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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT & COMMERCIAL SCIENCES
Total Quality Management 621
Year 2 Semester 1
Previously
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT
& COMMERCIAL SCIENCES
LEARNER GUIDE
MODULE: Total Quality Management 621
(1st
SEMESTER)
Copyright © 2016 Richfield Graduate Institute Of Technology (Pty) Ltd
Registration Number: 2000/000757/07 All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying
machines, without the written permission of the Institution.
TABLE OF CONTENT
TOPICS PAGE NO
Section A: Preface
1. Welcome 6
2. Title of Modules 7
3. Purpose of Module 7
4. Learning Outcomes 7
5. Method of Study 8
6. Lectures and Tutorials 8
7. Notices 8
8. Prescribed & Recommended Material 9
9. Assessment & Key Concepts in Assignments and Examinations 10
10. Specimen Assignment Cover Sheet 12
11. Work Readiness Programme 14
12. Work Integrated Learning 15
Section B: TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT 621 (1ST
Semester)
TOPIC 1: TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
1.1 Introduction 20
1.2 What Is Quality? 21
1.3 Quality In Terms Of a Good 22
1.4 Dimensions of Service Quality 23
1.5 Understanding the Quality Chains 24
1.5 Understanding The Customer – Supplier Relationship 26
1.7 Customers 26
1.8 Suppliers 26
1.9 Quality Starts with Marketing 27
1.10 Quality In All Functions 27
1.11 Total Quality Management 27
1.12 TQM Implementation Approaches 27
1.13 Quality Management Principles 28
Assessment Questions 29
TOPIC 2: LEADERSHIP IN THE CREATION OF QUALITY
CULTURE IN ORGANISATIONS
2.1 The Eight Elements of TQM 30
2.2 Commitment and policy 35
2.3 Creating and maintaining a quality culture 39
2.4 Control procedures as elements of culture 40
Assessment Questions 40
TOPIC 3: MANAGING FOR TOTAL QUALITY
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 What Is The Difference Between Leadership And Management? 41
3.3 Ten Points for Managers – The Foundation of the TQM
Model
41
3.4 Organisation for Quality 42
3.5 Design for Quality 43
3.6 The Design Process 44
3.7 Design in the Service Sector 44
3.8 Assessment Questions 44
TOPIC 4: EMPLOYEES PARTICIPATION IN THE QUALITY
PROCESS AND SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO QUALITY
TRAINING
QUALITY TRAINING
4.1 Quality Planning 45
4.2 Systematic Quality Planning 46
4.3 Communicating for Quality 47
4.4 Training Defined 48
4.5 Role of Training 49
4.6 Benefits of Systematic Approached to Training 49
4.7 Model of Systematic Approach to Training 50
4.8 Establishing, Assessing the Quality & Effectiveness of
4.9 Training
50
4.9 Training Design 52
4.10 Basic Overview of Some Systematic Approaches to Training 52
4.11 Assess Results 53
4.12 Match between Training Objectives & Training Methods 53
4.13 Balanced Content 54
4.14 Training for Quality 54
4.15 The training cycle 54
4.16 The training cycle of Improvement 55
4.17 A Systematic Approach to Quality Training 55
4.18 Training needs of the four levels in organisation 56
4.19 Follow up 57
4.20 Assessment Questions 57
TOPIC 5: QUALITY OF WORK LIFE
5.1 Introduction 58
5.2 Definition Of Quality Of Work Life (QWL) 58
5.3 The concept of career anchors 59
5.4 Elements of Quality of Work Life 60
5.5 An Organisational Model for QWL 62
5.6 Assessment and Improvement of QWL in Organisations 66
5.7 Relationship between QWL and Motivation in the Workplace 67
5.8 Ineffectual TQM Implementation 68
5.9 TQM Loses Effectiveness 69
5.10 Conclusion 69
5.11 Assessment Questions 70
TOPIC 6: THE ROLE OF TRADE UNIONS
6.1 Introduction 71
6.2 Role of Trade Unions 71
6.3 Unions Challenge Apartheid 72
6.4 Labour Relation Act 73
6.5 Regulated, Co-operative Labour Relations 74
6.6 Three Main Union Federations 74
6.7 Strong Unions, Stable Workplace 75
6.8 Trade Unions Future 75
6.9 Assessment Questions 77
TOPIC 7: ADDENDUM 621 (A): CASE STUDY FOR TUTORIAL
DISCUSSION
78
TOPIC 8: ADDENDUM 621 (B): ASSIGNMENT 86
TOPIC 9: ADDENDUM 621 (C): TYPICAL EXAMINATION
QUESTIONS
89
SECTION A: PREFACE
1. WELCOME
Welcome to the Business Administration, Management & Commercial Sciences at
RICHFIELD GRADUATE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY .
We trust you will find the contents and learning outcomes of this module
both interesting and insightful as you begin your academic journey and
eventually your career in the business world.
This section of the study guide is intended to orientate you to the module before
the commencement of formal lectures.
Please note that this study guide covers the content the Total Quality Management
Your lecturers will provide further guidance and additional study materials
covering parts of the syllabi that may have been omitted from this study guide.
The following lectures will focus on the common study units described:
SECTION A: WELCOME & ORIENTATION
Study unit 1: Orientation Programme
Introducing academic staff to the Students by academic head.
Introduction of institution policies.
Lecture 1
Study unit 2: Orientation of Learners to Library and Students
Facilities
Introducing Students to physical structures
Lecture 2
Study unit 3: Distribution and Orientation of Total Quality
Management 621 Learner Guides, Textbooks and Prescribed Materials
Lecture 3
Study unit 4: Discussion on the Objectives and Outcomes of Total
Quality Management 621
Lecture 4
Study unit 5: Orientation and guidelines to completing Assignments
Review and Recap of Study units 1-4
Lecture 5
2. TITLE OF MODULES, COURSE, CODE, NQF LEVEL, CREDITS &
MODE OF DELIVERY
1st Semester
Title Of Module:
Code:
Credits:
Mode of Delivery:
Total Quality Management
TQM_621
10
Contact / Distance
3. PURPOSE OF MODULE
3.1Total Quality Management 621
The purpose of this module is to give students an overview of the quality
management tools required to enter the management business/employment
world. Total Quality Management has a well-balanced approach in that it
is structured so that it not only informs and educates you about the theoretical
background required in the business world, but also has a powerful practical
element / component. Our practical syllabus follows strongly in line with that
of strong management principles and standards currently employed by many
enterprises today. To introduce the learner to the employees‟ role in the quality
process and the concept of quality of work for life
4. LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this module, learners should have a basic / fundamental
practical and theoretical knowledge of:
What is Total Quality Management
The role of leadership in the creation of a quality culture
Managing for quality
employees participation in the quality process and systematic approach to
quality training
Quality of work life.
The role of Trade unions
5. METHOD OF STUDY
The sections that have to be studied are indicated under each topic. These form the basis for
tests, assignments and examination. To be able to do the activities and assignments for this
module, and to achieve the learning outcomes and ultimately to be successful in the tests
and examination, you will need an in- depth understanding of the content of these sections
in the learning guide and prescribed book. In order to master the learning material, you must
accept responsibility for your own studies. Learning is not the same as memorising. You
are expected to show that you understand and are able to apply the information. Use will
also be made of lectures, tutorials, case studies and group discussions to present this module.
6. LECTURES AND TUTORIALS
Total Quality Management, has 3 Lecture periods and 1 Tutorial period per week. The
lecturer responsible for each lecture unit will cover the syllabus according to the detailed
lecture schedule. Prior reading of the learner guide is required for each lecture unit and tries
to answer tutorial questions at the end of the unit. Learners are encouraged to participate in
lectures and tutorials, as their participation will contribute to their continuous assessment
marks and CA requirements for each semester.
7. NOTICES
All Total Quality Management notices (e.g. test dates, assignments, examination dates,
tutorials meetings etc) will be displayed on the notice board located at your campus.
Learners are advised to check the notice board on a daily basis.
8. PRESCRIBED & RECOMMENDED MATERIAL
8.1 Prescribed Material: Diploma of Business Administration
Oakland J. S. 2010: TQM – Text with Cases. Burlington, Oxford. Butterworth-
Heinemann
8.2Recommended Material: Diploma of Business Administration Cross Cultural Communication – Brain Jude
Understanding Behaviour – Brain Jude
Understanding the Difference in People – Brain Jude
8.3Independent Research: The student is encouraged to undertake independent research with emphasis on the value of strategic thinking in companies and the formulation of a Marketing plan.
8.4Library Infrastructure The following services are available to you: 8.4.1Each campus keeps a limited quantity of the recommended reading titles and a larger
variety of similar titles which you may borrow. Please note that learners are required
to purchase the prescribed materials.
8.4.2Arrangements has been made with municipal, state and other libraries to stock our
recommended reading and similar titles. You may use these on their premises or
borrow them if available. It is your responsibilities to safe keep all library books.
8.4.3RGI has also allocated one library period per week as to assist you with your formal
research under professional supervision.
8.4.4RGI has dedicated electronic libraries for use by its learners. The computers
laboratories, when not in use for academic purposes, may also be used for research
purposes. Booking is essential for all electronic library usage.
9. ASSESSMENT
Final Assessment for this module will comprise two Continuous Assessment tests, an
assignment and an examination. Your lecturer will inform you of the dates, times and the
venues for each of these. You may also refer to the notice board on your campus or the
Academic Calendar which is displayed in all lecture rooms.
9.1Continuous Assessment Tests
There are two compulsory tests for each module (in each semester).
9.2Assignment
There is one compulsory assignment for each module in each semester. Your lecturer
will inform you of the Assessment questions at the commencement of this module.
9.3Examination There is one two hour examination for each module. Make sure that you diarize
the correct date, time and venue. The examinations department will notify you of your
results once all administrative matters are cleared and fees are paid up.
The examination may consist of multiple choice questions, short questions and essay type
questions. This requires you to be thoroughly prepared as all the content matter of lectures,
tutorials, all references to the prescribed text and any other additional
documentation/reference materials is examinable in both your tests and the examinations.
The examination department will make available to you the details of the examination (date,
time and venue) in due course. You must be seated in the examination room 15 minutes
before the commencement of the examination. If you arrive late, you will not be allowed
any extra time. Your learner registration card must be in your possession at all times.
9.4Final Assessment The final assessment for this module will be weighted as follows:
Continuous Assessment Test 1 Continuous Assessment Test 2 40%
Assignment 1
Examination 60%
Total 100%
9.5Key Concepts in Assignments and Examinations
In assignment and examination questions you will notice certain key concepts (i.e.
words/verbs) which tell you what is expected of you. For example, you may be asked
in a question to list, describe, illustrate, demonstrate, compare, construct, relate, criticize,
recommend or design particular information / aspects
/ factors /situations. To help you to know exactly what these key concepts or verbs mean
so that you will know exactly what is expected of you, we present
the following taxonomy by Bloom, explaining the concepts and stating the level of cognitive
thinking that theses refer to.
Competence Skills Demonstrated
Knowledge
observation and recall of information knowledge of dates, events, places
knowledge of major ideas
mastery of subject matter
Question
Cues list, define, tell, describe, identify, show, label, collect, examine, tabulate, quote, name, who, when, where, etc.
Comprehension
understanding information grasp meaning
translate knowledge into new context
interpret facts, compare, contrast
order, group, infer causes
predict consequences
Question
Cues summarize, describe, interpret, contrast, predict, associate, distinguish, estimate, differentiate, discuss, extend
Application
use information use methods, concepts, theories in new situations
solve problems using required skills or knowledge
Questions
Cues apply, demonstrate, calculate, complete, illustrate, show, solve, examine, modify, relate, change, classify, experiment, discover
Analysis
seeing patterns organization of parts
recognition of hidden meanings
identification of components
Question
Cues analyze, separate, order, explain, connect, classify, arrange, divide, compare, select, explain, infer
Synthesis
use old ideas to create new ones generalize from given facts
relate knowledge from several areas
predict, draw conclusions
Question
Cues combine, integrate, modify, rearrange, substitute, plan, create, design, invent, what if?, compose, formulate, prepare, generalize, rewrite
Evaluation
compare and discriminate between ideas
assess value of theories, presentations make
choices based on reasoned argument verify
value of evidence recognize subjectivity
Question
Cues assess, decide, rank, grade, test, measure, recommend, convince, select, judge, explain, discriminate, support, conclude, compare, summarize
RICHFIELD GRADUATE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
FACULTY OF BUSINESS, ECONOMICS & MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
ASSIGNMENT COVER SHEET
Name & Surname: ____________________________________________ ICAS No: _________________
Qualification: ______________________ Semester: _____ Module Name: __________________________
Specialization: _____________________ Date Submitted: ___________
Question Number Mark Allocation Examiner’s Mark Moderator’s Marks
1
2
3
4
5
Total 100
Examiner’s Comments:
Signature of Examiner: Date:
Moderator’s Comments:
Signature of Moderator: Date:
Signature of Verifier: Date:
NB: Assignments are compulsory as it forms part of Continuous Assessment that goes toward the final mark.
ASSIGNMENT GUIDELINES
The purpose of an assignment is to ensure that the Learner is able to:
Use methods of enquiry and research in a disciplined field.
Interpret and evaluate text.
Have a sound understanding of key principles and theories, rules and awareness.
Solve unfamiliar problems using correct procedures as well as investigate and critically analyse information and report thereof.
Present and communicate information reliably, coherently and
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
When the final mark is calculated the following criteria must be taken into account:
1. READING AND KNOWLEDGE OF SUBJECT MATTER
Wide reading and comprehensive knowledge in the application of theory 2. UNDERSTANDING, ANALYSIS AND ARGUMENT
Complete and perceptive awareness of issues and clear grasp of their wider significance. Clear evidence of independent thought and ability to defend a position logically and convincingly.
3. ORGANISATION AND PRESENTATION
Careful thought given to arrangement and development of material and argument.
Good English with appropriate referencing and comprehensive bibliography.
Instructions and guidelines for writing assignments
1. Use the correct cover page provided by the institution.
2. All essay type assignments must include the following:
2.1 Table of contents
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Main body with subheadings
2.4 Conclusions and recommendations
2.5 Bibliography
3. The length of the entire assignment must have minimum of 5 pages. Preferably typed with font size
12
3.1 The quality of work submitted is more important than the number of assigned pages.
4. Copying is a serious offence which attracts a severe penalty and must be avoided at all costs. If any
learner transgresses this rule, the lecturer will retain the assignments and ask the affected learners
to resubmit a new assignment which will be capped at 50%.
5. Use the Harvard referencing method.
10. WORK READINESS PROGRAMME (WRP)
In order to prepare learners for the world of work, a series of interventions over
and above the formal curriculum, are concurrently implemented to prepare
learners. These include:
Soft skills
Employment skills
Life skills
End –User Computing (if not included in your curriculum)
The illustration below outlines some of the key concepts for Work Readiness
that will be included in your timetable.
SOFT SKILLS Time Management
Working in Teams
Problem Solving Skills
Attitude & Goal Setting
Etiquettes & Ethics
Communication Skills
LIFE SKILLS Manage Personal Finance
Driving Skills
Basic Life Support &
First Aid
Entrepreneurial skills
Counseling skills
WORK
READINESS
PROGRAMM
EMPLOYMENT SKILLS CV Writing
Interview Skills
Presentation Skills
Employer / Employee Relationship
End User Computing
Email & E-Commerce
Spread Sheets
Data base
Presentation
Office Word
It is in your interest to attend these workshops, complete the Work Readiness
Log Book and prepare for the Working World.
11. WORK INTEGRATED LEARNING (WIL)
Work Integrated Learning forms a core component of the curriculum for the
completion of this programme. All modules making of the programme will be
assessed in an integrated manner towards the end of the programme or after
completion of all other modules. Prerequisites for placement with employers will
include:
Completion of all tests & assignment
Success in examination
Payment of all arrear fees
Return of library books, etc.
Completion of the Work Readiness Programme.
Students will be fully inducted on the Work Integrated Learning Module, the
Workbooks & assessment requirements before placement with employers.
