ ပးတြေကာမတ
တ႔ကသ႔ေသာ သကဆငသည အဖြ႕မားသည အတတကြလပကငျခငးျဖင ကနဥးျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားႏင႔ ပမ ကယျပန႔
11 Vivek Ramkumar and Isaac Shapiro, “Guide to Transparency in Government Reports,” 9.
12 ၎သည OECD ႏင႔ IBP တ႔မ ညႊနျပေသာ PBS ထတျပနရန အေကာငးဆးလပထးလပနညးႏင႔ အဝငသည။
See, also, Ramkumar and Shapiro, “Guide to Transparency in Government Reports.”
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 12 -
ေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမဟာဗဟာက ေဆြးေႏြးမႈ ဆကလပေပးႏငမည သကဆငရာ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမား
ပါဝငေသာ အဖြ႕တစဖြ႕ဖြြ႕ၿပး လပပငခြငမား ေပးအပလာႏငပါသည။ ထအဖြြ႕သည ယခ ႏစဘတဂကလပငနးစဥတြင
အမားျပညသထမ ျပနလာေသာ အသမားအတြက ကနဥးလပေပးႏငသည အဖြ႕ျဖစကာ တဖကတြငလညး ပမျပညစေသာ
ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမားက ဆကလကေရးဆြေနရမည ျဖစသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင႔ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမားသည ယခႏစ
PBS ႏင ပတသကၿပး အားလးပါဝငႏငသည ဖရမမား ကငးပေပးႏငကာ အမားျပညသ၏ ထငျမငခကမားက စေဆာငး
ေပးႏငသည။ ထျပညသ႔အသမားက အစးရထ ေပးပ႔ကာ ဘတဂကက ျပနလညသးသပ၍ လႊတေတာတြင အေျခအတင
ေဆြးေႏြးႏငသည။ ဤသ႔ လပေဆာငျခငးသည ဘတဂတဆးျဖတခကခမတသည ယဥေကးမႈက ေျပာငးလရန အစးရ
၏ ခငမာေသာ ကတကဝတက ျပသသည အဓပၸါယရေသာ PBS တစချဖစရနက ေသခာေစပါသည။ ထအဖြ႕သည အခက
အလကမားက စေဆာငးေပးသညအျပင လကရေရ႕ေျပးလပေဆာငေနသည အားလးပါဝငေစမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြျခငး
လပငနးႏင ႏငငအဝမးမ ရပရြာဥးေဆာငေသာ ဖြ႕ၿဖးေရးစမကနးမားက ခတဆကဆကသြယေပးႏငသည။ ဤနညး
အားျဖင႔ ၎တ႔သည တစႏငငလး အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတငးတာက ျမႇငတငႏငမည နညးလမး
မားက စဥးစားျခငးမားအား ညႇႏႈငးေပးႏငမည ျဖစသည။ ထသ႔ေသာ အပစက ဘတဂကႏင ပတသကေသာ ပညာရပ
ဆငရာ သငတနးမားတကေစျခငးေၾကာင ၎တ႔သည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ၏ နညးပညာလကၡဏာမားက ပမနားလည
လာကာ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥက ေစာငၾကညႀကးၾကပရာတြင တကၾကြစြာ ပါဝငလာႏငသည။ ထ႔အျပင ၎တ႔သည ျပညသ
မားက ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥအေၾကာငး ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ ပညာေပးျခငးက စတငလပေဆာငရန တာဝနယလာႏငသည
ျပင အစးရအေနျဖင႔ ျပညသ႔ေငြစာရငးစမခန႔ခြမႈက ပြင႔လငးျမငသာစြာႏင႔ တာဝနခမႈရစြာ လပေဆာငရန တာဝနရမႈက
ျပညသမား သေအာင လပေပးလာနငသည။
တျဖညးျဖညးႏင ထအဖြ႕သည အနာဂတတြင အားေကာငးေသာ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏ ပါဝငမႈလအပေသာ ပမ
ရႈပေထြးသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားအတြက အဖြ႕မား၏ ဆခက ဗဟဌာနသဖြယ ျဖစလာႏငသည။ ထသ႔ေသာ ျပျပင
ေျပာငးလမႈမားတြင အရနဘတဂကတစစ (Alternative budget) ေရးဆြထားမႈ၊ လမႈေရး ဆငရာ စာရငးစစမႈ ဖြ႕ၿဖးလာ
မႈ၊ အစးရ၏ အသးစရတမားက တနဖးျဖတသည ရပ႔ကဒထတေပးျခငးမား ပါဝငလာသည။ ထပမရႈပေထြးသည ျပျပင
ေျပာငးလမႈအားလးက ေရ႕လာမည ေဆြးေႏြးမႈစာတမးတြင အကယတဝင ေဆြးေႏြးရန ရပါသည။ ယခၾကားကာလတြင
သကဆငရာ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏ အၿမတမးကြနရကတစခက စတငျခငးသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈအေၾကာငးစ၍
ေဆြးေႏြးျခငးက ဥးတညႏငကာ အနာဂတတြင ထသ႔ေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက အေကာငအထညေဖာရန သဓဌာန
ခထားသည အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးအပစတစခရေနမႈက ေသခာေစပါသည။ အနာဂတတြင ထအရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညး
