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Building and Positioning SuccessfulStudy-Abroad ProgramsTony L. Henthorne a , Mark M. Miller b & Tim W. Hudson aa University of Southern Mississippi , USAb College of International and Continuing Education , University ofSouthern Mississippi , USAPublished online: 12 Oct 2008.

To cite this article: Tony L. Henthorne , Mark M. Miller & Tim W. Hudson (2001) Building andPositioning Successful Study-Abroad Programs, Journal of Teaching in International Business, 12:4,49-62, DOI: 10.1300/J066v12n04_04

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Building and Positioning SuccessfulStudy-Abroad Programs:A ‘‘Hands-On’’ Approach

Tony L. HenthorneMark M. MillerTim W. Hudson

ABSTRACT. The growth in importance of international education isinescapable. The ability to effectively compete in the global environ-ment is linked to many factors--one of which is a knowledge and under-standing of the cultures involved. The traditional classroom approach tointernational business education, while useful, is limited in scope andimpact. We approach the issue of international business education froma hands-on, action-oriented immersion approach--the study-abroad pro-gram. This paper examines the specifics of developing and implement-ing such a program, as well as pitfalls to avoid. [Article copies available fora fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mailaddress: <getinfo@haworthpressinc.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com>]E 2001 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Study-abroad programs, internationalization, programdevelopment

INTRODUCTION

The growing importance of international business education is ines-capable. To lack knowledge about international business in today’s

Tony L. Henthorne is Professor of Marketing, Mark M. Miller is Associate Deanof the College of International and Continuing Education and Tim W. Hudson isDean of the College of International and Continuing Education all at the Universityof Southern Mississippi.

Address correspondence to: Tony L. Henthorne, University of Southern Missis-sippi, Hattiesburg MS 39406-5091 (E-mail: tony.henthorne@usm.edu).

Journal of Teaching in International Business, Vol. 12(4) 2001E 2001 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 49

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business world is to be ‘‘at risk’’ and under-educated. Nehrt (1987)believed that today’s business students are not sufficiently equipped tocompete effectively in the international arena. Johnson and Mader(1992) have stated that the typical business student’s classroom expo-sure to international topics is ‘‘insufficient’’ in the assistance ofknowledge retention past final exams. Associatively, Wills, Samli, andJacobs (1991) posited that to be successful in the international market-place one must intimately understand location-specific consumer be-havior. Lewis and Schoell (1989) stated that insight into the complexi-ties of localized politics, history, and culture, as well as knowledgeinto the intricacies of international business, is necessary to competesuccessfully in the world economy. As a matter of fact, one would behard pressed to find any business academic or practitioner who did notbelieve in the importance of exposing students to international busi-ness, markets, and economics.

The Benefits of Study-Abroad Programs

One method of achieving this internationalization is through theexperience of a study-abroad program (SAP). The international expe-rience provides students with the means to discover first hand some ofthe complexities of dealing with a culture which may be at times verydifferent from their own. In the process of working or studyingabroad, students gain insight and an appreciation of what it is like tooperate a business abroad and interact with those of different culturalperspectives (Auerbach, 1990). Or, as Allen and Young (1997) suc-cinctly put it, ‘‘learning occurs more readily when students are able toexperience stimuli and actively participate in the education process’’(p. 168).‘‘Culture’’ has proven an illusive term to fully understand. Al-

though many definitions exist, possibly the most widely respected isthat offered by Linton (1945). According to Linton (1945), culturemay be defined as that unique configuration of learned behaviors andthe results of those behaviors whose individual components are sharedby members of a particular society. The most crucial part of the defini-tion, for the purposes of international education, is the belief thatculture is shared among members of a society. To begin to learn andunderstand a culture foreign to your own, it is helpful to take an activepart in that sharing.Field studies provide students with a more memorable, in-depth,