The partners in Work Readiness Programme (WRP) include:
Good luck and success in your studies…
TOPICS DIPLOMA
TOPIC 1: TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
1.1 Introduction Lecture 6
1.2 What Is Quality?
1.3 Quality In Terms Of a Good
1.4 Dimensions of Service Quality Lecture 7
1.5 Understanding the Quality Chains
Understanding The Customer – Supplier Relationship Lecture 8
1.6 Customers
1.7 Suppliers Lecture 9
1.8 Quality Starts With Marketing
1.9 Quality In All Functions
1.10 Total Quality Management Lecture 10
1.11 TQM Implementation Approaches
1.12 Quality Management Principles
Assessment Questions Lecture 11
TOPIC 2: LEADERSHIP IN THE CREATION OF QUALITY
CULTURE IN ORGANISATIONS
2.1 The Eight Elements of TQM Lecture 12-13
2.2 Commitment and policy
Lecture 14-18 2.3 Creating and maintaining a quality culture
2.4 Control procedures as elements of culture
2.5 Conclusion
Assessment Questions Lecture 19-20
TOPIC 3: MANAGING FOR TOTAL QUALITY
3.1 Ten Points for Managers – The Foundation of the TQM
Model
Lecture 21-22
3.3 What Is The Difference Between Leadership And Management? Lecture 23
3.3 Organisation for Quality
Lecture 24-26 3.4 Design for Quality
3.5 The Design Process
Assessment Questions Lecture 27
TOPIC 4: EMPLOYEES PARTICIPATION IN THE
QUALITY PROCESS AND SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO
QUALITY TRAINING
4.1 Quality Planning
Lecture 28-30 4.2 Systematic Quality Planning
4.3 Communicating for Quality
4.4 Training Defined Lecture 31-33
4.5 Role of Training
4.6 Benefits of Systematic Approached to Training
Lecture 34 4.7 Model of Systematic Approach to Training
4.8 Establishing, Assessing the Quality & Effectiveness of
4.9 Training 4.9 Training Design
Lecture 35 4.10 Basic Overview of Some Systematic Approaches to Training
4.11 Assess Results
4.12 Match between Training Objectives & Training Methods
Lecture 36 4.13 Balanced Content
4.14 Training for Quality
4.15 The training cycle Lecture 37-38
4.16 The training cycle of Improvement
4.17 A Systematic Approach to Quality Training
Lecture 39-42
4.18 Training needs of the four levels in organisation
4.19 Follow up
4.20 Assessment Questions
TOPIC 5: QUALITY OF WORK LIFE
5.1 Introduction Lecture 43-45
5.2 Definition Of Quality Of Work Life (QWL)
5.3 Elements of Quality of Work Life
5.4 An Organisational Model for QWL Lecture 46-48
5.5 Assessment and Improvement of QWL in Organisations
5.6 Relationship between QWL and Motivation in the Workplace
5.7 Ineffectual TQM Implementation Lecture 49
5.8 TQM Loses Effectiveness
5.9 Conclusion Lecture 50
5.10 Assessment Questions
TOPIC 6: THE ROLE OF TRADE UNIONS
6.1 Introduction
Lecture 51-53 6.2 Role of Trade Unions
6.3 Unions Challenge Apartheid
6.4 Labour Relation Act
Lecture 54-57 6.5 Regulated, Co-operative Labour Relations
6.6 Three Main Union Federations
6.7 Strong Unions, Stable Workplace Lecture 58
6.8 Trade Unions Future
6.9 Assessment Questions
TOPIC 7: ADDENDUM 102 (A): CASE STUDY FOR
TUTORIAL DISCUSSION
Lecture 59
TOPIC 7: ADDENDUM 621 (B): ASSIGNMENT Lecture 50
TOPIC 8: ADDENDUM 621 (C): EXAMINATION Lecture 51-52
TOPIC 1
1. TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this topic, you should be able to:
Describe the concept of quality and Total Quality Management philosophy
Be able to analyse the quality chains and describe their elements
Describe the role of marketing in the quality process.
Understand TQM implementation approaches
Be able to Discuss Quality management principles
1.1 INTRODUCTION
No matter in what industry or organisation you are, there is always competition.
Organisations compete for customers, learners, resources, donor funds etc. When
an organisation competes, it basically competes on its reputation for quality,
reliability, delivery, price and value added. It is for this reason many organisations
now view quality as a competitive edge. This trend is prevalent in Japan, the
United States, Britain, Spain, Sweden, Germany, Italy, Africa and various other
countries in the world. Quality is a vital element in ensuring that an organisation
has a competitive advantage over other organisations. An Organisation that does
not prioritise quality is an organisation that has a limited lifespan. In fact, quality
has become such an important requirement in business that businesses, which
don’t practice and preach quality, may cease to exist in the future. This fact is
recognised all over the business world.
Definition
Total quality management is a management system for a customer-focused
organization that involves all employees in continual improvement of all aspects
of the organization.
What Is Total Quality Management Total quality management (TQM) is a process that begins with a vision for a
project that is actively promoted by an organizational leader. A vision provides
a realistic target and connects an organization to future goals by effective use of
all assets. The formulation of a vision can be the product of a team effort but must
be shared by a leader with employees, customers and suppliers.
Total quality management concepts are an integrative system that uses strategy,
data, and effective communication to integrate the quality principles into the
culture and activities of the organization.
Principles of TQM
Be Customer focused:
Whatever you do for quality improvement, remember that ONLY customers determine the level of quality, whatever you do to foster quality improvement,
training employees, integrating quality into processes management, ONLY
customers determine whether your effort were worthwhile.
Insure Total Employee Involvement:
This done after you remove fear from work place, then empower employee ...
you provide the proper environment.
Process Centered:
Fundamental part of TQM is to focus on Process thinking.
Integrated system:
All employees must know business mission and vision must monitor the process.
Strategic and systematic approach: Strategic plan must integrate quality as core
component.
Continual Improvement:
Involves using analytical and creative thinking in finding ways to become more
effective.
Fact Based Decision Making:
Decision making must be ONLY on data, not personal thinking or situational.
Communication: Communication strategy, method and timeliness must be well defined.
1.2 WHAT IS QUALITY?
Many definitions of quality exist. Quality is a broad subject that means different
things to different people. A person in a hurry, requiring a quick lunch may choose
to buy a burger from a café instead of sitting for a five-star meal at Royal Hotel.
Due to his time constraints, he may not attach value to desert, starters, waiters etc.
So having a five-star meal at the Royal Hotel in this instance, may not mean
quality to this person.
Quality is the degree to which a commodity meets the requirements of the
customer at the start of its life. (ISO 9000).
ISO 9001 quality systems do not give you quality and they never will.
ISO9001 is not designed to create quality. Quality is an experience of the
customer. Product quality perception comes from your design specifications
and manufacture standards achieved. Service quality perception comes from
your service process design and the customer contact impressions.
Five broad categories of quality
The Transcendent view:
This view suggests that a quality product is the best product in its field e.g. A
Mercedes Benz may be regarded as the safest car in the world.
The Value Based Approach
Here, one takes the issues of price and cost to the quality issue. Price plays an
extremely important role in determining the choice of a product. A person
may choose to buy a small basic house instead of a luxury mansion on the beach,
due to affordability and price constraints.
The User Based Approach
This is where a product is fit for its purpose. The product meets all the requirements
of the person who uses it. E.g. A housewife who needs a car just to transport her
kids to school which is five minutes away, may prefer to buy a Fiat Uno instead of
a luxury German sedan
The Product-Based Approach
This suggests that quality is a set of precise characteristics that are measurable,
which are required to meet the needs of the customer.
The Manufacturing Based Approach
This view states that products that are made free of defects and conform to certain
specifications are of high quality. E.g. a person may require that a washing
machine last for about 10 years. After examining this overview, we can see that it
is not easy to define quality. When we consider quality, we got to consider quality
in terms of a good or quality in terms of a service.
1.3 QUALITY IN TERMS OF A GOOD
A good is a tangible item e.g. a computer, a car, a house – something that you
can feel and touch. The following represent the dimensions of goods quality:
Performance: The way a product operates or functions e.g. a BMW 528i has a
top speed of 235km per hour.
Features: What are the extras that go with the product? E.g. a BMW 528i comes
with a full house of features and a 100 000 km motor-plan.
Reliability: The promise that the product will perform, and continue to perform,
over a certain period. E.g. a television normally carries a one-year guarantee but
can last as much as 20 years in certain cases.
Perception of Quality: This refers to an indirect evaluation of a product’s quality
e.g. reputation attached to a certain brand of product - a Rolls Royce is believed
to last for an entire lifetime.
Aesthetics: Are the physical qualities of a product which makes it pleasant to look
at e.g. some males may describe a Porsche as being sexy.
Durability: Refers to the lifetime of the product or how long it will last. E.g. a
tissue is made for use one time only as compared to a towel that can be used, washed
and re-used.
Conformance: Is the meeting of pre-determined standards and criteria?
Service Backup” What after sales service exist for the product? Would you buy
a computer from a store that does not offer any guarantee or after sales service? At
XC college, we guarantee that should a student not be satisfied with their results,
provided they have a good academic and attendance record, they can re-attend the
course at no extra charge.
1.4 DIMENSIONS OF SERVICE QUALITY
Responsiveness: Refers to t h e wi l l i ngnes s o f the p rov ider o f t he
s e rv ice to me e t t h e customer’s requirements, when requested.
Security: Being safe or absence of danger or potential risk. E.g. would you study
at XC college.if there were numerous learner strikes and protests?
Access: Is it easy to get to the service XC college has made itself highly
accessible by being located in all 9 provinces of Southern Africa?
Courtesy: Refers to the respect that is displayed for the customer or learner. Being
polite, sincere, and c o n s i d e r a t e a n d s h o w i n g g e n u i n e c o n c e r n f o r t h e
customer or learner.
Communication: Talking and addressing the customer or learner in language and
manner that he or she can relate to.
Understanding: The effort displayed in aiming to genuinely understand the
customer or learner correctly.
Reliability: Where a person can depend on it to perform as expected.
Tangibles: The presence of physical evidence of a quality service like equipment
and tools. If you look at the chairs and desks of XC college you would notice
that they are of a high quality standard. Some colleges use plastic chairs and steel
tables for learners.
Credibility: The trust, faith and confidence that customers and learners will receive
a value added service and an educational experience that will allow them to find
suitable employment, after their studies.
Competence: The skill and knowledge of the service provider and the ability to
perform the service. The overall result of the above emphasises quality and the
end result is that you have satisfied customers or learners. This is the TQM
philosophy. When you create customer and learner loyalty, they usually become
your front line sales people, that cuts down the organisation’sadvertising budget
and hence the viability of the organisation is ensured.
1.5 UNDERSTANDING THE QUALITY CHAINS
A quality chain consists of both internal and external customers. Internal
customers include staff and management of an organisation e.g. XC college...
External customers are learners, parents and other customers. In order for staff
members to satisfy customer and learner needs, they first need to be satisfied and
motivated. If a staff member is de-motivated, he or she will give a poor service
to the customer or learner. This will create a poor impression of the organisation
on the part of the external customer. On the other hand, if an internal customer
(staff member) gives a good service to the external customer, this will create a
good impression for the organisation. The external customer would recommend
the organisation to his / her friends and family, which will bring more business to
the organisation.
The following examples are included for a better understanding of internal and
external customers:
A receptionist, lecturer, principal are internal customers of XC college
Learners, parents, guarantors, guardians, corporate, schools are all examples of
external customers to XC college Hence, we call these interrelationships between
internal and external customers forming what is known as a quality chain. This
is true for the saying “A chain is only as strong as its weakest link”
INTERNAL
CUSTOMER
EXTERNAL
CUSTOMER
QUALITY
CHAIN
1.6 UNDERSTANDING THE CUSTOMER – SUPPLIER
RELATIONSHIP
A person can be both a customer and a supplier. For example, a secretary may
be a supplier to her boss (type out his documents) and the boss is a customer to
the secretary. If the secretary does not do her work properly (she is a poor
supplier), her boss may be unhappy (unsatisfied customer). Hence, this model can
be applied to any function or level within an organisation. Therefore, there are
numerous customers – supplier relationships within an organisation. These are
important linkages, which cannot be ignored. For TQM purposes, it is imperative
that each and every relationship is identified, managed and reviewed for continual
improvement. The following questions can be asked:
1.7 CUSTOMERS
Who are my immediate customers?
What are their true needs / requirements?
What can I do to find out their needs / requirements?
How can I measure my ability to resolve their needs / requirements?
Do I have the capability of satisfying their requirements?
How can I monitor their needs?
1.8 SUPPLIERS
Who are my immediate suppliers?
What are my true requirements?
How do I communicate my requirements?
Do my suppliers have the ability to satisfy my requirements?
How do I inform them of changes to my requirements?
What is important to note from the above diagram that one person can be both a
supplier and a customer, depending on the circumstances, let’s take the boss and
secretary example. The boss is a customer to the secretary. To the organization’s
customers, the boss is a supplier – note the differences in circumstances.
Therefore, in any quality chain, there is a customer-supplier relationship.
Typically, employees within an organisation will find themselves both in the
position of customer and supplier, depending on the circumstances.
1.9 QUALITY STARTS WITH MARKETING
The marketing person of a company is the most important link with the customer
because this is where the point of contact occurs. It is also the point of delivery.
All the people within the production line must ensure that the customers they
deliver to be happy with the product / service they receive.
The following roles of marketing are important and include:
Use of effective communication
The need for using market research and appropriate techniques
The need to determine the exact requirements of customers and learners
Feeding this information to all other departments within the organisation
1.10 QUALITY IN ALL FUNCTIONS
All functions of an organisation must work together in providing a quality
service or product. Examples of these functions include marketing, finance,
production, stores, human resources, academic, operations and other
departments. Weak links within a chain lead to reworking and a waste of time,
effort and more importantly, money.
1.11 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
We have mentioned that all departments must practice quality. However, this
must not be left to chance. Inspection at each level must occur on an ongoing
basis. People should not be left to decide whether they want to practice quality
or not. Quality should not be an option – it should be a minimum requirement.
Quality must be managed. It should become the responsibility of everybody in
an organisation. It should just not be the function of the Quality Director or
Quality Department. The Chief Executive Officer, the owners and directors, the
lecturers, the cleaners, security personnel should practice quality – the emphasis
is on
1.12 TQM IMPLEMENTATION APPROACHES
No one solution is effective for planning and implementing TQM concepts in all
situations.
Following are generic models for implementing Total quality management
Theory:
Train top management on TQM principles.
Assess the current : Culture, cus tomer sa t i s f ac t ion , qual i ty
management system.
Top management determines the core values and principles to be used and
communicate them.
Develop TQM master plan based on steps 1, 2, 3.
Identify and prioritize customer needs and determine products or service to
meet those needs.
Determine the critical processes to produce those products or services.
Create process improvement teams.
Managers should support effort by planning, training, time... to the teams.
Integrate c h a n g e s f o r i mp r o v e me n t i n daily process management
and standardizations take place.
Evaluate progress against plan (step 8) and adjust as needed.
Constant employee awareness and feedback on status are provided and a
reward/ recognition process is established.
EVERYBODY AND EVERY FUNCTION WITHIN AN
ORGANISATION.
This is what total quality management means. Everybody within an organisation
should deliver quality on all levels. The word “total” means that nobody within an
organisation can be excluded from practising quality.
Quality of design Quality of design is a measure of how well the product or service is designed to
achieve the agreed equipments. The most important feature of the design, with
regard to achieving quality, is the specification. Specifications must also exist at
the internal supplier- customer interfaces if one is to achieve total quality. For
example, the company lawyer asked to draw up a contract by the sales manager
requires a specification as to its content: There must be a corporate understanding
of the organizations quality position in the market place. It is not sufficient that
marketing specifies the product and service because that is what the customer
wants”. There must be an agreement that the operating department can achieve
that requirement. Should they be incapable of doing so, then one of two things
must happen: either the organization finds a different position in the market place
or it substantially changes the operational facilities.
1.13 QUALITY MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES
RICHFIELD GRADUATE INSTITUTE OF TECH...Quality management
system planning is based on the eight quality management principles on which
the quality management system standards of the revised ISO 9001:2000 series are
based.
Senior management uses these principles to improve performance.
PRINCIPLE 1 - CUSTOMER FOCUS
The organisation depends on the customers/learners and therefore should
understand current and future customer/learner needs, should meet requirements
and strive to exceed customer/learner expectations.
PRINCIPLE 2 – LEADERSHIP
Leaders establish unity of purpose and direction of the organisation. They should
create and maintain the internal environment in which people can become
fully involved in achieving the organisation’s objectives.
PRINCIPLE 3 – INVOLVEMENT OF PEOPLE
People at all level are the essence of an organisation and their full involvement
enables their abilities to be used for the organisation’s benefit.
PRINCIPLE 4 – PROCESS APPROACH
A desired result is achieved more efficiently when activities and related
resources are managed as a process PRINCIPLE 5 – SYSTEM APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT
Identifying, understanding and managing interrelated processes as a system
contributes to the organisation’s effectiveness and efficiency in achieving its
objectives. PRINCIPLE 6 – CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
Continual improvement of the organisation’s overall performance should be a
permanent objective of the organisation.
PRINCIPLE 7 – FACTUAL APPROACH TO DECISION MAKING
Effective decisions based on the analysis of data and information
PRINCIPLE 8 – MUTUALLY BENEFICIAL SUPPLIER RELATIONSHIPS
The organisation and its supplier are interdependent and a mutually beneficial
relationship enhances quality and both are able to create value.
ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Choose any product that you have purchased recently.
a) Are you happy with the product?
b) Why are you happy with it?
c ) Which of its features contribute to your perception of quality?
d) If you are not happy with the product why not?
e) Which of its features let you down?
f) Would you buy a similar product again? Why or why not?
2. Explain the role of marketing in the creation and management of the
TQM environment?
3. Explain why TQM will only succeed if it is regarded as an all pervasive
commitment throughout the entire organisation.
TOPIC 2
2. LEADERSHIP IN THE CREATION OF QUALITY
CULTURE IN ORGANISATIONS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
Understand the role of the vision and the mission in guiding the activities
of the organisation
Define the success factors that will make the achievement of the vision
and mission possible
Understand the design of appropriate business processes to assist with the
achievement of critical success factors
Understand the role of leadership in the development of employees and
their motivation for excellent customer service
Understand the components that make up the culture of an organisation
Understand the difference between quality control, quality assurance and
Total Quality Management
Leaders of organizations should know that empowerment is a key aspect of total
quality management (TQM). Empowerment entails giving every member an
opportunity to participate in the decision-making process to promote better
performance. Delegation of authority provides employees with definite
responsibilities and objectives. Empowerment ensures long-term commitment to
quality efforts. Unfortunately, formal education provides minimal focus on the
concept and practice of empowerment
2.1 THE EIGHT ELEMENTS OF TQM
Total Quality Management is a management approach that originated in the
1950's and has steadily become more popular since the early 1980's. Total Quality
is a description of the culture, attitude and organization of a company that strives
to provide customers with products and services that satisfy their needs. The
culture requires quality in all aspects of the company's operations, with processes
being done right the first time and defects and waste eradicated from operations.
To be successful implementing TQM, an organization must concentrate on the
eight key elements:
1. Ethics
2. Integrity 3. Trust
4. Training
5. Teamwork 6. Leadership Recognition Communication
Key Elements
TQM has been coined to describe a philosophy that makes quality the driving
force behind leadership, design, planning, and improvement initiatives. For this,
TQM requires the help of those eight key elements. These elements can be divided
into four groups according to their function. The groups are:
Foundation - It includes: Ethics, Integrity and Trust.
