56 BroWn,BArnUM

BRoWn, BaRnUM (1873–1963)Dinosaur Fossil collector

n amedafterthegreatshowmanP.T.Barnum,indefatigabledinosaurdiggerBarnumBrownassembledhisownversionof“Thegreatestshowonearth”:aparadeofgiantdinosaurfossilswrenchedfromthecliffsandarroyosoftheAmericanWest.Brown’s

lastingcontribution—hundredsoftonsofdinosaurfossils—formedthenucleusoftheAmeri-canMuseumofnaturalHistory’sworld-famouscollection.

during the 1960s, Brown, nearly 90, could still be seen leading visitors around thecrammeddinosaurhalls,announcing,“Here’sanotheroneofmychildren,”ashepointedoutthebonesofasauriangiant.Butwhenhebeganhiscareerin1897,themuseumhadnotasingledinosaur.

AsachildinCarbondale,kansas,Browncollectedfossilsfromfreshlyplowedfields.HeattendedtheUniversityofkansas,thenmovedtonewyorkCity,wherehestudiedpaleontol-ogyatColumbiaUniversityandbeganworkingatthemuseumwhilehewasstillagraduatestudent.

Forhisfirstfieldassignment,themuseum’sdirector,HenryFairfieldosborn,sentBrowntoComoBluff,Wyoming,toprospectitsrichJurassicdeposits.Brownandhiscolleaguesdiscoverednewbedscontainingenormousquantitiesoffossils,includingtheApatosaurus(thencalled Brontosaurus)thatstilldominatesoneofthemuseum’shugedinosaurhalls.However, yale paleontologistothniel C.Marshwas furious about his former sites beingworkedandbeganabitterfeudwithosbornthatlastedtotheendofhislife.

duringtheearlyyearsofthe20thcentury,BrowndugupfossilsallovertheWest.oneofhisgreatestdiscoveries,thefirsteverandanearlycompleteskeletonofTyrannosaurus rex,wasblastedoutoftonsofsandstonenearHellCreek,Montana,in1902.Thefossilswerethenhauledbyhorse-drawnwagontothenearestrailroad130milesaway.

Ashisexploitsbecameknown,Brownbecamenationallyfamousas“Mr.Bones.”Crowdswouldmeethistrainandoffertohelphimfindancientmonstersneartheirtown.nowaceleb-rity,Browndressedinexpensive,fashionableoutfitswhileexploringremote,dust-blownsites.

In1909,BrownledanexpeditionalongthereddeerriverinAlberta,Canada.Thepartynavigateddownriveronalargeraftandfoundfossildepositsgalore.“Boxafterbox,”hewrote,“wasaddedtothecollectiontillscarcelyacubit’sspaceremainedunoccupiedonboardourfossilark.”

overthenextdecades,hesearchedforfossilsandprospectedforoilinIndia,southAmer-ica,ethiopia,andthegreekislands.Brown’ssecondwife,lilian,chronicledheradventuresaccompanyinghimonfieldtripsinsuchbooksasBring ’Em Back Petrified(1956)and I Mar­ried a Dinosaur(1950).Whenshefirstdecidedtojoinherbone-huntinghusbandinthefield,thefamilymaidexpressedgraveconcern.“Afterall,”shewarned,“whoknowswhatthebeastsdiedof?”

oneofBrown’smostfamousdiscoverieswasthe“greatdinosaurgraveyard”attheHoweranch,nearthebaseoftheBighornMountainsinMontana.Aftersomepreliminarywork

bone hUnter barnum brown, when almost ninety, supervised construction of sinclair oil’s lifesize dino-saur models, shown below

being barged down the hud-son river to the 1964 new

york World’s fair.

57BroWn,BArnUM

in1933,heconvincedthesinclairoilCompanytoputupthemoneyformajorexcavationsatthesite.Theteam’seffortssoonpaidoffwhentheyuncoveredavastbonedeposit—inBrown’swords,“averitableherdofdinosaurs.”Morethan4,000bones(about20dinosaurs)packedin144cratesweighing69,000poundswereshippedtonewyork.

sinclairoil,whichuseda“brontosaur”asitscompanylogo,garneredawindfallofpub-licityfromthepublic’sinterestinBrown’sdigs.duringthe1930sand1940s,thecompanygave freedinosaurstampsandbookletsat itsservicestations,apromotioncreatedandsupervisedby“Mr.Bones”himself.

Inadditiontobeingtheworld’sgreatestfossilhunterandawell-paidconsultanttotheoilindustry,Brownhadaclandestinecareerasaspyforthegovernment—astorythatwassuppresseduntil40yearsafterhisdeath.Heworkedfortheofficeofstrategicservices,precursorof theCIA,whichreliedonhis intelligenceabout theAegean Islandsasback-groundforplanningAlliedinvasionroutesduringWorldWarII.duringthe1940s,inbetweenfossil-huntingexpeditions,heassistedtheBureauofeconomicWarfare.

In1956,whenhewas83,Brownexploredasiteatlewiston,Montana,wherehediscov-eredandexcavatedaplesiosaurskeleton.TwoyearslaterheusedahelicoptertoprospecttheIsleofWight,wherefossilsaboundedinthesteepseacliffs.Afterspottingskeletonsfromtheair,heplannedtostraphimselfintoabosun’schairandexcavatewhiledanglingabovetheenglishChannel.

Whileplanningthisexpedition,hewasapproachedbyhisoldsponsor,thesinclairrefin-ingCompany,tosupervisetheconstructionoflife-sizedinosaurmodelsforthe1964newyorkWorld’sFair.TheyweretobebuiltinthetownofHudson,northofnewyorkCity,andtransportedtothefairviatheHudsonriver.delightedatbeingoffereda“newjob”attheageof89,BrownlookedforwardtostartlingManhattaniteswiththebizarresightofabargefulofdinosaursfloatingdowntheHudsonriver.

Brownsupervisedthedinosaurs’constructionbutneverdidwitnesstheirjourneytothefair.HediedinFebruary1963,justaweekshortofhis90thbirthday,andwasburiedbesidehisfirstwife,Marion.Whenliliandiedsomeyearslater,accordingtohisdaughter’smem-oirs,she“wasburiedontheothersideofBarnum,whoundoubtedlywouldhavehadagoodchuckleoverbeingsandwichedbetweenhistwowives.”

seealsoBIrd,rolAndT.;FANTASIA;osBorn,HenryFAIrFIeld;sInClAIrdInosAUr

crowds would meet the train when “Mr. Bones” arrived in dusty Western towns to help them round up their ancient monsters.

barnUm broWn (left) with the reconstructed giant crocodile he named Pseudo suchus sinclairii, af-ter his sponsor, oil magnate harry sinclair. beside it is a modern croc skull.

58 BryAn,WIllIAMJennIngs

BRyan, WIllIaM JennInGs (1860–1925)antievolutionist crusader

duringhislifetime,politicianandgreatoratorWilliamJenningsBryanwonfameasaprogressivereformerwithastrongsocialconscience.secretaryofstateunderWood-rowWilson,hehadbeenthedemocraticnomineeforpresidentthreetimes.Bryan

campaignedvigorously forwomen’s suffrage, justice for theworkingpoor, andcurbsoncorporategreed.Hewasalsothearchitectoflegislationprohibitingteachingevolutionintheschools,thusleavingalegacyofcontinuinglegalbattles60yearsafterhisdeath.

