1

Buying time: City growth andBuying time: City growth andconcealed environmentalconcealed environmentalproblemsproblems++

Peter M J Fisher*, PhDPeter M J Fisher*, PhD

A (Len) Puglisi**A (Len) Puglisi**

* * James Goldston Faculty of Engineering & Physical Systems, CentralJames Goldston Faculty of Engineering & Physical Systems, Central

Queensland UniversityQueensland University

** ** Former planner with state and local governments in Victoria.Former planner with state and local governments in Victoria.

pmjfisher@bigpond.compmjfisher@bigpond.com

moral@alphalink.com.aumoral@alphalink.com.au

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+ Paper presented+ Paper presented to: to: State of Australian Cities ConferenceState of Australian Cities Conference , Parramatta, 4-6, Parramatta, 4-6

December 2003December 2003

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

Over the past few decades, Australia’s capital cities haveOver the past few decades, Australia’s capital cities have

experienced significant growth. They now cover vast areas, visitingexperienced significant growth. They now cover vast areas, visiting

their impacts further and further into the countryside and along thetheir impacts further and further into the countryside and along the

coast like spot fires ahead of a main blaze. Their rising economiccoast like spot fires ahead of a main blaze. Their rising economic

prosperity, reflected in an insatiable appetite for goods & servicesprosperity, reflected in an insatiable appetite for goods & services

and fed by aggressive economic commentators is, through materialsand fed by aggressive economic commentators is, through materials

and energy imports, sending environmental impacts into far awayand energy imports, sending environmental impacts into far away

places. (Brown, 2003; Hamilton, 2003).places. (Brown, 2003; Hamilton, 2003).

But society is still to convince itself that it should be facing up to theBut society is still to convince itself that it should be facing up to the

intractable problems of burgeoning affluence and population growth,intractable problems of burgeoning affluence and population growth,

detailed for example in the recent New South Wales environmentaldetailed for example in the recent New South Wales environmental

audit (EPA-NSW, 2003), that threaten to envelop cities and their far-audit (EPA-NSW, 2003), that threaten to envelop cities and their far-

flung hinterlands.flung hinterlands.

Meantime, there are critical often subtle concerns of growingMeantime, there are critical often subtle concerns of growing

seriousness that demand concerted attention, especially from Stateseriousness that demand concerted attention, especially from State

and local governments. This paper focuses on five, by no means theand local governments. This paper focuses on five, by no means the

only such concerns touching cities, that are rarely on planners’only such concerns touching cities, that are rarely on planners’

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screens, or if so, are given too little attention. Notably, these arescreens, or if so, are given too little attention. Notably, these are

fine particulate pollution, heat island effects and noise in local areafine particulate pollution, heat island effects and noise in local area

settings, water quality deterioration from run-off, and thesettings, water quality deterioration from run-off, and the

degradation of green space in urban environsdegradation of green space in urban environs

Many elements in fact defy straightforward solutions. Nevertheless,Many elements in fact defy straightforward solutions. Nevertheless,

a range of measures have been identified to reduce their severity; ina range of measures have been identified to reduce their severity; in

effect, helping to buy time while we face up to the downsides ofeffect, helping to buy time while we face up to the downsides of

runaway consumption and major population growth.runaway consumption and major population growth.

TODAY’S BROADER CONTEXT FOR CITYTODAY’S BROADER CONTEXT FOR CITYPLANNINGPLANNING

A popular focus of critics of our metropolises is their dispersed lowA popular focus of critics of our metropolises is their dispersed low

density form and high reliance on the car, resulting in the burning ofdensity form and high reliance on the car, resulting in the burning of

large amounts of fossil fuel.large amounts of fossil fuel.

Growing road traffic makes high demands for energy and causesGrowing road traffic makes high demands for energy and causes

environmental damage both locally in terms of air pollution,environmental damage both locally in terms of air pollution,

contaminated runoff, noise and globally in emission of greenhousecontaminated runoff, noise and globally in emission of greenhouse

gases (GHG). The transportation sector now accounts for about 17gases (GHG). The transportation sector now accounts for about 17

per cent of the GHG produced in Australia and most of this is fromper cent of the GHG produced in Australia and most of this is from

road transport. ABARE anticipates an economic growth rate of 2.4road transport. ABARE anticipates an economic growth rate of 2.4

per cent per annum for the sector through 2015. Traffic volumes areper cent per annum for the sector through 2015. Traffic volumes are

already increasing at around 2-3 per cent per annum and this can bealready increasing at around 2-3 per cent per annum and this can be

expected to rise further as vehicles grow yet larger (e.g. SUV's) &/orexpected to rise further as vehicles grow yet larger (e.g. SUV's) &/or

are driven further.are driven further.

Not surprisingly, given the global reach of the issue and theNot surprisingly, given the global reach of the issue and the

American and Australian governments intransigence towards theAmerican and Australian governments intransigence towards the

signing of Kyoto, environmental problems at large are usuallysigning of Kyoto, environmental problems at large are usually

viewed through a climate change prism. It took a severe drought toviewed through a climate change prism. It took a severe drought to

elevate water to anything near the profile that energy enjoys inelevate water to anything near the profile that energy enjoys in

government and industry.government and industry.