Building Bricks - It includes: Training, Teamwork and Leadership.
Binding Mortar - It includes: Communication.
Roof - It includes: Recognition.
Foundation
TQM is built on a foundation of ethics, integrity and trust. It fosters openness,
fairness and sincerity and allows involvement by everyone. This is the key to
unlocking the ultimate potential of TQM. These three elements move together,
however, each element offers something different to the TQM concept.
1. Ethics - Ethics is the discipline concerned with good and bad in any situation.
It is a two-faceted subject represented by organizational and individual ethics.
Organizational ethics establish a business code of ethics that outlines guidelines
that all employees are to adhere to in the performance of their work. Individual
ethics include personal rights or wrongs.
2. Integrity - Integrity implies honesty, morals, values, fairness, and adherence to
the facts and sincerity. The characteristic is what customers (internal or external)
expect and deserve to receive. People see the opposite of integrity as duplicity.
TQM will not work in an atmosphere of duplicity. 3. Trust - Trust is a by-product of integrity and ethical conduct. Without trust, the
framework of TQM cannot be built. Trust fosters full participation of all members.
It allows empowerment that encourages pride ownership and it encourages
commitment. It allows decision making at appropriate levels in the organization,
fosters individual risk-taking for continuous improvement and helps to ensure that
measurements focus on improvement of process and are not used to contend
people. Trust is essential to ensure customer satisfaction. So, Trust Builds The
Cooperative Environment Essential For TQM. Bricks
Basing on the strong foundation of trust, ethics and integrity, bricks are placed
to reach the roof of recognition. It includes:
4. Training - Training is very important for employees to be highly productive.
Supervisors are solely responsible for implementing TQM within their
departments, and teaching their employees the philosophies of TQM. Training that
employees require are interpersonal skills, the ability to function within teams,
problem solving, decision making, job management performance analysis
and improvement, business economics and technical skills. During the creation
and formation of TQM, employees are trained so that they can become effective
employees for the company. 5. Teamwork - To become successful in business, teamwork is also a key element
of TQM. With the use of teams, the business will receive quicker and better
solutions to problems. Teams also provide more permanent improvements in
processes and operations. In teams, people feel more comfortable bringing up
problems that may occur, and can get help from other workers to find a solution and
put into place. There are mainly three types of teams that TQM organizations adopt:
A. Quality Improvement Teams or Excellence Teams (QITS) - These are
temporary teams with the purpose of dealing with specific problems that often
re-occur. These teams are set up for period of three to twelve months.
B. Problem Solving Teams (PSTs) - These are temporary teams to solve certain
problems and also to identify and overcome causes of problems. They generally
last from one week to three months.
C. Natural Work Teams (NWTs) - These teams consist of small groups of
skilled workers who share tasks and responsibilities. These teams use concepts
such as employee involvement teams, self-managing teams and quality circles.
These teams generally work for one to two hours a week. 6. Leadership - It is possibly the most important element in TQM. It appears
everywhere in organization. Leadership in TQM requires the manager to provide
an inspiring vision, make strategic directions that are understood by all and to
instill values that guide subordinates. For TQM to be successful in the business,
the supervisor must be committed in leading his employees. A supervisor must understand TQM, believe in it and then demonstrate their belief
and commitment through their daily practices of TQM. The supervisor makes sure
that strategies, philosophies, values and goals are transmitted down throughout the
organization to provide focus, clarity and direction. A key point is that TQM has
to be introduced and led by top management. Commitment and personal involvement is required from top management in
creating and deploying clear quality values and goals consistent with the
objectives of the company and in creating and deploying well defined systems,
methods and performance measures for achieving those goals.
Binding
7. Communication - It binds everything together. Starting from foundation to
roof of the TQM house, everything is bound by strong mortar of
communication. It acts as a vital link between all elements of TQM.
Communication means a common understanding of ideas between the sender
and the receiver.
The success of TQM demands communication with and among all the
organization members, suppliers and customers. Supervisors must keep open
airways where employees can send and receive information about the TQM
process. Communication coupled with the sharing of correct information is
vital. For communication to be credible the message must be clear and receiver
must interpret in the way the sender intended. There are different ways of communication such as:
A. Downward communication - This is the dominant form of communication in
an organization. Presentations and discussions basically do it. By this the
supervisors are able to make the employees clear about TQM. B. Upward communication - By this the lower level of employees are able to
provide suggestions to upper management of the effects of TQM. As employees
provide insight and constructive criticism, supervisors must listen effectively to
correct the situation that comes about through the use of TQM. This forms a
level of trust between supervisors and employees. This is also similar to
empowering communication, where supervisors keep open ears and listen to
others
C. Sideways communication - This type of communication is important because
it breaks down barriers between departments. It also allows dealing with
customers and suppliers in a more professional manner. Roof
8. Recognition - Recognition is the last and final element in the entire system. It
should be provided for both suggestions and achievements for teams as well as
individuals. Employees strive to receive recognition for themselves and their
teams. Detecting and recognizing contributors is the most important job of a
supervisor. As people are recognized, there can be huge changes in self-esteem,
productivity, quality and the amount of effort exhorted to the task at hand. Recognition comes in its best form when it is immediately following an action
that an employee has performed. Recognition comes in different ways, places
and time such as,
Ways - It can be by way of personal letter from top management. Also by
award banquets, plaques, trophies etc.
Places - Good performers can be recognized in front of departments, on
performance boards and also in front of top management.
Time - Recognition can be given at any time like in staff meeting, annual
award banquets, etc.
Conclusion
We can conclude that these eight elements are key in ensuring the success of TQM
in an organization and that the supervisor is a huge part in developing these
elements in the work place. Without these elements, the business entities cannot
be successful TQM implementers. It is very clear from the above discussion that
TQM without involving integrity, ethics and trust would be a great remiss, and in
fact it would be incomplete. Training is the key by which the organization creates
a TQM environment. Leadership and teamwork go hand in hand. Lack of communication between
departments, supervisors and employees create a burden on the whole TQM
process. Last but not the least; recognition should be given to people who
contributed to the overall completed task. Hence, lead by example, train
employees to provide a quality product, create an environment where there is no
fear to share knowledge, and give credit where credit is due is the motto of a
successful TQM organization. 2.2 COMMITMENT AND POLICY
To be successful in promoting business efficiently and effectiveness, TQM must
be truly organization- wide, and it must start at the top with the Chief Executive
or equivalent. The most senior directors and management must all demonstrate
that they are serious about quality. The middle management has a particularly
important role to play, since they must not only grasp the principles of TQM, they
must go on to explain them to the people for whom they are responsible, and
ensure that their own commitment is communicated. Only then TQM
will spread effectively throughout the organization. This level of management also
needs to ensure that the efforts and achievements of their subordinates obtain
the recognition, attention and reward that they deserve.
The Chief Executive of an organization should accept the responsibility for and
commitment to a quality policy in which he/she must really believe. This
commitment is part of a broad approach extending well beyond the accepted
formalities of the quality assurance functions. It creates responsibilities for a
chain of quality interactions between the marketing, design,
production/operations, purchasing, distribution and service functions. Within each
and every department of the organization at all levels, starting at the top, basic
changes of attitude may be requiring to operate TQM. If the owners or directors
of the organization do not recognize or accept their responsibilities for the
initiation and operation of TQM, then these changes will not happen.
Controls, systems and techniques are very important in TQM, but they are not
the primary requirement.
It is more an attitude of mind, based on pride in the job and teamwork, and it
requires from the management total commitment, which must then be extended
to all employees at all levels and in all departments. Senior management
commitment should be obsession, not lip services. It is possible to detect real
commitment; it shows on the shop floor, in the offices, in the hospital wards- at
the point of operation. Going into an organization sporting poster campaigning
or quality instead of belief, one is quickly able to detect the falseness. The
people are told not to worry if problem arise, just do the best you can, the customer
will never notice. The opposite is an organization where total quality means
something, can be seen, heard, felt. Things happen at this operating interface as a
result of real commitment. Material problems are corrected with suppliers,
equipment difficulties are put right by improved maintenance programmes or
replacement, people are trained, change takes place, partnerships are built, and
continuous improvement is achieved.
The primary culture-building tasks of leadership
There are five requirements for leaders in the TQM organisation as follows Developing and publishing clear documented corporate beliefs and purpose – a
mission statement- CEO or the top management team have to provide a vision
of where the organisation wants to be and which factors will play key roles in
getting it to realise the vision. The vision is the picture of the desired future state
and the mission will summarise, which factors will get it there.
The mission statement should include the following:
The definition of the business, e.g. the needs that are satisfied or the benefits
provided.
A commitment to effective leadership and quality
Target sectors and relationships with customers, and market or service
position
The role or contribution of the company, organisation or unit, e.g. profit-
generator, service department, opportunity seeker
The distinctive competence
Indications of future direction
Commitment to monitoring performance against customers‟ needs
and expectations, and continuous improvement.
After being informed of the mission of the organisation, customers, suppliers
and employees should have no doubt as to what the organisation stands for and
how it will conduct business. After the mission has been defined, top management
should live the mission. They should be totally committed to it and by their
example they should show the employees what should be done.
Developing clear and effective strategies and supporting plans for achieving the
mission- top management should be able to develop strategies that will guide
the organisation towards the achievement of the mission. These strategies are
the broad directives, which are necessary for the members of the organisation to
enable them to design operational plans that will actually make the strategies
work. The latter refer to the critical success factors. These are the factors without
which the plans cannot be executed. For example, it will not be possible for a
construction company to erect a building in the contracted time if the materials are
not delivered timeously. A critical success factor for the building trade is the
availability of material. If orders are not put out in time, the project will be
delayed.
Identifying the critical success factor and critical processes - The next requirement
is that an effective organisational structure should be designed to
support the missions and the strategies. This is the well-known principle of
structure follows strategy. Both the management and the operational structures
should receive attention. If it is a critical success factor that materials should be
available on time, a critical element of the structure is a well-resourced purchasing
department. On the other hand it may not be necessary for a construction company
to have a public relations department. If they do have one
they could slim it down or outsource the function. The latter refer to the critical
success factors.
Reviewing management structure - The next requirement is that an effective
organisational structure should be designed to support the missions and the
strategies. This is the well-known principle of structure follows strategy. Both
the management and the operational structures should receive attention. If it is a
critical success factor that materials should be available on time, a critical element
of the structure is a well-resourced purchasing department. On the other hand it
may not be necessary for a construction company to have a public relations
department. If they do have one they could slim it down or outsource the function.
Empowerment – encouraging effective employee participation.
The last but very important function of leadership is to ensure that employees
are empowered by making them co-responsible for the success of the company.
These are:
Effective and constant communication
Creating the right attitude and motivation for employees to serve the
customers to the best of their abilities
Identifying and developing the abilities of employees so that they can
contribute where they are operationally active
Helping them to understand the basics of sound management by applying
the EPDCA cycle.
Leaders are people who have the ability to see the big picture, who can
concretise the vision and who can then inspire the employees to strive for the
realisation of that big picture.
Creating or changing the culture
A number of components form the culture within an organization:
Behaviours based on people interactions
Norms resulting from working groups
Dominant values adopted by the organization
Rules or the games for getting on
The climate
Culture in any business may be defined, then, as the beliefs that pervade the
organization about how business should be conducted, and how employees
should behave and should be treated. Any organization needs a vision framework
that includes its guiding philosophy, core values and beliefs and a purpose. These
should be combined into a mission, which provides a vivid description of what
things will be like when it has been achieved.
Vision or guiding philosophy
What we want to be
Mission What we want to
achieve
Core values and beliefs
Who we want to be
Purpose What we are here for
The guiding philosophy drives the organization and is shaped by the leaders
through their thoughts and actions. It should reflect the vision of an organization
rather than the vision of a single leader, and should evolve with time, although
organizations must hold on to the core elements.
The core values and beliefs represent the organization’s basic principles about
what is important in business, its conduct, its social responsibility and its response
to changes in the environment. They should act as a guiding force, with clear
and authentic values, which are forced on employees, suppliers,
customers, society at large, safety, shareholders and generally stakeholders.
The purpose of the organization should be a development from the core values
and beliefs and should quickly and clearly convey how the organization is to
fulfill its role.
The mission will translate the abstractness of philosophy into philosophy into
tangible goals that will move the organization forward and make it perform to
its optimum. It should not be limited by the constraints of strategy analysis, and
should be proactive not reactive. Strategy is subservient to mission, the strategy
being done after, not during, the mission setting process.
2.3 CREATING AND MAINTAINING A QUALITY CULTURE
Behaviour: refers to how people interact with each other and what is allowed in
the organisation. For example, what are the unspoken rules of communication?
May an employee enter the office of his/her supervisor at will or does he/she
have to make an appointment with the secretary? What is the form in which people
are addressed? Do they use first names or titles? Norms are the standards that are used to structure the functioning of work
groups. They indicate how things should be done e.g. a norm may be for a
particular group to always start their meetings on time or to meet at least once a
week. Breaking the norm would be frowned upon as not the one thing. Dominant
values are generally seen as the core of culture. Values are what persons
regard as right or wrong.
Rules of the game for getting on are those accepted ways of getting ahead in an
organisation. How do people get promoted into positions? Do they have to have
certain qualifications and a set number of years of experience?
The climate is the current level of satisfaction that employees may have with the
culture. It can be equated with the prevailing weather conditions at a particular
time & at a particular place. Climate can vary over a short period of time while culture is highly resistant to change or to extraneous influences. Change management initiatives often only target climate and not culture. However, if a
change of climate is all that is required to make the organisation a more pleasant
environment to function in, it may be acceptable.
2.4 CONTROL PROCEDURES AS ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
Control will also be a function of the culture. Control mechanisms basically fall
into one of three categories namely before the fact, operational and after the
fact. After the fact control are reactive and aimed at finding faulty goods and
services. TQM however, is pro-active and therefore before the fact controls would
be more appropriate. The before fact list has to do with pre-empting future
conditions, to eliminate uncertainty and to provide guidelines for behaviour. The
culture based on before the fact controls should create an environment, which is
aimed at high quality production.
Quality Control can be regarded as the application of after the fact controls. A
product first has to be faulty before it is identified. Quality assurance can be
seen as linked to operational control systems. Quality assurance is applied in the
transformational and the output stages of the production process. TQM also
includes the input factors and it is therefore a more complete quality system
than the previous two. The emphasis on before the fact controls will ensure that
self-control will replace external control.
ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Describe the main tasks of leadership in the TQ organisation.
2. Describe the role of the vision and mission in motivating the
employees to move forward.
3. Choose one of the work groups you are involved in. What are the
norms that govern the behaviour in the group?
4. How would you describe the climate in your TQM class? Are people
happy or unhappy? Why do you say so? Explain your point of view. It
will give you a clue to the climate in the class.
TOPIC 3
3. MANAGING FOR TOTAL QUALITY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic, you should be able to:
Explain the difference between management and leadership
Explain the tasks and functions of management
Explain the role and importance of quality function and the role of the PQT,
QIT, QC, DPA
Explain why it is important to set specifications to achieve standardisation of
processes
Understanding of service and Product The design process
3.1 Introduction
Under the TQM concept, quality is defined and judged by the customer.
Therefore, it acknowledges a customer-driven economy. It focuses on
continuous process improvement to achieve high quality of product (or
service). Its strategy tries to achieve “total quality” throughout the entire
business, not just in the product. It suggests that any improvement that is made
in the business, be it a better design of a component or a better process of a
system, will help to improve the “total quality” of the organization and the
quality of the final product.
3.2 WHAT I S T H E D I F F E R E N C E B E T W E E N L E A D E R S H I P
A N D MANAGEMENT?
Leadership is concerned with visioning, strategy and people empowerment,
Management is primarily concerned with the operations and ensuring that the
strategies are applied and properly controlled.
3.3 TEN POINTS FOR MANAGERS – The Foundation of the TQM
Model.
The implementing of TQM is not an easy task, the core of TQM must be the
customer-supplier interfaces both internally and externally, and the fact that at
each interface there are processes to convert inputs to outputs.
The organisation needs long term Commitment to Constant improvement.
There must be a constancy of purpose, and commitment to it must start from
the Chief Executive Officer. The quality improvement process must
embrace all departments and also include customers and suppliers; you
cannot start in one department and expect to copy it to other departments.
Adopt the philosophy of zero errors /defects to change the culture to right
first time. This should be based on the thorough understanding based on the
needs of the customer and also his or her expectations.
Train the people to understand the Customer-Supplier relationships. Customer
orientation should be achieved for each and every employer, director and
manager. The concept of internal customers and suppliers needs to be
thoroughly understood and implemented.
Do not buy products or services on cost alone – Look at the TOTAL COST
continually improve the product or service provided externally, so that the total
cost of doing business is reduced.
Recognise that Improvements of the system needs to be managed. The rule
has to be that systems will be in line with the shared needs and
expectations and will be part of the continuous improvement process.
Adopt modern method of Supervision and Training – Eliminate fear.
Recognize and publicize efforts and achievements and provide the right sort
of training, facilitation and improvements.
Eliminate the barriers between departments by managing the process –
Improve communication and teamwork
It is necessary to build teams and improve communications around the
process.
Eliminate the following:
Arbitrary goals without methods
All standards based on numbers Barriers to price of workmanship Fiction
Get facts by using the correct tools.
Constantly educate and retrain – Develop the experts in the business, the
energy that lies in experts can be released into the organisation through
education, training, encouragement and the chance to participate.
Develop a systematic approach to manage the Implementation of TQM
TQM requires a carefully planned and fully integrated strategy, derived from
the mission. That way it will help any organisation to realize its vision.
3.4 ORGANISATION FOR QUALITY
The Quality Function and the Quality Director or Manager
The quality function should be the organisation’s focal point of the integration of the business interests of customers and suppliers into the
internal dynamics of the organisation.
