building aboriginal and torres strait islander people …...1 building aboriginal and torres strait...

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Building Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people power. Lessons from First Nations across Turtle Island. Karrina Nolan 2015 Churchill Fellow

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THE WINSTON CHURCHILL MEMORIAL TRUST OF AUSTRALIA Report by Karrina Nolan 2015 Churchill Fellow

Project Aim

Collate lessons to grow Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women's leadership capacity and engagement in community and civic life.

Project Description

The UN, Australian governments, the private sector and civil society all recognise the critical role women play in building strong, healthy Indigenous communities. But significant challenges limit opportunities for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women from engaging on our terms, be it at home, in community, or formal public life. The project aims to elicit insights, wisdom and practical lessons from the successes and failures of other First Nations’ initiatives and approaches that aim to build the skills, capacity and confidence of women to actively participate in community. The research includes a cross section of Indigenous leaders, programs, organisations, national peaks and alliances.

Indemnity

I understand that the Churchill Trust may publish this Report, either in hard copy or on the internet or both, and consent to such publication. I indemnify the Churchill Trust against any loss, costs or damages it may suffer arising out of any claim or proceedings made against the Trust in respect of or arising out of the publication of any Report submitted to the Trust and which the Trust places on a website for access over the internet. I also warrant that my Final Report is original and does not infringe the copyright of any person, or contain anything which is, or the incorporation of which into the Final Report is, actionable for defamation, a breach of any privacy law or obligation, breach of confidence, contempt of court, passing-off or contravention of any other private right or of any law. Signed: Dated: 22/01/16

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would first like to acknowledge all of the people who welcomed me into their homes, communities and organisations across North America. People took the time to share their knowledge, their deep concerns and also their hopes for their people. For this, I am truly grateful. I would like to acknowledge and thank the Winston Churchill Trust for supporting me to meet with and learn from First Nations communities who face similar challenges to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Taking time out to reflect on what you already know, test new ideas with people in different yet parallel contexts has influenced and grown my work significantly here in Australia. I would also like to thank the Banff Centre and the Australia Council who supported me to be part of the Indigenous Leadership program at the Banff Centre in Canada. Meeting with so many community leaders reminded me of the importance of having culturally appropriate models of governance and the need to build our own Indigenous nations. Thanks to those who supported me to apply for this fellowship and all those who connected me, and a huge shout out to my travelling companion for joining me on a trip full of heart, grief and hope that so much more is possible for all of our peoples.

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CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. 3 CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................ 5 PROGRAMME ................................................................................................................ 7 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 9 CONTEXT AND HISTORY ........................................................................................... 11 WOMEN’S POLITICAL PARTICIPATION ................................................................... 13 MOTHER EARTH AND CLIMATE JUSTICE .............................................................. 19 STANDING ROCK – INDIGENOUS RISING ............................................................. 23 LESSONS AND INSIGHTS .......................................................................................... 28

1. Build power and agency ........................................................................................ 282. Build nations and unity to make decisions together ........................................... 303. Build organisations and networks to provide resources, skills and expertise .... 324. Build the conditions to make change possible ...................................................... 33

CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 34 Appendix 1 - Organisations ........................................................................................... 35 Appendix 2 - Glossary .................................................................................................. 43 References ..................................................................................................................... 45

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY My project focused on gathering lessons and ideas from First Nations communities, organisers and change makers in the United States of America (U.S) and Canada. The purpose was to gather insights that could add to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander efforts to achieve justice and self-determination in Australia, specifically I aimed to: Collate lessons to grow Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women's leadership capacity and engagement in community and civic life. I visited a wide variety of organisations and communities. I heard from community leaders, advocates and activists about people’s efforts to develop leadership in a myriad of ways, we discussed how they are surviving and thriving despite colonisation, how they engage and are engaging others in community and civic life. It wasn’t always easy to gather the information in a way that directly translated to our context but many of my instincts about how to approach building our capacity were affirmed and I came back with new ideas. But one of the biggest insights was to hear the First Nations’ people I met talk about Mother Earth and how climate change is front of mind for them because it is a justice issue. And how women’s leadership is at the centre of Indigenous efforts to protect land and water, culture and community. Visiting communities and reservations and seeing projects embedded in community first hand was really informative. Organisations are skilling up young people, regenerating land and water and reviving traditional foods. Much of this work is local but very connected to national and international campaigns to achieve justice for Indigenous peoples, especially in the context of colonisation and climate change. Experiencing the largest coming together of Native peoples in contemporary history at Standing Rock in North Dakota was inspirational and instructive. Key learnings centre on the strong leadership of the tribe, the invitation to other nations to join in solidarity and the relative cohesion of those communities involved. Exploring Native run educational institutions provide a solid reminder that programs aimed at rebuilding people’s sense of where they come from, their identity, culture and language is also an important part of building power. In order to build the power of Indigenous peoples to realise self-determination we need many approaches to making change. In particular we need the capacity to campaign and organise in ways that challenge power, structural inequality and the legacies of colonisation that have disrupted our capacity to make decisions that are owned by and benefit our communities now and into the future. In Australia many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander organisations are focused on providing services to those in need. Indeed many are also doing advocacy and community development attempting to change people’s immediate circumstances. However some of the problems we want to change cannot be achieved solely through these channels. Campaigning and organising approaches may better support us to do the deeper systemic work that is required to face structural challenges and all encompassing ones such as climate change. When I compared responses to climate change and campaigns focused on climate justice in the U.S and Canada it became obvious that we lack the organisation and resourcing to do this in Australia.

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Thus my key recommendations from the project would be to explore what it could look like to invest in building Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander power through: - Re-building the agency of people, working locally, building capacity of people; - Building nations and community through stronger strategy, leadership and

governance; - Building organisations and networks to provide resources, skills and expertise; - Building the conditions to make change possible.

Karrina Nolan Strategist and Community Facilitator E: [email protected] P: 0403 920 195 Skype: karrina_nolan

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PROGRAMME Over 8 weeks, I travelled across 8,000 miles of Native lands, Reserves, Reservations, Territorial homelands, unceded territories, communities, cities and towns and learned from more than 85 people and 25 organisations. I met with artists, weavers, singers, activists, academics, teachers, researchers, community development workers, environmentalists, water protectors, chiefs, treaty negotiators, councilors and warriors. United States of America California Oakland Sierra Club Interviewed Director of Diversity and Inclusion; joined staff diversity gathering;

joined solidarity action for Standing Rock San Francisco Earth Justice Met with Director International programs and Australia Program Director Oakland Movement Rights Met with Director and Cofounder Berkley Movement Generation Met with Staff Collective Member Oakland Wildfire Met with Project Coordinator and trainer Oakland 350.org Met with National training coordinator (on leave) Berkley Community member Interviewed volunteer legal support for Leech Lake Oakland Indigenous Peoples Power Project Interviewed a Trainer and a Facilitator Arizona Prescott Prescott Pow Wow Met with Head dancer and craftswomen Navajo Reservation

Black Mesa Water Coalition Interviewed Restorative Economy Program Coordinator; went on tour of community, restorative economy program and learnt about Leadership Development and Movement Building Program

South Dakota Pine Ridge Lakota Solar Interviewed founder; met with workers; toured the centre Pine Ridge Wounded Knee site Met with women’s craft sellers North Dakota Standing Rock Reservation

Standing Rock water protectors, community members, visiting First Nation’s communities, cooks

Interviewed: Artist (wearestillhere.org), Attorney Met with women from the Advisory Council of Treaty 6 Women (Alberta)

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Minnesota Bemidji Indigenous Environmental Network Interviewed Founder and Director; Met with Food Sovereignty Program

Coordinator; and Extreme Energy & Just Transition Campaigner Bemidji Ogimaakwewiwin Presented at a meeting of the cofounders of the Indigenous Women’s Leadership

group Leech Lake Leech Lake Tribal College Lectured at two classes; interviewed Leech Lake Tribal College Lecturer and Cass

Lake ex-Mayor White Earth Honor the Earth Researched resources including training manuals New York New York City Redhawk Indian Council Participated in Indigenous Peoples Day New York City American Indian Community House Met with Program Coordinator New York City Wildfire Met with Educator Coordinator Canada Ontario Six Nations Six Nations Women’s Singers Head Singer and singers Six Nations Six Nations Polytechnic Toured the Indigenous Knowledge Centre and school, met with the coordinator of

IKC Hamilton McMaster University Met with Director Indigenous Studies and Assistant Professor in the School of

Social Work Toronto This Changes Everything Met with Author and Film maker Alberta Banff Banff Centre Workshop participant in the Aboriginal Leadership Program Negotiation Skills

Training; met with Program Director, Indigenous Leadership and Management Edmonton Indigenous Climate Action Interviewed members, participated in webinar Edmonton IAAW Interviewed Institute for the Advancement of Aboriginal Women British Columbia Vancouver Greenpeace Interview with Head of Artic Campaign Vancouver Minerva Foundation for BC Women Interviewed Director of Combining Our Strength (Aboriginal Women’s Leadership

Program) and the Coordinator for the Aboriginal Initiative Vancouver Tsleil-Waututh Nation Interviewed the Relationship and Protocol Coordinator; Treaty Lands & Resources Vancouver Reconciliation Canada Interviewed the CEO