အပစအေနျဖင႔ ေလာကလမးႏငသည လမးေၾကာငးအမးမးရသည။ သ႔ေသာ ယခေလာေလာဆယတြငေတာ သကဆင
သည ပါဝငပတသကေနသမားပါဝငေသာ အပစတစခရရနမာ မရမျဖစ လအပပါသည။ ဤနညးလမးျဖင အနာဂတ အားလး
ပါဝငခြငရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားအတြက နယပယႏင မဟာဗဟာက ဆးျဖတျခငးသည ေနာကပငးတြင အရပဖက
အဖြ႕မား၏ ေတာငးဆမႈ၊ လကရ စြမးေဆာငရညအေပၚ အေျခခ၍ ဖြ႕ၿဖးလာမည အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည လပငနးစဥ
ျဖစလာႏငပါသည။
a&SUvmrnfh tqifhrsm;
ဤအတြလကစာတမးမားတြင ေရ႕လာမည ေဆြးေႏြးမႈ စာတမးသည ျမနမာႏငငတြင လကရစးပြားေရးႏင႔ ႏငငေရး ျပျပင
ေျပာငးလေရးလပငနးစဥ၌ အဆငတစခ ေရာကေနၿပျဖစရာ အားလးက ပါဝငခြငေပးေသာ စနစသည ျမနမာႏငငႏင
ေကာငးစြာ အဝငသည ဆသညက ဆကလကသရပေဖာေပးမည ျဖစသည။ စာတမး၏ ပထမအပငးတြင သရပေဖာမႈအား
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 13 -
အားလးပါဝငႏငသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမား၏
အကးအျမတရႏငမႈမား
အကးအျမတ
အစးရအေပၚယၾကညမႈတး
အရပဖကအဖြ႕မား
ဖြ႕ၿဖးလာမႈ
ျပညသပါဝငမႈ ယဥေကးမႈ
တးတက
ဟနခကညေသာ
တးတကမႈ ျမင႔တငရာတြင
လထအခနးက႑
ျပညေထာငစအဆင႔
ေအာကေဒသမား
ပါဝငမႈအတြက ဖရမမား
ျပညသ၊ CSO မားႏင႔
အစးရၾကား ျပညေထာငစ
အဆင႔ေအာက
ကြနရကမား ပရလာျခငး
အစးရတာဝနခမႈ
PFM ရလဒမားတးတက
အရပဖကအဖြ႕ႀကးၾကပသည အပစ
ႏင႔ ဘတဂကအေၾကာငး သငတနး
ျပညသပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးမႈႏင႔
CSO ပါဝငမႈ
ျပညသပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးမႈ-ေကးလကႏင႔
သမငးေၾကာငးအရ ဆငးရေသာ
ေဒသမားက ပစမတထားသးစြမႈ
Porto Alegre ေမာဒယအပါအဝင
ျပညေထာငစအဆင
ေအာကေဒသမား ပါဝငမႈ
ျပညေထာငစအဆင
ေအာက ေဒသမားမ
ျပညသမားပါဝငမႈ
လမႈေရးဆငရာ စာရငးစစေဆးမႈ
ကသ႔ေသာ ျပညသမား၏ ႀကးၾကပမႈ
ျပညသမား၏ ႀကးၾကပမႈ၊ PBS က႔သ႔
ေသာ သတငးထတျပနမႈ တးတက
စနစမား
ျပညသပါဝငဆြးေႏြးမႈ
13 ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတြက ထစနစမားက လာမည ေဆြးေႏြးမႈစာတမးတြင ေသးစတေဖာျပပါမည။
အျခားႏငငမားမ အေကာငးဆး အေလအထမားက
အေျခခ၍ ျပညေထာငစအဆငအတြက အားလးပါဝငခြင
ေပးေသာ ဘတဂကေရးဆြသည စနစမားအား ေရြးခယ
စရာမားႏင တငျပမည ျဖစသည။ စာတမး၏ ဒတယ
အပငးတြင အလားတ ႏႈငးယဥမႈမားျဖင ျပညေထာငစ
အဆငေအာကအတြက အားလးပါဝငခြငေပးေသာ ဘတ
ဂကေရးဆြသည စနစမားအား ေရြးခယစရာမားႏင တင
ျပပါမည။ ေရြးခယစရာအားလးက အားလးပါဝငခြငရ
ေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတြက ဤအႀကေဆြးေႏြးမႈ
မားတြင အစပးမတဆကေပးခေသာ အဓကအေၾကာငး
အရာမားက အေျခခ၍ တညေဆာကထားျခငး ျဖစသည။
ထျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမားမာ ပႀကးေသာ မဟာဗဟာ
၏ အေရးႀကးေသာ အစတအပငးဟ မတယႏငသည။
ပႀကးေသာ မဟာဗဟာဆသညမာ ဒမကေရစ ေဖာ
ေဆာငေရးႏင ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကေရးတ႔ အတတကြ လပ
ကငရာတြင တစခက တစခ တငးမာမႈျဖစေနျခငးထက
စာလင တစခႏင တစခ အေထာကအကျပသြားၾကေစ
ေရး ေသခာေစရန ျဖစသည။ ဤအေရးႀကးေသာ အခက
ႏစချဖစသည ဒမကေရစ ေဖာေဆာငေရးႏင ဖြ႕ၿဖးတး
တကေရးတ႔ ေျပာငးလလာမႈသည သဟဇာတျဖစလာ
ျခငးေၾကာင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေသာ ဘတဂကေရးဆြ
ျခငးသည ေနာကပငးတြင ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာ႔ချခငး
ကလညး တရားဝငလာေစႏငသည။ တတပပဆရေသာ
ပမေကာငးမြနသည ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ခြမႈႏင ဟန
ခကညေသာ ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကမႈတ႔က ျဖညဆညးေပး
ျခငးျဖင ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာ႔ချခငးက ပပးေပးႏငမည
ျဖစရာ ၎တ႔မာ ဤစာတမးတြင ေဖာျပထားေသာ
အားလးပါဝငခြငရေရး ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈအတြက လမးညႊနမႏစခ ျဖစသည။ ဤမႏစခက ဥးတညလပေဆာငေနရငး
