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األسس النظریة للتصمیم الحضري المطروحة من قبل جین جاكوبز في كتابھا "موت و حیاة المدن األمریكیة الكبرى"

حسنساشا. مجامعة ھیریوت واط

بریطانیا–أدنبرة 2006-2007

Jane Jacobs’ theoretical principles of urban design in the book“The Death and Life of Great American Cities”

Sacha Hasan MSc. BAHeriot-Watt University

Edinburgh – UK2006-2007

أود أن أوضح للسادة القراء أن ھذه الدراسة ھي لألطالع و االستفادة من تجربة الغیر و واجبنا نحن فلیس الھدف التقلید . كمختصین أن نأخذ منھا ما یتناسب مع واقعنا التخطیطي و تركیبة مجتمعنا العربي

األعمى و لكن تكوین قاعدة معرفیة مرنة تساعدنا على فھم معطیات مشاریعنا و محیطھا لنصل لنتائج ذات .واقعیة و دیمومة في مدننا العربیة

Contents:

1. Introduction

2. Who is Jane Jacobs?2.1. Life2.2. Quotable2.3. Works

3. The book “The Death and Life of Great American Cities”3.1. Criticism3.2. Main massage3.3. Book’s main contents

3.3.1. The use of Sidewalks3.3.1.1. Safety3.3.1.2. Contact3.3.1.3. Assimilating Children

3.3.2. The use of Parks3.3.3. The use of Neighbourhoods3.3.4. Diversity

3.3.4.1. Meaning of Diversity3.3.4.2. Diversity Generators

4. Conclusion

5. References

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1. Introduction:

Great American cities experienced a big urban renewal movement in 1950swhich introduced new theories that formed the base of major urban changes.This was a motivation for many planners, interested philosophers, authors andeven public to take different positions as a response to the outcomes of thisnew urban movement.This report attempts to shed light on the landmark book The Death and Life ofGreat American Cities by Jane Jacobs. In addition it examines Jacobs’ urbanviews that form a critique to the 1950s urban policies. Moreover, it illustratesthe economic and social dimensions of her principles which were set out as aresult of her close observation upon the daily life in big cities in America.

2. Who is Jane Jacobs?

2.1. Life:

Jane Jacobs (Jane Butzner) (1916-2006) was born in the coal miningcity of Scarnanton, Pennsylvania. Twoyears after her graduation from HighSchool, in the middle of theDepression, she moved to live in NewYork.

She then became a feature writer forthe Office of War Information. Whileworking there she met an architectnamed Robert Hyde Jacobs, whobecame her future husband in 1944.

She studied at Columbia University inthe School of General Studies for two years. Figure 2.1

Opposing expressways and supporting neighbourhoods were commonthemes in her life. In 1962, she was chairman of the Joint Committee toStop the Lower Manhatten Expressway, and was arrested during ademonstration on April 10, 1968.

In 1968, she moved to Toronto in opposition to Vietnam War, and became aCanadian citizen in 1974. She lived in Toronto till her death.

She was made an officer of the Order of Canada in 1996 for her seminalwritings and thought-provoking commentaries on urban development.

In 1997, the City of Toronto sponsored a conference titled "Jane Jacobs:Ideas That Matter", which led to a book by the same name. At the end ofthe conference, the Jane Jacobs Prize was created.

The Community and Urban Sociology section of the American SociologicalAssociation awarded her its Outstanding Lifetime Contribution Award in2002.

She died in Toronto on 25 April 2006, at the age of 89.

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2.2. Quotable:

"Old ideas can sometimes use new buildings. New ideas must use oldbuildings."

"Being human is itself difficult, and therefore all kinds of settlements(except dream cities) have problems. Big cities have difficulties inabundance, because they have people in abundance. But vital cities are nothelpless to combat even the most difficult problems."

"Cities have the capability of providing something for everybody, onlybecause, and only when, they are created by everybody."

"Vital cities have marvelous innate abilities for understanding,communicating, contriving, and inventing what is required to combat theirdifficulties... Lively, diverse, intense cities contain the seeds of their ownregeneration, with energy enough to carry over for problems and needsoutside themselves."

"In our American cities, we need all kinds of diversity." "As in the pseudoscience of bloodletting, just so in the pseudoscience of city

rebuilding and planning, years of learning and a plethora of subtle andcomplicated dogma have arisen on a foundation of nonsense."

"Intricate minglings of different uses in cities are not a form of chaos. Onthe contrary, they represent a complex and highly developed form oforder."