Its role is to encourage and facilitate quality and process improvements; monitor and evaluate progress; promote the quality chains; plan, manage, audit
and review systems; plan and provide quality training; counseling and
consultancy; and give advice to management.
In larger organisations a quality director will contribute to the prevention strategy whereas in smaller organisations may appoint a member of the management team to this task on a part time basis. An external TQM adviser
is usually required.
At PC Training & BUSINESS COLLEGE, all titles of directors and
managers have been amended to Quality Assurance Managers and Directors.
The reason for this is quite obvious – both the managers and directors ultimately perform a quality function i.e. quality assurance.
Steering Committees and Teams
In devising and implementing TQM for an organisation, it may be useful to
ask if the managers have the authority, capability and time to carry through.
A disciplined and systematic approach to continuous improvement may be
established in a steering committee whose members are
the senior management team
Reporting to the steering committee are the process quality teams (PQT‟s) or
any steering committees, which in turn control the improvement teams and
quality circles.
Process and quality improvement teams
A PQT or Quality Improvement Team (QIT) is a group brought together by
management to improve a process or tackle a particular problem on a project
basis. This committee will oversee a series of PQT‟s each of which will
be responsible for key business process.
Quality Circles or Kaizen Teams
They are drawn from across functional departments and when their tasks are
completed the team will dissolve. The Quality Circles or Kaizen Teams is a small group of people from the small department who voluntarily meet to
solve problems in their area of responsibility.
Departmental Purpose Analysis
Departmental purpose analysis helps to define the real purpose of each
department, with the objective of improving performance and breaking down
barriers. It leads to an understanding and key process of each group.
A lot of emphasis is placed on surveying the opinions of the customer.
3.5 DESIGNS FOR QUALITY
Design, Innovation and Improvements
Design is a multifaceted activity that covers many aspects of an organisation.
All businesses need to update their products, processes and services in order
to keep up with the customer needs. Failure to continually improve will
result in the organisation becoming obsolete.
Innovation entails both innovation and design, and continuous improvement
of products, services and processes.
Leading products/services are innovations are market led and not marketing
led.
Everything in or from an organisation results from design decisions.
3.6 THE DESIGN PROCESS
Commitment has to be from the Chairman or Chief Executive officer to
building quality throughout the design, It is also required that the operational
processes must be capable of achieving the design.
State of the art approach to innovation is based on a strategic balance of old
and new, top management approach to design and teamwork.
The „styling‟ of products must also be matched by secondary design
considerations, such as operating instructions and software support.
Design takes in all aspects of identifying the need, developing something to
satisfy the need, checking conformance to the need and ensuring the need is
satisfied.
The design process must be carefully managed and can be flow chart, like
any other process, into: planning, practice codes, procedures, activities
assignments, identification of organisational and technical interfaces and
Design input requirements, review investigation and evaluation techniques
and materials and use of feedback data from previous designs.
Total design or simultaneous engineering in similar quality function
deployment and uses multi-functional teams to provide an integrated
approach to product or service introduction.
3.7 DESIGNS IN THE SERVICE SECTOR
When designing services, three distinct elements are recognized, they are
Physical – facilitating goods explicit service – sensual benefits implicit
service – psychological benefits.
The characteristics of service delivery may be itemized as intangibility,
perish ability, simultaneity, and Heterogeneity.
The service attributes are important in designing services include labour
intensity, contact interaction, customerisation, nature of service act
and direct recipient of the act.
3.8 ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Explain the difference between the QIT and the QC‟s
1. Explain the role of the quality manager
2. Explain the function of the QITs 3. Apply the design process in a service organisation.
TOPIC 4
4. EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION IN THE QUALITY
PROCESS
LEARNER OUTCOMES
After completing this topic, you should be able to:
Demonstrate how to plan for quality
Be able to explain why effective communication is critical in the
presentation and acceptance of the TQM strategy.
Be able to develop a quality statement or a quality policy
Explain why teamwork is more effective compared to working as individuals
Describe the systematic approach to training
Identify the role of training.
4.1 Q U A L I T Y PLANNING Before TQM can be implemented in an organization, you have to plan carefully
what you want to achieve. We all know the saying” If you fail to plan, you plan
to fail”. Well this especially applies to any quality dimensions (quality
characteristics, the approach to quality management, the quality system and the
eventual total quality management (TQM) system. Beware of thinking too
compartmentally or narrowly. Planning involves many interrelated aspects,
planning for quality is an extension of design for quality, which depends on
creativity. Creativity is inherent to TQM and it would be foolish to say that it ends
with design.
Planning in general refers to the Managerial function (1) setting organizational
goals/objectives (i.e. what we want to achieve?) and (2) establishing the policies,
procedures and programmes needed to achieve the identified goals. Objectives to
the extent allowed by the available resources (i.e. how will goals and objectives
are achieved) a more detailed approach to planning the quality system would
include answering the following additional question:
• WHY (why do want a quality system)
• WHERE (where do we want a quality system to operate)
• WHEN (when should the quality system operate)
4.2 SYSTEMATIC QUALITY PLANNING
Quality has several dimensions. Regardless of what the dimensions are,
almost all enterprises regard quality as a competitive weapon and even the
decisive factor that makes the difference between success and failure. Where
does the implementation of quality start? The obvious answer is “quality
planning”, which means that there must be logical approach to developing
the means to attain quality.
4.2.1 A Good Quality Management System
A good quality management system assures quality through discipline. It must
work or provide action to prevent defects and other types of waste. If the system
does not achieve this, then there is something wrong with its plan or its
implementation
4.2.2 Process Modeling
This elaborates on the importance of understanding processes, what they produce,
and by what means they perform their functions. It is important to know this
concept as part of BPR (business process re-engineering) and process
improvement projects.
4.2.3 Process Flowcharting
Flowcharting is a tool for analysing processes. It allows you to break any process
down into individual events or activities and to display these in shorthand form
showing the logical relationships between them. Constructing flowcharts promotes
better understanding of processes, and better understanding of processes is a pre-
requisite for improvement.
It is impossible to improve and control quality if the process is not thoroughly
understood. Process flowcharting is an old and powerful technique that is used to
analyze, describe and display any process clearly, accurately and concisely. Certain
standard symbols are used on the chart. The principle behind flowcharting is to
create understanding of business processes, which implies cross functional
interaction and teamwork
Critical questioning forms part of flowcharting and it is used for the critical
examinations of existing processes. The aim of the technique is to discover ways
of improving existing process flows by eliminating unnecessary parts of a job and
or combining, rearranging or simplifying activities in order to achieve more
effective results and to reduce waste.
In the systematic planning or detailed examination of any process, whether that be
clerical, manufacturing or managerial activity, it is necessary to record the series
of events, activities, stages and decisions in a form that can be easily understood
and communicated to all. The usual method of recording facts are not suitable for
recording the complicated process that exist in any organization, to overcome this
difficulty, certain, methods of recording has been developed and the most
powerful is flowcharting.
Figure 1.1: Flowchart Symbols
4.3 COMMUNICATING FOR QUALITY
Developing the quality strategy is only half of the task. The other and very important half is to communicate the strategy so that people are convinced to support the process and they can become enthusiastic about the new initiative. In order to do this a communication strategy should be developed. The first step is to develop a quality policy or quality statement that outlines the commitment
of top management. The next step is to develop a directive that will indicate the steps to be taken by all the responsible departments and employees in implementing the policy.
This directive should meet the following requirements:
Need for improvement
Concept for total quality
Importance of understanding business processes
Approach that will be taken
Individual and process group responsibilities
Principles of process measurement
Once the directive is completed this must be communicated to the whole
organisation through a number of channels. The systems for the disseminating the
message should include all the conventional communication methods of
seminars, departmental meetings, posters, newsletters, intranet, etc. Please note
that the employees will only be committed to the implementation of TQM if
they know exactly what their tasks and commitments are. For this understanding,
a constant flow of information is necessary, including:
When and how individuals will be involved
What the process requires
The successes and benefits achieved
It is important that the communication be kept as simple as possible so that the
chances of distraction can be minimised. It is also suggested that the language
be kept as simple as possible. The following are some of the best ways to
communicate change to employees:
Communicate directly to supervisors (first line)
Use face-to-face communication
Communicate relative performance of the local
work area.
All levels of management should introduce and stress 'open‟ methods of
communication, by maintaining open offices, being accessible to staff/employees
and taking part in day-to-day interactions and the detailed processes. This will lay
the foundation for improved interaction between staff and employees, which
is essential for information flow and process improvement. It is to be
expected that the quality message will meet with some resistance as it is
communicated through the organisation by means of the quality directive. First-
line management should be trained to help people deal with it. This is why it is
important for top management‟s communication to be forceful and persuasive.
4.4 TRAINING DEFINED Training has been defined as "The systematic development of the knowledge, skills
and attitudes required by an individual to perform adequately a given task or job".
Or
Training has also been defined in the Glossary of Training Terms
(Manpower Services Commission, U.K) as "a planned process to modify attitude,
knowledge or skill behaviour through learning experience to achieve effective
performance in an activity or range of activities”.
Its purpose in the work situation is to develop the abilities of the individual and to
satisfy current and future manpower needs of the organisation”. 4.5 ROLE OF TRAINING
In order to enable the trainer to first comprehend his/her role, it would be helpful
if training as a concept is briefly delved into. It is recognised that the right mix of
knowledge, skills and attitudes/behaviours, helps a job holder to perform tasks
successfully. Organisations try to achieve this by:
Proper selection of personnel, i.e. choosing the right person for the right job; and
Human resources development-through training intervention- helping them to learn
in order to bridge the performance gap, if any, and make them more proficient. The
component of development may also be added to this process.
In order to achieve its overall goal of performance improvement, training must lead
to the enhancement of professional knowledge and skills both at individual and
collective levels. It should also equip personnel to respond appropriately to
emerging challenges. Training should also bring about appropriate changes in
attitudes and should strive for that unique synthesis between improvement of the
individual's competencies and promotion of organisational objectives.
4.6 BENEFITS OF SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO TRAINING
Many people assume that they already have good training for them and their
employees. After all, we answer our employees' questions as they have them. We
send our employees to a course once in a while. Sure, our approach to training is
not intentional that is, planned and focused. But employees seem to be doing their
jobs without having real problems.
Unfortunately, we do not know what we do not know. It may be that our
employees could be performing much better than we realize if they had better
skills. It might that the supervisors could get back a lot of time that otherwise is
spent answering employees' questions. Employees might be retained much longer,
as well. Addressing this possibility is not a "what if" question. It is a primary
responsibility of a supervisor.
Adopting a systematic approach to training helps ensure that supervisors are
getting the most out of themselves and their employees. A systematic approach to
training includes taking the time to analyze what results the organisation needs
from its employees, if employees are accomplishing those results. A systematic
approach includes evaluating approaches before, during and after training to
ensure employees truly benefited from the training in terms of enhanced results to
the organisation. Effective training and development includes using sound
principles of performance management and good basic training techniques.
4.7 MODEL OF SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO
TRAINING
In order to operate training in a systematic manner, it has to cover inter
related stages and processes.
4.7.1 Organisation's Aim
Understanding the organisation's aims and needs and how the aims are met by a
range of jobs that exist in an organisation. Training needs need to be analysed, find
out what people need to learn. This can be done by:
Assessing the degree of competence of job-holders to meet those
requirements
Setting aims and learning objectives
Specifying what trainees should be able to do as a result of training
designing training strategy
Deciding on a strategy to meet training needs e.g. by designing
courses/modules, suggesting various methodologies, deciding key
learning points trainees must grasp and also sending some learning
material(preview) to trainees
Implementing training strategy
Putting the training into practice.
4.8 ESTABLISHING & ASSESSING THE QUALITY & EFFECTIVENESS
OF TRAINING
The entire process is covered by the term Systematic Approach to training which
can be depicted. It is apparent that the term training is not simply Organising
classroom sessions. There is more to it. This process can help us to identify the role
of the personal responsible for Organising training and implementing the training
policy. It would be worthwhile to discuss each of these segments in some detail.
4.8.1 Aim and Training Objectives
After identifying training needs we need to formulate the aim of training and set
training objectives. Aim links training design to the training needs. It may be
expressed in a dry and matter of fact manner or dressed up to be as appealing as a
television advertisement. In relation to training of enforcement officers in the field
of precursor control, here are some examples:
To train drug law enforcement officers to identify precursor
chemicals
To ensure that precursor control staff are able to detect diversion of
precursor chemicals
To improve the investigating skills of officers involved in precursor
control
All of the above examples are broad statements describing the intention of
the training. It can be considered as a short publicity statement that will
appeal to the client and to prospective trainees.
Aims are of little value in designing the actual training, because they do not
give sufficient information about what the learners will learn during their
training and even further, what they will be able to do on completion. This
requires formulation of objectives.
4.8.2 Objectives
An objective is used to state what they (learners) will be able to do on
completion of training, when they have achieved a satisfactory standard of
performance under training conditions. The term used to describe this is
called training objective. In a precursor control training programme, typical
objectives for the various topics could be:
At the end of the training, the trainees will be able to fully explain the
concept of precursor control and describe the need for such a control as
a strategy to contain supply of illicit supply of narcotic drugs
At the end of the training, the trainees will be able to describe the licit
and illicit uses of the precursors listed in Tables I and II of the
United NationsConvention,1988
At the end of training, the trainees will be able to test suspect substances
using precursor identification field test kit and determine whether or not
the suspect substance is a precursor chemical
At the end of the training, the trainees will be able to detect and prevent
cases of diversion of precursor chemicals for illicit uses.
4.9 TRAINING DESIGN
Designing training programmes is an important component of systematic
approach to training. It should be designed enlisting active participation of
the personnel at varying levels. If possible, training experts should be
consulted. Programmes design must bear the stamp of being custom-made
to achieve specific objectives of the individuals or groups, as the case may
be.
Precursor Control training programmes usually have more than one purpose,
such as providing knowledge, enhancing technical skills and affecting
attitudinal changes. Emphasis on a particular purpose may, however vary
from programme to programme depending upon factors such as the type of
audience, level of participants, etc. Designing training programmes involves
determining the level of participants, identifying the resource persons and
selecting appropriate methods and techniques for training.
Any programmes designed for training the trainers should have a
component to enhance the instructional skills of the participants and
another to impart knowledge and enhance skills in the subject matter.
4.10 B A S I C O V E R V I E W O F S YS T E M AT I C A P P R O A C H E S
T O TRAINING
The following manuals outline systematic training processes. A systems
approach ensures a comprehensive training process that remains focused on
the needs of the organisation. The process typically includes the phrases:
Analyze the organisation's needs and identify training goals which, when
reached, will equip learners with knowledge and skills to meet the
organization’s needs. Usually this phase also includes identifying when
training should occur and who should attend as learners
Design a training system that learners and trainers can implement to meet
the learning goal; typically includes identifying learning objectives
(which culminate in reaching the learning goals), needed facilities,
necessary funding , course content, lessons and sequence of lessons
Develop and Implement a training "package" of resources and materials,
including developing audio-visuals, graphics, manuals, etc. and
delivering the training, support group feedback, clarifying training
materials, administering tests and conducting the final evaluation. This
phase includes administrative activities, such as copying scheduling
facilities, taking attendance data, billing learners, etc.
Evaluate training, including before, during and after implementation of
training.
In a systematic approach to training, each phase of the process produces
learning goals that are used by the next phase, training design. Training
design (often called instructional design) references the goals to design
methods and materials from which learners can reach the goals and
objectives. Typically, each phase provides ongoing evaluation feedback to
other phases in order to improve the overall systems process.
4.11 ASSESS RESULTS
The intentions of training cannot be measured but results can be. The final
part of systematic training is therefore, to use suitable measuring techniques
to assess:
The quality of training provided
Whether this resulted in improved performance
Whether the training was worth doing
At the end of the day, the training programme is as good as the participants
found it. Their feedback helps in evaluation of the training programmes but
also helps to improve future programmes
4.12 MATCH BETWEEN T R A I N I N G O B J E C T I V E S A N D
T R A I N I N G METHODS
Training is designed to achieve the objectives formulated and appropriate
training methods should be adopted to achieve the objectives effectively.
The trainer has a wide range of training methods to choose from. A judicious
mix of one or more methods should be adopted to suit each training programme.
Some of the important training methods are enlisted below:
Lecture
Discussion
Case study
Role play
Sensitivity training
Syndicate
Brain storming
Computer assisted learning
Exercise
Business games
In-Basket
On the job training
Project work
programmed learning
The training objective and the outcome an event seeks to achieve determine
the choice of training method. For example, if the objective is to develop
technical skill, then there is need for practical exercises; if conceptual skill,
then case study could be a method. If attitudinal orientation is intended, then
role-play is an appropriate method.
4.13 BALANCED CONTENT
A training programme should not be too heavy, so as to leave no time for the
trainee to absorb the inputs. Neither should it be so light as to convey the
impression that the training programme is not a serious endeavour. The
programme should be stimulating enough, but must leave time and
opportunity for reflection.
While imparting training in precursor control, the training content must be
tailored to the specific duties, roles and responsibilities of the trainees in a
particular group. For instance, the content designed for enforcement
officers will vary somewhat from the content for trainers or for chemists.
In each case, the content should be devised so as to achieve the purpose of
training effectively and efficiently.
4.14 TRAINING FOR QUALITY
Quality means meeting the changing needs of clients. Changes imply that
people need to be continuously refocused on their changing tasks. The
way to address the issue is to introduce a progressive and active training and
development policy.
4.15 THE TRAINING CYCLE
Training is the single most important factor in actually improving quality,
once there has been commitment to do so. For training to be effective,
however, it must be planned in a systematic and objective manner. Quality
training must be continuous to meet not only changes in technology but also
changes in the environment in which the organisation operates, its structure,
and perhaps most importantly of all the people who work there.
4.16 TRAINING CYCLE OF IMPROVEMENT
Study and discuss pages 234 to 236 of the prescribed textbook.