အစးရအေပၚ ယၾကညမႈတးလာျခငးႏင အရပဖကလမႈအဖြ႕အစညးမားက အားေကာငးလာေစႏငျခငးကသ႔ေသာ ေဘး
ထြကအကးအျမတ အမားအျပား ရရႏငသည။
ဤရညမနးခကမားက အေျခခ၍ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမားက ေရးဆြၾကရာတြင ေသာ႔ခကက
ေသာ ကစၥရပမားအေၾကာငး ေဆြးေႏြးရာတြင သတငးအခကအလကေပးႏငသည စာအပမားႏင႔ ခြျခမးစတျဖာသးသပ
ထားမႈမား ရပါသည။ ျမနမာႏငင၏ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးအစအစဥႏင႔ ကကညေသာ အျခား
မမားလညး ရႏငရာ အျခားေသာ သကဆငသမားအေနျဖင အထကက ေဖာျပထားေသာ မႏစခသာမက အလားအလာ
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 14 -
အမးသားစးပြားေရး မဝါဒဥးစားေပးမားက အေျခခထားေသာ အထကက
ဆခသည မမားသည ထသ႔ေသာ ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမားအတြက အစျပမႈအတြကသာ
ျဖစသငသည။ ဥပမာ Wampler (2012) သည အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစမည
ဘတဂကေရးဆြသည အစအစဥမားတြင ပါဝငေသာ “အသ၊ မ၊ လမႈေရးအရ
တရားမတမႈႏင ႀကးၾကပမႈ” ဆသည အဓကမေလးခက အႀကျပထားသည။
ထလကၡဏာမားသည အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကေရးဆြမႈက
“ဒမကေရစနညးအရ တရားဝငေစမႈ၊ လမႈေရးအရ တရားမတမႈႏင အရပဖက
အဖြ႕အစညးမားတြင ေျပာငးလမႈမားမတဆင ပမႀကးမားေသာ လမႈေရးအရ
ေျပာငးလမႈမားက တငးတာႏငေရး” က ဥးတညေစေရး ေသခာေစရနအတြက
မရမျဖစ လအပသည။ ဤစာတမးသည မတေသာ မအမးမး ထြကလာေအာင
ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမား ပမျပလပလာႏငေရးအတြက အငဂငႏႈးေပးလကသည သေဘာ
သာျဖစၿပး ထမတဆင ေဆြးေႏြးပြမ ရရလာေသာ အခကမားက ပမရညလား
သည ေဆြးေႏြးပြ စာတမးမားအတြက အသးျပႏငရန ျဖစသည။
ေရ႕ဆကရေသာ Renaissance Institute ၏ ခြျခမးစတျဖာသးသပခကသည
အျခားတငးျပညမား၏ အစအစဥအမးမးတြင အထကက ဆခသည အားလး
ပါဝငခြင႔ရေစမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရး၏ မရမျဖစ လကၡဏာမား ထညသြငး
ထားျခငး ရမရက ေလလာသြားမည ျဖစသည။ ဤသ႔ လပေဆာငျခငးျဖင ျမနမာ
ႏငငတြင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရး၏ မလ ရညမနးခက
မားက ေဆြးေႏြးရနႏင အေျခအတငေဆြးေႏြးရနတ႔တြင အခကအလကမား
ေပးႏငလမမည ျဖစသည။ ထ႔ျပင အဆပါရညမနးခကမားသည ျမနမာႏငင
၏ သးသန႔အေျခအေနတြင အေထာကအကျဖစေအာင အငစတကးရငး
ရေသာ မအားလးက အျပငးအထနစဥးစားသင႔သည။ ထမမားအေပၚ ေနာက
ထပေဆြးေႏြးမႈမားႏင႔ အေျခအတင ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမား ျပလပျခငးသည ျမနမာ
ႏငငအေနျဖင အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြျခငးအတြက စမခက
ခရာတြင ရငးလငးေသာ ရညမနးခကမားျဖင အေျခခႏငေရးက အေထာက
အကျပႏငပါသည။ သ႔မဟတပါက ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာ႔ချခငး၊ ဒမကေရစ
ေဖာေဆာငျခငးႏင ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကမႈတ႔အတြက စနေခၚမႈမားအားလးအေပၚ
ေသးေသးမႊားမႊားကစားမႈေလးမား ေပါငးစပထားေသာ အားလးပါဝငမႈရေစ
သည ဘတဂကေရးဆြျခငးမးသာ ျဖစလာႏငသည အႏ ရာယ ရပါသည။
ေရ႕လာမည ဘတဂကက ေကာလြန၍
ျပျပင ေျပာငးလေရးမဟာဗဟာေရးဆြျခငး
ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတြက
လမးညႊနမမားခမတျခငး
အလးစေျပာငးလမႈအတြက
အဖြ႕အစညးစြမးေဆာငရညက ဆးျဖတျခငး
အျခားျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးေမာဒယမားက
ႏႈငးယဥေလ႔လာျခငး
ေရတ၊ ေရလတ၊ ေရရညေျပာငးလမႈအတြက
အလးစပါဝငေသာ မဟာဗဟာေရးဆြျခငး
အစးရႏင႔ အရပဖကအဖြ႕မားက
ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးက အငစတကးရငး
တညေဆာကမႈမ တဆင
အေကာငအထညေဖာမည ဆသညက
တသမတတညး ျပသျခငး
ဆငရာ မေဘာငမားက ေသခာစြာ သးသပႏငရန အခကအလကမား ေပးႏငလမမည ျဖစသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစ
မည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးအတြက ရငးလငးသည မမားခမတၿပးပါက Renaissance Institute ၏ ေရ႕လာမည ခြျခမး
