Identifying the barriers to the deployment of solar cookers in the energy-poor households

of sub-Saharan Africa

Bsc(Hons) Renewable Energy DissertationAuthored by Sarah Cochetel

May 2012 Supervised by Dr. Peter M. Connor

Layout of the Presentation

1. Why Sub-Saharan Africa

2. Traditional Cooking Methods

3. Solar Cooking Technologies

4. Barriers to their Dissemination

5. Conclusions & Recommendations

Sub-Saharan Africa

As defined by dictionnaries: “The region of Africa to the South of the Sahara Desert”

49 recognised nations(incl. Sudan and South Sudan)

850 million inhabitants

Why Sub-Saharan Africa?

70% have no access to

electricity

657 million depend entirely

on biomass and coal as

primary cooking fuels

Corresponds to 58% of total

energy use in the regionSource: The World Bank 2011

Traditional Cooking Methods

• Three-Stone Fire

• Environmental Impacts

• Health Impacts

• Socio-economic Impacts

Three-Stone Fire

Key Points:

Only 15% efficient

Quick and simple way to cook

Important part of the culture and

family bonding

Source of heat and light

Smoke keeps insects away (e.g.

mosquitoes responsible for death

by malaria of 600 000 Africans in

2010)

Three-Stone Fire. Source: Reed 2010

Environmental ImpactsUncontrolled collection of firewood

Displacement of people

Formation of micro-climates:Desertification (expansion of the Sahara),

Floods and Droughts

Deforestation

Direct Health Impacts: Smoke

Combustion of Biomass releases:

Carbon dioxide and monoxide, nitrogen oxides, benzene, sulphur,

arsenic and particulate matter

Indoor Air Pollution IAP (1.6 million deaths per year)

Diseases and Illnesses:Acute respiratory infections,

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, pneumonia,

tuberculosis, cataracts etc.

Smoke in the kitchen. Source: Benanav N.d.

Women and children’s exposure levels:

• 100 times WHO’s recommendations

• equivalent to 2 packs of cigarettes per

day

• 2 to 4 times greater than men’s

Direct Health Impacts: Wood CollectionFacts on these journeys:

Implicated: Women and children

Distance: 10km or more

Load: avg 20kg per person

Time: avg 40h per week

Trips can last up to a few days

Health Risks:

Heat strokes

Back pain & other orthopedic

injuries

Animal attacks (elephants, snakes

etc.)

Others e.g. walking on landmines

Darfuri refugees gathering wood. Source: Farrow 2009

Social ImpactsDirect impacts:

Risk to be insulted, raped,

tortured and/or murdered.

Risk of creating political tensions

with other locals (especially for

refugee populations).

Secondary impacts:

From inactivity e.g. lack of income-

generating activities or education.

Leads to gender inequalities etc.

From climat change e.g. formation

of climatic refugees and displacement

of thousands of people. Malian women gathering wood. Source: Kev 2008.

Economic Impacts

Cost of firewood rapidly

increasing due to fuel scarcity

Limited choice of alternatives

Represents significant portion

of income

Sometimes more money is

spent on firewood than food

Women purchasing wood at an Ethiopian market. Source: Donna N.d.

Solar Cooking Technologies

• Solar Resources

• History of Solar Cooking

• Most Common Designs

• Benefits from Solar Cookers

Solar Resource

Ideal latitudes for solar

cooking are between 40°

N and 40°S.

In ideal areas, solar

radiations vary between

4.5 and 8.5 kWh/m2/day.

Ideal climatic areas are

desertic zones. In the

Sahel, up to 300 sunny

days per year.African Solar Radiation. Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory 2010.

History of Solar Cooking Solar reflexion used thousands of

years ago by Greeks, Romans and Chinese for military purposes.

First publications on solar cooking in 1767 by Horace de Saussure, French-Swiss scientist.

First practical applications: 1950’s.

Full potential acknowledged after the 1970’s oil crisis.