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There are plainly many other factors that make for or impairThere are plainly many other factors that make for or impair

environmental quality and thus form part of the sustainabilityenvironmental quality and thus form part of the sustainability

equation. The BASIX scorecard of NSW's Sustainability Unit, forequation. The BASIX scorecard of NSW's Sustainability Unit, for

example, in addition to energy and greenhouse, lists water, waste,example, in addition to energy and greenhouse, lists water, waste,

transport and social goals as requisites for checking newtransport and social goals as requisites for checking new

developments. These parameters crop up in metaphors like thedevelopments. These parameters crop up in metaphors like the

extended metabolism of human settlements (DEST, 1996; Newman,extended metabolism of human settlements (DEST, 1996; Newman,

2003; Yencken & Wilkinson, 2000).2003; Yencken & Wilkinson, 2000).

Treatises on the sustainability of cities are often obtuse,Treatises on the sustainability of cities are often obtuse,

understandably still exploratory, but when they do get around tounderstandably still exploratory, but when they do get around to

practicalities frequently focus on transportation and densification. Apracticalities frequently focus on transportation and densification. A

debate continues to run in academic circles between proponents ofdebate continues to run in academic circles between proponents of

compaction and continuing car-driven suburbanisation (Newman, opcompaction and continuing car-driven suburbanisation (Newman, op

cit; Troy 2001). When it reaches into government agendas, thecit; Troy 2001). When it reaches into government agendas, the

conclusions for policy are usually about infrastructure provision, inconclusions for policy are usually about infrastructure provision, in

the "predict and provide" mould. Population restraint rarely gets athe "predict and provide" mould. Population restraint rarely gets a

mention. Among the political leadership only Premier Bob Carr hasmention. Among the political leadership only Premier Bob Carr has

spoken out on the need for limits on people numbers, urgingspoken out on the need for limits on people numbers, urging

immigration quotas be reduced to 70,000 per annum. While he's stillimmigration quotas be reduced to 70,000 per annum. While he's still

finding ways to fit larger numbers into Sydney, Carr can foreseefinding ways to fit larger numbers into Sydney, Carr can foresee

continuous coastal development "from south of the Daintree tocontinuous coastal development "from south of the Daintree to

Southern Victoria".Southern Victoria".

Australia's population growth in any event looks set to swamp gainsAustralia's population growth in any event looks set to swamp gains

made by the application of eco-efficiency principles - a core preceptmade by the application of eco-efficiency principles - a core precept

of ecologically sustainable development. The idea here is toof ecologically sustainable development. The idea here is to

replace a situation where technology damages or threatens thereplace a situation where technology damages or threatens the

environment on the one hand and is used to secure it on the other,environment on the one hand and is used to secure it on the other,

by a unitary (sustainable) technology that augments economicby a unitary (sustainable) technology that augments economic

growth but by using less energy, water and materials per unit ofgrowth but by using less energy, water and materials per unit of

output. (Fisher, 2000a).output. (Fisher, 2000a).

Unfortunately the gains coming off greater efficiencies can be usedUnfortunately the gains coming off greater efficiencies can be used

as a platform for consuming more of the same service or productas a platform for consuming more of the same service or product

(i.e. the ‘rebound’ or ‘revenge effect’ (Tenner, 1997). So, no matter(i.e. the ‘rebound’ or ‘revenge effect’ (Tenner, 1997). So, no matter

how brilliant the innovations in management or technology might be,how brilliant the innovations in management or technology might be,

they can only advance cities so far towards sustainability.they can only advance cities so far towards sustainability.

5

Modifications are needed in consumer behaviour - a recent successModifications are needed in consumer behaviour - a recent success

story being the reduction in household water demand.story being the reduction in household water demand.

Nonetheless, it needs to be acknowledged that whereas a handful ofNonetheless, it needs to be acknowledged that whereas a handful of

Western cities - Amsterdam immediately comes to mind – appear toWestern cities - Amsterdam immediately comes to mind – appear to

be well on their way towards sustainability, their levels ofbe well on their way towards sustainability, their levels of

consumption are stressing ecological systems elsewhere (Beckett,consumption are stressing ecological systems elsewhere (Beckett,

2003; Fabian Society, 2003). Not to mention how a world-wide2003; Fabian Society, 2003). Not to mention how a world-wide

growing appetite for air travel is adding to global warming (Fisher,growing appetite for air travel is adding to global warming (Fisher,

2000b; ENDS 2003).2000b; ENDS 2003).

MORE CONCEALED FORMS OF URBANMORE CONCEALED FORMS OF URBANDEGRADATIONDEGRADATION

Whereas planners pursue consolidation and other arms ofWhereas planners pursue consolidation and other arms of

government busy themselves with promoting energy saving, watergovernment busy themselves with promoting energy saving, water

conservation and ‘water sensitive urban design’, a number ofconservation and ‘water sensitive urban design’, a number of

problems are being overlooked or downplayed which are affectingproblems are being overlooked or downplayed which are affecting

human health &/or degrading terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity.human health &/or degrading terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity.

However, because they are incremental, aren't producing anyHowever, because they are incremental, aren't producing any

immediate or obvious harm and where applicable, the offendingimmediate or obvious harm and where applicable, the offending

contaminants are invisible or near invisible, most receive little if anycontaminants are invisible or near invisible, most receive little if any

government, media or community attention (Kearney, 2003).government, media or community attention (Kearney, 2003).