စတျဖာသးသပမႈသည အဆပါ ရညမနးခကမားက လကေတြ႕ေဖာေဆာငေပးႏငမည သးျခား အငစတကးရငး ေျပာငးလ
မႈမား လ၊ မလ စစစမႈက စတငလပေဆာငမည ျဖစသည။
14 Wampler, Participatory Budgeting: Core Principles and Key Impacts, 1.
bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;
- 15 -
သ႔ေသာ အေရးအႀကးဆးရဖ႔ လအပသည အခကမာ အစးရအေနျဖင ျပညသလထက ဆျဖတခကခမတသည လပငနး
စဥတြင ထညသြငးေပးေစ လသည ဆႏၵရေၾကာငး ျပသရန ျဖစသည။ ေနာကထပျပျပင ေျပာငးလမႈမားအတြက ကနဥး
အတျမစခႏငရန အစးရသည ဘတဂကအေၾကာငး အေျခခသတငးအခကအလကမားက PBS မ တဆင သတငးထတျပန
ေပးရမည။ ထ႔ေနာကတြငမ အမားျပညသမားအား ၎တ႔ ကယစားျပေသာ နယေျမမား၏ ဆႏၵမားက ေဖာျပသည ျပညသ႔
အျမငမား ထြကေပၚလာေအာင တကၾကြစြာ အားေပးရပါမည။
ထသ႔ လပေဆာငရန အရပဖကလမႈအဖြ႕အစညးမားသည ျပညသ႔ထမ ျပနလာေသာ အျမငမားက အစးရထ ပ႔ေဆာငေပး
မည အေရးပါလေသာ အခနးက႑မ ပါဝငႏငသည။ အစးရက လပပငခြငေပးထားေသာ ဘတဂကႏင ဆငေသာ အရပဖက
အဖြ႕တစခသည ဖရမမားကငးပေပးၿပး PBS က ေဆြးေႏြးေစျခငး၊ ျပညသမားအား ဘတဂကႏင႔ ဆငေသာ ေလကင
သငၾကားမႈေပးျခငး၊ ေရရညျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတြက လမးညႊနမမားႏင အေကာငအထညေဖာမည မဟာဗဟာမား
အေပၚ အျမငမားေပးျခငးမားျဖင အကအညမား ေပးႏငသည။ ဤကနဥးေျခလမးမားသည ေနာငအနာဂတတြင ေရးဆြမည
ပမရႈပေထြးသည လတငးပါဝငေစေအာင လပေဆာငေပးမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမားအတြက လအပသည မနကနေသာ
အေျခခအတျမစမား ခႏငလမမည ျဖစသည။
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Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
Crafting a Framework for Myanmar
This note provides the rationale for the development of a comprehensive reform strategy to
promote more stakeholder participation – namely amongst the public and civil society – in the
budget process. Currently, the budget process is most signifi cant at the Union level. Yet such
reforms, often referred to as participatory budgeting, can also complement the ongoing processes
of decentralization, which will empower subnational governments with more revenue mobilization
powers and more expenditure responsibilities. This introductory note explains the import of
reforms and potential principles to guide such changes at both the Union and subnational level. It
also suggests some initial reform opportunities for the next Union budget. Discussion from this
paper will be used to guide a comprehensive discussion paper that will use comparative study to
lay out a strategy for both Union and subnational reforms beyond the next budget.
- 17 -
Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
The Renaissance Institute is a policy institute focused on supporting the reform of Myanmar’s
economy. Renaissance provides analytical support for policymaking, assists government capacity-
building and facilitates communication between Myanmar’s government and other relevant
stakeholders focused on revitalizing Myanmar’s economy. In particular, the Renaissance Institute
is supporting key policy priorities of the current government: Fiscal decentralization, and public
fi nancial management reform.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the various individuals that provided helpful feedback during the drafting
and revision of this note. These include Dr. Matthew Arnold and Bing Bonoan from The Asia
Foundation, Professor Robert Conrad from Duke University, Joel Friedman and Vivek Ramkumar
from the International Budget Partnership, Professor Brian Wampler from Boise State University
as well as Sudhanshu Sharma and Ian Porter from the International Growth Center. We would
also like to thank our colleagues at the Renaissance Institute, particularly U Myo Myint and U
Soe Win, for their guidance on this research. Everyone’s input has been valuable in shaping and
refi ning our ideas, yet any mistakes in the following are only our own.
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Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
Using participatory mechanisms to revitalize the budget process is a policy reform option at the
intersection of democratization and development. When properly structured, participatory reforms
can facilitate both processes of change. This is achieved by actively incorporating citizens and
civil society into budgetary processes traditionally reserved for government elites. Therefore, the
public is provided an opportunity to shape government decisions at various levels of governance.
Such empowerment of citizens can boost trust in government, strengthen civil society and
rejuvenate civic culture; all factors that political theorists argue are essential to democratization.
These processes do not only foster political change; they can also help infl uence development.
Participatory budgeting can help strengthen government institutions with new accountability
mechanisms, facilitate the ongoing process of fi scal decentralization, and direct government funds
to projects with high-demand. These institutional changes are essential, in the minds of political
economists, to promoting sustainable and inclusive economic growth.
That said, participatory budgeting is no panacea. It is a small part of a far broader set of policies
that can set into motion the positive feedback loops that beget sustained political and economic
change. For all of their potential, participatory processes can be captured by special interests,
or become a token policy change that serves as a façade for broader stagnancy in institutional
development. There is no one-size-fi ts-all template to assure success. Rather, clear mechanisms for
inclusive participation are absolutely essential to success, as is a staged, well-contextualized plan
for implementation that assures institutional reforms are commensurate to institutional capacity.