Solar Cookers International founded in 1987.

In the 1990’s, sporadic efforts from UN sub-divisions.

Barbara Kerr and Sherry Cole with their first solar cooker. Source: PCIA 2010

Most Common Designs: Parabolic Cookers

Key Points:

Focuses sunlight straight on the black

pot

Most efficient (up to 1200W, 250°C)

Same cooking times and practices as

conventional cooking methods

Most expensive type

Complex structure and manufacturing

Bulky – requires a lot of outdoor space

Parabolic cooker. Source: SCI N.d.

Most Common Designs: Box CookersKey Points:

Insulated box making use of direct

and diffuse sunlight

Most widespread technology

Easy to construct and design

Can hold a few pots

Can be made of many materials e.g.

cardboard, wood, plastic or metal

Less than half the price of parabolic

cookers

Lower ratings (200W, 180°C)Solar box cooker. Source: SCI 2012

Most Common Designs: Panel Cookers

Key Points:

Reflective panels focusing light on

black pot contained within plastic

bag

Cheapest design

Usually made of cardboard and

aluminium foil

Simplest design (CooKit) distributed

widely by NGOs in refugee camps

Easy to fold and transport

Lowest efficiencies

Panel cooker CooKit. Source: SCI 2012

Technical Advantages

Save 1 to 2 tons of firewood per year.

No negative health impacts.

No fire i.e. children can safely attend

to the food.

Save time and do not require stirring.

Non-permanent structures and so

can be deployed quickly.

Can easily be made of recycled material (e.g. with Tetra Pak).

No need for much water or oil so the food is healthier and contains more

nutrients.

Food doesn’t burn i.e. less cleaning is involved.

Panel cookers in Chad. Source: JWW 2012

Socio-economic Advantages More time for women and children to attend

to other activities e.g. school, income-

generating activities, gather other fuels to

meet the rest of the household’s energy

requirements etc.

Potential for men and women to share familial

tasks and break down gender issues.

Saves the household’s income

and solar cookers are quickly

repaid.

Lots of impacts on local economy

and creation of jobs.

Women baking cakes. Source: SCI 2012

Baking business. Source: SCI 2012

Barriers to the Dissemination of Solar Cooker

• Technical Barriers

• Public Perception

• Institutional and Political

Barriers

Technical Barriers

• Weather & Other Environmental Issues

• Design & Material Related Issues

• Inaccessibility of Materials & Lack of Infrastructure

• Other Technical Issues

Technical Barriers:

Weather & Other Environmental Issues

Problems:

Dependance on weather (intermittency, sunny hours, seasons etc.)

For shortest cooking times, need readjustments

Unsuitability of cooking times

Rain, sand, dust and cleaning reduce rating by 25%

Wind blows away some cookers (e.g. parabolic designs)

Solutions:

Improve design

Use higher quality materials

However, these lead to other financial barriers…

Technical Barriers:

Design & Material Related IssuesComparison of Different Types of Solar Cookers

Type Cost Safety Ease of build Cooking speed Cooking capacity

Longevity Other

Panel

Lowest

4-7USD

Safe Easy Several hours4-6 people

Lowest (cardboard susceptible to moisture & insect degradation)

Need to replace plastic bag, no adding or stirring possible

Box

Low

20USD

Safe Easy Several hoursDepends on size

Medium/ depends on materials (glass window can break)

No adding or stirring possible

Parabolic

High

60USD

May cause burns & eye injury

Complicated (requires specialised materials)

Similar to conventional stove but requires adjustment to the sun every 15min

Depends on size

High/ depends on materials

May burn food, bulky

Technical Barriers:

Inaccessibility of Materials & Lack of InfrastructureProblems:

Need for local solar cooking business for after-sale service and

maintenance.

Difficulties in obtaining aluminium plates or foil, glass, mirrors,

black pots or plastic bags.