Especially concerning are:Especially concerning are:

1) Particulates less than 2.5 microns (PM1) Particulates less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5's2.5's) originating from) originating from

growing numbers of diesel engines many poorly tuned (And, to somegrowing numbers of diesel engines many poorly tuned (And, to some

extent, internal combustion engines). It has been estimated that cityextent, internal combustion engines). It has been estimated that city

dwellers take in 25 million such particles with each breath. Lodgingdwellers take in 25 million such particles with each breath. Lodging

into the respiratory system these minute fractions are capable ofinto the respiratory system these minute fractions are capable of

triggering an inflammatory reaction in the lungs otherwise known astriggering an inflammatory reaction in the lungs otherwise known as

‘acute chemical sensitisation’, which can lead to cancers, heart‘acute chemical sensitisation’, which can lead to cancers, heart

disease, etc (Fisher, 1999; ABC-RN, 2003). They may similarlydisease, etc (Fisher, 1999; ABC-RN, 2003). They may similarly

affect pets and wildlife.affect pets and wildlife.

6

And, a new study has shown that carbon nano-particles like thoseAnd, a new study has shown that carbon nano-particles like those

from diesels can travel to the brain as well by moving down thefrom diesels can travel to the brain as well by moving down the

brain cells that pick up odours and transmit signals to the olfactorybrain cells that pick up odours and transmit signals to the olfactory

bulb (Oberdörster, 2004).bulb (Oberdörster, 2004).

Also present in diesel exhaust is 3-nitrobenzathrone, a nitroAlso present in diesel exhaust is 3-nitrobenzathrone, a nitro

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon which is produced in quantity frompolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon which is produced in quantity from

engines under heavy load. 3-nitrobenzathrone has been found toengines under heavy load. 3-nitrobenzathrone has been found to

cause massive chromosomal aberrations in the blood cells of mice,cause massive chromosomal aberrations in the blood cells of mice,

suggesting that it is likely to have similar effects on other mammals,suggesting that it is likely to have similar effects on other mammals,

including humans.including humans.

2) An increased volume of stormwater due to the loss of vegetated2) An increased volume of stormwater due to the loss of vegetated

surfaces and trees especially as a result of infill development. Thissurfaces and trees especially as a result of infill development. This

runoff can be contaminated by endocrine disrupting and otherrunoff can be contaminated by endocrine disrupting and other

damaging pharmaceutical residuals such as antidepressantsdamaging pharmaceutical residuals such as antidepressants

originating in mobilised doggy-do and the occasional sewageoriginating in mobilised doggy-do and the occasional sewage

overflow into drains during downpours (Fisher & Borland, 2003;overflow into drains during downpours (Fisher & Borland, 2003;

Streater, 2003). Also present are heavy metals. There is a palpableStreater, 2003). Also present are heavy metals. There is a palpable

failure to intercept and treat this water before it reaches andfailure to intercept and treat this water before it reaches and

damages stream and marine biota (Fisher, 2002a)damages stream and marine biota (Fisher, 2002a)

Lesser but still perturbing concerns are:Lesser but still perturbing concerns are:

1) Urban heat island effects from tree loss and replacement by hard,1) Urban heat island effects from tree loss and replacement by hard,

often reflective surfaces leading to increased power demand andoften reflective surfaces leading to increased power demand and

rain shadow effects. A NASA sponsored study of Atlanta forrain shadow effects. A NASA sponsored study of Atlanta for

instance, found that the swapping of trees and other vegetation forinstance, found that the swapping of trees and other vegetation for

heat absorbing asphalt, concrete and rooftops created an urban heatheat absorbing asphalt, concrete and rooftops created an urban heat

island that can generate its own winds, and thunderstorms warmisland that can generate its own winds, and thunderstorms warm

the city well into the night and dramatically increase the productionthe city well into the night and dramatically increase the production

of harmful ground level ozone. (ENN, 1999)of harmful ground level ozone. (ENN, 1999)

2) A noise epidemic extending beyond annoyance to sleep2) A noise epidemic extending beyond annoyance to sleep

disturbance affecting health (WHO, 1999) especially in newlydisturbance affecting health (WHO, 1999) especially in newly

consolidated areas. There is even evidence that road noise isconsolidated areas. There is even evidence that road noise is

impacting the breeding of birds by drowning out mating calls.impacting the breeding of birds by drowning out mating calls.

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3) Light pollution affecting humans (a possible breast cancer source3) Light pollution affecting humans (a possible breast cancer source

- Stevens & Rea, 2001), animals, insects and plants: Intense- Stevens & Rea, 2001), animals, insects and plants: Intense

constant illumination causes the normal circadian rhythm to go intoconstant illumination causes the normal circadian rhythm to go into

arrhythmia, to essentially go whacko. (IDSA, 2003).arrhythmia, to essentially go whacko. (IDSA, 2003).

A variety of other factors are adding to these troubles:A variety of other factors are adding to these troubles:

For instance, tree lopping and removal is gaining pace encouragedFor instance, tree lopping and removal is gaining pace encouraged

by opportunistic "tree managers" to avoid public liability from fallsby opportunistic "tree managers" to avoid public liability from falls

as a result of climate change related storms; to preserve viewsas a result of climate change related storms; to preserve views

(Lamont, 2004); or simply because of an outbreak of whipped-up(Lamont, 2004); or simply because of an outbreak of whipped-up

hysteria and minimalist landscape fashions. Such degreening hashysteria and minimalist landscape fashions. Such degreening has

had a domino effect - exposing and similarly damaging nearby treeshad a domino effect - exposing and similarly damaging nearby trees

leading to their subsequent removal and so forth. As a result,leading to their subsequent removal and so forth. As a result,

habitats are being lost for birds and marsupials (e.g. possums andhabitats are being lost for birds and marsupials (e.g. possums and

flying foxes) while the shading effects of tree cover are beingflying foxes) while the shading effects of tree cover are being

foregone leading to higher energy usage for cooling. Tree loss alsoforegone leading to higher energy usage for cooling. Tree loss also

means that the pollutant filtering capacity of foliage (Sequest et al,means that the pollutant filtering capacity of foliage (Sequest et al,

1998) is being diminished thus increasing exposure to PM1998) is being diminished thus increasing exposure to PM2.5s 2.5s nearnear

busy roads.busy roads.