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INTRODUCTION Various local, regional, national and international institutions all recognise the critical role women play in building strong, healthy communities. But significant challenges limit opportunities for Indigenous women to engage on our terms, be it at home, in community, or formal public life. My fellowship aimed to “collate lessons to grow Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women’s capacity to engage in community and civic life, to bring about change in their communities”. By travelling to the United States of America (U.S) and Canada, I hoped to elicit insights, wisdom and practical lessons from the efforts of Native and First Nations’ approaches to building the skills, capacity and agency of women to make change in community. I wanted to talk with a cross section of First Nations, Native and Indigenous (see glossary for preferred usage of these identifiers1) leaders, programs, organisations, national peaks and alliances. I met with people working to rebuild their communities in the wake of colonisation, making sense of the impacts past and still very present. I spoke to ex-political leaders, savvy spokeswomen and many change makers. I met with grassroots women still singing culture, making crafts and dancing at pow-wows. I interviewed women working in large Non-Government Organisations and peak bodies, some delivering leadership and other trainings. I spent time in communities understanding the context within which people live. I toured with local programs repairing damage to country2, training up communities in renewable energy, educating and mentoring young people in history and Indigenous affairs. I participated in one of the biggest reconnections of tribes protecting land and water in modern history. The wide range of organisations and people was amazing from the perspective of understanding different contexts, the breadth of diversity amongst First Nation’s communities and seeing common issues. However it also meant people were often focused on their own solution or initiative for their specific problem and it was my job to translate that to a national or international context. There were some exceptions to this and these national organisations and networks are covered in my section on lessons for the resources they provide to more community-based work. Many of the insights are relevant for us, specifically those working with the intention of building the capacity, agency and power of our people. Therefore some of the learnings fit well with our context and others enriched my overall understanding of the breadth and depth of Indigenous resistance and survival. Just as if I was visiting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities I had to remain flexible and adapt my schedule as things changed along the way. One of the biggest changes was that the gathering of water protectors at Standing Rock was well underway by the time I arrived. The more I talked with people, the more I could see how the ripples of this gathering were being felt right across Turtle Island (as Indigenous peoples refer to North America, acknowledging the contemporary boundaries are not their own3). 1 I will use some of these labels interchangeably throughout my report as it depends on where you are and who you are speaking with as to preferred terms. There are also some terms that can be used internally but shouldn’t be shared by others who don’t identify as that group. 2 The meaning of country here is from an Indigenous Australian perspective. Referring to our connection to the land, which is a part of our identity and spiritualty. This concept was translatable across North America and Indigenous peoples’ connection to and protection of Mother Earth. 3 The name Turtle Island comes from an Aboriginal creation story. http://www.turtleisland.org/front/article3.htm

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Standing Rock changed whom I spoke with, but also –to some extent— what I spoke with people about. I provide some detail about the role of women at Standing Rock and women’s leadership to protect land and water, culture and community later in the report. It reinforced the focus of my current work here in Australia alongside my Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander brothers and sisters to address the causes and impacts of global warming, and that in order to prevent this catastrophe worsening we must build the power of our people.

This report

The report is broken into a number of sections starting with a brief note on the comparisons across the three contexts and how colonisation has affected people’s ability to govern and self-determine their own affairs. Sadly also highlighting the devastating impact forced removals from land, family and culture has had on our peoples. The second section looks at the shifting role of women in community and political life. There are perspectives here from grassroots activists, artists, academics, teachers, and organisational directors. The third section draws the links between Indigenous struggles for self-determination around land and climate justice. The fourth section looks at how people are tackling the problems before them, including a few stories from the road. While there are learnings woven throughout, the final section draws together lessons from the stories shared with me, from solar programs, youth regenerating their land, treaty negotiations and women’s groups. How are people making changes in their communities? What impact is it having on them as a people and how are they perceiving and building power? Finally what do these lessons or insights mean for us, and our work for self-determination in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in Australia?

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CONTEXT AND HISTORY In Australia there are 500 different Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander nations, and 250 distinct language groups. In the U.S there are 566 federally ‘recognised’ tribes. There are also tribes that don’t have recognition and therefore don’t receive funds or services. Many of these nations have a level of self-governance and are recognised by some Indian organisations. In Canada there are over 600 recognised First Nations governments or bands each with their own languages and culture. In terms of population, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders make up about 3% of the population at around 700,000 of the just over 23 million people in Australia. In Canada there are fewer than 1 million Indigenous peoples in a country of just over 35 million (2.85%) and estimates in the U.S vary a lot but around 5.5 million including Alaskan natives of the nearly 319 million people (1.72%). Shared across the three contexts are the issues of extreme poverty, particularly concentrated on reserves, disparities in health, including higher rates of disease, lower life expectancy, and a burgeoning mental health crisis. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, Canadian First Nations and Natives in the U.S all share an alarming rate of suicide among young people. It is the second leading cause of death for Indigenous peoples in the U.S aged 15- to 34-years. In Canada and Australia the likelihood that Aboriginal people commit suicide, compared to non-Aboriginal people is six times greater. Of course statistics only paint part of the picture and if we were to focus on the deficits we wouldn’t see or hear the positive stories of resilience and hope. Hopefully some of those will come through in this project. One of the things that struck me as I travelled was the similarity in how Indigenous peoples are faring across the U.S, Canada and Australia. While this shouldn’t be surprising given the shared histories of colonisation, I found myself having to unpack the impacts in each place in order to share and hear insights into the ways forward. As in Australia, Indigenous peoples often deeply understand historical and contemporary legal arrangements, around land, treaty and so on. People I spoke with were regularly fluent in legal discourse, understanding exactly which Acts (of Parliament) had further undermined their rights and at which moments land was taken or treaties broken. I couldn’t possibly do justice to the vast amount of literature produced on colonial Acts, constitutions and legal arrangements that have been used to disrupt and displace people’s connection to their homelands throughout North America. However it’s useful to provide some historical context for injustices that are still very present, and also remind us of the survival of our diverse nations and languages. Canada’s Constitution Act, 1982 recognises three Aboriginal peoples: First Nations, (Indians in the Act), the Métis and Inuit. First Nations people are further divided by the Indian Act into two groups, Status and non-Status Indians. Although amendments have more recently changed this affecting the rights and status of Métis and Inuit to include them. I will return to the Indian Act as a tool of assimilation and the impact it had on the role of women shortly. The other significant part of First Nations’ relationship with the Canadian government is the history of treaties. Not all nations have a treaty arrangement, and many that do are in lengthy negotiation processes with the government to have them recognised or obligations set out in them met. This is a source of constant frustration and also a big driver in communities’ attempts to free themselves and opt for self-

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governance. This would give some nations more ability to determine how community funds are allocated. Treaty making still continues today, with much of the West Coast not covered by treaties. Many would argue this has actually put those First Nations in a better position to make land claims and regain control of land from provincial governments, particularly in the context of resource use and the development of coal, oil and gas through First Nations territories. I will talk more about First Nations peoples asserting their rights and their views on whether such resource projects are considered appropriate for their peoples and the environment. In the U.S, Native people had a similarly fraught relationship with the federal government. Although it is an understatement to characterise this as fraught given the number of Native people killed during invasion and the many civil wars they endured. Between 1887 and 1934 the Government of the U.S took over 90 million aces of land from tribes without any compensation. According to the National Council of American Indians, Native peoples have lost 97% percent of their land since colonisation. It is difficult to find a comparable statistic for Australia and Canada as Native Title determinations are still being made in Australia, with the Indigenous estate currently estimated at around 20%. Although the reality is Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples lost all land and have since trying to claim it back. In Canada most of the East Coast nations have treaties although many are in legal proceedings trying to get the Canadian Government to meet their obligations. In the U.S there isn’t just one piece of legislation like the Canadian Indian Act that was used to assimilate Native peoples. There were many complicated pieces of state and federal legislation and policy phases, like the treaty and self-determination eras, which shaped people’s experience. Interestingly this mirrors some of the policy phases in Australia. Also shared across the three nations sadly is a history of forced removals of peoples. In the U.S this era is known as the boarding school era. In Canada it’s referred to as residential schools, and in Australia we had mission schools that were connected to the Stolen Generation. All three were a deliberate attempt by colonial governments to “take the Indian out of Indians”. In other words to try and breed out, or ‘educate’ out people’s identity, connection to their lands, languages and culture. The continued survival of Indigenous peoples is testament to the failure of such attempts. However the impacts were evident throughout my trip. People are consistently cognisant of the need to rebuild connection, culture and identity. All three countries have different systems (largely imposed) for determining Indigenous identity. Although in Australia the push back from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples has meant the definition now largely comes from within Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. There is a three-part definition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identity: An Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is a person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he (she) lives. (Creative Spirits 2016). In the U.S the blood quantum used to define ancestry and tribal membership is based on the amount of ‘Indian blood’. The Bureau of Indian Affairs actually issues certificates of degree of Indian Blood that shows your blood quantum and tribal affiliation. It can vary between tribes with measures between ½ to 1/16, which is the equivalent of having one great-great grandparent ‘full blood’. There is a growing challenge to this and some tribes are determining their own tribal membership,

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recognising the detrimental impact measuring and reporting blood quantum has had on their people. In Canada, First Nations had a similar system to blood quantum, known as status and non-status peoples. Government criteria determined who qualified for Indian status. The implications for women were extraordinary as women who married a non-status or non-Aboriginal person lost their own – women’s status was determined by their relationship to men and male linage was privileged. The gender inequalities and subsequent discrimination against women, their connections to their ancestral lands and role in communities have been profound. What was devastatingly evident throughout my trip is that colonisation has had a massive impact on people’s agency and power. Having colonial governments determine who is and who isn’t Native or Indigenous, who can receive resources or be involved in community decisions has undermined people’s sense of self, agency and ability to belong. And in order to build the political power and cohesion of First Nations communities, and women, these impacts need to be kept in mind.

WOMEN’S POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Women’s political participation in community life and formal political institutions manifests in many ways. I focused on talking with women involved in social change, on the ground, through local Government, as activists campaigning and others. Women are making change on many issues. My conversations touched on the problems but mostly how women are participating and leading, and what supports them in that journey. There are many shared issues across all three contexts. Women I spoke with talked about family violence and the horror of abused, murdered and missing Indigenous

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women.4 Women also talked about the high rates of suicide, especially among young people, poverty and lack of employment, high rates of mental illness combined with substance misuse and wide spread concern about homelessness (primarily in urban areas). Women pointed to the lack of culturally appropriate services but some noted that the kinds of systemic changes they wanted to see were unlikely to be borne through the urgent nature of servicing peoples immediate needs. Many women I met were the driving force in responding to the challenges of climate change, resource extraction and environmental injustice.