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and effective learning experience than is possible through the moretraditional techniques of books and lecture on their home campuses.Educational learning theories state that experiential learning (e.g., theSAP) is internalized more rapidly and to a more permanent extent thanthe classroom methods most commonly used. While the importance ofthe conventional class education should not be diminished, the in-depth cultural immersion can only be accomplished through culturalinteraction (Berger, 1985). Many authors (e.g., Hays, 1975; Tung,1981) believe that greater understanding of a specific culture comesprimarily from the individual being exposed to that culture. True mas-tery of culturally based social and commercial customs requires anunderstanding of the roots of these customs and an appreciation of thehistory and society that led to these customs. This level of understand-ing is all but impossible to attain without immersion in the culture.Associatively, Harris and Harris (1972) stated that individuals seem toreceive long-term benefits from encounters with people and culturesdifferent from their own.SAPs can provide students with a window to the world and them-

selves that would otherwise not exist. Students gain in self confidencewhile learning about themselves and their own culture as they brushagainst other cultures. SAPs allow students the opportunity to honecross-cultural adaptation skills (increasingly important in an interde-pendent world), and to demonstrate flexibility and initiative to poten-tial employers. Such programs also allow students to become betterlearners (subjects such as history and geography now being less ‘‘ab-stract’’ than before).There are many collateral benefits associated with institutions orga-

nizing and operating their own SAPs. First, the institution reaps themarketing benefit of having its own programs, something which iscomforting to the parents of students making the college decision in anera of subcontracting and outsourcing. The institution can rightlyclaim control over both academic programming and logistical consid-erations. Self-run programs put decisions in the hands of the institu-tion concerning such issues as what courses are taught, why, whoteaches, how the courses cross-compete and cross-compliment. Second,universities reap the faculty development benefits of running theirown programs. This is critical to attracting and retaining key faculty.The opportunity to be involved in a SAP is often an important variablein the retention of the very type of faculty member which most institu-

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tions seek. This involvement can be more robust and insured morereadily on programs run by the institution itself. Third, institutionsbenefit from the return flow of scholars and experts which are gener-ated by the faculty running the programs. In this way, the entire uni-versity community, not just the selected faculty or student participants,are beneficiaries as the local university plays host to many visitorswho would otherwise owe allegiance to some larger entity. Thesevisitors enliven the intellectual and cultural life of the local institutionby providing all sorts of leads and contacts for further development(such as joint grant proposals, exhibitions, or concerts). Finally, thereare specific financial and structural arguments for organizing andowning programs, including the possibility of generating revenue, theutility of credits earned, the facilitation of financial aid, and the reten-tion of oftentimes critical credit hours generated.The benefits to industry are just as far-reaching and pervasive.

Ultimately, the business community hires more culturally aware, well-rounded individuals who are more comfortable with a globally definedmarketplace. They are hiring persons who have shown the initiative toprepare themselves for life and leadership in an interdependent world;they are hiring employees who define the competition in global terms--Cnot as the local storefront down the street.For these reasons and others, writers and researchers have investi-

gated (Carsello and Creiser, 1976; Carlson, Burn, Useem, & Yachimo-wicz, 1990) and reflected upon (Katula, 1999; Sell, 1983) the effectsof SAPs. However, the majority of these writings have typically con-centrated on programs of extended length (e.g., a semester or a yearabroad) in developed (i.e., European) countries. The present examina-tion of SAPs concentrates specifically on business programs of shorterdurations--generally one month or less in duration, offered in bothdeveloped and developing countries. This article concentrates on spe-cific factors influencing the positioning of these SAPs; what variablesgo into the decision of where to run a program, and how these factorscan be played off of one another to result in the most efficient utiliza-tion of scarce resources.

POSITIONING STUDY-ABROAD PROGRAMS

The authors’ university presently offers study-abroad and exchangeprograms in more than 20 countries. The College of Business pro-

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grams are presently offered in five countries; specifically, Austria,Jamaica, Japan, Mexico, and England.In general, fundamental positioning decisions for SAPs are based

on six principal factors. These six factors can be expressed as threecombinations of variables containing potential trade-offs:

S Program cost versus student interest;S Market size versus market growth opportunities;S Language barriers versus other cultural characteristics.