Given both these opportunities and challenges of participatory reforms, the Renaissance Institute is
launching this introductory paper to foster a conversation about the proper template for Myanmar;
one that will allow participatory reforms to fi t into and facilitate Myanmar’s broader reform
1 See, for example, Fukuyama, Trust, 1995 and Putnam, Making Democracy Work, 1993. Both provide arguments for
essential social characteristics – such as trust and civil culture – that lead to successful political and economic performance. 2 See, for example, North, Structure and Change in Economic History, 1981 and Kuran, The Long Divergence, 2010.
Both provide arguments for different characteristics of political and economic institutions that are conducive to sustained
economic development.3 Jason Lakin and Mokeira Nyagaka., “Deliberating Budgets: How Public Deliberation Can Move Us Beyond The Public
Participation Rhetoric.” 2016, 1.
Contextualizing Participatory Budgeting
Participatory Budgeting
Myanmar’s Major
Reforms
Democratization
Higher trust in government
Civil society development
Civic culture
Development
Public promotes balanced
development
Institutional accountability
Improved PFM outcomes
Decentralization
Clear forums for subnational
public participation
Networks between public,
CSOs & local institutions
- 19 -
Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
4 Brian Wampler, Participatory Budgeting, World Bank: Public Sector Governance and Accountability Series, 2007, 21.
agenda. This fi rst paper will lay the foundation for understanding participatory budgeting: what
it is, what opportunities it offers, and what challenges it presents. Given this, we then propose
guiding principles to help structure a participatory reform strategy for Myanmar. In line with these
principles, we also suggest some options for simple reforms that can immediately be considered
for the next budget. A subsequent discussion paper will explore a more comprehensive reform
strategy for Myanmar. In particular, the discussion paper will leverage lessons learned from other
countries and the guiding principles for reform raised in this brief to look at various reform options
for both the Union level and subnational levels of governance.
The top-down Union-level reforms, and bottom-up subnational options for participatory
budgeting can meet in the middle, therefore complementing broader strategies for democratizing
development, increasing trust in government and promoting more public-sector accountability.
Participatory budgeting cannot do it all, but when properly designed with clear principles in mind,
it can serve as a small but essential step towards broader goals of democratization, decentralization
and development.
What is participatory budgeting?
The World Bank defi nes participatory budgeting as “a decision-making process through which
citizens deliberate and negotiate over the distribution of public resources.” This is most often
relevant during the annual budgeting process, which includes both revenue mobilization and
government expenditure decisions. Given Myanmar’s relative inexperience with consultative
policymaking, there are many different ways to include more stakeholders in the budgetary process
that would provide citizens with new pathways to “deliberate and negotiate” over government
choices. Given Myanmar’s ongoing processes of decentralization, there are also many different
levels of government wherein participatory processes can be developed.
Participatory budgeting is most often associated with the model fi rst pioneered in Porto Alegre,
Brazil. Here, in a process that is now used in municipalities throughout the world, citizens are able
to provide input and directly vote on certain expenditure projects, most often for public works
spending. In Myanmar’s case, there are many other options that exist and might better facilitate
Myanmar’s reform goals given its current institutional capacity. Initial steps could be as simple as
the government providing more budget-related information to the public and actively encouraging
citizen participation.
Any complex change requires a foundation to build upon. There must, for instance, exist
suffi cient public demand for more participation, and trust amongst the public in the effi cacy of
their participation in the political process. Civil society and government institutions must also be
willing and able to facilitate broad participation. To do this, the public fi rst needs access to basic
budget-related information, an environment where they are able to safely engage in oversight
- 20 -
Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
and basic literacy in the budget process.
These are the prerequisite, although not
exhaustive, foundations for any successful
participatory budgeting process. At once,
participatory processes can help boost
government institutions, civil society and
public trust – but it cannot do so from a
tabula rasa. There must be an existing
infrastructure if participatory reforms are
to be successful in achieving their aims;
participatory reforms can help accelerate
a feedback loop of political and economic
change, but past experiences demonstrate
that they cannot build a foundation of trust
and institutional capacity on their own.
Rather, when successful, participatory
reforms can add a new level of scaffolding.
Given Myanmar’s relatively weak
foundation, as is refl ected in the chart
documenting the results from the Open
Budget Survey, the mechanisms for
participation in budgeting will have to be
developed over time; starting small and
growing larger as institutions strengthen
and trust begets more demand for more
participation. Small fi rst steps, such as
information sharing, safe environments
for participation and basic budget literacy,
can build the foundation for more complex
reforms in the future. An initial commitment
to a few meaningful reforms that sincerely
engage new stakeholders in the decision-
making process is more important than a
commitment to myriad reforms all at once.
As such, the adoption of participatory
budgeting mechanisms must be tempered
by an understanding of the institutions that
Evaluating Myanmar’s Current Budget Process
Open Budget Survey
Score :
Transparency:
2/100
Legislative
oversight:
27/100
Public
participation
6/100
Auditor
oversight:
25/100
Comments from Renaissance
Institute:
In the past, Myanmar has seldom
shared data about any aspects
of the budget process. There
have been few institutionalized
processes for the government to
explain its fi nancial management
strategies to non-governmental
stakeholders.
Parliamentary reforms in
Myanmar are ongoing. Training
the legislature – at both the
Union and subnational level –
is an important starting-point,
since so many legislatures are
new to budgetary processes. As
the legislative bodies become
well-versed in the budget, they
can begin to facilitate public
feedback as well.
There are almost no
opportunities for public
participation in the budget
process. This is part of a long-
standing culture where the
public is discouraged from
participation; according to a
2015 UNDP survey, nearly 1/3
said they would be “careful to
whom they say what they think”
about the government and over
¼ said they do not “feel free at
all” to ”publicly express their
opinion.”