In addition to these shared struggles the impacts of colonisation are as visible in the U.S and Canada as they are here. Imposed forms of governance changed the ways First Nations organised themselves, made decisions and went about community business. It’s important to acknowledge that history has created barriers that still challenge women’s political participation today. Colonial governments attempts to define women’s roles, has subsequently affected women’s agency and engagement with community affairs (Voyageur, Brearley and Calliou 2015). Many I spoke with talked about the detrimental affect of colonisation on gender relations and the role of women, particularly some elders, who lived through a time where they saw the role and status of senior women diminished by laws In Canada First Nations women were treated by colonisers as domestics, as subservient and with limited political rights. But many First Nations societies were traditionally matrilineal and matriarchal where women managed the community’s land holdings, food and wealth (Voyaguer 2016). In these complex clan and band systems women were (and still are) leaders, advisors, medicine women, clan mothers, and holders of ceremony. Women held significant knowledge, which commanded respect from the tribe (Lajimodiere 2011). A story I was told from the Six Nations Reserve in Canada was about how the police raided a traditional meeting of chiefs in the early 1900’s because they weren’t abiding by the government’s imposed structure. The Indian Act stipulated when elections were to be held, who could run and vote in them - specifically males over 23 years old. Many of these men would have been married into the tribe. In the process new chiefs, men at this time were given decision making power over community business by the state. Thus replacing women who might have otherwise been in those leadership positions. In the story of the raid that particular community had decided

4 This issue is the subject of a national inquiry in Canada and of numerous campaigns by organisations working to stem the tide of lost lives such as: Highway of Tears; Native Women’s Association of Canada and Silence No More.

Exhibit honoring murdered and missing Indigenous women at the Kwanlin Dun Cultural Centre in Whitehorse

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to keep their traditional structures despite the Act and the authority of the Department of Indian Affairs. Six Nations to this day have two parallel structures running in many aspects of their governance. They believe it has been critical to their people maintaining a strong sense of self and identity, and connection to their band. Some women in the U.S spoke about community resistance to imposed forms of governance and said there was a growing movement to create new constitutions that better reflected their values. “We want to get rid of things like blood quantum and tribal leadership (also known as Chief and Council system), which was a system placed upon us which doesn’t reflect us. We have inherent knowledge that isn’t any longer being tapped by the older leaders of our tribes” (Ojibwe woman). The Navajo, the largest native nation in the U.S with over 250,000, have long had their own government. They also have the Navajo Nation Women’s Commission and have actively supported women to be in formally elected leadership roles. However the commission believes that women’s traditionally high status has been dramatically altered. As a result gender relationships have been transformed in such dramatic ways resulting in the shocking increase in violence towards Navajo women. The Commission draws direct links between how women are treated and the perception of their role and status. They are running a number of projects to try and shift this perception and restore women’s power in community affairs (see NHRC - The status of Navajo women and gender violence report). In Canada terms of formal political roles there has been an increase in the number of female chiefs and other council positions over the last few decades. Since 1995 the number of women leading First Nations communities has increased from 40 to 120. Keeping in mind until the Indian Act of 1876 was amended in 1951 women were not officially able to hold such positions after colonisation (Voyageur 2015). However when looking at non-indigenous organisations in Canada, according to a Minerva Foundation survey in 2015, there are actually no Aboriginal women in senior leadership roles (see Minerva Foundation - The Face of Leadership British Columbia Score Card). Minerva has gone on to do a range of women’s leadership programs to change this, including capacity building focused on building women individually as well as work within organisations readying them to take on more Indigenous women in senior positions (see Minerva Foundation - Women Leading the Way and Combining Our Strength Community Leadership Program). There is no doubt that while historically there have been attempts to erode women’s political power women are organising and leading in many ways.

L: Prescott Pow-wow Women’s jingle dress dance R: Champagne and Aishihik First Nations Aboriginal Women’s circle

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Women leading

I am always inspired by examples of people having the courage to act on what they know to be right. It sounds simple – but I believe that is a rare quality in the

contemporary economic and political landscape. It is difficult enough in any sphere for a woman to succeed in positions of leadership. I believe it is even more difficult for a woman in a leadership position if she challenges the status quo and the values that drive and protect it. If she takes this role, she challenges male power, and the

systems that support and maintain it. (By definition she will be regarded as mad or bad – and sometimes both).

Professor Lowitja O’Donoghue, Aboriginal leader and activist

Through discussions with women it became clear there are many interpretations and definitions of leadership. Some focussed on the qualities of the individual leader, their attributes and practices and others on the purpose of their leadership. For example whether leaders are progressive or interested in social change. Some pointed out that being a leader in and of itself doesn’t bring about change for Indigenous peoples. Most however noted that Indigenous leadership and leadership in Indigenous contexts has its own challenges and that knowing your vision, where you’re headed and why you’re leading is important. There are multiple organisations running women’s leadership programs to build individual capacities of women in the hope it will ripple out through their communities. Some women I talked to didn’t necessarily consider themselves leaders, although they clearly were motivating, role modeling, organising and influencing others. Although many had perspectives to share and advice to offer on what it’s like as Indigenous woman to lead, to negotiate with your own community and then with those outside of it. And regardless of whether you define a leader as someone elected, employed or leading a community initiative voluntary or managing a household, for the women I spoke with what was important was their contribution to furthering the interests of their people. A study of Lakota (northern U.S) leaders suggested there are a number of key things that can support women in their leadership journey. The study highlighted the importance of accessing bicultural education to support your work in two or more worlds (Gambrell 2016). This was also a theme in Lajimodiere’s (2011) study of women leaders. These women said it was important to have a strong sense of identity, know who you are and where you come from. In addition the interviewees believe the following factors contributed to their success as leaders: “having a solid work ethic, being disciplined, determined, driven, self-motivated, persistent, knowledgeable of tribal history, culture, spirituality, and values” (Lajimodiere’s 2011). The study talked about leading in a way which means you don’t need to be driven by your ego or hold power over others, or use leadership positions to control people. Lakota women similarly believe your values come through in your leadership. Their hope is that women embrace a way of leading in which you can move beyond self-interest to consider the needs of the collective.

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Leech Lake Reservation

Leech Lake Reservation in Minnesota has an interesting history. It is located on what is known as a ‘Superfund site’, which is basically a fund given to clean up a site which is hazardous and classed as toxic by the Environmental Protection Authority. There is a long history of community campaigns to get the site cleaned up. Sadly there have also been long term impacts on people’s health, with many families in the area developing Lupus, cancers and other illnesses. I spoke with a woman who now teaches at the Leech Lake tribal college where I was fortunate enough to spend a few days teaching in her class. It was a two-way learning experience and was excellent to see the drive some of the young people had to get educated in old and new ways. The teacher was previously the Mayor of Cass Lake, which takes in the reservation. She was Mayor for two terms and told me the story of how she was elected, ousting the previous Mayor, a non-Indigenous man, who had held the role for over 15 years by a mere 7 votes – it was originally only 6 votes but he called for a recount! There was much wisdom shared during our conversation including the way she went about meeting with every community member to talk about the impacts of the toxins on the water, door to door listening to their concerns and asking for their ideas. She also had some concrete advice for other women leaders or those wanting to get involved in formal political roles: - Educate yourself on the issues - Get a blessing or prayer before you go for it (or it can wear you out and people can

tear you down – people will often blame leaders) - Be part of your community always - Give to the people and they will give back to you - Younger and older women have different experiences, and some of the younger

women may forget what has been won before. You need both to be whole.

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Bemidji - Ogimaakwewiwin

Connected to the Indigenous Environmental Network is a newly formed Indigenous women’s leadership group, Ogimaakwewiwin, meaning women leaders in Aninashanbe. The group aims to recognise and support the role women play in protecting Mother Earth by building the capacity and visibility of women to take on public roles and offer solidarity to other land and water protectors. Women are making a big difference in their communities. They are leading programs to revitalise language. Taking young people back out to their traditional lands, teaching them hunting and cooking the old ways. Women are leading academic institutions teaching the next generation about their rights and offering them different pathways. Women are also heading up organisations driving national healing and reconciliation, leading on climate change and environmental work.

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MOTHER EARTH AND CLIMATE JUSTICE There is no denying we are at the tipping point in our relationship with Mother Earth. Indigenous peoples the world over who have for millennia shown stewardship, cared for country, protected waters and seas, know this. The way people and our economic systems have treated resources, as things to be extracted, with seemingly little regard for their finite nature, cannot be sustained. Devastating changes to our climate are being felt all over the globe, culminating in a crisis, which now threatens the survival of all life. It is increasingly understood that First Nations people are on the frontlines of these impacts. We are already experiencing species loss and the changing of seasons is impacting our hunting and gathering practices, and therefore our ceremonies and medicines. Increases in severe weather events such as droughts, cyclones, floods and bush fires are not future possibilities they are with us now. Many Pacific and Island nations are experiencing rising sea levels which is affecting the availability of food and leading to the forced relocation of communities. I met with individuals, communities and organisations coming to terms with the existing and future threats of climate change. Some are literally on the frontlines trying to stop the causes of climate change – the mining and burning of coal, and the construction of fossil fuel projects or infrastructure like oil and gas pipelines. Others have already shifted their focus to rebuild land impacted by mining and years of colonisation. It is very clear that centuries of land acquisition for agricultural production, mining and other resources, has had a significant impact on First Nations peoples’ health, wellbeing and identity. Indigenous peoples and our identities are inextricably linked to country, land and sea. Thus any changes can also affect our songlines, ceremonies, sacred sites, and access to bush tucker and medicines. The impacts are cultural, spiritual and physical. If country itself is sick then so too are the people. There is a very real risk that in countries like the U.S, Canada and Australia with already significant socio economic and health gaps between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples these will further widen, undoing many years of work to address inequality. A growing movement focused on ensuring climate change is also considered a justice issue is being led by Indigenous peoples and their allies. This is not a new concept and builds on a long history of environmental justice including key moments in the 1970s’ when communities of colour and First Nations people joined together to push for their issues to be included in community movements to protect the environment. When they rightly pointing out the environmentally racist nature of development that saw toxic facilities placed closer to communities of colour or on native lands. Indigenous led climate justice networks in the U.S and Canada encourage their partners and collaborators to utilise a number of principles that have been widely adopted to build on this earlier work, such as the Indigenous Principles and Bali principles adopted in 2002 (see http://www.ejnet.org/ej/). These principles recognise that small island states, women, youth, coastal peoples, local communities, Indigenous peoples, poor people and the elderly disproportionately feel the impacts of climate change. The Bali principles also recognise the rights of Indigenous peoples and affected communities to represent and speak for themselves; and play a leading role in national and international processes to address climate change. Australian