Tree removal is in turn increasing runoff because precipitationTree removal is in turn increasing runoff because precipitation

normally caught and adsorbed by leaves - the cumulative leaf areanormally caught and adsorbed by leaves - the cumulative leaf area

of a tree is 100-1000 times the area of its drip zone – and taken-upof a tree is 100-1000 times the area of its drip zone – and taken-up

by roots is now in the gutters. Increased runoff is in turn loweringby roots is now in the gutters. Increased runoff is in turn lowering

salinity levels of inshore areas of seas affecting marine life bysalinity levels of inshore areas of seas affecting marine life by

delivering freshwater well in excess of earlier or pre-settlementdelivering freshwater well in excess of earlier or pre-settlement

eras.eras.

The loss of green space is more prevalent than commonly thought.The loss of green space is more prevalent than commonly thought.

For example, thirty years into their establishment, ‘third-tier’For example, thirty years into their establishment, ‘third-tier’

suburbs (featuring lot sizes of 500-600 msuburbs (featuring lot sizes of 500-600 m22) are being pummelled by) are being pummelled by

the removal of large canopied trees with a resultant loss of nativethe removal of large canopied trees with a resultant loss of native

fauna around houses and on large lot reserves. This extends tofauna around houses and on large lot reserves. This extends to

unwanted commercial and institutional sites which are being pressedunwanted commercial and institutional sites which are being pressed

into higher density housing. (Puglisi, 2003). The removal of remnantinto higher density housing. (Puglisi, 2003). The removal of remnant

deep rooted vegetation in some city localities/soils also raises thedeep rooted vegetation in some city localities/soils also raises the

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prospect that they will one day succumb to rising salinity: This hasprospect that they will one day succumb to rising salinity: This has

already occurred in Wagga and Dubbo and is now emergent inalready occurred in Wagga and Dubbo and is now emergent in

Penrith.Penrith.

At city perimeters, growth has hammered and continues to hammerAt city perimeters, growth has hammered and continues to hammer

biodiversity - birds, reptiles, marsupials and insects are steadilybiodiversity - birds, reptiles, marsupials and insects are steadily

losing habitat from the resumption of farmland and clearing oflosing habitat from the resumption of farmland and clearing of

remnant bush. The toll is truly staggering with over 100 millionremnant bush. The toll is truly staggering with over 100 million

mammals, birds and reptiles dying each year in Queensland alone: mammals, birds and reptiles dying each year in Queensland alone:

(WWF, 2003) And, major road projects especially motorways, are(WWF, 2003) And, major road projects especially motorways, are

acting as impassable barriers to genetic exchange between mammalacting as impassable barriers to genetic exchange between mammal

populations or as sites for running down creatures foolhardy enoughpopulations or as sites for running down creatures foolhardy enough

to attempt a crossing (Ariza, 1998).to attempt a crossing (Ariza, 1998).

Yet more disquietening is the appearance of ‘extinction debt’ whereYet more disquietening is the appearance of ‘extinction debt’ where

bird losses can occur up to thirty years after the original partialbird losses can occur up to thirty years after the original partial

clearing (Traill 2000).clearing (Traill 2000).

Remnant patches of vegetation both at the perimeter and withinRemnant patches of vegetation both at the perimeter and within

built-out areas are in trouble too because of the lack of fire, fringebuilt-out areas are in trouble too because of the lack of fire, fringe

effects, loss of pollinators and insectivorous/ pest eating birds,effects, loss of pollinators and insectivorous/ pest eating birds,

reduced gene pools and lack of genetic exchange (Saunders, 2002).reduced gene pools and lack of genetic exchange (Saunders, 2002).

For example a small patch of surviving box forest in Royal Park,For example a small patch of surviving box forest in Royal Park,

Melbourne has been invaded by exotic weeds and the number andMelbourne has been invaded by exotic weeds and the number and

variety of its native plants has plummeted in the mere space ofvariety of its native plants has plummeted in the mere space of

seven years. An interesting indication of decline in urban bushlandseven years. An interesting indication of decline in urban bushland

would stem from re-surveying the native flora in Studley Park andwould stem from re-surveying the native flora in Studley Park and

Yarra Bend Reserves in Melbourne and comparing the results withYarra Bend Reserves in Melbourne and comparing the results with

an earlier survey (McIntyre & Yugovic, 1982). Epacris impressa,an earlier survey (McIntyre & Yugovic, 1982). Epacris impressa,

Victoria’s floral emblem recorded there in 1982 and within sight ofVictoria’s floral emblem recorded there in 1982 and within sight of

the CBD, looks to have vanished possibly as a result of the loss ofthe CBD, looks to have vanished possibly as a result of the loss of

its bird pollinator, the Spriated Thornbill, and absence of fire..its bird pollinator, the Spriated Thornbill, and absence of fire..

Finally, in this litany of too little recognised environmentalFinally, in this litany of too little recognised environmental

depredations of urban stress, city water appetites are seriouslydepredations of urban stress, city water appetites are seriously

impacting environmental flows in tapped rural rivers alreadyimpacting environmental flows in tapped rural rivers already

adversely affected by the drought (Fisher, 2000c).adversely affected by the drought (Fisher, 2000c).