BryanhasbeenvilifiedasanignoramusandademagoguewhopanderedtouneducatedbigotsinthebackwatersoftheUnitedstates.Moviesandplayshaveportrayedhimflail-ingandrantingasClarencedarrow’sadversaryinthecelebratedscopes“MonkeyTrial”of1925,whichwasnothisfinesthour.JournalistH.l.Menckendepictedhimasareligiousfanatic,obstructingintellectualprogresswithamulishlystubbornbeliefintheliteralinter-pretationoftheBible.

Infact,Bryanhadnotalwaysopposedevolutionaryideas,andhadarrivedathisreaction-arypositionwiththebestofintentionsforAmerica’swelfare.Convincedthatthedarwiniantheory,asmanyatthetimeunderstoodit,was“amercilesslawbywhichthestrongcrowdoutandkillofftheweak,”Bryanpreferredtobelieve“thatloveratherthanhatredisthelawofdevelopment.”Healsothought that“classprideandthepowerofwealth”wereusingdarwinismtojustifyexploitingthepoor,justaseuropeankingshadonceusedthedoctrineofdivineright.

Andhisfearswerejustified.IndustrialgiantslikeJohnd.rockefellerandAndrewCar-negiedidindeedadoptsocialdarwinistviewsaboutbeing“thefittest,”theirruthlessnessjustifiedaspartofagreatlawofnature.ThatthiswasamisreadingofevolutionarytheoryoccurredneithertoBryannortheindustrialists,sinceitwasalsotaughtbymanybiologyprofessorsoftheirday.

Inaddition,thedarwinianbannerwasbeingcarriedbymilitaristsand,inBryan’swords,“wasatthebasisofthatdamnabledoctrinethatmightmakesrightthathadspreadovergermany.”HeknewthatduringWorldWarI,germanintellectualsbelievednaturalselectionwasirresistiblyall-powerful(Allmacht),alawofnatureimpellingthemtobloodystrugglefordomination.Theirpoliticalandmilitary textbookspromoteddarwin’s theoriesas the

“scientific”basisofaquestforworldconquest,withthefullbackingofgermanscientistsandprofessorsofbiology.

Bryanalsoperceivedanotherevilresultingfromtheinterpretationofdar-winismbytheintellectualsofhisday:anill-conceivedfaithineugenicsasthewaveofthefuture.Itwouldparalyzethehopeofsocialreform,Bryanrealized,as“itsonlyprogramformanisscientificbreeding,asystemunderwhichafewsupposedlysuperiorintellects,self-appointed,woulddirectthematingandthemovementsofthemassofmankind—animpossiblesystem!”

Forthesecompellingreasons,asstephenJaygouldpointedoutinBully for Brontosaurus(1992),Bryansawdarwinismasamany-facetedevil,quiteapartfromitsconflictwithbiblicalaccountsofcreation.sciencehadtooeasilylentrespectabilitytopoliticalandsocialprogramsthatwentfarbeyonditspropersphere.Bryan“hadthewrongsolution,”gouldwrote,“buthehadcorrectlyidentifiedaproblem!”

seealsoBUTlerACT;INHERIT THE WIND;sCoPesTrIAl

BUFFon, GeoRGes-loUIs lecleRc, coMte De (1707–1788)French naturalist

theorangutan,wrotetheComtedeBuffoninthemid–18thcentury,“isaverysingularbrute,whichmancannotlookupon,withoutcontemplatinghimself,andbeingcon-vincedthathisexternalformisnotthemostessentialpartofhisnature.”

flaG-draPed reliGion was William Jennings bryan’s

specialty. he was known as “the Great Populist” for his

advocacy of overdue social reforms.

“taxpayers have a right to say what

shall be taught. . . . the hand that writes

the check rules the school.”

—William Jennings bryan

83CleVerHAnsPHenoMenon

cleVeR Hans PHenoMenonMystery of the “talking” Horse

e volutionofthecapacityforthoughtandspeechhaslongfascinatedanthropologists,but recent “ape language” experiments sparked heated controversy. Cankoko thegorilla really communicate in sign language? Why did nim Chimpsky’s longtime

trainerdecideheneverreally“spoke”?Inthesedebates,scientistsoftencitethecaseofafamous“talking”horsewholivedduringthe1920s.HisnamewasCleverHans.

Billedasthesmartestanimalinhistory,CleverHanscouldread,spell,doarithmetic,andworkoutmusicalharmonies.Histrainer,Herrvonosten,posedmathematicalandverbalquestions,andthehorse,withamazingaccuracy,tappedoutanswerswithhishooves.

HerrvonostenreallybelievedinHans.HesworehedidnotcheatbygivingHanstheanswers, and his sincerity was believable. To prove his point, he let strangers questionthehorse,andHansstillgavecorrectanswers.Audienceswerefascinated,andscientistsbaffled,untilthemysterywasunraveledbyapsychologistnamedoskarPfungst.

Inaseriesofsystematicexperiments,Pfungstrearrangedelementsofthequestion-and-answerproceedings.Hesoondiscoveredthatifthehumandidn’tknowtheanswertothequestion,thehorsewasalsostumped.Butwhenhesearchedfordeliberatesoundorhandsignalsby the trainer,he foundnone.yethealsodeterminedthat thehorsewasbaffledwhenthequestionerwashiddenfromview.eventually,Pfungstconcludedthattheanimalrespondedtoveryminutecuesthequestionerwasn’tevenawarehewasgiving.

Hansperformedbestwithmenwhobegan the sessionby leaning forward slightly intense expectation, and then relaxedwith barely perceptiblemovementswhen the horsehadcompletedthecorrectnumberoftaps—atwhichpointHanswouldstop.Hewassimplyrespondingtohumanapproval,nottothecontentofthequestions.

Manyofthe“apelanguage”programsofthe1970sweregreetedwithinitialenthusiasmbut have since been shown to be tainted by the Clever Hans phenomenon. Involuntaryhumanshapingoftheanimal’sresponsesprovedtobeamajorflawandembarrassment.experimentersnowstrivetoeliminatehumancues,howeverunintentional.Whenapelan-guageresearchersworkwithbonobosinthelanguageresearchCenteratgeorgiastateUniversity, for instance, the scientistswearwelders’masks tohide their eyesand facialmovements.The“talkinghorse”oflongagoisstilltellingussomething.

seealsoAPelAngUAgeConTroVersy

a horse Called hans astounded european audi-ences during the 1920s with his apparent ability to read, spell, and perform arithmetic calculations.

98 CreATIonIsM,AMerICAnPollon

Biblicalandanti-Christian,bututterlyunscientificandimpossibleaswell.Butithasservedeffectivelyasthepseudoscientificbasisofatheism,agnosticism,socialism,fascism,andnumerousotherfalseanddangerousphilosophiesoverthepastcentury.”