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organisations and networks would do well to adopt these principles to ensure justice is a core part of their environmental and climate focused work. Many Native and First Nations people, especially women, I met were clear that their connection to Mother Earth is deeply embedded in native life and beliefs. People spoke about Indian Laws, prayers and prophecies and their responsibilities to care for country. For many it has never been culturally acceptable to sell land for profit, which may speak to why people are more accepting of casinos and other forms of economic development than mining. It is obvious that across the three contexts Indigenous people are under extreme pressure to sell their country and resources to have basic needs met. Indigenous Climate Action in Canada, a newly formed network says, “Our people are continually forced to choose between maintaining healthy and sustainable environments for the future of our communities and the pursuit of economic development.” Given all of this it was not surprising to meet First Nations peoples engaged in campaigns to prevent the expansion of fossil fuels, a key driver of climate change. With many connecting the issue of land acquisition for mining with the need for clearer rights to enable the protection of land and water and ultimately achieve land justice. This was evident at Standing Rock and came through in the local projects I visited including the Black Mesa Water Coalition and Lakota Solar. Both programs knew that having your basic needs meet on your own terms was critical. Building the capacity of people to have food sovereignty and control their own renewable power was understood as critical to their survival as a people. Having the capacity to choose economic development that’s sustainable for generations for come is not easy and will require resourcing, patience and power in the decades to come. “Ojibwe prophecies speak of a time during the seventh generation when our people will have a choice between two paths. The first path is well worn and scorched. The second path is new and green. It is our choice as communities and as individuals how we will proceed.” (La Duke 2008)

Community responses

Communities are responding to the depth and breadth of these issues in many ways, while these overlap they can be loosely categorised as follows:

• Adaptation – managing and protecting country • Mother Earth/Country – reconnecting, regenerating • Building alternatives – food sovereignty, community power • Movement building – build power, build the people • Resisting – we say enough!

L: Standing Rock R: Prescott Powwow solidarity action for Standing Rock

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Adaptation: Around the world we are witnessing people on the frontlines of climate change being forced to adapt on a daily basis. Indigenous peoples have adopted traditional and innovative responses to cope with the impacts of changing climatic conditions for a long time, such as relocation or seasonal migration, moving crops, reduced hunting and so on. However we are now talking about adapting at a pace and scale which is not something peoples have experienced before. Some communities and organisations are now undertaking planned or managed responses including: monitoring, collecting oral history and maps, developing partnerships with universities and other experts to help track the impacts on animals, plants, land and water, and implementing community led clean up initiatives for environmental pollution and spills after companies have left. Many communities however are facing much more rapid climate change impacts meaning relocation from homelands is the only adaptation available. Mother Earth/Country: Caring for country and mother earth is a right which should be afforded to all Indigenous peoples. Of course there are complexities right across North America about land access and ‘ownership’ and your ability to live on or care for your country. One of the reasons for this is the way colonisation has taken so much land from Native communities therefore restricting people’s access their own country. Many live on reservations which are their own but this may not constitute their traditional territories. Programs that support First Nations and Native peoples to return to or remain living and working on their homelands are not as prevalent as they are in Australia. However initiatives to reconnect young people with traditional practices of cultivation, hunting and living on the land are having great outcomes. Outcomes that go beyond the food produced and land regenerated to rebuilding a sense of pride and belonging in those who may have been disconnected from their heritage, land and people.

Building Alternatives: Often from crisis comes opportunity. Many I met were talking about the climate crisis as an opportunity to transform the system, which gave rise to it. Some organisations are embedded in local communities but also doing work at a national level to raise awareness amongst Native communities about the issues and impacts of climate change. Initiatives are also focused on considering alternatives that ensure the democratic control of the food, energy and water systems. There are inspiring examples of community owned enterprises, including solar, both for community power and as an income generating activity. Communities are also working out ways to share their knowledge with other nations to set these up too.

Publications from Honor The Earth Ultimately building alternatives also enables communities to say yes to positive projects and have a sustainable vision for their community rather than feeling their energy is solely focused on saying no to particular kinds of projects and

Chapter subject here

SUSTAINABLE TRIBAL ECONOMIESA Guide to Restoring Energy and Food Sovereignty in Native America

A PUBLICATION OF HONOR THE EARTH

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developments. In considering alternatives such as renewable energy, just as with any projects on native lands, people need the tools and knowledge to give their free, prior and informed consent. It’s critical that people have a choice in the kinds of economic development needed for their communities. Movement building: There are growing movements to ensure peoples, country and Mother Earth are recognised and ultimately protected. Some organisations are focused on amplifying the concerns and voices of communities acting to bring national coherence to shared challenges. Others are intervening in policy, making sure First

Nations peoples’ are part of the conversations around mitigation, adaptation and transformation. The increased efforts put into working in solidarity across tribes and linking issues has increased communities’ power and influence. Alliances like the Treaty Alliance Against Tar Sands Expansion in Canada have been influential in connecting communities, sharing resources and insights but also organising people power on projects that cross borders. Over the last decade movement building efforts have strengthened our collective power. The impact of Idle No More and Black Lives Matter can be seen in the way communities are working more closely together with shared purpose. This show of unity and movement wide resistance was visible in the 300 different tribal nations plus many allies coming together at Standing Rock.

Resist: Indigenous peoples the world over have been resisting in all kinds of ways for a long time; from daily acts practicing culture and language, to many forms of campaigning, organising and direct action. This resistance is evident particularly in the way communities are organising around fossil fuel projects. Communities I met are saying no to their country being fracked, mined or being the dumping ground for toxic waste or thoroughfare for resources dug up on another tribes land. Indigenous led resistance is visible in many places not just Standing Rock, however the energy that Standing Rock has generated is incredibly powerful for encouraging people to believe this kind of resistance and ultimately victory is possible.

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STANDING ROCK – INDIGENOUS RISING The Dakota Access Pipeline is a US3.78 billion-dollar conduit being built from the Bakken oil fields in North Dakota near the Canadian border through South Dakota and Iowa to Patoka, Illinois. The pipeline would cut through the tribal lands of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, human burial sites, scared prayer rings, sensitive natural areas and wildlife habitat. There has been no analysis by the government to assess the climate impacts but the Sierra Club estimates the pipeline would lock in greenhouse emissions equivalent to that of 30 coal plants. Not only would the pipeline threaten sacred sites and culturally important areas, it would also cross under the Missouri River just upstream of the Sioux’s drinking water supply, where a spill would constitute a serious threat to the Tribe's culture and way of life. “We have already seen the damage caused by a lack of consultation. The ancient burial sites where our Lakota and Dakota ancestors were laid to rest have been destroyed. The desecration of family graves is something that most people could never imagine” (Standing Rock Sioux Tribe Chairman). The Standing Rock Sioux Tribe has taken a stand to protect their land and water for the Dakota Access Pipeline. Empowered by tribal leaders camps were set up in April on their land in the path of the proposed pipeline. Since then over 15,000 people have taken part in the camp to protect the water and assert Native peoples’ rights over their traditional lands. Millions have joined them globally, showing solidarity online and through local actions. During the 6 months of the camp many water protectors were arrested, injured and intimidated by a heavily militarised police. In early December there was a significant win for the community and Native peoples. The Army Corps of Engineers announced they would not allow the company to drill underneath the river. This announcement came just days before plans to ‘move’ people on from the camps. While this doesn’t mean a definite end to the pipeline it is a huge victory for native peoples rights.

This struggle is not over…5

5 https://www.facebook.com/Standing-Rock-Sioux-Tribe-402298239798452/

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Indigenous Rising I visited the camp in September 2016 and saw an Indigenous led, strong, peaceful and organised resistance. Resistance to a pipeline being built to expand the use of fossil fuels but also resistance by First Nations peoples to colonisation in its contemporary form, that of land grabs for ‘resource use’. The Sioux Nation rallied behind their leadership in the decision to challenge the pipeline and all the impacts that could come from it. The tribe invited solidarity and support from other nations. Some of whom have a history of conflict and haven’t worked together so explicitly in contemporary times. This invitation was accepted by hundreds of tribes across Turtle Island and Indigenous peoples around the world. The camp was buzzing with the constant arrival of new relatives (as Native people refer to each other). Managing supplies, donations, messages and arrivals were a constant part of camp life. From the Canadian First Nations who bought salmon to feed the entire camp to the semi trailers loaded with wood to keep people warm. There were so many stories about the amazing things the camp itself was generating, although some of this has been lost in what is seen by the rest of the world in the mainstream and even social media. At the camp I did interviews and had conversations with First Nations and Native women including water protectors, artists, attorneys, treaty rights protectors, young people, clan mothers and cooks. These women were playing a critical role as leaders, role models, spokespeople, and were clearly the powerhouse of the camp and the broader struggle. The women talked about a range of things including the issues facing them in their communities back home, ways of dealing with them and why they had made the journey to be in solidarity at Standing Rock. “When fracking came to my community on the Fort Berthold Reservation in the Bakken shale oil fields of North Dakota the increase in violence against women was horrendous and unimaginable. Rapes, sex trafficking, kidnapping and deadly drug abuse all came with the oil boom. What we see clearly is that the rape and pillage of our Mother Earth goes hand in hand with the rape and pillage of our women and it has got to stop. There is a better way for us to live upon this planet and that way can be achieved through a Just Transition away from the fossil fuel industry and by keeping fossil fuels in the ground.” Kandi Mossett, Lead Organizer on the Extreme Energy and Just Transition Campaign with the Indigenous Environmental Network.

https://nodaplsolidarity.org/

Presenting to the circle and sacred fire at Standing Rock Oceti Sakowin camp

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We are still here One woman was running an arts project about identity called ‘We are still here’. She was photographing people asking them to think about what they wanted future generations to see. You could see from the interactions people were having with the project that it resonated. Colonisation has had such a damaging affect on many Native peoples sense of who they are, how they look, whether they can speak their native language, have the ‘correct’ blood quantum, or are registered with a tribe or band. This project is all about asserting that as Indigenous peoples we are still here and encouraging people to hold their heads high. She also mentioned that her tribe is matriarchal and pointed to the impact of colonisation on the role of women, just as many others have also noted. She said “people have forgotten that women have a voice and they say its traditional not to but it’s just not”. She was at Standing Rock because she believed environmentalism is an act of feminism and that what is required right now is a shift in peoples’ consciousness in order to change their relationship to the planet. She told a story about the way she had been raised and that as a young child her grandfather had taken her to the forest to talk with her relatives; her relatives being every single tree. She grew up knowing the connection between herself and all other beings on Mother Earth, and the respect this relationship deserves.