As the Supreme Audit Institution
builds capacity, there will be
different mechanisms for public
participation to be included in
their work. Many other nations
have recently piloted different
reforms on this very matter in
order to boost accountability and
good governance.
5 Alta Fölscher, Participatory Budgeting, World Bank: Public Sector Governance and Accountability Series, 183.
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Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
currently exist to support participatory mechanisms. Reforms that are too broad, too sweeping, and
implemented too quickly, will ultimately be counterproductive. Rather, a roadmap to participatory
budgeting should be careful to make sure the fi rst mechanisms that are adapted are manageable,
and therefore substantive and truly participatory in their implementation.
For example, Kenya’s efforts to increase public participation in budgeting proved largely trivial
and tokenistic in the way Myanmar must work to avoid. Their reforms were codifi ed in law,
but often failed to bring about greater participation in reality. Kenya’s struggles reveal some of
the diffi culties in jumpstarting processes of participation. An analysis of the disconnect between
legalistic frameworks that compel “participation” and meaningful citizen input into budgetary
processes, calls for the creation of truly “deliberative” processes. This may seem a trivial difference,
but it imparts a higher burden of proof upon “the quality of reasons and the degree of deliberation
about the justifi cations given for decisions made.” Beginning with small and manageable reforms
can ensure they are deliberative; given the weak existing foundation in Myanmar, this will be
the proper beginning for the development of more comprehensive systems of participation in the
future.
Principles for Participatory Budgeting – Myanmar’s Reform Agenda
While there is great diversity across different nations’ approaches to participatory budgeting, there
is a consistent pattern in the creation of systems that are successful. A simple two-step pattern
tends to characterize the processes by which effi cacious mechanisms for participatory budgeting
are developed:
governments and civil society organizations interested in PB (Participatory Budgeting) would do
well to employ a staged learning and implementation process. The fi rst stage would consist of a
broader discussion of the principles, with an effort to understand which principles most strongly
align with their commons goals. The second stage would involve adapting existing rules to meet
local challenges, needs, and goals.
The rest of this analysis will help to complete the fi rst stage of the process: What principles should
guide participatory budgeting in Myanmar; what broader changes should it help to facilitate? The
follow-on discussion paper will then shift direction and look at the institutional arrangements that
can advance these overarching principles within the context of Myanmar’s current systems of
governance.
The recent economic reform agenda released by the government provides a helpful starting point
for discussing such guiding principles. Participatory budgeting, in fact, is a natural next step for
the government as it continues to implement the fi rst pillar of its economic policy, which calls
6 Lakin and Nyagaka, “Deliberating Budgets,” 17.7 Brian Wampler, “Participatory Budgeting: Core principles and Key Impacts,” Journal of Public Deliberation, 2.
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Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
for “fi scal prudence through transparent and strengthened public fi nancial management.” In the
short time since the nation’s political transition, steps have already been underway to begin this
process, including capacity building in public fi nancial management at the state and region level.
Participatory budgeting can help to transform this capacity building into a tangible step that allows
recently devolved and increasingly empowered levels of government to be more responsive to those
living within their polities. It can help to reaffi rm the importance of these emergent subnational
layers of government. It can do this, in part, by creating avenues for participation that provide
more frequent, formalized and reliable points of contact between the government and citizens.
Before that, though, reforms must end the information asymmetry between government and the
public by spreading basic information about the government’s budget practices, which is the
fi rst essential step in enabling more oversight of the government’s public fi nancial management.
These steps can lend legitimacy and substance, in both decision-making and accountability, to the
ongoing processes of decentralization, one key part of strengthening nationwide public fi nancial
management.
“The recent economic reform agenda released by the
government provides a helpful starting point for discussing
guiding principles for participatory budgeting.”
More so, participatory budgeting can contribute to the second pillar of the recent economic
policy: “Creating economic opportunities for balanced development of all states and regions.”
Participatory processes can empower citizens and their representatives in civil society to help
defi ne their own goals for “development” and prioritize the “economic opportunities” that they
view as most prescient and pressing in their community. For example, subnational forums for
participation can formalize points of contact between citizens, civil society and their state or
region government.
Providing citizens with the chance to shape their own development priorities within their own
states, regions and localities can further legitimize the process of decentralization. It will help
to synchronize the opportunities of development with the demands that emerge from democratic
processes. Ultimately, this harmonization can also play a small part in facilitating national
reconciliation in the country by building trust in the government – especially where participatory
budgeting mechanisms focus on incorporating historically voiceless and marginalized minorities.
It is one small step, of many necessary steps, to including more perspectives into government
decisions through formalized processes, which will be a necessary part of any sustainable
reconciliation.
8 Republic of the Union of Myanmar, National Economic Policy, 29 July, 2016.9 Ibid.
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Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
Grounding the principles for participatory reform in the government’s economic priorities situates
how such reforms can contribute to the overarching goals of decentralization, development
and democratization. More so, using participatory reforms to guide the implementation of the
government’s economic priorities with public feedback will help to democratize development, in
large part by further legitimizing the ongoing process of decentralization.
The Philippines – Leveraging Principles into Strategy
Arguably the most comprehensive set of participatory reforms in the budget process came under the Aquino
presidency in the Philippines from 2010 to 2016. His administration prioritized using participatory reforms
to diminish corruption. This was the central platform of both his election campaign and reform agenda
once in power; he linked stopping corruption to poverty alleviation and used participatory reforms as a
way to identify and limit corruption. The approach by the Philippines reaffi rms that linking participatory
mechanisms to a few clear underlying reform principles is the most successful way to establish a cogent
and successful strategy for participatory budgeting.