In 1981, HenryMorris obtained approval from the state of California for a graduateschoolrunbyhisInstituteforCreationresearch,whichoffersdegreesinscienceeduca-tion,geology,astrophysics,geophysics,andbiology—allfromacreationistpointofview.By1986hewasabletomovetheschoolfromthecampusofChristianHeritageCollegeinelCajon,California,toitsowncampus.Initsfirstcatalogue,theinstitute’sphilosophyofscientificcreationismisspelledout:

eachofthemajorkindsofplantsandanimalswascreatedfunctionallycompletefromthebe-ginninganddidnotevolvefromsomeotherorganism....Thefirsthumanbeingsdidnotevolvefromananimalancestry,butwerespeciallycreatedinfullyhumanformfromthestart.

seealsoFUndAMenTAlIsM

cReatIonIsM, aMeRIcan Poll onconsistent split in national Beliefs

a ccordingtoa2008galluppoll,Americansaredividedbetweenthosewhobelievethatgod instantaneously createdhumans in their present form less than 10,000yearsago(44%), thosewhofavoranevolutionaryprocessguidedbygod(36%),

andthosewhobelieveevolutionhasoccurredwithoutanydivineintervention(14%).Publicopinionisalmostequallydividedbetweenthosewhobelievethathumanevolutioniswellsupportedbyevidenceandthosewhoacceptthebiblicalaccountofcreationasliteralandinfallible.since1982,whenthegalluporganizationbegansurveyingAmericansonhumanorigins,thesepercentageshaveremainedremarkablystable,varyinglittlefromyeartoyear.AmongWesternnations,theUnitedstatesconsistentlyranksamongthelowestinpublicsupportfortheevolutionaryparadigmofmainstreamscience.

a cReatIonIst MUseUMevangelical Darwin-Free Dinosaurs

K enHam,aChristianevangelistwithapassion fordinosaurs, raised$27milliontobuildalavish“biblically-basedsciencemuseum”inPetersburg,kentucky,20milesfromCincinnati.HisCreationMuseum,as it isnowcalled,attractedaboutahalf-

millionvisitorswithinayearofits2007opening.As director of the organization Answers in genesis, Ham contends that everymain-

only about a third of americans

believe that Darwinian

evolution is well supported by the evidence.

99CreATIVeeVolUTIon

streamsciencemuseum,zoo,andnationalparkinAmericaisbrainwashingchildrenwith“evolution-istpropaganda.”Accordingtohiswebsite,secularscienceisbasedonamisplaced“faithinhumanreason,”while“creationscience”is“basedontheonly eyewitness’s revelation, as recorded in Hisownwords.”

Ham previously worked at the Institute forCreation research, which founded aMuseum ofCreationandearthHistory insantee,California,during the 1980s. Thatmuseum is nowdwarfedbythekentuckymuseum,which includesamileand a half of outdoor trails on its 47 acres and70,000squarefeetofindoorexhibitions.Hamhasexpandedonmanyofthesmallermuseum’scon-ceptsandthemes,includingthesixdaysofCre-ation,noah’sArk,theTowerofBabel,andFloodgeology.

TheCreationMuseumpromotesunquestioningacceptanceoftheBible’saccountofhumanorigins(asinterpretedbytheirministry)asanantidote to“falliblehumanreason.”Visitorsare taught thatgodmadetheearthandallitsplantsandanimals insixdays,andthatmajorgeological featuresweresubsequentlyshapedbyagreatFlood.evolutionisafallacyanddelusion;humanswerecreatedintheirpresentformbydivinefiat6,000yearsago.Atypicalmuseumlabelreads:“Velociraptor.Means‘swifthunter.’Height:4feet.length:11feet.Createdon:day6.”

AHollywoodthemeparkdesignerfromUniversalstudioswashiredtobuildasectionofnoah’sArkandlife-sizedioramasthatdramatizebiblicalscenes.Inthemuseum’sgardenofeden,dinosaursaredepictedlivingpeaceablyalongsideAdamandeve.lions,tigers,andtyrannosaursareshownasgentlevegetariansthatneveratemeatuntilhumankind’ssinsbroughtviolenceintotheworld.

WhileHam’sministryrejectsalmosteverytenetofmainstreambiologyandgeology,itembracesscientificevidencefortheexistenceofdinosaurs.dinosaurshaveneverpreviouslyappearedinChristianbiblicalimagery,probablybecauseoftheirassociationwithevolution.However,theCreationMuseum’sexhibitsteachthatnoah’sarkhadenoughroomfor16,000“kinds”(notspecies)ofanimals,andthatdinosaurswereindeedaboard.“genesissaysthatthearkhadtwoofeverykindofcreaturethatwalkedontheearth,”accordingtoamuseumspokesman,“sowe’retakingthedinosaursbackfromtheevolutionists.”

see also CreATIonIsM; FUndAMenTAlIsM; InTellIgenT desIgn; noAH’s Flood; “noAH’s

rAVens”

cReatIVe eVolUtIonVitalist Principle

f renchphilosopherHenriBergsonhadarichliterarystyle,clothinghisargumentsinemotionallyaffectinglanguage.His influentialbookCreative Evolution (1907)wasatreatise on evolution that purported to refutedarwinismon thebasis ofBergson’s

intuitivefeelingforaself-organizingprinciplehecalledtheélan vital.scientistscomplainedtheyhadnowaytoworkifBergsondeniedthemthepossibilityof

findingcausalexplanations.PaleontologistgeorgegaylordsimpsonarguedinThe Evolu­tion of Meaning(1949):

suchtheoriesdonotexplainevolution,butclaimitisinexplicableandthengiveanametoitsinexplicability:élan vital,omega,aristogenesis,cellularconsciousness,holism....AsHuxleyhasremarked,ascribingevolutiontoanélan vitalnomoreexplainedthehistoryof lifethanwouldascribingitsmotiontoan élan locomotifexplaintheoperationsofasteamengine.

animatroniC dinosaUr with cartoony spikes on its back greets visitors near the entrance to to the evan-gelical Creation museum in Petersburg, Kentucky.

116 dArWInCorresPondenCeProJeCT

Itsfirstbuildingwasthe“oldgranary,”whichhadbeenconverted intoaprivateresi-denceyearsbeforebyProfessorgeorgedarwin,thedistinguishedastronomerandsonofCharles.Afterhisdeath,itwasdonatedtotheuniversitybythedarwinfamilyasthenucleusofthenewcollege.

About40yearsbeforeitsactualfounding,afictional“darwinCollege”wasfeaturedintheclassicMarxBrotherscomedyHorse Feathers(1932).Thefilm’splotrevolvesaroundafootballgamebetweentworivalschools:“darwinCollege”and“HuxleyCollege.”

DaRWIn coRResPonDence PRoJectorganizing Fifteen thousand letters

darwincouldnotthrowanythingaway.Aninveteratecollectorofbeetlesandnaturalhistoryobjectssincechildhood,healsosavedthousandsoflettershereceivedoverthe years. In addition, his family and friends kept nearly every scrap hewrote to

them.Ashedevelopedhistheories,heexchangedlettersandrequestsforinformationwithnaturalists,travelers,andmissionariesineverypartoftheworld.About15,000letterstoandfromdarwinhavebecomethecoreofoneofthemostambitiousscholarlyprojectseverundertaken.