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Your issues are our issues Another group of women I spoke with had come down from Enoch Cree Nation in Alberta, Canada. They travelled the long distance to Standing Rock to be alongside other women protecting Mother Earth. They also hoped to take back some of the lessons and inspiration because as they put it “we are dealing with exactly the same issues”. They worked for their band in various community roles. They also pointed to the impact colonisation continues to have on women; family breakdown, addictions, lack of housing and the low levels of empowerment. They raised concerns about the selling of land and resources for money to developers and mining companies and how it impacts negatively on the psyche of the community. These women also believed that there is a shift occurring and women are starting to speak up. They noted the invisible roles women play as fixers and providers, those that keep the home fires burning. However they also pointed to the way women are increasingly playing a role in implementing the outcomes of Treaties. Work, which they believe can help reunify the community. The work of implementing the outcomes of existing treaties or to gain a treaty looks different for every nation. Communities may also have a particular focus on ‘rights’ that have been specified in a treaty and may not have been met. Rights to hunt and fish in traditional territory and to use and occupy reserves are typical treaty rights. This is complex work that sometimes ends up in the hands of external ‘experts’ or non-indigenous lawyers. In this community women are taking on these roles and it is having an impact. It’s worth noting that the Indigenous Negotiation Training in Banff is one avenue for women to explicitly learn these skills. Women holding the power There was no doubt that women were the backbone of Standing Rock. The camp had become a functioning community with kitchens feeding hundreds of people a day, a small school, media centre, medical centre and a legal collective. In all of these spaces and many others women were solving problems, bringing people together, and leading. Women were media spokespeople and doing the analysis connecting local concerns with the broader issues. Women were working as medics managing people in extreme conditions, with serious injuries from police weapons. Women were trainers in direct action, teaching kids in the school and managing legal representation. I spoke with some of the women providing legal support for the water protectors. This involved defending arrestees in court, answering legal questions and doing media. As I left camp it was becoming an increasingly difficult job as the level of police intimidation and violence was escalating, as was the number of arrests. Some of the issues raised by these women echoed that of others and part of what had driven them to be involved in the legal profession in the first place. They had concerns about

We are still here photography project Fry bread in the camp kitchen

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domestic violence and the increasing number of children being taken away and put into the welfare system. They also raised a lack of services for advocacy and legal support. One of the women was at Standing Rock because she felt legal avenues weren’t working and direct action was what was needed. She felt called to be there by her relatives and felt compelled to stay and support the water protectors. “We really need to start to turn the conversation toward renewable energy, making clear that the end of the oil industry is here. We’re living in that time now. It’s not gonna be ten years or twenty years from now, this is my children’s generation, my grandchildren’s generation that will live in a more peaceful and balanced way with Mother Earth.” (Kennedy-Howard 2016)

Women standing strong at Standing Rock

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LESSONS AND INSIGHTS Central to self-determination is the ability to participate in decisions that affect you, your family and your community. This project involved understanding how people, in particular women, are making change in their lives and communities. Colonisation in North America has undermined how communities govern themselves and make decisions, organise and take action. Being able to speak with people working with communities on all kinds of projects, has sparked ideas and also shone a light on what is holding people back from determining their own affairs in the Australian Indigenous context. I gained many insights and lessons along the way. Some are specific to those working towards environmental and climate justice, some more pertinent to building women and young people. All of them have at their core consolidating the ability for First Nation’s people to build the power to self-determine. I have grouped the insights into four areas: 1. Re-building the agency of people, train people, build capacity work locally 2. Building nations and community through governance, leadership and strategy 3. Building organisations and networks to provide resources, skills and expertise 4. Building the conditions to make change possible.

All organisations referenced below are also detailed in Appendix 1.

1. Build power and agency

In order to make change you need to have or feel you have agency and power: a belief that actions you take will make a difference. Rebuilding a sense of power and agency in peoples who have had considerable power taken from them can be a slow and complex process. This is not to assume all people are powerless or passive. One of the key ingredients in people being able to change their own circumstances or engage in broader community affairs is having the internal drive and capacity to act. And your living conditions, personal skills or community tools impact this capacity. Some organisations I met with were focused on individual capacity building, workshops and training. For example the primary purpose of Minerva’s leadership program is to empower and build women up. Women choose how they apply those skills. The Indigenous Leadership training at Banff focused on giving people tools to implement better governance for their community or negotiate with external parties on behalf of their community. The Black Mesa Water Coalition (BMWC) trained young people in land regeneration and food cultivation. It’s worth noting that in some of these cases the building of individual capacity is explicitly linked to broader social change. Some of the organisations acknowledge that collective change requires collective power, and skilling individuals alone is not sufficient for broader structural change. One of the best examples of this is Lakota Solar, which skills individuals to make change locally, which is a part of the necessary structural shift to clean energy. Lakota Solar Uncle Henry Red Cloud who is the driving force behind Lakota solar in Pine Ridge, had a number of important teachings. Pine Ridge in South Dakota in the U.S is one of the poorer reservations. Lakota Solar provides on the job training for native people in solar installation, construction and repairs, including heating and lighting to solar water pumps and energy efficient building materials. He said, “people need to get out of line, we cannot wait for someone else to do it for us, we must create the solutions

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ourselves”. This is the philosophy behind Lakota Solar. Henry believes you should be able to source your own food, water, and shelter and be self-sufficient. He believes in the past old people respected the finite nature of Mother Earth and worked with what they had: “renewable energy is a new way to honor the old ways”.

Black Mesa Water Coalition The Black Mesa Water Coalition is a small organisation based on Navajo and Hopi country in Arizona. The organisation works at many levels. One of their key objectives is to “transition away from an extractive economy to a culturally based, ecologically restorative economy that is determined, controlled, and managed by local communities and which ensures all families are healthy and vibrant.” The organisation is embedded in a number of communities working with specific families to rejuvenate the water and land. A core strand of their work builds the leadership capacities of community members. Young people engage in short-term internships to learn practical skills and the theory behind land regeneration. They also run the Black Mesa Solar Project, Food Sovereignty Project, and Navajo Wool Market Improvement Project as a direct way of creating cleaner economic opportunities and work at a national level advocating for climate justice.

Both the BMWC and Lakota Solar are embedded in communities. They prioritise local people doing local work. This seems pretty common sense but is vital to the transformative nature of the work. Others I met were also building capacity through training. The Indigenous Peoples’ Power Project (IP3) is a collective of Indigenous trainers offering skills to support communities campaigning and organising on a range of issues including fossil fuel extraction. They recognise the connection between Indigenous people and the health and well being of the land. The training is designed to strengthen the capacity of Indigenous communities to use non-violent direct action to be ready, willing and able to protect their land and waters. IP3 played a key role supporting and training people at Standing Rock. There are number of manuals, kits and training programs worth mentioning (links to the relevant websites in Appendix 1). The Indigenous Environmental Network have

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produced a Climate Justice manual focused on Indigenous people’s understanding climate change, how to talk about it and take action in their own way, and in language that makes sense to them. Indigenous Climate Action in Canada have recently brought together First Nations communities, leaders and climate activists to meet, plan and better understand the issues facing them. Honor the Earth have produced guides that outline the issues and options for transitions to renewables and how Indigenous people can be drivers in that process. The Native Women’s Council of Canada also produced tool kits around ‘Finding your voice’, focused on environmental advocacy. These kits train women in how to design and facilitate community meetings on environmental issues as well as conducting environmental assessments to identify and mitigate the potential environmental damage of projects coming into their communities. Movement Rights assists people to assert their rights to protect their communities, and the rights of nature in the face of potentially harmful corporate led projects. They have been working particularly with communities dealing with fracking - harmful process of injecting chemicals at a high pressure into rocks to extract gas. Movement Rights also trains people in rights-based organising. A number of organisations I met with had strong youth components to their work. This came through the whole trip, and is similar in Australia. Young people have differing experiences depending on whether they are living in a remote community, urban area, on or off reserve, connected with their band or tribe and so on. Some of the approaches being used by the Polytechnic in the Six Nations reserve and also Leech Lake Tribal College are about giving young people access to their past in order to build them up for their future. Ideas for us:

• Explore our current initiatives that build individual capacity and see where connections to broader issues requiring a collective response are possible

• Establish a network or organisation that could support training in all aspects of campaigning (education on and mapping key issues, strategy and visioning alternative options, practical communications and organising skills)

• Strengthen connections between projects embedded in communities and those working at a national level

• A round table or gathering of Indigenous peoples and communities to educate ourselves about, and develop a coherent plan to campaign, for climate justice.