2.3. Works:

The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) The Economy of Cities (1969) The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Separation

(1980) Cities and the Wealth of Nations (1984) Systems of Survival: A Dialogue on the Moral Foundations of Commerce

and Politics (1992) The Nature of Economies (2000) Dark Age Ahead (2004)

3. The book “The Death and Life of Great American Cities”:

3.1. Criticism:

This Book is the most influential American book on urbanplanning. Widely read by both planning professionals andthe general public to an extent to be called “The bible ofplanners”.

Jane Jacobs challenged in her book “The Death and Life ofGreat American Cities” (1961) the dominantestablishment of modernist professional planning andasserted the wisdom of empirical observation andcommunity intuition. Figure 3.1

The book is a strong critique of the urban renewal policies of the 1950s which,Jacobs claimed, destroyed communities and created isolated, unnatural urbanspaces. In addition, Jacobs introduced in her book new principles and practices

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of city planning and rebuilding which, she argued, could promote social andeconomic vitality.3.2. Main massage:

Jane Jacobs defined the book main massage in the sentence “The importantthing is how cities work not how they look like”. The aim of Jacobs is tounderstand the intricate social and economic order under the seeming disorderof the cities. Besides, she asserted the importance of involving the communityin the planning process as she argued that setting out urban principles andpolicies into practice, without the awareness of the city social and economicalprocesses in real life, would bring nothing but decay and isolation.

Tibbalds (1992) shared Jacobs her attack on Urban Modernism as he arguedthat it was the cause of the public environment decay. He believed that wasbecause of the effects of Modernism which he stated in his book “Making PeopleFriendly Towns” as follows:

Bland dull inaccessible, threatening and dull places Simplistic hierarchies Low densities Zoned single uses International style – every place the same Large scale engineering and technology – car A severance with the past history and traditions Scale is that of the car……car is king

On the other hand, Newman (1972) was in Jacobs’ party of questioning thepurpose of modern urban development. As he based his study, which hepresented in his book “Defensible Space”, on questioning the degree of NewYork Housing Authority Projects fulfilment of community needs.

3.3. The book’s main contents:

3.3.1. The use of Sidewalks:Sidewalks are the main public spaces in the city and its most vital organs. Theirvitality is determined by the degree of their activity and their surrounding uses.Jacobs argued that a successful sidewalk should provide safety, contactopportunities and ability to assimilate children.

3.3.1.1. Safety:Safety is a fundamental task of streets and sidewalks as the city is full ofstrangers and the sidewalk task is to make a man feel safe among all thestrangers around him.

Sidewalk safety should be kept by its users not by police, but by theunconscious intricate network of voluntary controls and standards amongpeople themselves and enforced by the people themselves. This is supportedby Oscar Newman’s argument (1972) were he stated that in the face ofgrowing urbanisation people need to protect each other collectively he wantedpeople to police their own environment, as he says:“When people begin to protect themselves as individuals and not as acommunity, the battle against crime is effectively lost.”

Jacobs argued that sidewalk safety has nothing to do with the type of peopleusing it. As poor districts usually have a high degree of safety because theyhave a dense concentration of people. Conversely, in rich districts, where a

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small number of people occupy a large area, safety is decreased because ofemptiness, which is enough to cause unsafety no matter how beautiful, stylishand bright these streets. In short, they are physically unable to function safely(poorly planned).

Figure 3.3

North End of New York CityPoor district

+High safety degree

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.5

Park Avenue - New YorkCity

Rich district+

Low safety degree

Figure 3.4

This leads to the concept of More Dense Urban Structure = More Safety.Population density should be reasonably determined in any development. Asextremely dense population is the main reason for crime. This was the heart ofNewman’s argument (1972) when he examined New York City HousingAuthority Projects where a series of high density housing schemes that becamenotorious for crime and deprivation.

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Jacobs believed More people

More activity

More Safety

Baltimore(High density, well integration of uses =

More safety)Figure 3.6

The problem of unsafety can’t be solved by spreading people out more thinly,trading the characteristics of cities for those of suburbs. Thinning out a citydoes not insure safety from crime.

Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8Suburb layout within the city

What will happen if we continued building unsafe cities???There will be three modes of living within it:

Letting danger hold sway and let those unfortunate enough to be stuckwith it take the consequences.

Staying in car (protecting metal shell). Cultivating the institution of Turf (A city within the city).

Figure 3.9 Figure 3.10 Figure 3.11Expected danger Using the car as a protecting shell Fenced district

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Safe Streets Qualities:Jacobs stated three elements which, she believed, are necessary to makestreets safe. These are:

There must be a clear demarcation between what a public space is andwhat a private space is.

There should be eyes upon the street. Buildings should be oriented tothe street.

There should be users on the sidewalk continuously.

Oscar Newman (1972) addressed another three concepts which have the sameessence of Jacobs’ safety concepts. He argued that these are the guarantee fora city to be defensible. These are:

Territoriality: “The capacity of the physical environment to createperceived zones of territorial influences.”