Quality training activities can be considered in the form of a cycle of
improvement, the elements of which are the following:
Training is the single most important factor in actually improving quality,
once there has been commitment to do so. For training to be effective,
however, it must be planned in a systematic and objective manner. Quality
training must be continuous to meet not only changes in technology but also
changes in the environment in which the organisation operates, its structure,
and perhaps most importantly of all the people who work there. Quality
training activities can be considered in the form of a cycle of improvements,
the elements of which are as follows:
Ensure training is part of the quality policy: Implement training as
part of basic policies and procedures to be implemented at all levels
Allocate responsibilities for training: Each employee has to be trained
on importance of quality, human resources and department managers
to be involved
Define training objectives: Identify individual and group objectives
and how this will develop into organisation’s objectives
Establish training organisation: Ensure organization focuses on
training
Specify quality training needs: Identify needs at various levels and
know how training will benefit
Prepare training programmes and materials: Do this in conjunction
with human resources department after identifying specific needs
Implement and monitor training: Put training programs into place
and monitor performance
Analyse whether you have achieved the results you set out to
achieve in steps
Review effectiveness of training: Determine whatever training
programmes serve to benefit the organization and whether it will
have a long-standing advantage for the future
4.17 A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO QUALITY TRAINING
Quality training should be addressed systematically. The most important
requirement is to train people to prevent problems from occurring.
Responsibility for the training of employees in quality rests with
management at all levels and, in particular the person nominated for the co-
ordination of the organisation’s quality effort.
The main elements of effective and systematic quality training may be
considered fewer than four broad headings:
Error/defect/problem prevention:
Produce error free products
Error/defect/problem reporting and analysis:
Identify problem area and analyse its impact on the organization
Error/defect/problem investigation:
Determine why the problem occurred and what steps should be taken to
rectify them
Review:
See whether the problem was rectified properly so that it does not recur.
4.18 TRAINING NEEDS OF THE FOUR LEVELS IN ORGANISATION
It cannot be assumed that no one person in the organisation needs training.
Everybody does, although the type of training will be different for different
people at different levels.
Training needs occur at four levels of an
organisation:
Very senior
Middle Management
First-level supervision and quality team leaders
All other employees.
4.19 FOLLOW-UP
For the successful implementation of TQM, training must be followed up during the early stages. Follow-up can take many forms, but the managers need to provide the lead through the design of improvement projects and „surgery‟ workshops
4.20 ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. List and explain the four types of communication methods?
2. Name and explain the four stages of team development?
3. Explain the need for teamwork and why no organisation can do without
it.
TOPIC 5
5. QUALITY OF WORK LIFE
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this topic, you should be able to:
Define and describe the elements of QWL
Understanding The concept of career anchors
Be able to design an organisational model for QWL
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Quality of Work Life is the existence of a certain set of organizational conditions or practices. This definition frequently argues that a high quality of work life exists when democratic management practices are used, employee’s jobs are enriched, employees are treated with dignity and safe working conditions exist. In recent years the phrase “Quality of life” has been used with increasing frequency to describe certain environmental and humanistic values neglected by industrial productivity and economic growth. Within business organizations attention has been focused on the Quality of human experience in the work place. At the same time many firms have questioned their viability in increasingly competitive world markets. These dual concerns have created a growing interest in the possibilities of redesigning the nature of work. Many current organizational experiments seek to improve both productivity for the organization and the quality of working life for its members
5.2 DEFINITION OF QUALITY OF WORK LIFE (QWL)
Quality of Work Life can also be defined as the degree to which a job or
a position can meet the career anchor needs of individuals at various stages
of career development.
People define QWL differently, depending on the perspectives from which
they operate. Example
For an assembly-line worker QWL could mean fair remuneration,
a safe work environment and a fair supervisor.
For the junior manager it could mean participation in decision-
making, opportunities for advancement, and a structured career
path.
It clearly follows, that the design of an environment that will allow
people to experience their work environment positively will have to be
based on individually assessed needs.
5.3 THE CONCEPT OF CAREER ANCHORS MEANS THE
FOLLOWING:
The technical / functional competence: refers to a person who qualifies as
an expert in a particular field of work.
General managerial competence: refers to the interest a person may have
in working in a general management capacity.
Security / stability: refers to the need to function in a stable and predictable
environment.
Entrepreneurial creativity: refers to the spirit that some people exhibit to be
creative and to build new organisations.
Sense of service and dedication to a cause: refers to some people’s attitude
of wanting to change the environment in some way, to make it better by
living according to basic human values.
Pure challenge: defines the “can do” person who believes that he/she can
conquer everything. Situations that are ever more difficult to deal with spur
this person to greater effort.
Lifestyle: refers to the person who wants to integrate career, family and
personal life issues so that they form a harmonious whole.
Autonomy / independence: refers to the need people have to construct their
own work environment
A career anchor is the complete structure of talents, motives and values that
guide a person’s career. Individuals will have one outstanding career anchor, which will allow them to fit some jobs better than others.
A formula has been suggested to determine QWL for individuals. The formula
is based on the assumption that work consists of several domains or facts
which people regard as important. The constellation of domains may differ from
one person to the next.
5.4 ELEMENTS OF QUALITY OF WORK LIFE
In spite of the fact that elements of QWL are unique to each person, studies
have indicated that there are a number of factors, which seem to be generally
accepted as being strongly related to QWL.
The following elements will determine a person’s QWL:
Sufficient and fair compensation
Safe and healthy work conditions
Development of human resources
Security and continued growth
Social interaction and integration in the work place (does the employee fit
into the culture of the organisation).
Legalized labour relations.
Balance between private and work life
Social relevance of the job
Participation in the structuring of the work environment
through involvement in problem solving.
Congruence between the goals of individual persons and those of the
organisation.
The generation of feeling of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment derived
from tasks performed.
A climate of respect, fairness and co-operation.
Control of or autonomy in the work environment. This means that the
employee has discretion over the expenditure of his/ her time and effort
Recognition as a contributor to the business of the department or
organisation.
Belonging to a social unit and sharing in the goals and values of the group.
It is converse of recognition, which implies that individuals are singled out
in a crowd.
Internal rewards to be derived from the work, such as adequate
compensation, promotion opportunities and positions of authority.
Decent physical working conditions which are safe and healthy, and which
provide good basic infrastructure to do the job
Being treated with respect and dignity, particularly if there is a discrepancy
between the social and educational levels of employees. Lower-skilled
workers should not be looked down upon.
The dimensions that make up QWL can be categorised into a number of clusters
of variables. A QWL consist of a list of qualities that describes QWL for two
samples of employees in a cross-cultural study. The steps in the process were as
follows:
Individuals were asked to think and reflect on a specific job and to describe
the different elements that made up the job.
While bearing in mind the job they had described, the respondents had to
consider how they felt about themselves in the work situation and how others
see them in the job.
Reflecting on the total work experience as described above, the respondents
had to list adjectives, phrases and words that would describe their workplace
experiences.
In small groups the respondents had to share their constructs or work
elements, and in this way they were informed of others‟ opinions.
Finally, the respondents had to reconsider their lists of constructs with a
view to adding or subtracting from them.
5.5 General Elements to job satisfaction include:
Opportunity for action
Freedom to work in one’s own way
Goal involvement
Learning opportunities
Suggesting new ways
Promotion opportunities
Problem solving
Mental effort
Authority to do things
Responsibility
Performance feedback
Studies that sought to determine characteristics that identify QWL of well
performing organisations revealed the following:
The first was that the successful companies did not tolerate low productivity as
a fact of life that needs to be accepted. This is particularly relevant for South
Africa where mediocre standards of service, health, safety and production are so
often taken for granted. If productivity is properly
managed it could be lifted and maintained on a high level.
The second was that a participative leadership style was used, which meant
that people’s opinions were sought and they were asked to contribute to the
solution of problems in the workplace.
Communication was high on the agenda, particularly in terms of
performance feedback. Employees knew how they performed and what
changes they needed to make in order to increase their productivity.
Appropriate use was made of technology within the framework of what was
affordable and what was necessary. High technology, which was not utilized
properly, was frowned upon. Technology was used functionally.
Job security was fairly strong. People did not work under the constant threat
of losing their jobs and could therefore focus on the job at hand.
Each organisation should assess approaches to productivity and quality of work
life enhancement that relate to making the most effective use of its own work
setting. There is no universal and sure way to succeed. If one has conviction that
success can be achieved, various experimental approaches will be tried, evaluated
and refined-and success will be achieved.
5.6 AN ORGANISATIONAL MODEL FOR QWL
THE VISION STATEMENT – PHILSOPHY AND CORE VALUES
All effective organisations have a clear vision of where they want to be
in the future and how they want to conduct their business, which
includes the values on which the business practice will be based. Values
are the essential building blocks of organisational culture. A business
that cannot articulate these variables will not be able to instil pride and
commitment in its employees.
MANAGEMENT STYLE
The management style that characterises organisations with a high QWL is built on equal commitment to caring about the needs of both internal and external customers. Such a management style will be characterized by support, communication, employee development, openness to being most
influenced by teamwork. This report on a survey of the global admired companies found that these companies were characterised by teamwork, customer focus, and fair treatment of employees, initiative and innovation. Average companies were characterised by the minimisation of risk, respecting the chain of command, supporting the boss and making the budget.
ROLE OF TRADE UNIONS The role of trade unions, particularly in the South African context, has traditionally been one of antagonism to management. This antagonistic role may be attributable to past injustice and victimisation but, be that as it may, in a QWL organisation there should be a constructive relationship between all the stakeholders and a joint commitment to working towards the common good. The primary focus of trade unions has always been on improving the QWL of their members. It will be important that they achieve the improvement they seek through constructive engagement rather than destructive disengagement.
ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE The typical QWL organisation has a flat hierarchical structure. Flat structures promote quick decision-making and short lines of communication, which are necessary to react quickly to the changing needs of the customers. Keeping contact with the customers is the way to keep the organisation at the cutting edge of development and innovation.
JOB DESIGN Motivation and satisfaction with what one does are important goals of job design. The effectiveness of job design will depend on the nature of the job. If it involves a task that a person can complete from beginning to end, it is better to empower that person to do it alone. If the task requires various processes that one person can hardly be expected to perform
adequately, it may be better to form a team that will take responsibility for the task. Motivation and satisfaction will only be achieved if people feel that they are doing meaningful work, that they have responsibility for the work and that they get feedback about how they are performing on the job.
TEAMWORK Teamwork can provide a very useful breeding ground for employees to learn about all the business processes involved in the production of a product range. Responsibility can be allocated to the team to look after a few processes, or the teams assignment can be extended to cover a wide range of processes stretching from human resource management and marketing to procurement of raw materials and other resources. The members of such a team will have a diverse range of responsibilities and they will also be able to acquire a range of skills that would not have
been possible in any other situation. Making employees members of teams is the antithesis of individual job design, but it can be equally motivational and satisfying.
PROBLEM-SOLVING GROUPS Perhaps the best-known example of the problem-solving group is the quality circle. Quality circles or task groups can be very effective in the solution of problems, provided that the culture of the organisation will support the functioning of such groups and the implementation of the solutions it comes up with.
INFORMATION SYSTEM Intelligence in the form of facts and information is important to make good business decisions, and it is imperative that QWL organisations possess adequate computer infrastructure to make this possible. The computer systems are bound to be very effective if they are set up with the cooperation and input of the people that will use the data.
PHYSICAL AND TECHNICAL DESIGN One of the key elements of the QWL organisation is the physical layout of the plant, which should be safe and healthy within the constraints imposed by the nature of the organisation. It was found that noise pollution is the single most common physical problem-affecting workers. Not nearly enough is done to combat the problem because effective countermeasures are regarded as too expensive and there seems to be no culture of hearing protection in local industry.
The physical layout should also not be divisive and the separation of
employees by status symbols such as car parking areas or different dining
areas should be discouraged. Intel, the most admired company in the
computer industry, has none of the traditional status symbols. Average
companies often pay lip service to teamwork and then they reward
only individual managers for the achievements of their departments.
HARMONISATION
This element promotes the establishment of a classless society in
an organisation. It is sometimes difficult to understand how the
differences between top management and the shop floor in terms of salaries
or fringe benefits can be justified. In some countries like New Zealand the
pay differential between management and other levels is negligible. This is a
characteristic of the wider egalitarian society. In other countries such a
Venezuela the pay differential is very large, which leads to worker
dissatisfaction and protest.
A system, particularly used in the EU, whereby the blue-collar workers and
the white-collar workers in an organization have similar status and any
former differences in terms and conditions of employment are levelled
REWARD SYSTEMS Reward systems that promote the remuneration of employees in accordance with the overall performance and output of the organisation appear to be the most effective means of generating motivation and commitment to outstanding performance. Examples of such systems are: skill-based pay; gain sharing; profit sharing; employee share ownership; flexible benefits; an all – salary work force and open participative performance appraisal. In QWL- oriented organisations divisive pay systems such as individually based remuneration would be counterproductive because they would lead to dissatisfaction and protest.
PERSONNEL POLICIES Personnel policies should be developed that fit the type of culture promoted by the QWL organisation. It will be beneficial to involve the employees in such actions and to make them co-responsible for the measures that they introduce. A very important element of QWL is stability of employment. Employees who are constantly under threat of retrenchment will not perform as expected. They will be so worried about their own positions that they will lack the capacity to be innovative and responsible.
CAREER SYSTEM Career system changes dramatically in the QWL organisation. The traditional career paths no longer exist because of the flatter structures. Instead we find that people have to engage in life-long learning with the aim to acquire new skills all the time. Sought-after skills will ensure that career progression can occur. Employees also have to be content to move horizontally rather than vertically to be exposed to new work environments.
SELECTION SYSTEM The QWL organisation will seek to employ people with an orientation towards: career and work; learning, growing and developing as human beings; responsibility for their own behaviour; and good interpersonal skills.
The involvement of employees from the work area that the new entrant will have to work in will help to make the selection process more reliable.
TRAINING ORIENTATION In QWL organisations there is a commitment to training and the
improvement of employees‟ skills. This is another form of looking after the needs of internal customers because the learning of new skills will motivate
them to increased effort and output.
5.7 ASSESSMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF QWL IN
ORGANISATIONS
It has been noted that QWL should place emphasis on every aspect of the
processes and procedures of an organisation that impact on people’s needs and
that will influence their capacity to be productive.
Programmes will include a form of needs analysis and suggestions of how to
provide the missing elements. These programmes constitute events where
employees and managers can meet to discuss problems concerning specific
work areas, where the employees can play an active role in the design of problem-
solving interventions, and where they can display a certain degree of autonomy.
A case in point is the labour-management committee or the quality circle, which
is more of a problem-solving group.
Suggestion boxes are used to collect grievances and suggestions for
workplace improvement. The practice of maintaining suggestion boxes
enables employees to be heard and meets their recognition needs.
General opinion surveys or climate assessments are ways to get the
employees to identify the issues they are not happy with. They open up the
issues for management’s attention and these measures can be very useful
if management responds to them with constructive feedback to
employees.
The feedback is very important otherwise the employees may become
suspicious and the process will be tainted.
Another useful measure takes the form of large employee meetings, or what
are also called town meetings where all the employees in a department or
an organisation are periodically brought together to discuss issues of mutual
concern. On a smaller scale there are representative communication
councils. These are groups of employees who may have certain
characteristics in common and who are brought together to facilitate
communication.
The central theme here is that the employees are given a voice and an
opportunity to make them heard. The personal recognition factor is again
relevant here.
The management style known as Management by Objectives (MBO), is a
method whereby the manager and the employee come together to set certain
objectives that the employee will have to meet in a specified/agreed time. If
handled correctly it can be a good way to get employees to won their goals, which
will in turn improve intrinsic motivation. However, MBO can also be handled in
a top-down fashion, which will then be detrimental to employees‟ motivation and
productivity.
Other measures that can be used to improve the QWL in an organisation
are:
Organisation development through the change of attitudes and the
improvements of interpersonal skills and organisational climate
Team building
Sensitivity training that leads to greater sensitivity to people and their needs
Behaviour modeling either through observation of models or mentoring
programmes
Quality circles
Job enrichment and job redesign
Participative management
Effective leadership and supervision
Elimination of all forms of pollution (air, noise, etc.) and a well-managed
environmental management system such as ISO 14000
Ergonomically designed work areas
There is no scarcity of measures and programmes that can be used to make the
work environment more conducive to worker motivation and productivity.
Professional assistance is often required, particularly as regards the
assessment of organisation culture and climate. The process can be driven
internally once adequate training and development have taken place.
5.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN QWL AND MOTIVATION IN THE
WORKPLACE
An environment that requires social interaction and optional interaction, will
elicit a high degree of motivation from people. It was found that people react
differently to the same set of environmental variables because they
have different need structures and their perceptions of the
environment are determined by their needs. This is the Hierarchy of Needs
Theory of Maslow. Suffice it to say here that to determine what the impact
of QWL on employee motivation will be, attention should be paid to both
set of variables, namely task and people characteristics. If these
characteristics are in synergy employees can be expected to be motivated at
high levels
5.9 INEFFECTUAL TQM IMPLEMENTATION
Following factors appear to influence the eventual success of TQM
improvement programmes:
A quality strategy: which is necessary to provide the goals and guidelines
which help keep the TQM programme heading in a direction that is
appropriate for achievement of the business/organization/institution‟s other
strategic aims? The quality strategy should address the competitive
priorities of the organization and how the TQM programme is expected to
contribute to achieving increased competitiveness, the roles and
responsibilities of the various parts of the organization in quality
improvement, the resources that will be available for quality improvement,
and the general approach to and philosophy of quality improvement
embraced in the organization
Top management support; their full understanding, support and leadership
are a crucial factor for successful TQM implementation. The importance
their support goes beyond the allocation of the resources to actually setting
the priorities for the whole organization. The personnel of the
business/organization/institution will only understand and support the TQM
programme if senior management understands or shows full commitment to
it. To demonstrate their support top management needs to understand and
believe in the link between doing things right and the overall mission of the
business/ organization/institution. They also need to understand the
practicalities of quality and show some proficiency in dealing with quality
principles and techniques, and they must be able to participate in the total
problem solving process to eliminate errors. Moreover, they must formulate
and maintain a clear idea of what quality means for the whole organization.