2. Build nations and unity to make decisions together

The ability for communities, whether they are a federally recognised tribe, or a Nation with or without Treaty rights, to come together to make plans and decisions about community matters is critical. This makes that the political organisation of the nation really important. One concept that offers a set of ingredients that contribute to such political and community organisation is the idea of ‘nation building’. Nation building, while not termed as such until the late 1990’s, came out of an era of self-determination. Economics researcher Stephen Cornell saw an opportunity for tribal communities to re-think, re-organise and restructure communities in a way as to define their own expectations as citizens of a particular tribe or nation (Cornell and Kalt 1998:187). They labeled the process through which a Nation enhances its capacity for self-governance and determination as nation building. (Jorgensen 2015:187) The things, which ‘matter’ for nation building:

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1. Sovereignty matters – When communities make their own decisions,

particularly around economic and community development they are regularly more successful in their outcomes than those imposed or made by external decision makers. This can include decisions around resource management, provision of social services or health care and so on.

2. Institutions and culture matter – Its important that nations assert self-governance through institutions that are capable and fair. Which often means the day-to-day business and politics of managing a community need to be separate or have clear boundaries. The governing mechanisms a nation decides to use must also culturally fit with the nation’s contemporary culture.

3. Strategic thinking matters – While the pressing needs of short-term crises are regularly on top for leaders and decision makers, they must be able to shift to orientate towards addressing longer-term problems. Looking to the seventh generation means that any decisions you make you must keep in mind how it will affect the seventh generation after you and considering the wisdom of the seventh generation before you.

4. Leadership matters – “When Native nation leaders – whether elected, community or spiritual – introduce new knowledge, challenge assumptions, convince people that things can be done differently, propose change, and mobilize the community to take action, they make nation building possible.” (Jorgensen 2015:187)

Training in leadership and governance at the Banff centre is one way First Nations are strengthening their mechanisms for self-determination.

Writing new constitutions as a means to achieve self-determination is also currently a frontline for some First Nation’s communities in the U.S and Canada. Developing new constitutions is seen as a way of reasserting tribal governance, and preferable to trying to amend either the Indian Act in Canada or the Indian Reorganisation Act constitutions in the U.S. Lessons for us:

Indigenous Program Model as part of the Indigenous Leadership training at the Banff centre

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• Our programs that include training, capacity building and leadership skills could build in elements of nation building with a focus on collective decision making and structures which enable this

• Long term planning which is strategic and looks to future generations is helpful to shift community views to more collective oriented, longer term outcomes (which for some communities is how they have always done business)

• Projects which focus on individual capacity and agency would do well to also role model sound organisational processes like decision making, accountability and transparency

• Strengthen nation to nation work, in Australia some communities may have expertise or resources and could benefit from sharing with or collaborating with other nations.

3. Build organisations and networks to provide resources, skills and expertise

In terms of our political work in Australia we have a have a significant gap. Not just in organisations and networks that focus on environmental and climate justice, but Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander led political interventions. We lack a national voice in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander affairs that has buy-in from a majority of nations and peoples. The Congress of Australia’s First Peoples plays some role in this but has not had enough participation from our peoples and communities, resourcing or political influence. In order to support Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples to have access to and be able to protect country we need to develop more infrastructure to do this. Conversations, meetings and experiences in the U.S highlighted what is possible when there is a critical mass of Indigenous led organisations supporting, funding, strategising and implementing this work. Organisations like the Indigenous Environmental Network (IEN), Black Mesa Water Coalition, are some of the few who focus on building capacity from the ground up. Honor the Earth, provides financial and political resources for the survival of sustainable Native communities through music, the arts and media. Other organisations like Movement Generation, noted that the more organised people are the more able they are to assert their rights. Similarly if communities can meet their own needs or have economic muscle they are in a much more powerful position to negotiate around use and care of their lands and resources. There are number of noticings about what’s making these organisations work well. They are often small organisations in terms of paid staff, they are network based and therefore not necessarily focused on building a membership or localised base. IEN for example has built relationships with many nations by hosting annual gatherings in a different community every twelve months for the last 20 years. Some of those relationships are a part of what enabled them to play an important connector role at Standing Rock. Some of the organisations mentioned also have specific protocols for how they select and engage with partners, particularly large non-Indigenous NGOs. Ideas for us:

• Explore options for what kind of network or organisation could fill this gap in Australia: A national Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander campaigning organisation, or network focused on environmental and climate justice bringing together communities or organisations that are working separately on an issue e.g. Indigenous Climate Action in Canada

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• Develop expertise in renewables like an energy audit for nations including off grid or self-sustaining options and also possibilities for economic development through renewable energy (See Honor the Earth - Sustainable Tribal Economies: A Guide to Restoring Energy and Food Sovereignty in Native America)

• Better understand some of the models used for renewable energy and how they could provide a blueprint for small sale Indigenous run businesses

• Develop partnerships between non-Indigenous and Indigenous organisations that could benefit from agreeing on ways of working together or adopt a set of guidelines to reinforce such an agreement that keeps all parties to protocols and expectations.

4. Build the conditions to make change possible

There are many conditions, which make change possible. This report has outlined some of things which are barriers to making change: people’s individual history, circumstances and agency, the socio economic conditions under which people and communities live, the pressure of economic development balanced with stewardship for Mother Earth, the ongoing impacts of colonisation and so on. However there are some key ingredients that came through, including a combination of all of the above: building people, building nations and building organisations. Communities need to have internal decision making capacity and structures like those mentioned in nation building. Nations and tribes can also strengthen collective power by working with each other to share issues and solutions. Leadership that considers generations to come and therefore makes choices about sustainability needs to be nurtured and respected. We need to nurture leadership in all its forms and avoid situations where we bring each other down. National infrastructure, which supports collective organising and helps resource and connect people is also critical. Ideas for us:

• Strengthen existing local and national infrastructure to offer expertise and support for communities to be able to engage with the issues around climate change (and land justice) on a national and international level

• Build ways to increase solidarity among nations • Increase capacity to analyse how and where political power has been built and

where it could be, and exercise this power for structural change.

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CONCLUSION “Power is not brute force and money; power is in your spirit. Power is in your

soul. It is what your ancestors, your old people gave you. Power is in the earth; it is in your relationship to the earth.”

-- Winona LaDuke --

Embarking on a trip like this felt ambitious, not just because of the geographical distance, but the enormous scope of issues people were working to address and the deep ambition I have to build a better life for all of us through the critical contributions of women in our communities. Trying to distill the richness of people’s experiences and attempts to achieve justice has felt challenging. However in amongst all the hard work being done, stories shared and lessons learnt there are some clear messages for us. Social movements are based on the premise that people power can shift the course of history. We know that building the power of peoples and communities contributes to making change not just more possible but probable. This trip was invaluable for consolidating my thinking about how we as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people need to do more of that. People I met reminded me that we need strong leaders with integrity to drive good decisions for our communities. We need to invest in and add capacity to our women who are leading and strengthening the power of our people. When peoples’ individual agency is stronger then so to is their capacity to do work at the community level. Initiatives that connect local to national issues; implementing at a grassroots level, advocating nationally seemed to be having an impact. This was particularly obvious in relation to the fossil fuel industry and communities directly challenging certain projects. It was also clear that having a national infrastructure empowers communities to be better resourced to explore alternatives on their own terms. Experiencing the comparatively well organised and resourced networks in the U.S and Canada highlighted the gaps in resources here. We could strengthen our national campaigning capacity , particularly in relation to climate change. Seeing the level of engagement on this issue from all parts of the Indigenous community revealed the lack of engagement by our leaders on this in Australia. Nothing short of a coherent national movement of and led by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples will bring us climate justice. Finally it is about being guided by our old people but with our younger ones in sight to be organised, persistent and build the more just world that is so possible. Sharing my learnings Insights from this project are being developed further through a variety of channels:

- Gatherings and workshops with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, communities and organisations

- Face to face workshops with representatives from over 40 national environmental and social organisations in Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane

- The report will be circulated to relevant organisations and networks in Australia, the U.S and Canada

- Follow up and ongoing collaboration in the U.S and Canada.

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Appendix 1 - Organisations United States American Indian Community House - New York www.aich.org Purpose: The mission of the American Indian Community House is to improve and promote the well being of the American Indian community and to increase the visibility of American Indian cultures in an urban setting in order to cultivate awareness, understanding and respect. Program areas: - Services including an HIV referral and case management program, education and

employment services - Performance and theatre project - Food and nutrition planning, as well as a health program that includes behavioral

health, diabetes, and wellness - Women’s circle and youth council Black Mesa Water Coalition http://www.blackmesawatercoalition.org/ Purpose: BMWC was formed in 2001 by a group of young inter-tribal, inter-ethnic people dedicated to addressing issues of water depletion, natural resource exploitation, and public health within Navajo and Hopi communities. BMWC focuses on preserving and protecting Mother Earth and the integrity of Indigenous people’s cultures, with the vision of building healthy communities. BMWC aims to advance the roles of the grassroots sector providing agile leadership and structure to address and adapt to the changing and complex priorities of local communities, and influence national and international agendas. Program areas: - Leadership development - Addressing issues of water depletion, natural resource exploration and health. - Building local living, ecologically restorative economies - Building local communities’ resilience - Local projects include solar, food sovereignty and the Navajo wool market

improvement Earth Justice www.earthjustice.org Purpose: Earth Justice is a non- profit environmental law organisation. Driven by a passion for justice and a commitment to excellence. EJ wields the power of the law and the strength of partnership to take on environmental issues and bring about positive change. EJ exists because the earth needs a good lawyer. Program areas: - Defending Nevada’s solar customers and solar future - Representing Standing Rock Sioux Tribe against the Dakota access pipeline - Strengthen environmental & health protections - Stopping fracking & reducing methane pollution - Climate change: advocating for new and existing carbon regulations, building