Each combination of variables will be examined.Program cost versus student interest. Reasonably, a SAP must be

financially sound to remain viable for any length of time. It is neces-sary that there be enough student interest to pay the full program costs.Determination of potential student interest and program cost are vari-ables to which attention must be directed. At the extreme, any programcan survive economically if there is sufficient student interest to coverprogram cost. Determination of student interest should involve both amixture of formal (surveys of student population) and informal (dis-cussions with classes and individual students) research techniques.The purpose of the research is twofold: (1) to determine absolutestudent interest in a proposed SAP; and (2) the determine studentinterest in the program at varying price points. The task then becomesone of deciding whether of not the proposed SAP can be run efficient-ly and profitably at the determined price point. Many times this mayprove to be particularly difficult for more expensive destinations andfor smaller programs that do not enjoy economies of scale. On theother hand, distant and exotic destinations can attract a great deal ofstudent interest. An example is the University’s Australia/New Zea-land Studies Program (which does not, at present, include a businesscomponent). Australia and New Zealand have continually providedenough mystique that the attraction to students overcomes the relativelyhigh price tag necessarily attached to the program. The result is a smallbut financially sound program.On the other hand, South Africa offers a number of sound academic

reasons for a SAP today. The cost of such a program would necessarilybe high, given the great distances and relatively few air carriers pro-viding service. Unfortunately, based on informal market surveys, thereappears to be insufficient student interest in a South Africa program.

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Market size versus perceived market growth opportunities. Marketsize and profitability are not always positively related, highly corre-lated variables. One must exercise caution in the selection of marketsto study. Do not always go for the largest markets (greatest GNP orpopulation) you can find. Assuming all factors equal, bigger marketswould seem to hold greater opportunities; however, seldom are allfactors equal. Market size can be quantified in any number of terms,including national GNP, levels of imports and exports, capital invest-ments abroad, or absolute size of affluent population. While thesefactors are certainly important in the decision making process, theyshould not necessarily be over-riding.However, in addition to its own absolute market size or potential, a

specific country may also serve as an instructive model for, or step-ping stone into, a larger market--in which case, studying in a smallermarket may provide advantages to students which may otherwise notbe accessible to them. The study-abroad experience in England, forexample, also offers to students knowledge and access to the muchlarger economy of the European Union. In contrast, while a SAP inJapan provides students with a valuable and unique learning experi-ence, it does so within a large but essentially incomparable market.Tumultuous Mexico presently offers a moderate sized market (in

terms of overall GNP, although its population is greater than that of theUK). However, Mexico appears to offer good long-term opportunitiesfor market growth. Economic reforms, coupled with the North Ameri-can Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), is resulting in rapid growth forU.S. goods and services in Mexico. NAFTA also offers the potentialfor building additional market relationships and learning opportunitiesinvolving the U.S., Mexico, Canada, and other countries.Jamaica’s national economy is very small, but this country offers

access to the other countries of the newly created Association ofCaribbean States (ACS). The whole of the ACS remains a small market,however, albeit a market that is highly dependent on imports from theU.S. Jamaica and the region hold some promise of greater marketpotential, due to the potential for economic unification, the generallyhigh quality of human capital, proximity to the U.S., relative politicalstability, and strategic and security interests for the U.S.More importantly, though, Jamaica offers the students many impor-

tant insights into the problems and promise of Latin America and therest of the developing world (particularly because of the lack of lan-

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guage barrier, which will be discussed below). The developing world--in Latin America alone--offers great potential for future market growth.Language barriers versus other cultural characteristics. A country

with a language other than English can present a significant obstacle tothe learning experience in a study-abroad program. At the most basiclevel, a program language requirement necessarily limits the numberof students who potentially can enroll. In addition, except for thosestudents with exceptional language proficiency, a foreign languagewill limit the students’ ability to communicate with host-countryinstructors, other professionals, other students, and any other locals. Alanguage barrier also limits the ability of students to conduct mostkinds of research during the program.Translators add to program costs, and they do not substitute for

direct interpersonal communications. Unless language study is a com-ponent of the program, an English-speaking country (or a countrywhere English is widely spoken) is more desirable for English-speak-ing SAP participants than a country that presents a language barrier--all other things being equal.However, as previously stated, in reality all other factors are not

equal. An exotic or otherwise extraordinary cultural experience is avery important part of any study-abroad experience. In many cases,the opportunities for cultural experience in a particular country out-weigh the problems of a language barrier.Many factors, other than language, contribute to a distinctive cultur-

al experience, including:

S Apparent magnitude and severity of poverty;S Unfamiliar customs, mannerisms, and attitudes;S Absence of other U.S. citizens, or U.S. media and companies;S Absence of Western traditions and religions;S Unfamiliar political/economic system.

Serendipity. One additional factor in the positioning decision equa-tion should be noted--C the importance of serendipity. This is nodifferent from most other business decisions. In no small measure, allof the University’s programs discussed here reflect individual profes-sors’ personal research interests, experiences, contacts, alma maters,and personal preferences. In most cases, these more serendipitousfactors best explain the genesis of a particular research program.

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The University’s Jamaica Studies Program, for example, began as aresult of one professor’s opportunity to participate in a group Ful-bright program there. This professor was enchanted with the islandand made some initial contacts which led to the program’s develop-ment. Now over ten years old, in retrospect, Jamaica offers a perfectlylogical choice for a SAP--particularly one that now emphasizes mar-keting in the tourism industry.

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

The number of details which must be attended to in an effort tosuccessfully execute a SAP can appear at times mind boggling. Ob-viously, each program will be developed with regard to the specifichost country and the basic course objectives. However, certain vari-ables have been found to transcend programs and remain relativelyconstant components. This section will highlight some of these mostimportant considerations.

The Professor-of-Record

A component central to the success or failure of any SAP is theprofessor-of-record. The individual chosen to fulfill this role shouldpossess a genuine enthusiasm for and belief in this type of experientiallearning. Additionally, this individual should intuitively grasp the im-portance of the concept of cultural diversification and be able to workcomfortably within a business and social environment substantiallydifferent from that at home. One of the largest impediments to asuccessful program is the professor who tries to force everything tofunction as it does at home. It will not. The same rules do not necessar-ily apply. The ability to operate confidently in an environment ofuncertainty is advantageous to long-term program success.A SAP is about more than the study of another culture’s business

practices. A critical objective of any such program is for the students(and professor) to understand more fully that culture to which they areexposed. Therefore, the professor-of-record must be willing to encour-age (or require) the students to delve beyond the business culture andbecome immersed in the history and social culture of the country. Thisis an objective and concept which is many times difficult for the

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professor to grasp fully and, therefore, implement. For example, togain any degree of understanding of the business culture of Merida,Mexico, one needs to have some understanding of the local social andcultural environments. A visit to the famous Mayan ruins of ChichenItza or Tulum adds a dimension to this understanding as does a visit toa local shoppers’ bazaar or a night of salsa music. The professor-of-record must recognize that, while not the central component of thecourse, activities such as these provide the student with a more com-plete understanding and appreciation of the culture.

Securing of Lecturers

One question which must be addressed prior to undertaking anyprogram, such as those discussed here is ‘‘Who will conduct the lec-tures?’’ While the intuitive answer to this question may appear to bethat the U.S. professor-of-record will perform the bulk of the lecturingduties, this may not be the most appropriate or desirable solution. Ifthe U.S. professor performs the lecturing tasks, the course in manyways becomes a U.S.-style classroom course which just happens to besituated in another country. Conversely, by utilizing the expertise oflocal university lecturers and local business, government, and industryleaders as course lecturers, the students are exposed to a level ofexpertise and insight into the nuances of the culture that would not bepossible using more traditional lecturers.For example, the importance of tourism to the Jamaican economy