Supply and distribution issues due to lack of infrastructure

especially in rural areas and on islands (in 2004, only 10% of

the roads where paved, little access to electricity, literacy

rare).

Administrative and logistical issues often the reason behind

the slow development of such projects e.g. Burkina Faso vs.

South Africa.

Solutions:

Solving issues locally

Action from governmental bodies (long and slow process)

Rural Population of Sub-Saharan Africa. Source: The World Bank 2012

Technical Barriers:

Other Technical Issues

Long cooking times.

Need to expose the food outdoor.

Need outdoor space (in urban

dwellings, solar cookers go on

the roof).

Risks of thefts, poisoning,

damaging from children and

animals.

Rarely used as stand-alone

systems, only saves up 40% of

fuel on average.

Cooking times. Source: Hanna & McArdle 2012

Public Perception

• Traditions & Beliefs

• Gender Inequalities

• Adoption Criteria of Energy-Poor Households

• Perceived Financial Benefits

• Image of Solar Cookers

Public Perception:

Traditions & BeliefsProblems:

More than 3000 ethnic groups with

their own beliefs and traditions (e.g.

in Uganda, 3 stone fire strongly

linked to marriage).

Designs do not meet aesthetic

standards (e.g. square shapes).

Where traditions are unshaken,

adoption levels are the lowest: due to

educational gaps, people do not

believe the sun is capable to cook.

Turn to their beliefs for explanations:

“work of the devil” and “black

magic”.

Solutions: Involving communities to design their own

cookers

Using their beliefs “against” them e.g.

Sabbath

Use appropriate promoting strategies

Masai communities and solar cookers. Source: SCI 2009

Public Perception:

Gender InequalitiesProblems:

Financial/household decisions taken by men even for cooking matters.

Gathering wood doesn’t have a real perceived value and its dangers are

not recognised.

Some men are scared for their wives to have free time and idle, are not

ready to change cooking hours/habits or beat up women if the food tastes

differently.

Others liked it because women can have more time to take on some of

their own tasks.

In some cultures, men and women have to be addressed to separately.Solutions:

Promotions and demonstrations to bring together

men and women concerned

Getting men to acknowledge the danger of firewood

gathering

Sudanese boys attending school. Source: Africa Educational Trust 2008

Public Perception:

Adoption Criteria of Energy-Poor Households

Problems:

Field studies determined 3 key factors for the adoption of solar cookers:

Reduce fuel consumption (less than anticipated, not stand-alone

system due to technical barriers)

Similar cooking times (much longer than

other techs)

Similar or better functionality (impossible

to roast or fry)

Food has different texture and colour

Different criteria in rural and urban areas

Solution: Integrated Cooking Systems(Solar cooker + heat retention basket + improved stove)

Integrated Cooking System. Source: Whitfield 2005

Public Perception:

Perceived Financial Benefits

Problems:

Although heavily subsidised, price

is still high.

Cooking not necessarily a priority

to invest in.

Some refuse credits (“do not

believe” in being indebted).

Concepts of “saving”, “investing”

and “ROI” are not fully understood.

Solutions:

Give access to information &

education

Promote intelligently

Poverty gaps in sub-Saharan Africa. Source: The World Bank 2012

Public Perception:

Image of Solar CookersProblems:• Some products have a low quality in order for NGOs to reduce their

costs.• When distributed for free, end-users do not have a sense of ownership.• Why aren’t higher social classes buying too?

Designs considered as “cheap”, for lower-classes, people get “bored”

Food-related uses:

Pasteurizing water at 65°C,

preparing hot drinks e.g. tea,

making jams and sauces, drying

vegetables and fruits, baking cakes,

heating milk, killing insects

contained within seeds…

Non-food uses:

Smelting, making wax, sterilising

soil, warming irons to iron clothes,

making the laundry, making

cosmetics e.g. karité butter,

sterilising medical kit and distilling

water for batteries…

Solutions:Promote the idea “simple is beautiful” Advertise additional uses of solar cookers:

Institutional and Political Barriers

• Poor Project Planning & Promotion Strategies

• Financial Barriers: Subsidies or Market

Development?