resilience and reducing black carbon

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Honor the Earth http://www.honorearth.org/ Purpose: To create awareness and support for Native environmental issues and to develop needed financial and political resources for the survival of sustainable Native communities. Honor the Earth develops these resources by using music, the arts, the media, and Indigenous wisdom to ask people to recognise our joint dependency on the Earth and be a voice for those not heard. Program areas: - Energy Justice Initiative - Building Resilience in Indigenous Communities Re-Granting Initiative - Transforming Thinking through Education and Outreach Indigenous Environmental Network http://www.ienearth.org/ Purpose: To build the capacity of Indigenous communities and tribal governments to develop mechanisms to protect our sacred sites, land, water, air, natural resources, health of both our people and all living things, and to build economically sustainable communities. IEN accomplishes this by maintaining an informational clearinghouse, organising campaigns, direct actions and public awareness, building the capacity of community and tribes to address Environmental Justice issues. Program areas: - Pipelines - Rights of Mother Earth - Food Sovereignty - Indigenous Women’s Leadership - Native Energy (tar sands, coal, nuclear, fracking, oil) - Climate Justice Indigenous Peoples Power Project http://ruckus.org/what -we-do/idigenous-peoples-power-project-ip3/ Purpose: The Indigenous People’s Power Project is a non-violent direct action training and support network of Indigenous trainers. IP3 recognizes the inherent connection between the survival of indigenous people to the health and well being of the land, therefore it is critical that Native people be ready willing and able to protect it. The training is designed to strengthen the capacity of Indigenous communities to use non-violent direct action in doing so. Program areas: - Providing tools, training and support to key organizations and campaigns - Regional camps, technical assistance and campaign support and training - Leadership development - Non-violent direct action theory and practice - Action support & network building Lakota Solar Enterprises – Pine Ridge http://www.lakotasolarenterprises.com/ Purpose: Lakota Solar Enterprises is 100% native-owned and operated and is located on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota, home to the Oglala Sioux Tribe. We

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believe that reducing our dependence on fossil fuels is important, and on tribal lands, it is imperative. We also believe renewable energy is a new way to honor the old ways. Program areas: - Builds solar air furnaces and provides green job training to Native American

communities. - Builds solar water pumps and hot water services. - Building with compressed earth block and straw bales. Home Demo sites, wind

turbines, green houses, gardens, windbreaks and shade trees. - Green business development in Indian country. Leech Lake Reservation and Leech Lake Tribal College www.llojibwe.org/ The Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe is committed to the responsible operation of government, preservation of our heritage, promotion of our sovereignty, and the protection of natural resources for our elders and future generations, while enhancing the health, economic well-being, education, and our inherent right to live as Ojibwe People. Purpose: The Leech Lake Tribal College was established out of necessity to improve the quality of life for the people living in the Leech Lake Reservation. The College is a regionally accredited two-year public non-profit higher education institution awarding associate degrees, diplomas, and certificates. Project areas: - Building sustainability pathways - Scholarships to help American Indian students get to school and succeed - Cultural and language preservation - Early childhood development programs - College readiness programs, internships, and career readiness - Leadership development Movement Rights http://movementrights.org/ourwork.html Purpose: Shifting culture and law to truly protect people is the civil rights struggle of our time and its already happening in communities across the nation. Changing the rule requires a system change from the grassroots. It all begins with neighbours coming together to change their community. Movement Rights provides organising and legal support for communities to assert their right to local self-governance with our partners; leadership and international movement building for the rights of nature; and connects Indigenous leadership, wisdom and analysis toward living in balance with natural systems. Program areas: - Community rights, Rights of Nature - Indigenous connection program - Providing groups with training materials, education, media and organising

training and practical support Movement Generation http://movementgeneration.org/resources/curriculum-tools/

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Purpose: Inspires and engages in transformative action towards the liberation and restoration of land, labor, and culture. We are rooted in vibrant social movements led by low-income communities and communities of color committed to a Just Transition away from profit and pollution and towards healthy, resilient and life-affirming local economies. Program areas: - Training and analysis: justice and ecology retreats, strategy sessions, earth skills - Movement Building - Workshops: building economy for planet and people - Healing clinic collective - Climate workers - Resilience based organising - Climate justice/ our power campaign Navajo Nation Government - Women’s Commission http://www.nnhrc.navajo-nsn.gov/ Purpose: The Navajo women’s commission is part of the Navajo Nation Human Rights Commission. The Commission aims to protect and promote the human rights of Navajo Nation citizens by advocating human equality at the local, state, national and international levels based on the Diné principles of being resilient, content, disciplined and maintaining peaceful relationships with all creation. Program areas: - Women’s gender violence, sexual assault and domestic violence. - Know your rights campaign Ruckus http://ruckus.org/ Purpose: The Ruckus Society provides environmental, human rights, and social justice organizers with the tools, training, and support needed to achieve their goals through the strategic use of creative, nonviolent direct action. The Ruckus Society sees itself as a toolbox of experience, training, and skills. Program areas: - The Indigenous Peoples’ Power Project (IP3) – The Ruckus Society’s ongoing

commitment to supporting the fight of Native communities for Environmental Justice, Human Rights, and Self Determination

- The Combahee Alliance includes Transgender, Gender Variant & Intersex Justice Project, Black Lives Matter

- The Climate Justice Alliance Sierra Club www.sierraclub.org Purpose: - To explore, enjoy, and protect the wild places of the earth; - To practice and promote the responsible use of the earth's ecosystems and

resources; - To educate and enlist humanity to protect and restore the quality of the natural

and human environment; and to use all lawful means to carry out these objectives;

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- And to attract and empower a base of supporters strong enough to challenge the status quo and accomplish our ambitious goals.

Program areas: - Transition to 100% clean energy - Train local activists as water sentinels, providing accurate information and water

monitoring techniques - Support Native American allies to protect water and ancestral lands from the

Dakota access pipeline - Engage the public, the civil society, business community and other parties who

share our values - Protect our air, water, land and communities from pollution Wildfire http://www.wildfireproject.org/educational-principles/ Purpose: Wildfire is a movement building project that connects groups to one another in order to lay groundwork for a network that can respond to crises and turn them into opportunities to win the world we want. Wildfire is contributing to the building of a powerful movement for social, political, economic and ecological justice. Program areas: - We prioritise new formations of front-line organizers confronting crisis - We have radical, holistic and visionary politics - We carry out long-term programming and build long-term relationships

combining political education and skills training 350.org http://350.org Purpose: 350 are building a global grassroots climate movement that can hold our leaders accountable to the realities of science and the principles of justice. The number 350 means climate safety: we must reduce the CO2 in the atmosphere from >400 parts per million to below 350. Our online campaigns, grassroots organising, and mass public actions bring together a global network active in over 188 countries Program areas: - Fossil Fuel Divestment - Renewables - Climate Justice projects - Build a new, more equitable low-carbon economy - Pipelines including Dakota access pipeline campaign CANADA Banff Centre – Peter Lougheed Leadership Institute https://www.banffcentre.ca/programs/indigenous-women-leadership/201612 Purpose: Our leadership programs help Indigenous, not-for-profit, public and private sector leaders gain greater self-awareness, build personal capacity, and increase their ability to engage others. Program areas: - Governance for Indigenous boards - Indigenous women’s leadership - Indigenous negotiation skills training

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- Strategic planning - Indigenous leadership and management development Champagne and Aishihik First Nations http://cafn.ca/about/ Purpose: CAFN is a self-governing First Nation located in the Yukon Territory and northwest British Columbia, Canada. The Champagne and Aishihik First Nations people and our government, promote a healthy, unified and self-reliant people, while conserving and enhancing our environment and culture. Program areas: - Business development - Community wellness including an Aboriginal women’s circle - Language revitalisation - Land, culture and resources Greenpeace http://www.greenpeace.org/canada/en/home/ Purpose: Greenpeace is the leading independent campaigning organisation that uses peaceful protest and creative communication to expose global environmental problems and promote solutions for a green peaceful future. Program areas: - Protecting the forests, oceans and the Arctic - Fighting global warming - Defending Democracy - Promoting sustainable agriculture - Keeping fossil fuels in the ground, stopping the Dakota access pipeline Indigenous Climate Action http://www.indigenousclimateaction.com Purpose: Ensure that Indigenous communities are informed about the important conversations/negotiations that are being made to address climate change and the potential impacts they have on our rights and future. An Indigenous Climate Change Action Plan will ensure our communities, our rights, our culture and our knowledge systems are fully recognised, protected and implemented into any and all climate change policies in Canada. Program areas: - Provide a platform to disseminate information and education tools for

communities on climate issues, policies and how they relate to the rights of Indigenous Peoples

- Incorporate Indigenous knowledge into climate change policies which can lead to the development of effective strategies that are cost-effective, participatory and sustainable

- Promotion, protection and perpetuation of our cultural heritage and our identity that is based upon the land and upon the health of Mother Earth

Institute for the Advancement of Aboriginal women http://iaaw.ca/

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Purpose: IAAW supports and collaborates with other organisations to assist women in moving from situations involving violence to creating safe and healthy environments. Program areas: - Entrepreneurism - Leadership development and human rights training - Financial independence training - Supports for women leaving correctional institutions - Provincial strategy to increase safety for Aboriginal women - On-line business training - Employment registry - Community connections/referrals Minerva Foundation – Aboriginal Women’s Leadership Program https://theminervafoundation.com/combining-our-strength/community-leadership/ Purpose: The Minerva Foundation is working towards a society where we lead from our values; we lift each other; we lead together. From leadership programs to education awards, and culturally relevant programming developed in partnership with Aboriginal women, Minerva elevates the visibility, influence and contribution of women to change the face of leadership in British Columbia. Program areas: - Deliver unique programs that develop women’s leadership capacities - Provide education awards to women facing barriers - Provide culturally-relevant programs in partnership with Aboriginal women in

their communities throughout British Columbia - Develop benchmarks and best practice to support companies to reach gender

parity Native Women’s Association of Canada https://nwac.ca/ Purpose: Native Women’s Association of Canada works to advance the well being of Aboriginal women and girls, as well as their families and communities through activism, policy analysis and advocacy. Aboriginal women continue to experience discrimination on multiple grounds and in various complex forms and from various sources, including from individuals, businesses, and governments. Program areas: - Education, employment - Environment, health, human rights and international affairs - Violence with a focus on missing and murdered Aboriginal women and girls Reconciliation Canada http://reconciliationcanada.ca/ Purpose: Reconciliation Canada is leading the way in engaging Canadians in dialogue and transformative experiences that revitalise the relationships among Indigenous peoples and all Canadians. Our model for reconciliation engages people in open and honest conversation to understand our diverse histories and experiences. We actively engage multi-faith and multi-cultural communities to explore the meaning of reconciliation. Together, we are charting a New Way Forward.