cannot be overstated. Tourism is the largest hard currency generatorfor the country, followed by bauxite (the ore from which aluminum isproduced). Therefore, detailed discussions regarding various aspectsof the tourism industry must be an integral portion of any businessprogram based there. Past lecturers who have been utilized have includeda member of the statistical division of the Ministry of Tourism (theJamaica Tourist Board), various field officers, the Promotions Directorof the Ministry, and the Deputy Director of the Ministry of Tourism.The stock exchange of many countries serves as a portal into an

understanding of business stability and company valuation. Whiletraditional lecturing regarding the role of the stock exchange in busi-ness culture may be beneficial, other methods may serve better toignite the student’s desire to learn. For example, to understand thedynamics of the Jamaican stock market and to realize more fully theimpact of the stock exchange on Jamaican business culture, a visit to the

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exchange to watch the market in action and a lecture by the GeneralManager of the Jamaican Stock Exchange may provide far more insightinto the process and the importance of such markets to developingcountries than simply listening to a U.S. professor describe the scene.Even with the use of local lecturers, the role of the U.S. professor in

disseminating information is crucial. Orientation discussions andintroductory lectures are crucial components of the program. The ini-tial orientation discussion should be accomplished shortly followingarrival on site. The principal focus of this discussion is on acquaintingthe student with program specifics, the location, and with one another.The goal is to facilitate the settling in of the students to new andunfamiliar surroundings. It allows them to voice initial uncertainties orconcerns they may have about various aspects of the program orlocation. Such a discussion has a calming effect on students.Introductory lectures are performed by the professor-of-record at

the beginning of the course and before each site or field visit. Begin-ning of the course introductory lectures are designed to provide thestudent with substantial information concerning the country, the histo-ry, and the business and social environments in which they will befunctioning. These lectures are crucial components in the facilitationof student understanding. Additionally, the purpose of a discussionsession prior to each site visit is to provide the student with informa-tion germane to the current topic and visit. For example, a tour of themanufacturing facilities of BMW-Mexico and a lecture by one of theirofficers is made much more useful if the students are first providedwith information regarding Mexican labor practices and the competi-tive environment.Following each lecture by a local expert, it is useful for the course

professor to conduct a debriefing discussion. The purpose of such adiscussion session is to provide amplification and clarification ofpoints made during the lecture and to answer questions the studentsmay have but were unwilling to ask in the more formal setting. Inessence, the professor acts as a bridge between the local lecturer andthe visiting students.However, choosing to utilize local talent requires substantial effort

on the part of the course professor. Using local experts effectivelyrequires the professor to have developed a working level of under-standing regarding local business and social customs. The develop-ment of rapport or a communication exchange with local experts is a

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necessity. To accomplish such achievements, substantial up-front andcontinuing work is necessary. Ideally, prior to the actual first runningof the program, the course professor should make an initial site visit tothe study area.

Initial Site Visits

The purpose of an initial visit to the program area is multi-fold.First, an initial visit will provide the professor with a basic workingknowledge of the study area. On the surface such knowledge may notappear crucial. However, to become disoriented on the streets of Ha-vana with twenty students while walking to the H. Upton cigar compa-ny for a discussion with the plant manager may prove somewhatunnerving. A professor’s working knowledge of the area also provescomforting to the students (many of whom may have limited, if any,international travel experience). If the professor can speak with assur-ance as to the relative location of specific businesses, industries, andpoints of interest, students feel more secure and relaxed, thus furtherfacilitating the learning experience.Second, this initial visit will allow the course professor the opportu-

nity to meet and make contact with potential lecturers. The develop-ment of useful local contacts is a time and energy consuming process.It is an unrealistic expectation for the course professor to conduct acomprehensive program, utilizing local expertise and facilities to thefullest it the professor does not have any form of working relationshipin-country. Nothing fully substitutes for face-to-face interaction. Suchinteraction allows all concerned parties to develop a good understand-ing of what the other desires and expects from the relationship. Thepotential speaker has the opportunity to gain insight into what specifictopics the professor-of-record would like covered and into what detail.Conversely, the U.S. professor has the chance to learn somethingabout the potential lecturers--their businesses, beliefs, and attitudes.Nothing substitutes for cultivated friendships and relationships.Third, such a visit will allow the course professor the opportunity to

begin to formulate additional course specific components (e.g., sitevisits, research projects, etc.). A large portion of the educational expe-riences associated with any SAP should revolve around the out-of-classroom elements. The inclusion of site visits are crucial to theoverall success of the program. To tour one of the plants of GraceFoods--Jamaica and watch the process of canning pineapple juice on