• Lack of Coordination & Linkage

• Other Political Barriers

Institutional & Political Barriers:

Poor Planning & Promoting Strategies

Problems:

Poor image from the 1960’s, 1970’s and

1980’s due to:

Lack of background literature available for

planning (only 2 docs from 2004)

Error of promoting just one design

o Weak implementation

strategies

o Lack of training

o Immature/untested

technologies

Many solutions:

Plan ahead for 5 years and do

background research with

anthropologists and experts.

Come up with step by step

development with constant

feedback.

Carefully select promotion times

and places.

Involve people together at village

feasts etc.

Make sure problem is well

understood.

Institutions e.g. SCI or JWW provide

training for volunteering promoters.

ICS promoted only since 2008, need

to establish new promoting

strategies.

Institutional & Political Barriers:

Financial Barriers: Subsidies or Market Development?Natural progression of technologies:

R&D

NGOs subsidise partially or fully but not viable: need funding. Governmental grants and CDM mechanisms often have strict administrative

conditions. Subsidies sometimes get in the way of commercialisation. Hard to find motivated local entrepreneurs which have enough funds and capacity. Give access to micro-credits, low-interest loans, barter arrangements, layaway plans,

hiring “only on sunny days”. Remove gender barrier as women do not always have access to these services.

Solutions: National & inter-regional governments must collaborate with banking institutions

and propose adequate funding schemes e.g. aim subsidies at the poorest. Get involved with GEF Small Grant Programme? Follow China’s example?

Demonstration

Commercialisation

Institutional & Political Barriers:

Lack of Coordination & LinkageIssues:• Internal problems (e.g. UNHCR in Aisha camp).• Lack of collaboration on the field (e.g. JWW, CARE and WFP in Chad).• Lack of coordination between agencies (e.g. UNHCR distributing

firewood).• Lack of monitoring & project follow-up.• Lack of transparency in publications of results and lack of sharing

information.• NGOs compete against each other.

Some have collaborated: EG Solar and CARE in Chad Senegalese government and UNDP SCI and JWW, KoZon and GIZ in Kenyan and Ethiopian refugee camps

Solution: Connect everyone, reunite all efforts via the Solar Cooking World

Network Formation of groups e.g. AFRECA China: considerable investments and collaboration between government

and industry

Institutional & Political Barriers:

Other Political BarriersProblems: After 1970’s, creation of many Energy departments/ministries but funding

for renewables dropped quickly. Other priorities e.g. electrification and consolidation of national utility

companies. Lack of willingness and corruption (e.g. Nigeria) from fossil-fuel lobbying

companies and others. Lack of access due to warfare, terrorism, kidnapping etc. Domestic

transportation problems. No clear strategies & policies (suggestion of housing plan but no follow-

ups). Need set of standards, manufacturers must give guarantees.

Some initiatives: East African Community, with GIZ and UNDP, to give access to clean

cooking technologies to half its population by 2015. 8 countries joined the ProBec. Clean Cookstove Alliance (worldwide). AFREPREN/FWD active since 1987.

Unknown outcomes!

Conclusions & Recommendations• Some issues too great to be solved by solar cooking strategies e.g. lack of

education, infrastructure etc.

• Changes take time: need appropriate long-term mechanisms.

• Need to promote intelligently and listen to the end-users’ needs (depending

on culture, religion, gender status, living areas etc.).

• NGOs, governments, industry and local small-scale businesses need to work

in collaboration and total transparency e.g. China.

• Governments must create partnerships with banking institutions and create

appropriate pro-poor energy policies to remove the barriers for NGOs.

• Need to keep investing in better designs, but focusing more on reducing

production, marketing and end-users’ costs.

• Advocate Integrated Cooking Systems and avoid repeating past errors.

Thank you for your attention