In1974,theAmericanhistorianFrederickBurkhardtinvitedtheCambridgezoologistandliteraryscholarsydneysmithtohelpwiththeimmensetaskofgatheringandorganizingthethousandsoflettersforpublication.AformerpresidentofBenningtonCollegeandpresidentemeritusoftheAmericanCounciloflearnedsocieties,Burkhardtgatheredateamofschol-arstopreservethecorrespondenceandmakeitaccessibletofuturegenerations.

The darwin Correspondence Project has undertaken to retrieve, catalog, transcribe,annotateandpublishbothsidesof theentirecorrespondence,ofwhichabouthalfwerewrittenbydarwin.ItislocatedbothatCambridgeUniversitylibrary,england,itsheadquar-ters,andattheAmericanPhilosophicalsocietyinPhiladelphia.ThelatepsychologistandAbrahamlincolnscholarC.A.TrippcontributedtotheProjectaprogramforimmediatelylocatinganywordorphraseindarwin’scollectedworksandletters.Inadditiontotheirvalueasahistoryofdarwin’sscientificworkandasasnapshotofthetimeandcultureinwhichhelived,manyofthelettersrevealthenaturalist’shumanityandsenseofhumor.Flashesofhiswitareevidentinhisremarkthataboringlecturerwas“soverylearnedthathiswisdomhasleftnoroomforhissense.”

Inthe1870s,thenewlyinventedtelephonebecameafadamongthewell-to-do,andmanyrushedtohaveoneinstalled.Tooureverlastingbenefit,Charlesdarwinrefusedtoallowoneinhishomeandcontinuedwritingandreceivingletterstotheendofhislife.

darWin ColleGe at Cam-bridge, england, founded in

1964 (left). this building, originally a granary, was later the home of Charles darwin’s

son George, an astronomer and mathematician.

GroUCho marx takes over as dean of “huxley College” (right) in the comedy Horse

Feathers (1932). the school’s football rival was “darwin

College,” which at the time was equally fictitious.

about 15,000 letters to and

from Darwin have become the core

of one of the most ambitious

scholarly projects ever undertaken.

139dIVergenCe, PrInCIPleoF

DInosaURs, FeatHeReDare Birds evolved Dinos?

Whydoachicken’sfeetresemblethoseofabipedaldinosaur:trident-liketoes,hindclaw,andscales?Theanswer,supportedbymanyrecentdiscoveriesinnortheast-ernChina,isthatbirdsanddinosaursareclosecousins.Indeed,paleontologists

haveconcludedthatbirdsevolvedfromadiversegroupofcarnivorousrunningdinosaurs.somesimilaritieshavebeenobviousformanyyears.Thefirstdinosaurremainsfoundin

Americawereneitherskullsnorskeletons,butfour-toedfootprintspreservedinstone,knownasthe“tracksofnoah’sravens.”Thesepetrifiedimprintswerethoughttorepresentsimilari-tiesbetweenbird’sfeetandthoseofsomelizards.Famed19th-centuryevolutionistThomasHenryHuxleycarefullycomparedtheskeletonsofbirdsanddinosaursandconcludedthatthetwogroupswereindeedcloselyrelated.FewfolloweduponHuxley’sinsight,butmorethanacenturyandahalflaterhisviewshavebeenvindicated,tosaytheleast.BirdsarenowthoughttobelongtoacladecalledManiraptora,abranchofthetheropoddinosaurs.

Until recently, the oldest known bird was a creature called Archaeopteryx (“ancientwing”),the150-million-year-oldfossilfoundinaBavarianlimestonequarryin1861.Whileitswingssportedfullydevelopedfeathers,Archaeopteryxalsohadalizardlikejawfilledwithteethratherthanabeak.

Foryears,birdsweredefinedby their feathers,aswellasbybreastbonesandwish-bones—and, often,winged flight. some paleontologists thought that feathersmust haveappearedalongwithwings,butthequestionbecame:Howcouldwingshaveevolvedinthefirstplace?Afterall,whatgoodishalfawing?(seeeXAPTATIon.)someexpertsthoughtthatArchaeopteryxappearedtoolateinthefossilrecordtohavebeenafoundingavian.

In1996and’98,ChinesepaleontologistJiQiangoftheChineseAcademyofgeologicalsciencespublishedtwopreviouslyunknownspeciesof“feathereddinosaurs,”Sinosaurop­teryx and Caudipteryx. ThefossilsJiunearthedinliaoningProvinceweresurroundedbyfinevolcanicashthathadsettledinanancientlake,allowingdetailedpreservationoftheirdownyplumage.Theyareabout130millionyearsold,youngerthanArchaeopteryx.

Thesedromaeosaurs,astheyarecalled,representalineageofsmall,meat-eating,fast-running theropoddinosaurs, related tovelociraptors, thathadbeguntodevelop featherslongbeforetheirdescendantsevolvedthepowerofflight.Feathersmayhavebeenusefulinregulatingtheanimals’bodyheat.stumpyarms,theprecursorsofwings,mayhavehelpedthecreaturesbalancewhenrunning.somedinosaur fossilshavetestedpositive forbetakeratin,themainproteininbirdfeathers.

during the 1990sandearly2000s, the fossil-richyixianFormationhas yieldedfifteengenera(differentgroups)ofdinosaurswithpreservedfossilfeathers.otherbirdlikedinosaursanddinosaurlikebirdshavebeenfoundinMadagascar,Mongolia,Patagonia,andspain.Manytypesoftheropodsmayhavehadfeathers,notjustthosethatareespeciallysimilartobirds.

ThousandsofspecimenshavebeenfoundinChinarecently,rangingfromthesizeofpigeonstothatofponies,andwithplumagerangingfromflufftofeathers.Inadditiontoallthefossils,in2008thebird-dinosaurlinkwasgivenanunexpectedboost.MolecularbiologistChrisorganofHarvardandcolleaguescomparedcollagenproteinsfroma68-million-year-old Tyrannosau­rus rexlegbonewiththoseoflivinganimals.Theresult:dinosaurproteinsturnedouttobemostsimilartothoseofostrichesandchickens,notlizardsoralligators.TheWashington Postheadlinedanaccountofthestory:T.reXCloserTogIZZArdsTHAnlIZArds.

seealsoARCHAEOPTERYx;CHInA,eVolUTIonIn;“noAH’srAVens”

DIVeRGence, PRIncIPle oF“Keystone” of Darwin’s theory

e volutionisoftenpicturedasafamilytreeorbranchingbush,bristlingwithdivergentforks.eachlineagerepeatedlysplitsanddifferentiates,andlinessplayout,inAlfredrusselWallace’simagefromhissarawakpaper(1855),“likethetwigsofagnarledoak

orthevascularsystemofthehumanbody.”someoftheearlyevolutionists,suchasernst

the fossil of a yoUnG feathered dinosaUr, Microraptor zhaoianus, was discovered in 1998 in China’s liaoning Province. about two feet long, it lived about 130 million years ago. reconstruc-

tioncourtesyofand©byMick

ellison.