The Philippines, in initiating many innovative reforms in a short period, should be an important case-
study for Myanmar. In 2015, the International Budget Partnership rated them as the strongest developing
country in the region for budget transparency, public participation and budget oversight. They have
instituted strong reforms on both the national and subnational level. This synchronization of national
and subnational change is yet another rationale for using it as a signifi cant case study for Myanmar. At
the same time, the new government, which came to power in June 2016, has imperiled the rapid gains
in government transparency and accountability, in spite of their predecessors’ efforts. Thus the country
should also be studied for how an effective reform agenda requires strong and persistent political will, as
well as measures for long-term institutionalization, as a precondition for success.
Instead of mimicry, it is important that Myanmar fi rst considers some of the differences between the two
countries, especially in terms of institutional capacity, goals for participatory budgeting and strength of
civil society. While many of the reforms are laudable and deserve serious consideration in Myanmar, fi rst
Myanmar must study the way the Philippines sequenced their reforms. This will be the most important
part of developing a comprehensive, yet feasible strategy – especially one that includes both Union and
subnational level reforms – that is compatible with the many other ongoing changes in Myanmar. In this
way, an ambitious reform agenda can live up to its reality. Given the many reforms used by other nations
that are available for Myanmar to consider, many of which sound good, further discussion about their
feasibility must be carefully grounded in context. Clarifying priorities and sequencing reforms to match
institutional capacity is arguably the most important thing Myanmar can learn from a comparative study
with the Philippines and other countries. This is where future stakeholder discussions should begin when
considering a comprehensive strategy that combines a number of the participatory reforms to achieve clear
goals.
Francisco A. Magno, “Public Participation and Fiscal Transparency in the Philippines,” 35. Global Initiative for
Fiscal Transparency, May 2015.
International Budget Partnership, “Open Budget Survey 2015.”
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Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
Initial reform options for the next budget
While the subsequent discussion paper will provide an extensive analysis of options for short,
medium and long-term reform, as well as a framework for transforming guiding principles for
Myanmar and lessons learned from other countries into a coherent reform strategy, there are two
initial changes that should immediately be considered for the next budget.
First, the government should take immediate steps to release a pre-budget statement (PBS).
The PBS is an option used by many nations to facilitate broad-based discussion about the next
budget. A PBS is a simple, succinct and easy-to-understand presentation of priorities for the next
budget. It refl ects the major policy changes that are incorporated into the budget proposal. In
particular, the PBS lays out the core expenditure priorities, revenue mobilization framework, and
economic projections of the government. These economic projections should consist, in part, of
the government’s medium-term economic estimates in order to contextualize the budget changes
with broader economic trends and longer-term policy goals and forecasts. This will allow the
government to demonstrate the feasibility of policy reforms incorporated into the next budget over
the medium to long term.
The timing of releasing the PBS is essential in using the document to facilitate more substantive
participation. Best practice is for a PBS to be released at least four months before the beginning of
the fi scal year and one month before the Executive’s Budget Proposal in order to actively facilitate
feedback. This means that the PBS should be released by early December, as the Parliament
deliberates over the budget in January. With this timeline, there is suffi cient time for the public to
respond to the executive’s proposal. This can help the executive make revisions based on public
feedback before it submits the fi nal budget proposal to the Hluttaw. This timing will also allow
parliamentarians to consult with the public and civil society suffi ciently before they debate and
amend the budget.
The success of the PBS is not only based on its release date. The document is ultimately only
as effective as the way it is used by the government. The statement must be published, widely
circulated, and easily accessible. More so, the government must be proactive in encouraging
feedback. This is particularly important in the fi rst year of the PBS, where the government must
demonstrate that it is meant to jumpstart substantive discussion to inform government decision-
making rather than just act as a tokenistic gesture towards public participation.
10 Given the ongoing development of subnational governments, and their still growing institutional capacity, these are two
proposals geared at Union level reforms, where simple steps can immediately demonstrate serious government willingness
to include public feedback in its decision-making processes.11 Vivek Ramkumar and Isaac Shapiro, “Guide to Transparency in Government Reports,” 9.12 This fi ts best practice for the release of PBS as prescribed by the OECD and IBP.
See, also, Ramkumar and Shapiro, “Guide to Transparency in Government Reports.”
- 25 -
Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
The Ministry of Planning and Finance has already prepared a budget statement in previous years.
That said, the statement for the 2016-17 budget was sent to parliament as a PBS in December
2015, but was not made public until after the enactment of the budget. Last year’s budget
statement circumvents one of the main reasons for such a document: To encourage feedback and
show government responsiveness to public input and civil society expertise. Myanmar is already
experienced with producing a document that could be released as a PBS; making it a document that
can facilitate public participation in the Union-level budget process will only require a few small
steps. Following international standards can be an easy change that shows serious government
commitment to incorporating public feedback.
Secondly, relevant government bodies, such as the Ministry of Planning and Finance and
Parliamentary Joint Public Accounts Committee, should work together to empower a group of
relevant civil-society stakeholders that can convene in order to help implement the initial reforms
and continue discussions about a broader reform strategy. This group can act as an outlet for public
feedback in this year’s budget process while more comprehensive reforms are being developed.
For instance, the civil society organizations could sponsor open forums about this year’s PBS,
help to gather public feedback, and then communicate such feedback to the government as it
revises the budget proposal and debates it in Parliament. This would ensure that the PBS is a
meaningful document demonstrating a strong government commitment to changing its decision-
making culture. This group should also help to assemble data and coordinate communication
between already ongoing pilot participatory budgeting and community-led development projects
in different parts of the country. This way, they can coordinate more thinking about the ways
in which participatory reforms can be scaled up throughout the country. Such a group should
also undergo budget literacy training, so they can understand the more technical aspects of the
budget process and therefore be active participants in overseeing the budget process. They should
then also be responsible for jumpstarting broader education efforts to teach the public about the
budget process, and about the obligations of the government to practice sound public fi nancial
management in a transparent and accountable way.