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A further commandeering of this supply is suggested by theA further commandeering of this supply is suggested by the

Californian experience (Murphy, 2003) Viz. in a head-to-headCalifornian experience (Murphy, 2003) Viz. in a head-to-head

confrontation between agricultural interests and those of the biggerconfrontation between agricultural interests and those of the bigger

constituency of the cities, the cities will usually win out.constituency of the cities, the cities will usually win out.

GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND THE INVESTMENTGOVERNMENT POLICIES AND THE INVESTMENTBOOMBOOM

There have been a number of consequences flowing from theThere have been a number of consequences flowing from the

property and investment boom apart from the hype. (A Sydney realproperty and investment boom apart from the hype. (A Sydney real

estate agent recently declared that "Most of the world has become aestate agent recently declared that "Most of the world has become a

developer" while a newspaper headline boasted that "Now we are alldeveloper" while a newspaper headline boasted that "Now we are all

landlords".).landlords".).

1) Foremost has been the creation of an atmosphere that cities can1) Foremost has been the creation of an atmosphere that cities can

keep on growing without meeting resource walls or causing seriouskeep on growing without meeting resource walls or causing serious

harm to the environment.harm to the environment.

Even the drought has failed to dent this expectation becauseEven the drought has failed to dent this expectation because

governments have simply said that increased demand can begovernments have simply said that increased demand can be

accommodated through water saving and water recycling rather thanaccommodated through water saving and water recycling rather than

new dams. Never mind that at some stage the fat will have beennew dams. Never mind that at some stage the fat will have been

fully taken up. (Downie, 2003; Fisher, 2000c)fully taken up. (Downie, 2003; Fisher, 2000c)

In fact, the States (with perhaps one notable exception) avoidIn fact, the States (with perhaps one notable exception) avoid

looking at this issue and proceed by nominating a year into thelooking at this issue and proceed by nominating a year into the

future, say 2020 or 2030. Then, in what could be called "thefuture, say 2020 or 2030. Then, in what could be called "the

infrastructure first approach to planning", governments, leading orinfrastructure first approach to planning", governments, leading or

more probably lead by them, ask their various service authorities tomore probably lead by them, ask their various service authorities to

say how that service can be supplied to the specified year. Thesay how that service can be supplied to the specified year. The

planning authorities are instructed to find the land to "fit in" a rangeplanning authorities are instructed to find the land to "fit in" a range

of projected population numbers.of projected population numbers.

The political and technical limitations of that approach are obvious:The political and technical limitations of that approach are obvious:

The service and planning arms of government are under direction toThe service and planning arms of government are under direction to

accommodate more people, so they must perform. No seriousaccommodate more people, so they must perform. No serious

conclusions are drawn as to what might happen after the specifiedconclusions are drawn as to what might happen after the specified

year. Nor is there consideration of what the implications of startingyear. Nor is there consideration of what the implications of starting

10

down the track from a higher platform of population might mean fordown the track from a higher platform of population might mean for

future governments.future governments.

If the reason for proceeding in this constrained way is a belief thatIf the reason for proceeding in this constrained way is a belief that

thinking too far ahead is fanciful, it can only mean that governmentsthinking too far ahead is fanciful, it can only mean that governments

have yet to recognise the time-scales and imperatives that arehave yet to recognise the time-scales and imperatives that are

driving today's rigorous environmental assessments (Pimm, 2001).driving today's rigorous environmental assessments (Pimm, 2001).

2) The boom has also served to exacerbate the systemic2) The boom has also served to exacerbate the systemic

environmental problems identified earlier in this paper. It hasenvironmental problems identified earlier in this paper. It has

speeded up land clearing, lifted the amount of hard surfaces throughspeeded up land clearing, lifted the amount of hard surfaces through

site redevelopment and seen the removal of many treessite redevelopment and seen the removal of many trees

(Hitchmough, 1992). The resumption of land at the perimeter for(Hitchmough, 1992). The resumption of land at the perimeter for

new housing has also deprived cities of nearby sources of freshnew housing has also deprived cities of nearby sources of fresh

produce by overrunning market gardens especially around Sydneyproduce by overrunning market gardens especially around Sydney

(Kelleher, 2001).(Kelleher, 2001).

3) Further, it has resulted in record numbers of light commercial3) Further, it has resulted in record numbers of light commercial

vehicles and new cars on urban roads. At first sight the latter mightvehicles and new cars on urban roads. At first sight the latter might

be expected to reduce pollution levels with the retirement ofbe expected to reduce pollution levels with the retirement of

‘smokers’ - that 10 per cent of the car fleet that produce 50 per cent‘smokers’ - that 10 per cent of the car fleet that produce 50 per cent

of vehicular emissions (ENDS, 1994). However, the presence ofof vehicular emissions (ENDS, 1994). However, the presence of

SUV's, many of which are diesels, has markedly increased (Marks,SUV's, many of which are diesels, has markedly increased (Marks,

2003). (Light commercial vehicles are usually diesel too.)2003). (Light commercial vehicles are usually diesel too.)

The miniscule particles emitted from these engines can remain inThe miniscule particles emitted from these engines can remain in

suspension, swirling around in the air for a week or so, assumingsuspension, swirling around in the air for a week or so, assuming

new chemical guises after being repeatedly super-cooked in thenew chemical guises after being repeatedly super-cooked in the

carburettors of other engines.carburettors of other engines.