A steering group: their first task is to plan the implementation of the TQM
program (I.e. planning the overall direction in terms of what should it
achieve as the programme gathers momentum to ensure that the knowledge
and experience gathered in the process, deciding where the program starts
and who to involve, monitoring the program.
Group based involvement: Successful TQM programmes are based on
teams because they are most familiar to employees who work with the actual
operating processes (usually in groups). Quality circles and improvement
groups are valuable contributors to quality improvement efforts
Success is recognized: TQM program must respond to the efforts of the
quality improvement teams, and success must be marked in some way, such
as formally stressing the importance of the quality improvement process and
rewarding effort and initiative.
Training is the heart of quality improvement: TQM programs have
training managers as one of the prime drivers of the whole initiative. TQM
requires attitudinal change in the way many employees view quality and its
strategic importance for the whole business.
5.10 TQM LOSES EFFECTIVENESS
TQM gradually loses its effectiveness, it should be recognized that although
TQM may be successfully implemented there is no guarantee that it will
continue to bring long-term improvement.
The following prescriptions can be followed to reduce the risk that impetus
will lose over time and quality:
Quality in TQM should not be narrowly defined.
Relate efforts to performance objectives.
TQM is not a substitute for good management.
TQM is not a bolt on attachment
TQM is not a fashionable slogan
TQM can be adapted for different circumstances.
5.11 CONCLUSION
This discussion dealt with the issue of QWL and how it relates to TQM. One of
the main principles of TQM is care of both internal and external customers. The
discussions of QWL have shown that it is mainly focused on meeting the needs of
the internal customers, namely employees. Without happy and productive internal
customers, the external ones will suffer. The business will not meet its production
or sales target and the circle will become tighter and tighter. QWL will
ultimately affect the bottom line.
The key elements for success are:
Top management support
Business driven
Strategy drives technology
Change strategies are integrated
Invest in people and technology
Manage technology as well as people
Everybody must be on board
Clear, explicit objectives
Time framed project management
5.12 ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Define QWL
2. Identify elements of work life that create a negative QWL and a positive
3. QWL
4. Explain contribution of QWL and motivation in the workplace.
5. Relationship between QWL and TQM.
MCQ
1.1 Responding to employees and involving them in decision making is referred to as____
A. Quality of work life
B. Autonomy
C. Empowerment
D. Pre-action
1.2 As the quality of work life(QWL) movement evolved, it fostered a new phase of activities
known as_________
A. Large group interventions
B. Reward system
C. Employee involvement
D. Team building
1.3 Which of the following does not provide learning experiences that affect the type of lifestyle
people seek and the products they consume?
A. Culture
B. Family
C. Friends
D. Availability
1.4 Techniques for building employee empowerment include the following, except?
A. Building communication networks that include employees
B. Developing open, supportive supervisors
C. Moving responsibility from managers and staff to production employees
D. Techniques for employee disempowerment
TOPIC 6
6. ROLE OF TRADE UNIONS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this topic, the learner should be able to:
Understand the role of trade unions in QWL
Define trade unions
Describe the three main federations.
Understand the future of trade unions.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The role of trade unions, particularly in South African context, has
traditionally been one of antagonism to management. This antagonism role may
be attributable to past injustice and victimisation but, is that it may, in a quality
work life organisation there should be a constructive relationship
between all the stakeholders and a joint commitment to working towards the
common good. The primary focus of trade unions has always been on
improving the quality work life of their members. It will be important that they
achieve the improvement they seek through constructive engagement rather
than destructive disengagement.
A trade union is an organisation made up of members (a membership-based
organisation) and its membership must be made up mainly of workers. One of
a trade union's main aims is to protect and advance the interests of its members
in the workplace
6.2 ROLE OF TRADE UNIONS
Trade unions in Southern Africa are mostly characterized by the past political
landscape where there are unions that were instrumental in the liberation
struggle and those that were supportive of the colonizers or oppressors. The
same trend continues to exist at bargaining levels in the industry where you will
find unions that are pro-management and will always work against the good
interest of workers. In the case of South Africa such unions are predominantly
white and sometimes black establishments that were opposed to the struggle
against apartheid. These establishments tend obstruct democratic arrangements
either in our struggle against worker exploitation by capital or against
unpopular government policies like privatisation and progressive unions to
participate in company decision-making processes.
It is a fact that the political struggle in South Africa did shape the role of
trade unions in the democratic processes and governance. Despite the Alliance
we have with the political party in power which dates back during the yore
days of apartheid, we still maintain our independence in as far as fighting for
the interests of workers and the society is concerned.
For trade unions to be strong and effective in engaging the government, the
following should happen: Unions should have effective administrative
structures, Financial resources and proper management systems, Political
education for its staff members, Effective constitutional structures, Capacity
building of its leadership on political and democratic processes, Effective union
departments like Collective Bargaining and Research, Legal, Housing,
Health and Safety, Education and Training and so on. Organising should
play a critical role in ensuring that workers do understand the role of the union
and their rights. Correctly and appropriately considered, the above will always
serve as a basis for a strong union capable of engaging the government on
public policy issues and management on worker issues.
4.3 UNIONS CHALLENGE APARTHEID
The militancy shown by the trade union movement in support of union
recognition and higher wages soon translated into political mobilisation against
apartheid system.
The apartheid-era Industrial Conciliation Act, for example, recognised the right
of white, Indian and coloured workers to belong to trade unions while denying
black workers the same right. Consequently, trade union argued that workers
and their unions could remain disengaged from community struggles to
dismantle the apartheid system.
Unions soon began participating in community struggles against rents,
unrepresentative local councils and apartheid laws, leading in the 1980's to the
establishment of community organisations, including youth, student and
women's structures.
A co-operative relationship between unions and community organisations was
established. The many stay ways in support of political demands in the 1980s
were jointly organised by unions and community organisations. The trade
unions valuable organisational and negotiating experience was shared with
community activists, ensuring effective community mobilisation.
The unions also played an important role when, in 1983, they joined up with
anti- apartheid organisations to form the United Democratic Front, a broad-
based
movement that campaigned against the trilateral parliament catering for whites,
Indians and Coloureds to the exclusion of black people. Many trade union
leaders became prominent members of the African National
Congress{ANC} after the 1994 elections
6.4 LABOUR RELATIONS ACT 6.4.1 Definition
The Labour Relations Act (No 66 of 1995) governs how employers and employees should deal with each other and what rights trade unions and employer organisations have in the workplace. It is not about terms and conditions of employment.
The LRA deals with rights of individuals regarding fairness, bargaining and dispute resolution and rights and obligations of trade unions.
6.4.2 Who is covered by the LRA?
Except for members of the South African National Defence Force, National Intelligence Agency and Secret Service, all employees are covered by the LRA, including farmworkers, domestic workers and public sector employees (such as teachers, nurses, police and so on who work for the state).
An independent contractor is not defined as an ‘employee’ and is therefore excluded from the LRA and BCEA provisions
6.4.3 What is the LRA about?
The LRA covers things like: rights of employees to form and join a union rights of employers to form and join an employers' organisation the rights of trade unions in the workplace collective bargaining Bargaining Councils and Statutory Councils the establishment of workplace forums, which allow employees
to participate in management decisions at work what are fair and unfair labour practices procedures that must be followed for dismissals to be fair dispute resolution structures and procedures, including the
Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration industrial action
Trade union representation is now an accepted fact of industrial practice.
Almost all sectors of the economy, including the public service, have
representative unions which engage employers over issues affecting their
workforce.
6.5 REGULATED, CO-OPERATIVE LABOUR RELATIONS
Industrial relations policy is regulated through labour legislation that is
negotiated at the statutory National Economic Development and
Labour Council {NEDLAC}. Trade unions federations, employer bodies, the
government and civic organisations are represented in NEDLAC, which
debates and tries to reach consensus on social and economic policy issues.
South Africa's post-1994 labour legislation is among the most progressive in
the world, providing for nine institutions to settle disputes, ensure fairness in
the workplace, and nature sound, co-operative industrial relations.
6.6 THREE MAIN UNION FEDERATIONS
According to the 2001/02 South Africa Yearbook, there were about 17 trade
union federations at the end of 2000.This number could be higher, though, as
federations are not required by law to register, and unaffiliated unions spring
up all the time.
There are, however, three prominent trade union federations with affiliates
operating in the different sectors of the economy. These are the Congress of
South African Trade Unions {Cosatu}, the Federation of Un ions of
South Afr ica {Feuds}, and the National Council of Trade Unions {Nactu}.
Although the three federations and their respective affiliates compete for
membership, they co-operate in forums such as Nedlac. They have also
embarked on joint campaigns, including demonstrations against amendments
to the Labour Relations Act.
Congress of SA Trade Unions
Federation of Unions of SA
National Council of Trade Unions
6.7 STRONG UNIONS, STABLE WORKPLACE
The strength of trade unions lies in the fact that its campaigns are
issue-focused and therefore appeal directly to its target members. The
shop steward structures on the factory floor serve two major purposes:
they ensure that workers' interests are articulated, and that agreements
with employers are implemented.
The factory floor structures also ensure that discipline and unity of
purpose in maintained among the workforce. This benefits employers,
as they interact with their employees through structures that enjoy
legitimacy among the workers, thereby ensuring a relatively stable
industrial environment.
Employers and trade unions have, over the years, cultivated a co-
operative working relationship that has created a less strained working
environment. Among the gains the unions have registered over the years
is the concession by employers that unilateral decision-making is
undemocratic.
6.8 TRADE UNIONS FUTURE
Over recent years, it has become fashionable in many quarters to write off Britain's trade unions, to label them as obsolete institutions out of touch with new
realities and incapable of change. In today's world of individual
employment contracts, performance -related pay schemes, Human
Resource and Total Quality Management and all the other ingredients of
the so-called new workplaces, trade unions are often regarded as
anachronistic obstacles preventing success of the market economy. As
collective voluntary organisations that present employees in the
workplace, it is argued; trade unions no longer serve a useful purpose.
The main priority of this essay is to represent the arguments for and
against the relevance of trade unions in today's working society.
Trade unions exist because an individual worker has very little power to
influence decisions that are made about his or her job. The greatest
advantage of joining a trade union is because, by doing so, individuals
possess more chance of having a voice and influence in their place of
work. By joining forces with other workers, an individual’s opinions and
beliefs regarding their job will also be voiced by other union members,
thus creating a stronger stance against management, if needed.
Therefore, the main purpose of trade union is to protect and improve
people's pay and conditions of employment. This objective is usually
achieved through negotiation and representation. Negotiation is where
union representatives discuss with management, issues which
affect people working in an organisation. The union finds out the
member’s views and relays these views to management. Pay, working
hours, holidays and changes to working practices are the sort of issues
that are negotiated. However, not all views will be taken on board by
the management; there may be difference of opinion between them and
union members.
Negotiation, therefore, is about finding a solution to these differences.
This process is also known as collective bargaining. In many workplaces
there is a formal agreement between the union and the company, which
states that the union has the right to negotiate with the employer. In these
organisations, unions are said to be recognised for collective bargaining
purposes. People who work in organisations where unions are recognised
are better paid, and are less likely to be made redundant than people who
work in organisations where unions are not recognised. Most collective
bargaining takes place quietly and agreements are quickly reached by the
union and the employer
Occasionally disagreements do occur, and in these cases the union may
decide to take industrial action. If the problem cannot be resolved
amicably, the matter may go to an industrial action. The purpose of
industrial tribunals is to make sure those employees and employers
conform to employment laws. They are made up of people outside the
workplace who make a judgment about the case, based on the employer's
and employee's point of view. Cases that go to industrial tribunals are
usually about pay, unfair dismissals and redundancy at work. The
Advisory and Arbitration Service {ACAS} is often used to find a solution
to a dispute which is acceptable to both sides. Its duty under the
Employment Protection Act is particular to encourage the extension of
collective bargaining and also to develop, and where necessary to reform,
collective bargaining machinery.
4.8.1 Main functions of ACAS:
Advisory work,
Collective bargaining machinery.
Collective conciliation, arbitration, and
Extended investigation into industrial relations problems.
Individuals can be represented by trade unions when they encounter
problems at work. If an employee feels that they are being unfairly
treated, he or she can ask the union representative to help sort out the
difficulty with the manager or employer.
6.9 ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Define a trade union
2. Describe the role of trade unions 3. Describe the future of trade unions
TOPIC 7
7. ADDENDUM 621 (A): CASE STUDY FOR
TUTORIAL DISCUSSION
CASE STUDY
HOW TO IMPLEMENT A QUALITY MANAGEMENT INITIATIVE
Representatives from three winners of the Malcolm Baldrige National
Quality Award-Xerox, Federal Express, and IBM- tell how they overcame
roadblocks to the total quality start-up efforts and achieved success despite
the reluctance to change from traditional mechanistic management practices.
Major problems included institutionalising a TQM vision and implementing
the infrastructure required for success.
The term “quality management” has become so popular these days that we
risk reducing it to a cliché, where the words become meaningless and serve
no useful purpose. Only by translating those words into action can we use
their message to help-build better businesses.
Three Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award-winning companies-Xerox
Corp., Business Products and Systems (Stamford, CT), IBM Corp.,
Rochester Unit (Armonk, NY) and Federal Express Corp. (Memphis, TN)-
successfully transformed quality management philosophies into quality
management practices. The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award,
created by Congress in 1987, is the highest form of recognition for quality
management in the United States. Named after the late Secretary of Commerce,
the award serves to promote quality awareness, recognise quality achievements
and publicise successful quality strategies.
Here, representatives of each of these companies describe the steps they took
to implement their award-winning quality initiatives.
The Need for Change “The first thing has to happen is an understanding of a need for change,”
maintains Sam Malone, project manager, corporate communications for
Xerox. At Xerox, he adds, “we faced a major crisis- in essence we were in a
going –out-of-business strategy if we didn‟t change.”
The awareness that change was needed at Xerox began in the mid-70s, when
a series of events conspired to loosen Xerox‟ firm grip on the copier/duplicator
market. Just as aggressive Japanese companies targeted the low end of the
market with small, high-quality, low-priced copiers, and began to penetrate
the mid-range market, Federal Trade Commission settlements required Xerox
to open international access to key patents. Meanwhile Eastman Kodak
(Rochester, NY) and IBM applied added pressure, entering the high end
of the market.
By 1980, increased competition began to take its roll. Xerox market share
had dropped significantly. The resulting lower rates of return on assets
throated. Xerox ability to maintain long term business vitality. It was clear that
drastic would be needed for Xerox to remain competitive.
In contrast, when Fedex embarked upon a quality management initiative, it
began from a position of strength. Capitalising on the management
philosophy of “People, Service, and Profit” since its inception in 1973, the
company had achieved high levels of customer satisfaction and experienced
rapid sales growth. Within ten years, the company‟s annual revenues topped
$1 billion; by 1990, revenues totalled nearly $7 billion. Domestic market share
hit 43 percent in 1989, outdistancing the nearest competitor, which held 26
percent. But those achievements were history. Managements‟ understanding
that past accomplishments do not ensure future success
fuelled the drive to improve, in order to retain their market dominance.
The management of IBM didn‟t have to look far to find a reason to initiate a
company-wide quality management initiative. Their very own IBM
Rochester, MN site (where intermediate computer systems and disk storage
products are manufactured) had instituted quality management practices in
1981, and the results were compelling: a 30 percent improvement in
productivity between 1986 and1989; a 50+ percent reduction of product-
development time for new midrange computer systems; a 60 percent
reduction in the manufacturing cycle since 1983; and impressive gains of
IBM‟s world market share for intermediate found a way to translate a
formidable, technology leadership into market leadership in the face of an
increasingly competitive computer industry. It was time to teach the rest of the
computer giant how to capitalise on quality management.
A Vision Statement
Having made the difficult decision to embark on a quality management
initiative, the companies entered the next stage of the process: formulating a
clear vision of where the company will be once the quality initiative is in
place. This entails, asserts Malone, “a coalescing of the senior management around the issue that we need to change the business, and some kind of an
agreement as to what that change should result in”.
To accomplish this, he adds, the company needs to develop “a desired-state
document or vision statement that says, given we go through all this turmoil
of change, how will we know if it‟s successful down the road: What would
we look like/ What are the specific elements that we want to focus on for
change?.
In most companies, if not all, the precepts of total quality management run
count to the very practices which brought success to the company and its
managers in the past. Realising this, the executives at Xerox, FedEx and
IBM sought the advice of management experts to help identify those
elements of change and to write a vision statement. Xerox selected an expert
in organisational: change and trained a group of senior executives to lead the
initiative; FedEx opted for a quality consultant; and IBM found its experts
among its executive ranks.
Xerox „decision was founded on the belief that senior executives educated in
total quality management are “better able to understand the current
environment and the current ills of the organisation and will be better able to
design an approach to fit,” than an outside quality expert, says Malone.
However, realising they would need assistance, they felt the consultant
would provide insights and expertise that were required to sustain a cultural
change over a long period of time.
Even at the already successful FedEX, SAYS John R. West, their manager
of Corporate Quality Improvement, “the first step was to find some experts
to lead the way. “He too says management looked both inside the company and
at outside consultants to find the experts. But time being a factor, he
says, they opted to go primarily outside. After initially working with several
consultants. They chose one who, among other things, provided them with a
two-course quality curriculum, which launched the quality process company
wide. West cautions, however, that you should take care to find a consultant whose
expertise matches your company‟s needs as a service or manufacturing
company. “We ran into a few problem on the front end by concentrating too
much on a manufacturing- type philosophy, ”confesses West. “We had too
heavy an emphasis on statistical process control, and that turned some of our
senior management off- to the extent that it took us about two years to get them
interested again.”