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Program areas: - Reconciliation dialogue sessions and Action Plans - Economic Reconciliation Action Plans - Reconciliation based leadership training and core competencies assessments - Public awareness and education Six Nations Council http://www.sixnations.ca/CommunityProfile.htm Purpose: The Six Nations of the Grand Rover is made up of the Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga Seneca, Onondaga and Tuscarora peoples. Six Nations is the largest First Nations reserve in Canada with a total of 25,660 members. Some 12,271 are reported living on this reserve. It is the only reserve in North America that has all six Iroquois nations living together. Six Nations Polytechnic & Indigenous Knowledge Centre (Deyohahá:ge) http://www.snpolytechnic.com/ Purpose: Six Nations Polytechnic is a centre of excellence for Indigenous community-based learning. Learners gain knowledge and skills needed to be self-sufficient, educated, and employable while learning about Haudenosaunee culture, languages and traditions. through an inclusive learning environment. The Indigenous Knowledge Centre - Deyohahá:ge (meaning two roads): provides a balanced platform for Indigenous research and knowledge sharing. The Centre provides for more Indigenous input into research and promotes respect for Indigenous research protocols. At the same time, local communities benefit from more access into research findings. Deyohahá:ge: is dedicated to sharing what students and scholars have learned and in building upon what has already been done to help Indigenous communities recover, preserve and protect the knowledge of their ancestors. Tsleil-Waututh Nation http://www.twnation.ca/about%20TWN/Introduction.aspx Purpose: The Tsleil-Waututh Nation means “The People of the Inlet”. Our vision seeks to find a balance between values over time. It is holistic in nature. Our aim now is to once again put the Tsleil-Waututh face on our traditional territory, to be active participants in all social, economic, cultural, and political activities that take place on our lands by building strong relationships based on trust and mutual respect. Program areas: The health and wellness of our community—social, emotional, cultural, spiritual and physical—is of the utmost importance. As such we offer a wide variety of services, programs, and facilities to community members of all ages, from newborns to elders. All of the Tsleil-Waututh Nation’s programs and services are oriented towards our culture and the contemporary expression of our traditions

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Appendix 2 - Glossary Aboriginal Peoples: The collective noun used in the Constitution Act 1982 and includes the Indian (or First Nations), Inuit and Metis Peoples. (ICT) Band: The Indian Act defines “Band”, in part, as a body of Indians for whose use and benefit in common, lands have been set apart. Each Band has its own governing Band Council, usually consisting of a Chief and several councillors. The members of the Band usually share common values, traditions and practices rooted in their language and ancestral heritage. Today, many Bands prefer to be known as First Nations. (ICT) Band Council or First Nation Council: The Band’s governing body. Community members choose the Chief and councillors by election under section 74 of the Indian Act, or through traditional custom. The Band Council’s powers vary with each band. Band Chief: A person elected by Band members to govern for a specified term. Under the specifications of the Indian Act, First Nations must have an election every two years. Hereditary Chief: A Hereditary Chief is a leader who has power passed down from one generation to the next along bloodlines or other cultural protocols, similar to European royalty. Elder: Elders are recognized because they have earned the respect of their community through wisdom, harmony and balance of their actions in their teachings. Elders try to instil respect in their community members for the natural world and that the earth is their mother. First Nation(s): A term used to identify Indigenous peoples of Canada who are neither Métis nor Inuit. This term came into common usage in the 1970s to replace the term “Indian” and “Indian band” which many find offensive. First Nations people includes both status and non-status Indians so there’s a need to careful with its usage, especially if in reference to programs that are specifically for status Indians. Indigenous Peoples: A collective noun for First Nations, Inuit, Métis and growing in popularity in Canada. Inuit: Inuit Indigenous people in northern Canada, living mainly in Nunavut, Northwest Territories, northern Quebec and Labrador. Ontario has a very small Inuit population. Inuit are not covered by the Indian Act. Indian Act: The Indian Act is federal legislation that regulates Indians and reserves and sets out certain federal government powers and responsibilities toward First Nations and their reserved lands. The first Indian Act was passed in 1876, although there were a number of pre-Confederation and post-Confederation enactments with respect to Indians and reserves prior to 1876. Since then, it has undergone numerous amendments, revisions and re-enactments. Indian: There are categories of “Indian”: Status Indians - are those who are registered under the Indian Act *Non-status Indians - are those who generally speaking have two distinct qualities: (1) they lack status under the Indian Act; and (2) they have Indian heritage; in other words, they have lost their status or whose ancestors were

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never registered or who lost their status under former or current provisions of the Indian Act Treaty Indians - are those who are members of a community whose ancestors signed a treaty with the Crown and as a result are entitled to treaty benefits * Non-status Indians and Métis historically were not covered by the Indian Act but as of the Supreme Court of Canada decision on April 14, 2016, they are now considered Indians; how this will affect their rights has not been determined at this time. Métis Peoples: Métis Peoples are people of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry. The Métis National Council adopted the following definition of “Métis” in 2002: “Métis” means a person who self-identifies as Métis, is distinct from other Aboriginal peoples, is of historic Métis Nation Ancestry and who is accepted by the Métis Nation.” *Métis are now covered by the Indian Act. Native: A becoming gradually out-dated collective term referring to Indians (Status, Nonstatus, Treaty), Métis, and Inuit but has largely been replaced by Indigenous. Although many First Nations individuals refer to themselves as “Native” Reserve: Defined by the Indian Act as “… tract of land, the legal title to which is vested in Her Majesty, that has been set apart by Her Majesty for the use and benefit of a band.” A result of the definition of reserve land in the Indian Act is that reserve land cannot be privately owned by the Band or Band members. Self-determination: Indigenous Peoples have the right to self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development (Article 3 - U.N. Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People). Self-reliance: A key objective of Aboriginal Peoples. They want the ability to participate in the political in the political, and more importantly, the economic mainstream without having to rely on federal funding to meet their community needs. In addition to business opportunities, they also want to get into the realm of taxes, royalties and revenue sharing on land developments which are viewed as key to the self-reliance puzzle. Treaty: An agreement between government and a First Nation that defines the rights of Aboriginal Peoples with respect to lands and resources over a specified area, and may also define the self-government authority of a First Nation. Modern treaties, once ratified, become part of the law of the land. Treaty Rights: Rights specified in a treaty. Rights to hunt and fish in traditional territory and to use and occupy reserves are typical treaty rights. This concept can have different meanings depending upon the context and perspective of the user. Treaty rights are constitutionally recognized and affirmed; the terms of treaties take precedence over the other laws and policies in Canada. Tribal Council: Not defined under the Indian Act, a Tribal Council usually represents a group of bands to facilitate the administration and delivery of local services to their members. Definitions from Indigenous Corporate Training Canada http://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/374848/docs/Indigenous_Peoples_Guide_to_Terminology_v2.pdf?t=1477230637090

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References Creative Spirits. https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/people/aboriginal-identity-who-is-aboriginal. Accessed 31/10/16 Cornell and Kalt (1998) Sovereignty and Nation-Building: The Development Challenge in Indian Country Today. American Indian Culture and Research Journal: 1998, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 187-214. Gambrell, K.M (2016) Lakota women leaders: Getting things done quietly. Leadership Vol. 12(3) 293–307 Jorgensen, M (2015) Four Contemporary Tensions in Indigenous Nation Building: Challenges for leadership in the United States. pp.186-214 Alberta: The Banff Centre Press Kennedy-Howard. N (2016) The Backbone of the Camp: Meet the Women of Standing Rock Camp. Sierra club. Accessed 1/11/16 http://www.sierraclub.org/planet/2016/10/backbone-camp-meet-women-standing-rock-camp#.WBbpujuutfw.facebook La Duke, W. (ed) (2008) Launching a Green Economy for Brown People. Minnesota Tribal Energy and food Sovereignty handbook. Minneapolis: A Publication of Honor The Earth La Duke, W. (ed) (2008) Sustainable Tribal Economies. Handbook. Minneapolis: A Publication of Honor The Earth Lajimodiere, D. K. (2011) Ogimah Ikwe: Native Women and Their Path to Leadership. Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 57-82 Published by: University of Minnesota Press Minerva Foundation. https://theminervafoundation.com/combining-our-strength/community-leadership/ Accessed 29/10/16 Minerva Foundation. https://theminervafoundation.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/The-Face-of-Leadership-BC-Scorecard-2016.pdf Accessed 29/10/16 NNHRC. http://www.nnhrc.navajo-nsn.gov/WomenGenderViolence.html Accessed 29/10/16 NCAI. An introduction to Indian Nations in the United States. Accessed 28/10/16 http://www.ncai.org/about-tribes/indians_101.pdf NWAC. (2009) Finding Your Voice: Environmental Toolkit for Aboriginal Women Native Women’s Association of Canada. Accessed 31/10/16 https://www.nwac.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Finding-Your-Voice-NWAC-Mandate.pdf Voyageur, C. (2015) Restorying Indigenous Leadership. Indigenous Women in Business and Politics in Canada. Alberta: The Banff Centre Press

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Voyageur, C., Brealey, L., Calliou, B. (eds) (2015) Restorying Indigenous Leadership. Wise Practices in Community Development. Alberta: The Banff Centre Press Voyageur, C (2016) Examining Leadership Styles of Chiefs. pp. 14-15. Buffalo Mountain Drum. Alberta: The Banff Centre Press

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