eXtInctIonDestruction of species

t hehistoryofthepastfewhundredyearsincludestheextinctionsofhundredsofspe-ciesofplantsandanimals.Amongthem,quiteafew—includingthegreatauk,dodo,andpassengerpigeon—wereexterminatedbyhumanswhojustdidn’tcare.American

bisonwerepulledbackfromthebrinkofextinctionwhenonlyafewhundredwereleftalive,outofapopulationthathadnumbered40million.Between1870and1875,buffalohunterswereslaughtering2.5millionofthemannually.

extinctionhasalwaysbeenafactoflife.AccordingtoecologistsPaulandAnneehrlichintheirbookExtinction(1981),98percentofallspeciesthathaveeverlivedhavebecomeextinct.Thereareprobablyabout10millionspeciesaliveontheearthtoday,onemillionspeciesintheAmazonbasinalone,ofwhichonly1.5millionhavebeendiscoveredandgivenscientificnames.Manyarenowdisappearingbeforetheyareevendiscovered,particularlyinthetropicalrainforests.

Untilthelate18thcentury,naturalistsdidnotimaginethatextinctionwaspossible.eachspecieswasbelievedtobeadistinctideainthemindofgod,alinkinanunbrokencosmicchainthatallowednogaps.Whenfossilsofstrangeanimals,likemastodons,werediscov-ered,itwasassumedthattheremustbesomestilllivinginthevastwildernessareasthathadnotyetbeenexplored.

Asmoreandmorefossilswerefound(thefirstdinosaurteethwerediscoveredonlyin1825)andmorewildernesssettled,theevidenceofextinctcreaturesbeganliterallytopileup.lateinhiscareer,theeminentFrenchanatomistgeorgesCuvierhadtoadmitthatfossilbonesweretheremainsofextinctspecies.

Paleontologistshavedocumentedseveralmassextinctions,whichwipedoutthemajorityoflifeonearth,allowingnewformstoradiateanddevelop.onesuch“massdying”occurredaftertheCambrianperiod,eliminatingtheonce-numeroustrilobites.AnothertookplaceattheendofthePermianperiod,eliminatingmostlivingthingsontheearth.stillanotherwasthefamousandmuch-ponderedCretaceousextinction,whichendedthe150-million-yearreignofdinosaursasthedominantformoflifeandusheredintheAgeofMammals.

Humanactivity,withitsdestructionofhabitatsaswellashunting,hasbeendevastating,precipitatingwhathasbeencalledthesixthmassextinction.Althoughwehaveyettoseeanewspeciesevolveinnature—averyslowprocess—weoftenseethemend,whichcanhap-penveryquickly.AsBritishnaturalistsirPeterscottputit,speakingata1972conferenceonbreedingendangeredspecies,“livingspeciestoday,letusremember,aretheendproductsoftwentymillioncenturiesofevolution;absolutelynothingcanbedonewhenthespecieshasfinallygone,whenthelastpairhasdiedout.”

seealsodInosAUrs,eXTInCTIonoF;FUller,errol;greATdyIngs;lonesoMe

george;rAInForesTCrIsIs

QUaGGa,extinct since 1885

yanGtse river dolPhin,extinct since 2007

thylaCine (tasmanian Wolf),extinct since 1936

ivory-billed WoodPeCKer,extinct since 1950

204 goUld,sTePHenJAy

theyhavebecomeimportanteconomicresourcesinrwanda,CentralAfricanrepublic,anddemocraticrepublicofCongo,attractingtouristdollars.Theircelebritystatusinsuresgov-ernmentmeasuresfortheircontinuedprotection,astheyaremuchmorevaluabletothelocaleconomyalivethanashuntingtrophies.yettheysurviveunderproblematicconditions:Constant exposure to humansmay irrevocably disturb their normal behavior. science’sunderstandingof“natural”gorillabehavior,ecologyandevolutionaryadaptationsmaystillforeverbelost,eveniftheapesthemselvesaregivenareprievefromextinction.

seealsoAPes;“APe-WoMen,”leAkey’s;gArner,rICHArdlynCH;dIgIT;Fossey,dIAn

GoUlD, stePHen Jay (1942–2002)Paleontologist, essayist, science Historian

W henfive-year-oldstephenJaygouldfirstlaideyesonthetoweringTyrannosaurusskeletonintheAmericanMuseumofnaturalHistory,hedecidedtospendhislifestudyingfossils.Thetyrantlizard,helaterrecalled,followedhimhomeandintohis

nightmares.decadesbeforedinosaursbecameastapleofAmericanchildhood,andalmostaloneamonghispeersinQueens,newyork,younggouldneverconsideredanyothercareerbutpaleontology.

Formostofhisprofessionallife,gouldwasaprofessoratHarvardUniversityandacura-torofitsMuseumofComparativeZoology.HehadattendedAntiochCollege,andstudiedpaleontologyatColumbiaUniversity.His thesis focusedonvariationandevolution inanobscure Bermudian land snail. like darwinwith his barnacles, gould pursued his latertheorizingonlyafterintensescrutinyofasinglegroupoforganisms.

Hehadhopedtofindcorrelationsbetweenvariationanddifferentecologieswithinthemollusk’srange,butthesnails’sizes,colors,andshellshapesvariedquiteindependentlyoflocalenvironment.Impressedwiththeimportanceofnonselectionistfactorsinevolution,gouldbecameinterestedinstructuralconstraintsandlimitationsasorganismschange.

gouldalsobecameinterestedindistinguishingincidentalfeaturesfromadaptiveones.Heandgeneticistrichardlewontinpublishedaninfluentialpaperabout“spandrels”—angu-larwallspacesonstructuralsupportsformedievalcathedraldomes.oftenthesesurfacesaredecoratedwithpaintingsthathaveinterestedarthistorians.Butwhenanalyzingthesepaintings, they ignored the spandrel’s humble origin as an unavoidable consequence ofstressdistribution—astructuralbyproductofthedome’sconstruction.

Intheirpaper,gouldandlewontinexplainhowslightchangesinonefea-turecanalterotherswithoutreferencetoadaptation—whatdarwinhadcalled“correlationofparts.”Usingspandrelsasametaphor,theypointedoutthatthehumanchin—oftencitedas“advanced”incomparisonswiththechinlessprimates—holds no special correlationwith higher intelligence. Chins, likespandrels,aretheresultofstressandgrowthfactorsinthehumanjawbone.

gould’sfellowgraduatestudentatColumbia,nileseldredge,hadstudiedthousandsoftrilobitesthatrevealedapatternthathadimpressedThomasHenryHuxleyacenturyearlier:Thefossilrecordshowslongperiodsofstabil-ity,punctuatedby“bursts”ofspeciation.darwin’sexplanationforthisseem-ingabsenceofgradual transitionswas that the fossil recordwas then toofragmentaryandincompletelyknowntoprovideevidenceofsteadyratesofchange.Itwaslikeabookwithpagesandevenwholechaptersmissing.

lookingatamuchmorecompletefossilrecordmorethanacenturylater,gouldandeldredgethoughtitwastimetoacknowledgethatsuchepisodicpat-ternsintherocks,separatedbylongperiodsofstability,probablyreflecttherealityoflife’shistory.Bythe1980s,“punctuationalism”hadbecomewidelyadoptedandwasfruitfulingeneratingnewinsightsandresearch.

darwinwas one ofgould’s lifelong heroes,whose achievements he cel-ebratedinsuchbooksasEver Since Darwin(1977)andThe Panda’s Thumb(1980).nevertheless,hewasirreverenttowardtheorthodoxsyntheticTheoryofevolution thathasprevailed inbiologysince the1940s.dissatisfiedwith

tWo ProdUCts of evolUtion contemplate one

another. stephen Jay Gould and a giraffe in Kenya, 1990.