Natural Surveillance: “The ability to observe one’s residentialenvironment and to feel continually that one is under observation byother residents”

Image and Milieu: “The capacity of design to influence the perception ofa project’s uniqueness, isolation, and stigma.”

Figure 3.12 Figure 3.13Sidewalks continuously used Sidewalks well observed

3.3.1.2. Contact:Jacobs argued that sidewalks are public; they bring together people who do notknow each other in an intimate, private social fashion and in most cases do notcare to know each other in that fashion. People contact Each other on thesidewalk and they gradually build their trust in the street. In other words, welldesigned sidewalks promote public realm which Tibbalds claimed for (1992)when he said that any urban project should “never be granted unless theproposed development enhances or contributes to the public realm, providesfacilities and amenities for pedestrians at street level”

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Figure 3.14 Figure 3.15Sidewalks as places for contact

Points to address concerning sidewalks as places for contact:

Privacy is a social matter and has nothing to do with Architecture. A good city street neighbourhood achieves a marvel of balance between

its people’s determination to have essential privacy and theirsimultaneous wishes of differing degrees of contact, enjoyment or helpfrom the people around.

The line between city public world the world of privacy should be clear. The concept of “togetherness” which is followed is suburbs, can’t be

followed in cities as it drives people apart. This concept was referred toby Cullen (1971) in his argument about creating a sense of place intown planning. This supports Jacobs claim that this concept is, unlikecities, positive in towns.

Newman (1972) shared Jacobs her belief in good planning ability to create asuccessful community as he illustrated that the design of many of the localauthority housing in New York City placed physical barriers which preventedpeople from forming a meaningful community.

How a sidewalk could be made a place for contact??? Give more space for pedestrians. This was asserted by Gordon Cullen

(1971) as he argued that more room should be given on streets withtrees, bollards and tables to encourage occupation and provide comfortand shelter.

Provide several facilities. Orient buildings towards the streets to increase the number of people

using it. Consider age in planning sidewalks.

Figure 3.16 Figure 3.17 Figure 3.18The public realm on sidewalks

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3.3.1.3. Assimilating Children:In the name of Child Care, public parks or projectplaygrounds were established to move children off thestreets.

Children have been moved from under the eyes of ahigh ratio of adults into a hidden place where the ratioof adults is low or even nil.

Numbers of crime, sexual abusing, mugging,kidnapping and violent attacks towards children haveincreased. Figure 3.19

Figure 3.20 Figure 3.21Unsupervised children playgrounds = Unsafe places for children

What do children need? Children need safe, healthy and exciting places to play and learn. Adults have responsibility towards children even if they don’t know

them. This responsibility can’t be taught, but earned from the built

environment. Children need to interact with adults to learn from them in safe well

observed places.

Figure 3.22 Figure 3.23Children need adult supervision

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3.3.2. The use of Parks:Jacobs described parks as unstable places. They tend to run to extremes ofpopularity or unpopularity. Their behaviour is far from simple. They add greatattraction to neighbourhoods if they are used properly. They can bring socialand economic benefits to the neighbourhood if they were carefully planned.They can provide a perfect space for social contact if they are well integratedwith their surrounding.

Figure 3.24 Figure 3.25Well observed parks add attractions to city’s districts

What is the possible inconvenience parks can cause if they are poorlyplaned???

Parks can be places for gangs’ actions. Empty parks are perfect places for all kinds of crime. Extra cost for building and maintaining without returning benefits.

What to consider whenplanning a park?For Whom? + For What?

LocationSurroundings

SeasonsFunctionsSafety

Figure 3.26

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3.3.3. The uses of City Neighbourhoods:Neighbourhood is a concept driven from the suburbs and its meaning in citieshas been questioned as people in cities are more mobile.Neighbourhoods in cities do need to supply some means for civilized self-government.Newman (1972) described the ideal neighbourhood planning as “creating adistinctive and successful place hinges on the use of materials and thetreatment of built and open space to encourage people to use and be proud oftheir environment”. It is “designing a new settlement that both integrates andbrings new opportunities to the area will allow the cycle of opportunity, securityand low crime to come into effect”.

Jacobs believed that in cities, only three neighbourhoods are useful as organsof self-government:

The city as a whole. Street neighbourhoods. Districts of large population (100,000 or more).

Figure 3.27 Figure 3.28 Figure 3.29Successful neighbourhoods = Successful communities

A successful neighbourhood is the one which is well planned in a way thatavoids all the public realm decline causes which were listed by Tibbalds (1992)as follows:

Private ownership of the public realm. Car ownership and crime. Social Exclusion. No after-care. Dominated by ‘for me’ culture. Failure of Modernism.