IBM found their quality experts and the makings of a vision statement at the
award-winning Rochester site. Reviewing Rochester‟s management process,
and using the Baldrige Award criteria as a guide, IBM executives identified
the aspects of the process that made their latest intermediate computer, the
AS/400, a success, and wrote those into the vision statement.
The Vision While each of the companies‟ vision statements features the quality
principles that have come to be the buzzwords of quality management, they are
tailored to suit the individual circumstances faced by each company. All
of the initiatives focus on customer satisfaction, as determined by the customer,
and as measured with verifiable facts. While it‟s impossible to discuss the
intricacies of the companies‟ quality initiatives in this article, some main
points provide insight into the more important aspects.
IBM‟s “Market Driven Quality “(MDQ) initiative, inspired in part by
Rochester‟ success, focused on involving the customer more directly in the
product planning and design decisions before beginning the development of
a new product, say Paul Bergevin of IBM‟s corporate media relations. By
involving the customer at the beginning, IBM believes they will “shorten
cycle times and improve quality, which are fundamental to achieving higher
level of customer satisfaction from which everything else flows,” he adds.
FedEx‟ new vision of a quality process, grafted onto the successful
“People/Service/Profit” philosophy, centres upon the replacement of the old
quality measurement-percent of on-time deliveries-with a 12-component
indicator that describes how its performance is experienced by its customers. „Each item in the indicator, called a Service Quality Indicator (SQI), is
weighted to reflect the potential adverse impact” on customer satisfaction,
explains West.
Xerox „ “Leadership through Quality “ process is “aimed at fundamentally
changing the way Xerox people work and manage so they can continuously improve the way they meet the requirements of their customers, ”according
to company literature. Six mechanisms for change, including management
behaviour and actions, transition teams, tools and processes, training,
recognition and reward, and communications, provide the framework.
Benchmarking against other world-class companies and other measurement
systems are key to visualising the desired-state. Xerox began the quality
initiative by benchmarking 14 performance elements; today they benchmark
350+ elements, taking care to analyse all this data not only “by numbers,” but also by processes.
In addition, all three companies rely on regular customer surveys to spawn new
changes. Both the external customer, the purchaser of products, and, the
internal customer, any employee to whom another employee forwards
material, are surveyed regularly to determine their constantly changing
needs.
The Infrastructure The integration of the vision into the business organisation and strategy
requires a strong infrastructure, which in business means strong leadership.
At each of these three companies, senior executives are vested with the
responsibility for quality, yet the responsibility for quality is not centralised.
Though FedEx and Xerox both have formal quality management
departments, they have kept the departments small to promote the premise
that quality is everyone‟s job. To further emphasise that quality is everyone‟s
job, each of the companies encourages employee involvement, by giving the
employee authorisation to make more day-to-day work decisions and by
encouraging them to make suggestions.
To focus the organisation around the topic of quality at Xerox, says Malone,
“Xerox appointed vice Presidents of quality very early in the process, and
they participated in the design. “The Corporate Management Team, in deciding
to pursue a quality management initiative, had developed the quality
policy and the broad outlines of a quality strategy and implementation
plan. This group of VPs, called the Quality Implementation
Team, fine-tuned the broad policy, designing Xerox‟ approach. The
infrastructure is minimal: Workers throughout the company are vested with the
authority over day-to-day work decisions.
FedEX‟ management infrastructure is a little more formal, in some cases.
Senior managers head cross-functional teams, each of which focuses on one
service component in SQI, and are responsible for Assuring involvement of
frontline employees, support personnel, and other managers on their team.
The senior managers are given the freedom to decide how to implement the
quality initiative within their division. West explains; “Our effort has been to
give the division the opportunity to „invent it here.‟ We feel that‟s very
important for long term viability of the process; that if the division, the managers and eventually the employees feel the ownership, they are much
more likely to treat quality as a part of their daily activity.”
For the same reason, the quality department is small. “On purpose, we have a
very small staff, “says West, “because we want the division to be out on their
own and not to have anybody say „quality isn‟t working, so it‟s the quality
department‟s fault;”
Two senior analysts, a quality coordinator and a secretary assist West, who
reports to the VP of internal audit and quality assurance (IAQA), who in turn
reports to the CEO. One other manager, currently on special assignment,
answers to the Vp of IAQA.
IBM‟s quality staff is also small. “The feeling is that you can‟t have quality
implemented across a company like IBM by decree, “says Bergevin. “What
you really need to do is instil the notion of continuous improvement, the
thirst for improvement, and the discipline of quality improvement across the
entire enterprise- the people in the factories and branch offices are making
quality happen, not some group of executives at headquarters.” The IBM quality department is headed by a Senior VP for MDQ. He answers
to the Chairman, and his staff consists of about ten to eleven executives. In
addition, he rotates another twelve “relatively senior” managers from all
disciplines and geographic areas within the corporation into and out of his
quality organisation from the field for a ten-to twelve-month stint.
Other senior executives were named as owners, called “functional leaders,”
of the initiatives, adds Bergevin. Each functional leader is responsible for
developing tailored sets of goals and strategies that apply to his department
or function. The functional leaders, in turn, involve the employees. With such an organisation, work groups in each area of the business
naturally form to identify sources of quality problems and ways to improve.
“So we have taken a look in a very systematic way at all the processes that
make up the grand total of activity at IBM,” Bergevin adds. “We sort of
deconstruct these processes to look for ways that things can be streamlined
and improved.
The Implementation With the vision clear and the infrastructure in place, the companies began
introducing quality management to the employees. Implementation of the
quality initiatives is synonymous. With employee training at all three
companies. Training included courses in general quality principles, specific
quality goals and, in some cases, measurement tools. “The process we focused on at Xerox was to align the supporting mechanisms, and we used training in conjunction with communications as a
vehicle to begin the development, “explains Malone. Using the training
programme devised by the multinational Quality Training Task Force, a
group of senior executives, Xerox began the training/implementation. “ We
started at the senior most level (CEO) and we cascaded that down the
organisation using the managers and „ family groups‟ as a focal point for
training. The manager was trained by his or her immediate managers and
then that manager, once trained, was responsible for training his or her
immediate direct reports.”
Likewise, at IBM, a multinational training task force of training professional
designed the training, and the managers handled the training. All employees
were first trained in overall quality and company goals, and then attended
follow-up sessions that pertained more specifically to the individual
functions.
Similarly, at FedEx, the implementation strategy was to get key players-the
executives responsible for a functional group- trained and then in turn have
them train others. Says West, “We allowed the divisions-and still do today-to
be pretty much on their own. We said, „we‟re all going to use the same
consultant and the same training package, but then it‟s up to you how you
want to do this. “Managers could have their employees trained by consultant,
or could have a selected employee trained as a trainer. The majority of the
trainers selected were management
Sustaining the Effort Communication, in all its facets, is key to sustaining the quality initiative at
each of these Balldrige Award-winning companies. Chief among the
communication strategies, says Malone, “is getting management to „walk
like they talk. “He explains: “It‟s very easy to get management to sign up
and support quality verbally. It‟s much more difficult to get them to put it
into practice and to use the tools day in and day out, and inspect for their use
and apply the discipline required.”
One of the ways Xerox insures managers implement quality practices is
through promotions. Simply put, managers who support quality are
promoted; those that don‟t, aren‟t, Malone explains: “What we are really doing
is changing the role of the manager from a typical one-to-one supervisory style
to one where the manager becomes the coach, the
counsellor, the facilitator. “Most of the managers got to where they are by
being autocratic, he points out.
“Nor everybody is going to be successful in transforming himself from that old
success model to the new success model. You better understand up front that
there are some managers who will probably fall out of the equation. In our case
we recognised that need and prepared to address it where and when that came
up, by counselling, coaching and in some cases counselling out of
the business.” Equally important, says Malone, is two-way communication. He advises,
“No matter how much time you spend designing the process, you‟re
probably going to have to make some adjustments so you want to have an early
warning system that says there‟s something going awry that needs
attention. Having two way communication channels working will give you
the insights and avenues to understand those things much earlier.
“And the one thing you don‟t want to do is shoot the messenger: if
somebody brings bad news, you have to be open, willing to listen, to take the
good with the bad. Also make sure you acknowledge their support and their
contribution.” All three agree that simply passing on success stories contributes greatly to
acceptance and use of the quality management practices.
To facilitate communication, FedEx has one person in the communications
group dedicated to the quality process. She helps develop articles that are
published in in-house publications, and produce video tapes and television
segments to be shown on FedEx‟ closed circuit television network. Constant feedback provided by the television network includes the closing
New York Stock Exchange price of FedEx stocks, how the overall
operations did the previous night and a quality success story.
He explains that approximately each quarter the twelve best quality success
stories are chosen; the winning teams come to headquarters at the quality
department‟s expense, to present before top management. The presentations are taped and edited for broadcast.
In addition to the recognition offered in the retelling of success stories, IBM
also rewards employees who implement the quality process with luncheons,
receptions, and monetary and non-monetary awards.
Also critical, says Bergevin, is translating the customer satisfaction goals to
something everyone can instantly understand. “We‟ve done some statistical
work on the AS/400 category, for example, that shows that every point of
customer satisfaction increase that we‟ve been able to measure translates into
a revenue effect of 250 million dollars over five years.”
Starting Over Self-assessment, along with communication, is key to sustaining the total
quality management initiative beyond the achievement of your initial goals,
say Malone, West and Bergevin. They add that a total quality management
initiative, above all, is a never-ending process. It is a process of continuous
improvement, of continuously questioning the way you do things, and of
continuously re-evaluating the market. Customer needs, and work processes.
It is a process which, done correctly, continuously renews itself. Their companies, having won the Baldrige Award, continually return to the
Baldrige criteria to reevaluate their processes. But whether you use the
Baldrige Award assessment criteria is immaterial, maintains Malone. “The
issue is evaluating „how are we doing versus what we said we were going to
do against the desired-state. “This self-assessment agree executives at Xerox,
FedEx and IBM, makes even Baldrige Award-winning companies realise
that quality is a continuous journey.
QUESTIONS
1. What are the major steps in the TQM implementation programme for
these Baldrige winners?
2. Why would a successful company such as Federal Express embark
3. The article states that TQM runs counter to management practices that
most companies follow. What management practices are these?
4. If, as these winners suggest, a culture represented by a vision is needed,
how would you embed such a culture change? 5. Why is it so important to involve customers at the beginning?
6. Describe the elements of the TQM infrastructure.
7. What is the role of communication in TQM implementation?
TOPIC 8
8. ADDENDUM 621(B): ASSIGNMENTQUESTIONS
PC TRAINING & BUSINESS COLLEGE
FACULTY OF BUSINESS, ECONOMICS & MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
ASSIGNMENT COVER SHEET
DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS ADMINSITRATION
Name & Surname: ____________________________________________ ICAS No: _________________
Qualification: ______________________ Semester: _____ Module Name: __________________________
Specialization: _____________________ Date Submitted: ___________
Question Number Mark Allocation Examiner’s Mark Moderator’s Marks
1
2
3
4
5
Total 100
Examiner’s Comments:
Signature of Examiner: Date:
Moderator’s Comments:
Signature of Moderator: Date:
Signature of Verifier: Date:
NB: Assignments are compulsory as it forms part of Continuous Assessment that goes toward the final mark.
ASSIGNMENT GUIDELINES
The purpose of an assignment is to ensure that the Learner is able to:
Use methods of enquiry and research in a disciplined field.
Interpret and evaluate text.
Have a sound understanding of key principles and theories, rules and awareness.
Solve unfamiliar problems using correct procedures as well as investigate and critically analyse information and report thereof.
Present and communicate information reliably, coherently and
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
When the final mark is calculated the following criteria must be taken into account:
4. READING AND KNOWLEDGE OF SUBJECT MATTER
Wide reading and comprehensive knowledge in the application of theory 5. UNDERSTANDING, ANALYSIS AND ARGUMENT
Complete and perceptive awareness of issues and clear grasp of their wider significance. Clear evidence of independent thought and ability to defend a position logically and convincingly.
6. ORGANISATION AND PRESENTATION
Careful thought given to arrangement and development of material and argument.
Good English with appropriate referencing and comprehensive bibliography.
Instructions and guidelines for writing assignments
6. Use the correct cover page provided by the institution.
7. All essay type assignments must include the following:
2.6 Table of contents
2.7 Introduction
2.8 Main body with subheadings
2.9 Conclusions and recommendations
2.10 Bibliography
8. The length of the entire assignment must have minimum of 5 pages. Preferably typed with font size
12
3.2 The quality of work submitted is more important than the number of assigned pages.
9. Copying is a serious offence which attracts a severe penalty and must be avoided at all costs. If any
learner transgresses this rule, the lecturer will retain the assignments and ask the affected learners
to resubmit a new assignment which will be capped at 50%.
10. Use the Harvard referencing method.
NB: Assignments are compulsory as it forms part of Continuous Assessment that goes toward the final mark.
DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
1ST SEMESTER ASSIGNMENT
Question One (40)
Answer the following questions
1.1 Identify and discuss five (5) categories of quality and their uses in a company.
(40)
Read the Case Study below and answer the questions that follow:
And you thought your job was bad
Linda is having a miserable night. The 50 year old telemarketer is on her 21st
phone
call of the evening but so far, she has sold just one time-share unit. She is becoming
frustrated as she dials the next prospect. Finally the person answers the
telephone. All Linda’s colleagues are close to meeting their goals but for
some unexplainable reason, tonight is not going well for her.
Management has recently called Linda in to tell her that her performance is not
up to standard. Linda knows that the pressure goes with the job. She is a seasoned
veteran and for her and other experienced callers, the daily goal is 50 calls for a
four-hour shift. Linda’s current supervisor is intense, demanding and quick to
criticise.
Linda contends that her supervisor’s job is just as tense as hers and that failure
to meet sales target, both of them will be history. Linda craves for recognition and
would also rather have more pay or benefits but neither is on the cards and there
are no prospects for any in the future. Constant stress takes a toll on everyone and
turnover in the industry is one of the highest.
Questions
2.1 Discuss elements of work life that create a negative Quality of Work Life
(QWL) and a positive QWL. (40)
2.2 Assume you are a management consultant called in to analyse the turnover
problem, what would you be your recommendations and explain why? (20)
TOPIC 9
9. ADDENDUM 621(C): TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1ST SEMESTER NATIONAL EXAMINATION
Duration: 2 Hours Marks: 100 Date: Examiners: Mr. Shivambu V.I Moderator: Mr. Madiba L.A
This paper consists of 5 questions of 7 pages including this page
PLEASE NOTE THE FOLLOWING: 1. Ensure that you are writing the correct test paper, and that there are no missing pages. 2. You are obliged to enter your learner number and centre name on all answer sheets. The answer sheets provided are the property
of the Business College and all extra sheets must be handed to your invigilator before you leave the examination room. Number your answer sheet and ensure that they are stapled in the correct sequence.
3. If you are found copying or if there are any documents / study material in your possession, or writing on parts of your body, tissue, pencil case, desk etc., your answer book will be taken away from you and endorsed accordingly. Appropriate disciplinary measures will be taken against you for violating the code of conduct of the Business College Examinations Board. Therefore if any of these materials are on your person, you are requested to hand these over to your invigilator before the official commencement of this paper.
4. The question paper consists of 3 sections. 4.1 Section A and B are compulsory. 4.2 Section C comprises of 3 question, your required to answer any two question
SUGGESTED TIME REQUIRED TO ANSWER THIS QUESTION PAPER
NUMBERS QUESTIONS MARKS TIME IN MINUTES
1 Question One 30 30
SECTION B: SHORT QUESTIONS COMPULSORY
2 Question Two 20 30
SECTION C: ANSWER ANY TWO QUESTIONS
3 Question Three 25 30
4 Question Three 25 30
5 Question Five 25 30
Total 100 120
RGI HIGHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING
FACULTY OF BUSINESS, ECONOMICS & MANAGEMENT SCIENCES DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS ADMINSTARTION
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT 621
SECTION A COMPULSORY (30MARKS)
Question one: (30 MARKS)
Four alternatives are provided for each of the following questions. Choose the correct alternative for each of the
equations/statements and write down the alphabet corresponding to your choice next to the question number
in the answer sheet provided.
1.1 Six sigma is based on a simple problem solving methodology known as: (1)
a) DMACC.
b) DELAY.
c) DMAIC.
d) DRIM.
1.2 __________ are costs incurred to keep quality defects from occurring. (1)
a) External failure costs.
b) Appraisal costs.
c) Internal failure costs.
d) Prevention costs.
e) Promotion costs.
1.3 Which one of the following is not a category of costs of quality? (1)
a) warranty cost
b) external failure
c) internal failure
d) appraisal
e) prevention
1.4 One of the purposes of a quality management system is to __________. (1)
A. Set goals for employees
B. Increase profits
C. Obtain a large customer base
D. Meet the objectives set by the suppliers as well as customers
1.5 The supervisor turns the decision over to another party is referred to as (1)
A. Delegate
B. Employee involvement
C. Assign
D. Preconceived picture
1.6 Concerning organizational cultures (1)
A. A strong culture is more productive environment.
B. A weak culture is a more productive environment.
C. The specific culture that contributes to positive effectiveness is well known.
D. The stronger the culture, the more influential it is on employee behaviour.
1.7 Shared organizational value are (1)
A. Unconscious, affective desires or wants that guide society’s behaviour
B. Influenced by international values
C. Different for the various components of a diverse work force.
D. A myth
1.8 Which of the following best explains why employees behave as he/she does? (1)
A. The environment is the most important consideration in understanding individual
employee behaviour.
B. Both the environment and individual differences are important considerations in
understanding
C. Neither the environment nor individual differences are important considerations in
understanding individual employee behaviour.