Eventually, such a group can also become an institutional hub for future, more complex reforms
that require strong civil society participation. Such reforms might include the formulation
of an Alternative Budget, the development of social audits, and the issuing of report cards to
evaluate government spending. All of these more complex reforms will be discussed at length
in the subsequent discussion paper. In the interim, starting a standing network of civil-society
stakeholders that can lead the conversation about reforms can also ensure that there is a group
of CSOs committed to implementing such reforms in the future. There will be many different
pathways that such a civil society group can take in the future. For now, though, it is essential that
such a group of relevant stakeholders exist. In this way, determining the scope and strategy for
participatory reforms in the future will also be a participatory process that can be developed based
on the demands of civil society and its current capacity.
- 26 -
Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
Next steps
The subsequent discussion paper in this series will continue to demonstrate why participatory
mechanisms are well-suited for Myanmar given its current stage in the ongoing process of
economic and political reform. The fi rst part of the paper will do this by presenting options for
Union-level participatory budgeting mechanisms based on best practices from other nations.
The second part of the paper will use similar comparisons to put forth options for participatory
budgeting on the subnational level. All of these options will build upon the themes introduced
in this preliminary discussion of participatory reforms. These reforms can be thought of as an
important part of a larger strategy to assure that democratization and development work together
and build off of each other, rather than come into tension with each other. These two overarching
changes – democratization and development – will be harmonized, in part, by the ways that
participatory budgeting can further legitimize decentralization, namely by providing pathways
for sounder public fi nancial management and balanced development – the two guiding principles
for participatory reforms presented in this paper. Working towards these principles will also have
many spillover benefi ts such as increased trust in government and strengthened civil society.
Given these goals, there is much literature
and analysis that can inform discussion about
the key issues in formulating participatory
reforms. There are also other potential
principles that could be the focus of
Myanmar’s participatory budgeting programs
– other stakeholders should seriously consider
all potential principles that could guide
participatory budgeting, rather than just the
two presented above. Further discussion
and debate of these principles can help
Myanmar ground its plans for participatory
budgeting in clear goals, rather than risking
that participatory budgeting gets confl ated
as a catch-all remedy for all challenges
with decentralization, democratization and
development.
The above principles based on the national
economic policy priorities should only be a
starting point for such discussion. Wampler
(2012), for example, suggests four main tenets
Potential Benefi ts of Participatory Reforms
Benefi t
Increased trust in
government
Improved civic
culture
Government
accountability
Forums for
subnational
participation
More subnational
networks between
public, CSOs &
government
Public role in
promoting balanced
development
Improved PFM
outcomes
Mechanism
Public deliberation
Public deliberation and CSO
participation
Public oversight such as
social auditing
Subnational public
deliberation, including
Porto Alegre model
Subnational
public deliberation
with civil society
coordination
Public deliberation; targeted
spending in rural and
historically poor areas
Public oversight; increased
information disclosure such as
Pre-budget statement
13 These mechanisms for reform will be further explained in the subsequent discussion paper.
- 27 -
Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
that all participatory budgeting programs include: “voice,
vote, social justice and oversight.” These characteristics are
essential in assuring participatory budgeting leads to “greater
social change as measured through changes in democratic
legitimacy, social justice, and civil society.” This paper is
meant to jumpstart more discussion about different principles,
which will then be used to help guide the longer discussion
paper.
Moving forward, the analysis of the Renaissance Institute
will look at how different programs in other countries have
and have not incorporated these essential characteristics of
participatory budgeting. This will allow for an informed
discussion and debate about the primary objectives of
participatory budgeting in Myanmar, and a careful analysis
of the institutional frameworks that will be necessary to
support these goals within the unique context of Myanmar.
Once clear principles for participatory budgeting are settled
upon, the future analysis of the Renaissance Institute will
begin examining the specifi c institutional changes that can
bring these aspirations to reality.
First, though, it is imperative that the government demonstrate
a willingness to incorporate the public into the decision-
making process. To build an initial foundation for further
reforms, the government must release basic information
about the budget through a PBS. They must then actively
encourage and facilitate public feedback to demonstrate a
new willingness to listen to their constituents.
In order to do this, civil society can also play a crucial role by
translating public feedback to the government. A group of civil
society stakeholders that is empowered by the government
can help to do this by convening forums to discuss the PBS,
training the public about the budget and providing feedback
on the guiding principles and implementing strategies for
longer-term reform. These initial steps can lay the proper
and necessary foundation for more complex participatory
reforms to be developed in the future.
14 Wampler, Participatory Budgeting: Core Principles and Key Impacts, 1.
Developing a reform strategy
beyond the next budget
Setting guiding principles for reform
Determining institutional capacity for comprehensive
changes
Comparative study of other reform models
Developing a comprehensive strategy with short, medium
and long term goals
Persistent demonstration of government and civil society
will to implement reforms through institutionalization
- 28 -
Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process
&nfnTef;ukd;um;csuf (Works Cited)
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International Budget Partnership, “Open Budget Survey.” 2015.
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Lakin, Jason, and Mokeira Nyagaka. “Deliberating Budgets: How Public Deliberation Can Move
Us Beyond The Public Participation Rhetoric.” International Budget Partnership, 2016.
Magno, Francisco A. “Public Participation and Fiscal Transparency in the Philippines.” Global
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North, Douglass. Structure and Change in Economic History. W.W. Norton & Company, 1981.
Putnam, Robert D. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton
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Ramkumar, Vivek, and Isaac Shapiro. “Guide to Transparency in Government Reports.”
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Shah, Anwar et al. Participatory Budgeting, World Bank: Public Sector Governance and
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Wampler, Brian. “Participatory Budgeting: Core principles and Key Impacts.” Journal of Public
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