Especially hazardous are de-greened locations notably streetEspecially hazardous are de-greened locations notably street

canyons close to gridlock conditions where hard, non-vegetatedcanyons close to gridlock conditions where hard, non-vegetated

surfaces predominate (Vardoulakis et al, 2003). Fines are swept upsurfaces predominate (Vardoulakis et al, 2003). Fines are swept up

here by wind and traffic in the hotter, drier months. Deceleration,here by wind and traffic in the hotter, drier months. Deceleration,

idling and acceleration, similarly make intersections especiallyidling and acceleration, similarly make intersections especially

hazardous places when average daily flows exceed 20,000 vehicleshazardous places when average daily flows exceed 20,000 vehicles

(Pearce, 2002; Kearney, op cit).(Pearce, 2002; Kearney, op cit).

11

In terms of policy responses short of broad traffic reductionIn terms of policy responses short of broad traffic reduction

measures, authorities would be unwise to use or to promotemeasures, authorities would be unwise to use or to promote

congestion as a tool for regulating traffic levels yet some do justcongestion as a tool for regulating traffic levels yet some do just

this. The proliferation of complaints in local air stressed situationsthis. The proliferation of complaints in local air stressed situations

belies the complacency that things are going well on the air qualitybelies the complacency that things are going well on the air quality

front. (Could the fear of opening a Pandora’s box of claims befront. (Could the fear of opening a Pandora’s box of claims be

preventing decisive responses?).preventing decisive responses?).

Under consolidation policies, multiple dwellings, shopping andUnder consolidation policies, multiple dwellings, shopping and

recreational uses have been added to the pre-existing, lower densityrecreational uses have been added to the pre-existing, lower density

urban fabric, very commonly along major roads and near busyurban fabric, very commonly along major roads and near busy

intersections. Alas, these are putting more and more people, andintersections. Alas, these are putting more and more people, and

worryingly, children, at serious health risk (AATSE, 1997. Janssen,worryingly, children, at serious health risk (AATSE, 1997. Janssen,

2001). What is more, a short cut to higher density, seen as desirable2001). What is more, a short cut to higher density, seen as desirable

because locations are often near train stations or adjoin transitbecause locations are often near train stations or adjoin transit

routes, has heightened exposure.routes, has heightened exposure.

Accordingly, if higher density development oriented to public transitAccordingly, if higher density development oriented to public transit

provision is to have a place in the construction of Australian cities,provision is to have a place in the construction of Australian cities,

then, as a policy, it will need to be carefully crafted to particular,then, as a policy, it will need to be carefully crafted to particular,

probably very few, locations. There is enough experience now of theprobably very few, locations. There is enough experience now of the

poor outcomes which flow from the broad-scale overlay of a generalpoor outcomes which flow from the broad-scale overlay of a general

policy of consolidation across metropolitan areas.policy of consolidation across metropolitan areas.

A comprehensive study of urban form and energy gives a salutaryA comprehensive study of urban form and energy gives a salutary

warning about the complexity of this issue. "It is one thing to saywarning about the complexity of this issue. "It is one thing to say

that cities with different urban forms have different rates of energythat cities with different urban forms have different rates of energy

consumption; it is quite another to say that a significantconsumption; it is quite another to say that a significant

improvement can be achieved through realistic changes to the formimprovement can be achieved through realistic changes to the form

of a particular city." (Anderson, 1996).of a particular city." (Anderson, 1996).

RELIEVING CITIES OF ENVIRONMENTALRELIEVING CITIES OF ENVIRONMENTALSTRESSSTRESS

A preparedness to restrict population growth is fundamental toA preparedness to restrict population growth is fundamental to

relieving resource and environmental stresses in the capital cities.relieving resource and environmental stresses in the capital cities.

Since the States are in fierce competition with each other forSince the States are in fierce competition with each other for

12

development opportunities there is little prospect of this happeningdevelopment opportunities there is little prospect of this happening

in the short run. In the long run many of the problems we havein the short run. In the long run many of the problems we have

identified will have taken their toll on people, wildlife and habitats.identified will have taken their toll on people, wildlife and habitats.

While governments and society are not yet willing to contemplate atWhile governments and society are not yet willing to contemplate at

least the stabilization of population numbers, and society seemsleast the stabilization of population numbers, and society seems

reluctant to dampen its drive for greater and greater affluence, whatreluctant to dampen its drive for greater and greater affluence, what

should we be looking at by way of remedying even the worst ofshould we be looking at by way of remedying even the worst of

these problems - as we say, seeking to buy some time?these problems - as we say, seeking to buy some time?

Insofar as particulates are concerned it could be argued that theInsofar as particulates are concerned it could be argued that the

early introduction of low sulphur diesel will provide a remedy butearly introduction of low sulphur diesel will provide a remedy but

unfortunately, not for 3-nitrobenzathrone. Moreover, PMunfortunately, not for 3-nitrobenzathrone. Moreover, PM2.5's2.5's also also

stem from internal combustion engines. Hybrid powertrains willstem from internal combustion engines. Hybrid powertrains will

undoubtedly help but a full transition to these and fuel cells is stillundoubtedly help but a full transition to these and fuel cells is still

decades away. decades away.