3.3.4. Diversity:What do we mean by diversity?

Providing differentCommercial uses – Scenes – Cultural Opportunities – Population Opportunities

Jacobs emphasized on the importance of diversity for cities, socially as well aseconomically. She believed that the same physical and economic conditionsthat generate diverse commerce are intimately related to the production, or thepresence, of other kinds of city variety.

In addition, Newman (1972) asserted the importance of diversity in terms ofcreating a good image for the new development by making a place that has avariety of housing types that are of a high design standard, giving opportunities

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for natural surveillance and creating a bright and positive atmosphere for thosewho live in and around the area.

Figure 3.30 Figure 3.31Boston Downtown Pittsburgh

Examples of diversity (mix uses, different sense)

Gordon Cullen (1971) asserted the importance of diversity and stated that itcan be generated by providing integrity and honesty in the urban environment;

• surfaces• boundaries• street furniture• buildings• adverts• shelters

He believed that it considers;Physical Factors Chain of spaces (fixed)Human Factors Chain of activities (changeable)

A similar approach was made by Sitte (1889) to promote visual diversity byusing artistic principles, concave street plan and irregular blocks instead ofrelying on strict grid iron principles and formality.

Figure 3.32 Figure 3.33Strict grid iron principles Concave street plan

Tibblads (1992) addressed several principles which, he believed, should beavailable in the built environment in order to achieve diversity. These are:

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A. Most uses can so-exist side by side or one above anotherB. Shops and businesses open different hoursC. Low rents not to squeeze out small speciality services or traderD. Residential uses vital in all areas.

Jacobs had a similar approachin her book where sheaddressed the followingdiversity generators:

A. Districts must serve morethan one primary function.

B. Blocks must be short toincrease the opportunitiesto turn corners.

C. Districts must minglebuildings of differentconditions.

D. Districts must include asufficiently denseconcentration of people.

Figure 3.34Diversity is generated by planning a successful

environment

A. Districts must serve more than one primary function:People must use the same street at different times.Different people must use the same facilities at a time.

Figure 3.35 Figure 3.36

Functions must be EFFECTIVE this means that the mixture of people on astreet at one time of a day must bear some reasonable proportionaterelationship to people there at other times of the day. This was explained byTibbalds (1992) in the following points:

Cities, Towns, Villages – provide for culture, entertainment,businesses, leisure, recreation, civic life and the exchange ofcommunity views, opinions and ideas.

The greater the diversity of a place the more liveable it is. The better used and varied they are, the more they are likely to

enhance the quality of people and friendliness at all times of the day.

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B. Blocks must be short:This is to increase the opportunities to turn corners. This leads to increase theopportunities for people to meet. In addition, this will help using all the streetsof the district.

Figure 3.37 Figure 3.38 Figure 3.39

C. Districts must mingle buildings of different conditions:

Figure 3.40 Figure 3.41 Figure 3.42Different ages, colors and styles

Cullen (1971) discussed this concept of Jacobs in his argument about thecontent of a place. He believed that a place should have a variety of:

• style• scale (human)• intimacy• intricacy & detail• texture• colour• landscaping• multiple use

D. Districts must include a sufficiently dense concentration of people:There is a connection between

People & DiversityPeople & Specialties they support

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Figure 3.43 Figure 3.44 Figure 3.45

4. Conclusion:

If we understand the principles behind the behaviour of cities, we can build onpotential assets and strengths, instead of acting at cross-purposes of them.This can be achieved by involving the community in the planning process.

We need to “change the culture of planning, so that it becomes aboutengagement and openness, rather than confrontation. In doing so, we willrestore the fundamental balance that is essential in planning – between therights of people to develop their property and the wider interests of thecommunity.” Chisholm (2006)

5. References:

Books:

Cullen, Gordan. (1971), The Concise Townscape, Architectural Press.

Jacobs, Jane. (1961), The Death and Life of Great American Cities,Random House, New York.

Newman, Oscar. (1972), Defensible Space, Architectural Press.

Sitte, Camillo. (1889), City Planning according to Artistic Principles, Translatedin (1965) by Collins, George R. and Christine. Phaidon.

Tibbalds, Francis. (1992), Making People Friendly Towns: Improving thePublic Environment in Towns and Cities, Longman.

Interviews and Conferences:

Chisholm, Malcolm, (16 Jan 2006), MSP, Minister for communities, speech tothe conference “The New Planning Bill for Scotland”.

Kunstler, Jim. (6 Sep 2000), Jane Jacobs Interview for MetropolisMagazine (Mar 2001), Toronto, Canada.

Websites:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Jacobshttp://www.pps.org/info/placemakingtools/placemakers/jjacobshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Death_and_Life_of_Great_American_Cities