D. Employee personality and attitudes are primarily dictated by the environment.
1.9 The ability of a product or service to satisfy stated or implied needs (1)
A. Meeting expectation
B. Conformance
C. Quality
D. Requirements
1.10 Employees with relatively week higher-order needs are________ concerned with variety and
autonomy (1)
A. Less
B. More
C. Very
D. Extremely
1.11 Which of the following is a strategy of job design that increases job depth by meeting
employee’s needs for psychological growth? (1)
A. Job rotation
B. Job enrichment
C. Job enlargement
D. Job engagement
1.12 Organization structures (1)
A. Affect group behaviour more than individual behaviour
B. Change rapidly to meet environment and market changes
C. Contributes positively to organizational performance
D. Can be defined simply as activities that occur regularly
1.13 The definition of communication implies that (1)
A. Communication is mostly verbal
B. Communication is mostly written
C. Most communication is in a vertical direction
D. Understanding must occur to have communication
1.14 The job satisfaction of an employee is depend on the (1)
A. Behaviour
B. Attitude
C. Personality
D. Employer
1.15 Success of each organization is depending upon the performance of (1)
A. Employer
B. Management
C. Vender
D. Employee
1.16 Which one is not a benefit to employee which results through positive attitude of employees
(1)
A. Promotion
B. Less stress
C. Job security
D. Enjoying life
1.17 The ability to accurately and dependably provide a customer with what was promised
illustrates the service quality dimension of: (1)
A. Responsiveness
B. Assurance
C. Empathy
D. Reliability
1.18 ________The degree to which a job or a position can meet the career anchor needs of
individuals at various stages of career development. (1)
A. Process Quality Teams(PQT)
B. Quality of Work Life(QWL)
C. Quality Improvement Team(QIT)
D. Quality Circle
1.19 Which statement is not true in respect of the difference between management and leadership?
(1)
A. A management takes care of the place where you are… a leader takes you to a new place
B. Management is primarily concerned with people empowerment, whereas leadership is
concerned with operations.
C. A manager makes decisions… a leader makes judgments
D. A manager is concerned with doing things right…. A leader is concerned with doing the
right things.
1.20 Which one of the following is not the element of quality of work life? (1)
A. Sufficient and fair compensation
B. Legalised labour relations
C. Authority to do things your way
D. Safe and healthy condition
1.21 The philosophy of zero defects is________________ (1)
A. Unrealistic
B. Prohibitively costly
C. An ultimate goal; in practice, 1 to 2% defects is acceptable
D. Consistent with the commitment to continuous improvement
1.22 Services differ from the production of tangible goods in which of the following ways: (1)
A. Service output is more easily measure
B. Service then to be produced and consumed simultaneously
C. Service output is generally more tangible
D. Service has higher equipment to a labour ratio.
1.23 The three basic components of a production system are: (1)
A. Consumers, external customers, internal customers
B. Materials, supplies, and market research
C. Inputs, processes, and outputs
D. New products, supplies, and maintenance.
1.24 Quality circles members are_____________ (1)
A. Paid according to their contribution to quality
B. External consultants designed to provide training in the use of quality tolls
C. Small teams of employees voluntarily formed to define and solve quality or performance
related problems.
D. always machine operators
1.25 Techniques for building employee empowerment include the following, except? (1)
A. Building communication networks that include employees
B. Developing open, supportive supervisors
C. Moving responsibility from managers and staff to production employees
D. Techniques for employee disempowerment.
1.26 Which of the following does not provide learning experiences that affect the type of lifestyle
people seek and the products they consume? (1)
A. Culture
B. Family
C. Friends
D. Availability
1.27 As the quality of work life(QWL) movement evolved, it fostered a new phase of activities known
as_________ (1)
A. Large group interventions
B. Reward system
C. Employee involvement
D. Team building
1.28 Responding to employees and involving them in decision making is referred to as____ (1)
A. Quality of work life
B. Autonomy
C. Empowerment
D. Pre-action
1.29 Creating an environment in which people have an impact on decisions and actions that affect
their jobs is referred to as_______ (1)
A. Customer involvement
B. Supplier involvement
C. Employee involvement
D. None of the above
1.30 Identify elements that create a negative QWL: I. Action designed to make work more
intrinsically rewarding; II. Increase job dissatisfaction; III. Decreasing positive aspects of the job; IV.
Initiatives directed at making the work environment boring; V. Job rotation and job enlargement (1)
A. I,II, III
B. II, III, IV
C. I, II, V
D. III, IV, V
Section B SHORT QUESTIONS COMPULSORY (20 MARK)
Question Two:
2.1 Explain the role of the PQT, QIT, QC and DPA (10)
2.2 Explain the difference between management and leadership (4)
2.3 Explain the relationship between QWL and motivation in the workplace (6)
Section C ANSWER ANY TWO QUESTIONS (50 MARK)
Question three: (25 MARKS)
3.1 Outline the general elements of job satisfaction? (10)
3.2 Discuss the concept of career anchors? (15)
Question four: (25 MARKS)
4.1 QWL can be defining as "The quality of relationship between employees and the total
working environment.”
QWL is a process by which an organization responds to employee needs for developing
mechanisms to allow them to share fully in making the decisions that design their lives
at work.
With reference with the above statement discuss elements of work life that create a negative Quality of Work Life (QWL) and a positive QWL.
Question Five (25 MARKS)
Leaders of organizations should know that empowerment is a key aspect of total
quality management (TQM). Empowerment entails giving every member an
opportunity to participate in the decision-making process to promote better
performance. Delegation of authority provides employees with definite responsibilities
and objectives. Empowerment ensures long-term commitment to quality efforts.
Unfortunately, formal education provides minimal focus on the concept and practice of
empowerment.
Total Quality Management is a management approach that originated in the
1950's and has steadily become more popular since the early 1980's. Total Quality is a
description of the culture, attitude and organization of a company that strives to
provide customers with products and services that satisfy their needs. The culture
requires quality in all aspects of the company's operations, with processes being done
right the first time and defects and waste eradicated from operations.
To be successful implementing TQM, an organization must concentrate on the eight key
elements, with reference with the above statements may you discuss the elements of
TQM? (25)
END OF QUESTION PAPER
1ST SEMESTER NATIONAL EXAMINATION MEMO
Duration: 2 Hours Marks: 100 Date: 22 June 2015
Examiners: Mr. Shivambu V.I Moderator: Mr. Mncube S
This paper consists of 5 questions of 8 pages including this page
PLEASE NOTE THE FOLLOWING: 5. Ensure that you are writing the correct test paper, and that there are no missing pages.
6. You are obliged to enter your learner number and centre name on all answer sheets. The
answer sheets provided are the property of the Business College and all extra sheets must be
handed to your invigilator before you leave the examination room. Number your answer sheet
and ensure that they are stapled in the correct sequence.
7. If you are found copying or if there are any documents / study material in your possession, or
writing on parts of your body, tissue, pencil case, desk etc., your answer book will be taken
away from you and endorsed accordingly. Appropriate disciplinary measures will be taken
against you for violating the code of conduct of the Business College Examinations Board.
Therefore if any of these materials are on your person, you are requested to hand these over to
your invigilator before the official commencement of this paper.
8. The question paper consists of 3 sections.
4.3 Section A and B are compulsory.
4.4 Section C comprises of 3 question, your required to answer any two question
SUGGESTED TIME REQUIRED TO ANSWER THIS QUESTION PAPER
NUMBERS QUESTIONS MARKS TIME IN MINUTES
1 Question One 30 30
SECTION B: SHORT QUESTIONS COMPULSORY
2 Question Two 20 30
SECTION C: ANSWER ANY TWO QUESTIONS
3 Question Three 25 30
4 Question Three 25 30
5 Question Five 25 30
Total 100 120
RGI
HIGHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING
FACULTY OF BUSINESS, ECONOMICS & MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS ADMINSTARTION
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT 621 2&3 YEARS
SECTION A COMPULSORY (30MARKS)
Question one: (30 MARKS)
Four alternatives are provided for each of the following questions. Choose the correct alternative for each of the
equations/statements and write down the alphabet corresponding to your choice next to the question number
in the answer sheet provided.
1.1 B
1.2 D
1.3 A
1.4 C
1.5 A
1.6 D
1.7 C
1.8 B
1.9 D
1.10 A
1.11 B
1.12 D
1.13 D
1.14 B
1.15 D
1.16 A
1.17 D
1.18 B
1.19 B
1.20 C
1.21 B
1.22 B
1.23 C
1.24 C
1.25 D
1.26 D
1.27 C
1.28 C
1.29 C
1.30 B
Section B SHORT QUESTIONS COMPULSORY (20 MARK)
Question Two:
2.1 Dynamics within a team shift according to whether a team is a new, immature team, or
a well-established, more experienced team. Managers need to understand how the
performance of an employee will shift according to the maturity of the team they come
into.
With reference with the above statement, identify and explain the four stages of team
development? 10
a. FORMING √
Forming is the initial stage of team development. During this stage, an individual
makes the transition from individual, to team member and team members get
acquainted with one another. Team members usually have positive expectations
and are eager to get started on the project work. They might experience feelings
of excitement, anticipation, suspicion, anxiety or hesitation. √
b. STORMING √
The work starts to progress slowly but reality sets in when the expectations of
individual team members are not met. Team members now begin to test limits.
Conflict emerges and tension increases in the team. This stage could become
destructive but the effects will be minimised if the forming stage has been done
properly. Conflict and disagreement can also create positive energy and are
necessary for innovation and creativity to solve problems or challenges. √
c. NORMING √
During the norming stage, the relationships among the team members and their
respective leader settle. Interpersonal conflicts have been resolved and
dissatisfaction is reduced. The team accepts the operating environment and
procedures are improved. Cohesion starts to develop and a sense of team
belonging sets in. √√
d. PERFORMING √
By this stage, the team is highly committed and eager to achieve project
objectives. The level of work performance is high and there is also a high level of
trust amongst group members. A great degree of interdependency makes the
team feel fully empowered. Problems are identified and team member’s form
sub-teams to solve problems. √√
2.2 Training is the single most important factor in actually improving quality, once there
has been commitment to do so. For training to be effective, however, it must be
planned in a systematic and objective manner.
Outline the elements of training cycle of Improvement 10
a. Ensure education and training is part of the policy √
b. Establish objectives and responsibilities for education and training√
c. Establish the platform for a learning organization √
d. Specify education and training needs √
e. Prepare education/training programs and materials √
f. Implement and monitor education and training √
g. Assess the results √
h. Review effectiveness of education and training √
Or on page 48 of the learners guide
Section C ANSWER ANY TWO QUESTIONS (50 MARK)
Question three: (25 MARKS)
3.3 Outline the general elements of job satisfaction? (10)
Opportunity for action
Freedom to work in one’s own way
Goal involvement
Learning opportunities
Suggesting new ways
Promotion opportunities
Problem solving
Mental effort
Performance feedback
Authority to do things
Responsibility
3.4 Discuss the concept of career anchors? (15)
The concept of career anchors means the following:
The technical / functional competence: refers to a person who qualifies
as an expert in a particular field of work.
General managerial competence: refers to the interest a person may
have in working in a general management capacity
Autonomy / independence: refers to the need people have to construct
their own work environment.
Security / stability: refers to the need to function in a stable and
predictable environment.
Entrepreneurial creativity: refers to the spirit that some people exhibit to
be creative and to build new organisations.
Sense of service and dedication to a cause: refers to some people’s
attitude of wanting to change the environment in some way, to make it
better by living according to basic human values.
Pure challenge: defines the “can do” person who believes that he/she
can conquer everything. Situations that are ever more difficult to deal
with spur this person to greater effort.
Lifestyle: refers to the person who wants to integrate career, family and
personal life issues so that they form a harmonious whole.
Question four: (25 MARKS)
4.2 QWL can be defining as "The quality of relationship between employees and the total
working environment.”
QWL is a process by which an organization responds to employee needs for developing
mechanisms to allow them to share fully in making the decisions that design their lives
at work.
With reference with the above statement discuss elements of work life that create a negative Quality of Work Life (QWL) and a positive QWL.
a. Sufficient and fair compensation
b. Safe and healthy work conditions
c. Development of human resources
d. Security and continued growth
e. Social interaction and integration in the work place (does the employee fit into the
culture of the organisation).
f. Legalised labour relations.
g. Social relevance of the job
h. Participation in the structuring of the work environment through involvement in
problem solving.
i. Congruence between the goals of individual persons and those of the organisation.
j. The generation of feeling of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment derived from tasks
performed.
k. A climate of respect, fairness and co-operation.
l. Control of or autonomy in the work environment. This means that the employee has
discretion over the expenditure of his/her time and effort.
m. Recognition as a contributor to the business of the department or organisation.
n. Belonging to a social unit and sharing in the goals and values of the group. It is converse
of recognition, which implies that individuals are singled out in a crowd.
o. Internal rewards to be derived from the work, such as adequate compensation,
promotion opportunities and positions of authority.
p. Decent physical working conditions which are safe and healthy, and which provide good
basic infrastructure to do the job
q. Being treated with respect and dignity, particularly if there is a discrepancy between
the social and educational levels of employees. Lower-skilled workers should not be
looked down upon.
Question Five (25 MARKS)
Leaders of organizations should know that empowerment is a key aspect of total
quality management (TQM). Empowerment entails giving every member an
opportunity to participate in the decision-making process to promote better
performance. Delegation of authority provides employees with definite responsibilities
and objectives. Empowerment ensures long-term commitment to quality efforts.
Unfortunately, formal education provides minimal focus on the concept and practice of
empowerment.
Total Quality Management is a management approach that originated in the
1950's and has steadily become more popular since the early 1980's. Total Quality is a
description of the culture, attitude and organization of a company that strives to
provide customers with products and services that satisfy their needs. The culture
requires quality in all aspects of the company's operations, with processes being done
right the first time and defects and waste eradicated from operations.
To be successful implementing TQM, an organization must concentrate on the eight key
elements, with reference with the above statements may you discuss the elements of
TQM? (25)
Key Elements
TQM has been coined to describe a philosophy that makes quality the driving force
behind leadership, design, planning, and improvement initiatives. For this, TQM requires
the help of those eight key elements. These elements can be divided into four groups
according to their function. The groups are:
Foundation - It includes: Ethics, Integrity and Trust.
Building Bricks - It includes: Training, Teamwork and Leadership.
Binding Mortar - It includes: Communication.
Roof - It includes: Recognition.
1. Ethics - Ethics is the discipline concerned with good and bad in any situation. It is a
two-faceted subject represented by organizational and individual ethics. Organizational
ethics establish a business code of ethics that outlines guidelines that all employees are
to adhere to in the performance of their work. Individual ethics include personal rights
or wrongs.
2. Integrity - Integrity implies honesty, morals, values, fairness, and adherence to the
facts and sincerity. The characteristic is what customers (internal or external) expect and
deserve to receive. People see the opposite of integrity as duplicity. TQM will not work
in an atmosphere of duplicity.
3. Trust - Trust is a by-product of integrity and ethical conduct. Without trust, the
framework of TQM cannot be built. Trust fosters full participation of all members. It
allows empowerment that encourages pride ownership and it encourages commitment.
It allows decision making at appropriate levels in the organization, fosters individual risk-
taking for continuous improvement and helps to ensure that measurements focus on
improvement of process and are not used to contend people. Trust is essential to ensure
customer satisfaction. So, Trust Builds The Cooperative Environment Essential For TQM.
Bricks
Basing on the strong foundation of trust, ethics and integrity, bricks are placed to reach
the roof of recognition. It includes:
4. Training - Training is very important for employees to be highly productive. Supervisors
are solely responsible for implementing TQM within their departments, and teaching
their employees the philosophies of TQM. Training that employees require are
interpersonal skills, the ability to function within teams, problem solving, decision
making, job management performance analysis and improvement, business economics
and technical
skills. During the creation and formation of TQM, employees are trained so that they can
become effective employees for the company.
5. Teamwork - To become successful in business, teamwork is also a key element of TQM.
With the use of teams, the business will receive quicker and better solutions to problems.
Teams also provide more permanent improvements in processes and operations. In
teams, people feel more comfortable bringing up problems that may occur, and can get
help from other workers to find a solution and put into place. There are mainly three
types of teams that TQM organizations adopt:
A. Quality Improvement Teams or Excellence Teams (QITS) - These are temporary teams
with the purpose of dealing with specific problems that often re-occur. These teams are
set up for period of three to twelve months
6. Leadership - It is possibly the most important element in TQM. It appears everywhere
in organization. Leadership in TQM requires the manager to provide an inspiring vision,
make strategic directions that are understood by all and to instill values that guide
subordinates. For TQM to be successful in the business, the supervisor must be
committed in leading his employees.
A supervisor must understand TQM, believe in it and then demonstrate their belief and
commitment through their daily practices of TQM. The supervisor makes sure that
strategies, philosophies, values and goals are transmitted down throughout the
organization to provide focus, clarity and direction. A key point is that TQM has to be
introduced and led by top management.
Binding
7. Communication - It binds everything together. Starting from foundation to roof of the
TQM house, everything is bound by strong mortar of communication. It acts as a vital link
between all elements of TQM. Communication means a common understanding of ideas
between the sender and the receiver.
The success of TQM demands communication with and among all the organization
members, suppliers and customers. Supervisors must keep open airways where
employees can send and receive information about the TQM process. Communication
coupled with the sharing of correct information is vital. For communication to be credible
the message must be clear and receiver must interpret in the way the sender intended.
Roof
8. Recognition - Recognition is the last and final element in the entire system. It should
be provided for both suggestions and achievements for teams as well as individuals.
Employees strive to receive recognition for themselves and their teams. Detecting and
recognizing contributors is the most important job of a supervisor. As people are
recognized, there can be huge changes in self-esteem, productivity, quality and the
amount of effort exhorted to the task at hand.
THE END