Photo©deltaWillis.

205grAdUAlIsM

thelimitsofitsexplanatorypower,heoftenchampionedotherpossiblemechanismsandapproachestosupplementtraditionalnaturalselection—tothedismayofmoreconservativecolleagues.

one of his approaches was to emphasize the hierarchy of levels on which evolutionoperates:biochemical,genetic,embryological,physiological, individual,societal,species,lineages.sortingorselectiononanyoftheselevels,hebelieved,producessignificanteffectsonthelevelaboveorbelowit—alargelyunexploredareaforfutureresearch.

Healsobelievedthatheterochrony—evolutionthatspeedsuporretardsstagesintheindividual’s lifecycle—wasan important force ingeneratingnewspecies.Anewspeciescould result, for instance, if the adults remained stuck at an early stage of their devel-opment,which couldbeprogrammedby regulatory genes. The classic exampleof such“neoteny”istheaxolotl—asalamanderthatretainsitsinfantgillsintoadulthoodandneverleavesthewater.Anotherpossibleexampleisthatadulthumansseemtopreservethechar-acteristicsofjuvenileapes,suchasaflattenedfaceandgreatlyreducedeyebrowridges,aconditionknownaspedomorphism.

goulddidnotshrinkfrompubliccontroversy.Heappearedbeforecongressionalcom-mitteesonenvironmentalissues,wasacourtroomwitnessintheArkansasscopesIItrialabout teaching evolution in the public schools, and spoke out against pseudoscientificracismandbiologicaldeterminism.

Hisfatalboutwithcancerattheageof60cutoffabrilliantintellectinitsprimeofpro-ductivity.duringhislastyears,gouldracedtoproducehismagnumopus,The Structure of Evolutionary Theory,inwhichhedefinedhisviewsoverthewholerangeofevolutionarythought.He likened its intellectual edifice toaspanishcathedral thathadchangedandevolvedoverthecenturies,addingsectionsthatwereintunewiththefashionsandtemperofthetimes.Thecorestructureofthecathedralremainedinplace,howevermuchitsexten-sionsandfacadesmightvaryorbecomeobsoleteovertheyears.gouldvieweddarwinianevolutionarytheoryassound,evenasitchangesanditselfevolves.

see also BArnACles; BIologICAl deTerMInIsM; ConTIngenT HIsTory; neoTony; PAndA’s

THUMB;PUnCTUATedeQUIlIBrIUM;sCoPesII

GRaDUalIsMslow and steady change

o nekeyfeatureofdarwin’soriginaltheorywasthatevolutionarychangemusthaveproceededby“slow,insensibledegrees”—aprogressionoftinychangesaddinguptoproducenewspeciesoverimmenseperiodsoftime.Itwasdarwin’sattempttoapply

sirCharleslyell’suniformitariangeologytotheworldoflife.lyellhadbeenavoiceofreasonatatimewhengeologistsinvokedimaginedviolentand

suddencatastrophes,convulsions,floods,andsupernaturalforcestoexplainthefeaturesoftheearth.Presentlyobservableprocessesofwind,water,volcanoes,erosion,anddeposi-tion,lyellthought,couldaccountforthemall.

darwinwentsofarastoadopt“naturemakesnoleaps”asanaxiom,orbasicassump-tion.Butfromthefirsthisfriendandsupporter,ThomasHenryHuxley,thoughtit“unneces-sarytoburdenthetheory”withanunprovengradualism,whichhelaterdescribedasan“embarrassment”whenhenoticed that somepatterns of fossils over time showed littlechange,andthenrelativelyrapidreplacement.

Whencriticsaskedwhythefossilrecord,thoughitshowedchangeovertime,didnotdemonstratethissmoothsuccessionofsmall,gradualtransitions,darwinrepliedthatitwasvery“imperfectly”knownandthatsubsequentdiscoverieswouldfillinthepicture.Infact,manytransitionalformshavesincecometolight,thoughtheyarestillcomparativelyrare.

By the 1970s, the concept ofdarwiniangradualismcameunder increasing attackbybiologists.Apparentdiscontinuities,or“jumpiness,”inthefossilrecordledtotheoriesof“punctuatedequilibrium”andintensescrutinyofCambrianandpre-Cambrianfauna,sincethebasicbodyplansorphylafirstappearedandproliferatedduringthattime.

seealso“HoPeFUlMonsTers”;PUnCTUATedeQUIlIBrIUM;UnIForMITArIAnIsM

hanGinG oUt With darWin, stephen Jay Gould strikes a casual pose at down house, now the darwin museum. Photo©deltaWillis.

top: a computer portrait of Gould by Pat linse. ©Patlinse/skeptic.com.

215HAWAIIAnrAdIATIon

ChristianfromCrete;anArmenian;aMethodistfromthewildsofArkansas;aBuddhistfromChina;aBrahmanfromBenares.Finally,asalvationArmyColonelfromWapping.

[WhenIcheckedontheexperimentafteracoupleofdays]thecageofHigherAnimalswasallright,butintheothertherewasbutachaosofgoryoddsandendsofturbansandfezzesandplaidsandbonesandflesh—notaspecimenleftalive.ThesereasoningAnimalshaddisagreedonatheologicaldetailandcarriedthemattertoaHigherCourt.

seealsoBArnUM,PHIneAsT.;TWAIn,MArk

HaWaIIan RaDIatIonDiversity from Isolation

ifCharlesdarwinhadexploredtheHawaiian Islands(ratherthanthegalá-pagos,which so impressed him) hewould have seenmuchmore strikingexamplesofdiversityamongcloselyrelatedspecies.evolutionistsafterhim

havefoundinthesevolcanicislands,longisolatedfromthemajorcontinents,anextraordinarynaturallaboratoryofadaptiveradiation.

Mostfamousarethe23remainingspeciesoffinchlikebirdsknownasHawaiianhoneycreepersandthemorethan500differentfruitfliesthathaveevolved,diverging from island to islandandadapted todifferenthabitatsorfoodsonthesameislands.

during the several million years since their ancestors reached theislands,somehoneycreepersevolvedintoseedeaterswithheavybeaks;othersdevelopedstraight,thinbeaksforspearinginsects;whilestilloth-ersdivergedintoparrot-beakedspeciesanddelicatenectar-feederswith long curving bills and tubular tongues for probingflowers.Morethanhalfoftheoriginal47honeycreeperspecies have become extinct during the past 1,500years,sincetheadventofhumansandimportedpred-ators.(somewerewipedoutbytheoriginalPolynesiansettlers and others only during the past few hundredyearsbyeuropeans.)