So as a first level development assessment tool, there seems noSo as a first level development assessment tool, there seems no

getting away from an imposition of setbacks (Whiston, 1983),getting away from an imposition of setbacks (Whiston, 1983),

planting regimes, building designs, etc, that would avoid or evenplanting regimes, building designs, etc, that would avoid or even

reduce the deleterious effects for people who work or reside inreduce the deleterious effects for people who work or reside in

unsatisfactory locations. In some cases, planning authorities shouldunsatisfactory locations. In some cases, planning authorities should

contemplate outright refusal of permission to build poorly locatedcontemplate outright refusal of permission to build poorly located

premises. Planning law allows that general policy intentions bepremises. Planning law allows that general policy intentions be

interpreted in the light of site-specific considerations.interpreted in the light of site-specific considerations.

Another response would see ‘low exposure zones’ established in theAnother response would see ‘low exposure zones’ established in the

most hazardous areas allowing entry only to vehicles meeting Euromost hazardous areas allowing entry only to vehicles meeting Euro

III (or minimally, Euro II) type emission standards – a ploy followedIII (or minimally, Euro II) type emission standards – a ploy followed

in some European cities.in some European cities.

The dousing of soils, groundwater, waterways and seas byThe dousing of soils, groundwater, waterways and seas by

stormwater contaminated with heavy metals, herbicides, hormonesstormwater contaminated with heavy metals, herbicides, hormones

and pharmaceutical residuals, is no more tractable. Curiously,and pharmaceutical residuals, is no more tractable. Curiously,

regulators are still preoccupied with litter, sediments and nutrients.regulators are still preoccupied with litter, sediments and nutrients.

(The dramatic decline in the diversity of marine life at Ricketts Point(The dramatic decline in the diversity of marine life at Ricketts Point

in Port Philip Bay over the past quarter of a century (Herrick, 2003)in Port Philip Bay over the past quarter of a century (Herrick, 2003)

could be partly interpreted in terms of the cumulative impact ofcould be partly interpreted in terms of the cumulative impact of

13

heavy metals, herbicides and possibly pharmaceutical residuals inheavy metals, herbicides and possibly pharmaceutical residuals in

runoff entering its reef zone.)runoff entering its reef zone.)

At present little if any drainage is caught to remove gross pollutantsAt present little if any drainage is caught to remove gross pollutants

before discharge to streams or the sea - Sydney has the most Grossbefore discharge to streams or the sea - Sydney has the most Gross

Pollutant Traps with about 600 but Brisbane is catching up. HoweverPollutant Traps with about 600 but Brisbane is catching up. However

these devices are allowing many serious contaminants through andthese devices are allowing many serious contaminants through and

if not regularly cleaned their polluted wet vaults are flushed out byif not regularly cleaned their polluted wet vaults are flushed out by

the next storm. Disturbingly, benchmark scientific tests undertakenthe next storm. Disturbingly, benchmark scientific tests undertaken

on some Melbourne GPT’s, established that the solid and liquidon some Melbourne GPT’s, established that the solid and liquid

muck in their wet vaults failed to meet even standards set formuck in their wet vaults failed to meet even standards set for

discharge to sewer.discharge to sewer.

Whereas Water Sensitive Urban Design is brandished as a universalWhereas Water Sensitive Urban Design is brandished as a universal

remedy it is near impossible both in terms of space and the price ofremedy it is near impossible both in terms of space and the price of

land to comprehensively retrofit built out areas – places responsibleland to comprehensively retrofit built out areas – places responsible

for the vast amount of urban runoff load. Offending contaminantsfor the vast amount of urban runoff load. Offending contaminants

instead should be trapped closer to their point of origin targettinginstead should be trapped closer to their point of origin targetting

hotspots like (fish) markets, car parks, industrial estates, etc ashotspots like (fish) markets, car parks, industrial estates, etc as

proposed for Sydney’s Black Wattle Bay catchment. One promisingproposed for Sydney’s Black Wattle Bay catchment. One promising

device has been developed by wetland specialist Geoffrey Saintydevice has been developed by wetland specialist Geoffrey Sainty

and collaborators using a vertical reed bed RootZone™ filter.and collaborators using a vertical reed bed RootZone™ filter.

Out on the streets there are one or two proprietary devices featuringOut on the streets there are one or two proprietary devices featuring

catch baskets (e,g, Enviropod™ in the Brisbane CBD) which can becatch baskets (e,g, Enviropod™ in the Brisbane CBD) which can be

inserted into side entry or gully pits alongside kerbs. These mayinserted into side entry or gully pits alongside kerbs. These may

also be fitted with filters keyed to different pollutants. However, thisalso be fitted with filters keyed to different pollutants. However, this

remedy is costly due to the sheer number of pits and the time mayremedy is costly due to the sheer number of pits and the time may

fast be approaching for independent financing of SQID infrastructurefast be approaching for independent financing of SQID infrastructure

(Chanan et al, 2001; Hunter & Fisher, 2003). One possible means is(Chanan et al, 2001; Hunter & Fisher, 2003). One possible means is

a stormwater tax levied according to the amount of imperviousa stormwater tax levied according to the amount of impervious

surface per site. Such taxes already apply in Florida.surface per site. Such taxes already apply in Florida.

The remaining systemic problems similarly defy all encompassingThe remaining systemic problems similarly defy all encompassing

solutions but a reduction in their severity remains possible:solutions but a reduction in their severity remains possible:

1) Many councils have powers to limit tree removal but can do little1) Many councils have powers to limit tree removal but can do little

about the destruction of understoreys (justified for fire protection)about the destruction of understoreys (justified for fire protection)

which are key habitats for many small creatures. It would seem thatwhich are key habitats for many small creatures. It would seem that

14

most patches of remnant vegetation in any event are geneticallymost patches of remnant vegetation in any event are genetically

doomed although strategic burns from time to time would temporarilydoomed although strategic burns from time to time would temporarily

reinvigorate them provided there exist nearby refuges for fauna.reinvigorate them provided there exist nearby refuges for fauna.