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the production line (and to learn that the juice is actually importedfrom Hawaii) imparts to the student a level of knowledge unavailablethrough any other means. Similarly, a classroom lecture on the opera-tion of maquiladora plants in Mexico takes on much greater signifi-cance and meaning when the students then have the opportunity totour a maquila facility and watch as materials are received from theU.S., processed, and shipped back.

Student Research

The use of student research projects is a highly effective method ofinitiating interaction between the students and the local population andallowing them the opportunity to gain further insight into the culturethey are visiting. Attention should be directed to the development ofresearch projects that are useful and meaningful for the student, keep-ing in mind any limitations within which they may have to work. Inthe development of research projects, availability of resources are akey consideration. Generally speaking, library holdings may be sub-stantially more limited than what students are familiar with at home.Additionally, the limited availability of photocopying machines orservices, fax machines, and word processors may prove challenging tostudents and faculty alike. However, the focus of on-site researchshould not be restricted to reviews of secondary materials contained inlocal university and public libraries.Research that requires ‘‘hands on’’ involvement by students will

result in a more meaningful and insightful experience. All researchprojects should be structured so that the total of the project may becompleted while the students are on site. By conducting the researchtotally on site, the student is intimately involved in all aspects of theproject. Such a format will allow the student to see the end result of thework they have accomplished, without the added burden and fragmenta-tion of continuing the research effort upon their return to the U.S.Many types of hands-on research projects may be utilized. One

research project which has proven to be particularly effective anduseful in Jamaica is to have the students trace the production anddistribution of ice. In many developing world countries, various com-modity items we take for granted are difficult and/or expensive toprocure. For example, all restaurants and many food vendors requireice in their operations. However, due to the expense of ice makingequipment and the uncertainty of electrical supplies, the securing ofadequate quantities of ice cannot be taken for granted. This project

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requires the students to visit the various ice producing facilities in thearea to watch the large-scale manufacture of ice and to follow along asthe ice is shipped to the local vendors for use.One of the goals of SAPs should be to assist students in the develop-

ment of exchange relationships where gains exist for both parties—stu-dents and locals. Research projects that offer potential benefits to localgovernment, business, and/or industry are particularly useful. Over thepast decade, Jamaica has received somewhat of an international reputa-tion for the harassment of tourists. One mutually beneficial researchproject that was completed by student researchers was a longitudinalexamination of this perceived tourist harassment. Over a five-year peri-od, students formally interviewed hundreds of tourists in Ocho Rios,Jamaica, to gather views and impressions regarding their visit. Theresearch covered both quantitative and qualitative aspects of the visi-tor’s Jamaican experience. To maintain the course requirement thatstudent research be completed totally on-site, interim reports were pre-pared by each year’s student participants. The cumulative findings ofthis research were presented to the Jamaica Tourist Board and otherinterested parties for use in policy formulation. Such mutually benefi-cial projects also serve the purpose of further strengthening the bondbetween host area and the program.

SUMMARY

The development of academically sound, financially viable SAPscan be a treacherous path characterized by numerous dead ends andwrong turns. The thoughts and recommendations presented hereshould not be viewed as the final or ultimate word concerning interna-tional education. However, it is hoped that the material offered herewill assist others in side-stepping some of the pitfalls common to thedevelopment of SAPs. Patience, open-mindedness, and a sincere de-sire to learn about other cultures are all required prerequisites to thesuccessful implementation and longevity of a SAP.

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Submitted: February 2000First Revision: June 2000

Second Revision: August 2000Accepted: September 2000

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