Under the former conditions of isolation, fruit flies(with their very short reproductive cycle) radiated farbeyond thehoneycreepers.Among thehundredsofspe-cies,somehavebecomespecializedforfeedingonnectarorsugar;otherseatdecayingleaves;someareparasitesonspidereggs;andsomeliveonlyinasinglevalleyononeisland.Theyshow a spectacular diversity in their body shapes, butevenamongthosethatappearprettymuchthesame(eventootherfruitflies),theycanbetoldapartbytheirsoundsandbehavior.

Hawaiianfruitflypopulationshaveevolvedscoresofdif-ferent courtship behaviors by which to recognizemembersof theirownspecies, includingelaborateairborne “dances.”duringthelate1980s,researchersalsofoundthe“songs”ofHawaiianfruitfliesareasamazinglyvariedastheirbodies.somespeciesmakepulsingcricketlikesounds,whileotherssoundmore like cicadas thanflies. likebody shapesorgenes,these“songs”areprovidingmorecluesabouthowthevariousspeciesdivergedandspreadthroughouttheislands.

see also AdAPTATIon; dArWIn’s FInCHes; dIVergenCe,

PrInCIPleoF;IsolATIngMeCHAnIsMs

raPid evolUtion of honey-creepers from fairly recent common ancestors has produced scores of closely related but divergent spe-cies in the hawaiian islands. honey creepers with sharp, heavy beaks can penetrate bark, while delicate, elon-gated, curved beaks evolved in nectar-feeders. species with parrotlike beaks crush seeds and pits.

268 lAeTolIFooTPrInTs

The23-acreparkisopentothepublicfreeofcharge.Alargeclusteroffossilboneshasbeen leftunexcavatedandundisturbed,so thevisitorcansee thenaturalstate inwhichtheprofusionoffossilsoccursintheasphalt.Itisnotunusualtoseeasparroworsquirrelwanderfromtheparkintothepittodayandbecomeentrappedinthegooeytar,thesadspectacleofafossilinthemaking.

TheextensivecollectionsfromrancholaBrea(morethan565species)arestoredandexhibitedinthegeorgeC.PageMuseumoflaBreadiscoveriesinthepark.openedin1977,thePageMuseumfeatureslife-sizedoutdoorsculpturesofmastodons,seeminglytrappedintheactualtardeposits.Visitorscanalsoobservethemuseum’sscientistsandtechniciansastheymeticulouslyextractfossiltreasuresfromtheancienttardeposits.

laetolI FootPRIntsearliest Fossil Man-tracks

m aryleakeydescribeditas“perhapsthemostremarkablefindIhavemadeinmyentirecareer.”Theveteranpaleoanthropologistwasreferringneithertoafossilhom-inidskullnorastonetool,buttoatrackwayofpetrifiedfootprintsshehadexcavated

in1978nearanancientvolcanoinTanzania.Whenshefirstcameacrossthehominidprintsleakeywassceptical,butlatershebecameconvincedthatshehadfoundtheearliestprintsofman’sancestors,evidencethathominidsthree-and-three-quartermillionyearsagowalkeduprightwithafree-stridinggait,justaswedotoday.

Theseearliesthumanfootprintswerefoundatasitecalledlaetoli, inawoodedareaabout25milessouthofolduvaigorge,whereMaryleakey,herhusband,louis,andsonrichardhadmadesomanyimportantfossildiscoveries.TheywereactuallyfoundbyPaulI.Abell(1924–2004),achemistryprofessorfromtheUniversityofrhodeIsland,whohadaspecialinterestinpaleoclimatesandfor17yearsspenthissabbaticalshelpingtheleakeyssearchforhominidfossils.WorkingwithMaryleakey’steam,hewasthefirsttochanceuponahardenedfootprintinvolcanicashthatturnedouttobepartofan80-foottrailleftbyapairofadulthominidsandachildseveralmillionyearsago.

Preservedinthehardenedvolcanicmudaretracksofvariousanimals,includingspringhares,guineafowl,elephants,pigs,rhinos,buffaloes,hyenas,antelopes,baboons,andasaber-toothedcat.Amongthesearethetracksofthreehominids—alargeindividualwalk-ingslowlynorth,asmalleronefollowingbehind,andayoungster.Theyoungoneseemedtohavebeenfollowingalongsidethem,atonepointturningtolookaroundtotheleft.

likenearbyactivevolcanoesineastAfricatoday,theancientvolcanosadiman—veryneartheprints—occasionallybelchedoutcloudsofgrayashoverthesurroundingcountry-side.Thisashsetshardascementwhenitisfirstdampenedslightly,thendriedinthesun.Abriefshowermoistenedtheashlayer;tinyraindropcraterscanbeseeninitssurface.Thenthesuncameoutandhardenedit, leavingthisextraordinaryrecordofanupright-walkinghominidgroup,fromalmostfourmillionyearsago.

seealsoleAkey,MAry

laMaRcK, Jean-BaPtIste antoIne De Monet, cHeValIeR De (1744–1829)naturalist, evolutionist

P ioneerevolutionistJean-BaptisteAntoinedeMonet(laterknownastheChevalierdelamarck)camefromalonglineofhorsesoldiers,imbuedwithhonor,bravery,tenaci-ty,andadesireforglory.Whenlamarcktradedamilitarycareerforoneinscience,he

hadsimplyfoundanewfieldofcombat,andtothisday“lamarckians”remainembattled.Hiswar-wearyfather,determinedtoshieldhis11thchildfrombecomingcannonfodder,

sequesteredhimwiththeJesuitsasapriest-in-training.Butat19,youngJean-BaptistefledhisschooltojoinaregimentdefendingagermantownatthestartofthesevenyearWar.Withinafewdays,lamarckdistinguishedhimselfinthethickofbattle.seizingafieldcom-

footPrints in volCaniC ash were made four million

years ago by three upright hominids—possibly a male,

female, and child. other tracks nearby include those

of saber-toothed cats.

374

saltatIonevolutionary leaps

t heword“saltation,”derivedfromthelatin,meansjumpingorleapingfromplacetoplace,andisusedtodescribethepeculiarlocomotionofgrasshoppersandkangaroorats.

Inevolutionarystudies,“saltation”meansrapidchange,wherespeciesseemtoevolvebymacromutations,ratherthanthroughaslowseriesofintermediateforms.