2) The valuable role played by backgarden vegetation in providing2) The valuable role played by backgarden vegetation in providing

corridors for the movement of birds and some marsupials could becorridors for the movement of birds and some marsupials could be

better recognised as well, while urban heat island effects can bebetter recognised as well, while urban heat island effects can be

partially overcome by insisting that large trees remain inpartially overcome by insisting that large trees remain in

consolidated localities. These effects might otherwise become soconsolidated localities. These effects might otherwise become so

severe that city authorities will be forced to plant trees to createsevere that city authorities will be forced to plant trees to create

cool spots and to paint roofs white to reflect heat back into spacecool spots and to paint roofs white to reflect heat back into space

(Radford, 2000).(Radford, 2000).

3) Some progress appears to have been made on noise mainly in3) Some progress appears to have been made on noise mainly in

relation to buildings but little has been achieved with off-the-streetrelation to buildings but little has been achieved with off-the-street

noise or the problem in relation to airports. Changing life styles hasnoise or the problem in relation to airports. Changing life styles has

rendered many noise ordinances inappropriate.rendered many noise ordinances inappropriate.

4) Finally, light pollution can be lowered by retrofitting street lamps4) Finally, light pollution can be lowered by retrofitting street lamps

with infrared switches saving energy as well. Or at least adoption ofwith infrared switches saving energy as well. Or at least adoption of

the practice of American states like Arizona, Maine, New Mexico andthe practice of American states like Arizona, Maine, New Mexico and

Connecticut of eliminating the amount of light that goes above theConnecticut of eliminating the amount of light that goes above the

lamp in streetlights and other outdoor lighting fixtures. (IDSA, oplamp in streetlights and other outdoor lighting fixtures. (IDSA, op

cit) .ci t) .

CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

Australia is a deep-time creation (Fisher, 2002b). Successive wavesAustralia is a deep-time creation (Fisher, 2002b). Successive waves

of immigrants to its shores stumbled upon an extraordinary entity,of immigrants to its shores stumbled upon an extraordinary entity,

with stunning regional variations, unmatched in natural diversity,with stunning regional variations, unmatched in natural diversity,

certainly in relation to the Europe from which most of the secondcertainly in relation to the Europe from which most of the second

contingent came. We should not settle for lives in lost or degradedcontingent came. We should not settle for lives in lost or degraded

landscapes let alone a diminution of the invaluable services to thelandscapes let alone a diminution of the invaluable services to the

economy that the other Australia's natural capital provides. economy that the other Australia's natural capital provides.

Its remnant existence (White, 1994) posits a question mark againstIts remnant existence (White, 1994) posits a question mark against

the wisdom of chasing a global-style urbanism/minimalist built formthe wisdom of chasing a global-style urbanism/minimalist built form

in architecture and landscaping. Australia's indigenous nature canin architecture and landscaping. Australia's indigenous nature can

15

be understood as a metaphor for the local as against the global viewbe understood as a metaphor for the local as against the global view

of the world.of the world.

Yet our cities are teeming with people living and working in settingsYet our cities are teeming with people living and working in settings

where the relationship between their existence and the life-supportwhere the relationship between their existence and the life-support

system beyond the ex-urban areas and paddocks is becoming moresystem beyond the ex-urban areas and paddocks is becoming more

obscure despite the drought.obscure despite the drought.

Recent figures reveal that concern for the environment amongRecent figures reveal that concern for the environment among

Australian households has fallen to its lowest point (62 per cent)Australian households has fallen to its lowest point (62 per cent)

since the ABS began asking the question in 1972. But it may takesince the ABS began asking the question in 1972. But it may take

several generations for Australians to acquire a fresh perspective onseveral generations for Australians to acquire a fresh perspective on

their residency of this continent. That shift is imperative for repair totheir residency of this continent. That shift is imperative for repair to

take hold and inspire.take hold and inspire.

This deep-time perspective and evidence - pointed to earlier in theThis deep-time perspective and evidence - pointed to earlier in the

paper about the serious degradation resulting from populationpaper about the serious degradation resulting from population

growth, runaway affluence and boom-time development - suggest agrowth, runaway affluence and boom-time development - suggest a

cautionary stance by planners towards accommodating the rush forcautionary stance by planners towards accommodating the rush for

big numbers. Subtlety is needed in dealing with different sectors ofbig numbers. Subtlety is needed in dealing with different sectors of

Australia's major cities, by overlaying more sophisticated evidenceAustralia's major cities, by overlaying more sophisticated evidence

of stress emerging from growth so far (White, 1997). of stress emerging from growth so far (White, 1997).

There are clearly difficulties in making that transition and no oneThere are clearly difficulties in making that transition and no one

knows the best ways to redirect a still largely reluctant society toknows the best ways to redirect a still largely reluctant society to

look more than a short time ahead. Planners at least need to startlook more than a short time ahead. Planners at least need to start

by voicing concerns about the raw push for growth and acknowledgeby voicing concerns about the raw push for growth and acknowledge

its limitations. At the very least, decisive action is well overdue toits limitations. At the very least, decisive action is well overdue to

lessen the incidence of the problems we have identified.lessen the incidence of the problems we have identified.

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