WhenCharlesdarwinfirstexpressedhistheoryofevolution,headoptedthistimewornclichéaspartoftheevolutionaryprocess: Natura non facit saltum(naturemakesnoleaps).HisfriendThomasHuxleythoughtthatwasanunnecessaryburdenforthetheorytocarry.Althoughhewasastaunchdefenderofthegeneraltruthofevolution,Huxley’sreadingofthefossilrecordpresentedsomepuzzlesaboutevolutionaryrates.Manyspeciesappearedtobestable,showinglittlechangeoverlongperiods,whilecertaingroupsseemedtochangeanddivergefairlyrapidly.recent“punctuational”theoristsinclinemoretoHuxley’sview.

ofcourse,fromthevantagepointofahumanlifespan,evolutionisexcruciatinglyslow—whetherchangetakesplaceovermillionsofyearsorinmerethousands.

seealso“HoPeFUlMonsTers”;PUnCTUATedeQUIlIBrIUM

sanDWalKDarwin’s “thinking Path”

o neofthefirstthingsCharlesdarwindidwhenheandhiswifesettledindownevillage,inthekentishcountryside,wastoconstructacircularpaththroughthefieldsandwoodson

hisproperty.Hecalleditthe“sandwalk,”his“thinkingpath,”andhadthegardenersprinkleitslengthwithsand.

Thiswastobenoidlebitoflandscaping,butanessentialtoolforhiswork.eachmorningandeachafternoonforover40years,hetookhisturnsonthesandwalk,sometimesaccompaniedbyhislittleterrier.scientificfriendssuchasThomasHuxleyorsirJosephHooker,when theyvisited,would joinhim for theoreticaldiscus-sionsonhiswalks,ortotalkabout,inHooker’swords,“oldfriends,oldbooks,andthingsfarofftobothmindandeye.”

darwinwasinthehabitofplacingasmallpileofflintsatthecrossroadofthesandwalk,thenumberofflintsdependingonthedifficultyoftheproblemhewaspondering.Ifitwasa“threeflintproblem,”hewouldknockaflintoffwithhiswalkingstickeachtimehemadeacircuit;whentheflintsweregone,itwastimetoreturnhome.(Hismethodwasstrikinglysimilartothe“threepipeproblems”ofsherlockHolmes.)

“my thinKinG Path” was how Charles darwin de-

scribed his sandwalk, which he strolled several times a

day, pondering his scientific problems.

427

UnIFoRMItaRIanIsMslow, steady change

i ntheearly19thcentury,thetopgeologistsofenglandandFrance,amongthemthegreatgeorgesCuvier,were convinced catastrophists. They believed the geology of the earthcouldbeexplainedbysuchbiblicalcatastrophesasthegreatFlood,or“noachiandeluge”

astheycalledit.someevenattemptedtocalculatethedimensionsofnoah’sArk;CaptainrobertFitzroyoftheBeagle,forinstance,heldapettheorythatmammothsbecameextinctbecausethedoorofthearkwastoosmalltoadmitthem!

Charles lyell (1797–1895) published a revolutionary book,Principles of Geology (threevolumes,1830–1833),inwhichhetheorizedthatthegreatfeaturesoftheearthhadbeenpro-ducedbysmallcausesworkingatauniformrateoverimmenseperiodsoftime.Thesecouldstillbeobservedatworktoday,suchaswatercarryingsedimentsorwearingdownrocks.

WhenCharlesdarwinleftonhisvoyageaboardHMsBeagle,hetookthenewlypublishedfirstvolumeoflyell’sPrincipleswithhim.Ithadaprofoundeffectonhisgeologicalobserva-tions.In1832,whentheshipstoppedoveratMontevideo,ontheríodelaPlata,hereceivedthesecondvolumebymail.“IambecomeazealousdiscipleofMr.lyell’sviews,asknowninhisadmirablebook.”darwinwroteafriendin1835,“geologisinginsouthAmerica,Iamtemptedtocarrypartstoagreaterextenteventhanhedoes.”

Actualism,theconceptthatordinarypresentprocessesoperatedinthepast,isthekey-stoneofwhatweusuallycalluniformitarianthinking;itwasnotoriginalwithlyell,thoughhemadeitwidelypopular.(Inthemid-18thcenturyBuffon,forinstance,hadwrittenthat“inordertojudgewhathashappened,orevenwhatwillhappen,oneneedonlyexaminewhatishappening.”)

Fewnoticedthatlyellsplicedactualismwithotherideasthatseemedtobelogicalexten-sionsbut,infact,werenot.gradualismandothertheoriesweretiedontoactualismliketincanstoadog’stail.Theyhadnonecessaryconnectionorunity,butlyell’sskillfulpresenta-tionmadethemanacceptedpartofthepackagelatercalleduniformitarianism.(Amasterofargument,lyellhadtrainedasabarristerbeforeswitchingtogeology.)

Moderngeologyisuniformitarianinacceptingtheactualistnotionthatthestudyofpro-cessesobservabletodaycantelluswhathappenedinthepast,inpostulatinganimmenseagefortheearth,andinconcludingthatmanygreatgeologicfeaturesaretheproductsofslow,steadyforcescausinggradualchangeoververylongperiods.

However, geology is also catastrophic in deducing radical changes in the atmosphericgases,inattributingglobalmassextinctionstofairlyrapidshiftsinclimate,andintracingsomeoftheseinturntometeoricimpacts.Therehasalsobeenashifttowardthediscontinu-ous,orjumpy,viewofevolutionaryeventsknownaspunctuationalism.

Today’searthscientistsclaimlyell’sPrinciples of Geologyastheirfoundingdocumentbutviewitasamixedbagofcatastrophicanduniformitarianelements.

seealsoACTUAlIsM;grAdUAlIsM;lyell,sIrCHArles;sTeAdy-sTATeeArTH

434 WAllACe,AlFredrUssel

Wallace, alFReD RUssel (1823–1913) codiscoverer of natural selection

a fterpublicationoftheOrigin of Speciesin1859,evolutionbynaturalselection,biol-ogy’sgreatunifyingconcept,becamefamousas“darwin’stheory.”Firstannouncedand published jointly the previous year, it is actually the darwin-Wallace theory.

nevertheless,Charlesdarwinoftencalledit“mytheory,”whileAlfredrusselWallace,hispartnerandcoauthor,graciouslyinsisted,“It[is]actuallyyoursandyoursonly.”

Wallacecarriedmodestytoextremes,evencallinghisownbookonevolutionDarwinism (1889).Hadhebeenmoreambitiousandlessgenerous,evolutionarysciencemighthavebecomeknownas“Wallaceism.”

Anexplorer,zoologist,botanist,geologist,andanthropologist,Wallacewasabrilliantmaninanageofbrilliantmen.Famousnotonlyascocreatorofthenaturalselectiontheory,hewasthediscovererofthousandsofnewtropicalspecies,thefirsteuropeantostudyapesinthewild,apioneerinethnographyandzoogeography(distributionofanimals),andauthorofsomeofthebestbooksontravelandnaturalhistoryeverwritten,includingA Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro(1853)andThe Malay Archipelago(1869).Amonghisremarkablediscoveriesis“Wallace’sline,”anaturalfaunalboundarybetweenislands(nowknowntocoincidewithajunctionoftectonicplates)separatingAsian-derivedanimalsfromthoseevolvedinAustralia.

Bornin1823inUsk,england,asmalltownneartheWelshborder,Wallacewasraisedingenteelpoverty.HisfirstemploymentwashelpinghisbrotherJohnsurveylandparcelsforarailroad.Whilestillinhistwenties,heservedastintasaschoolmasterinleicester,wherehemetyoungHenryWalterBates,whosharedhispassionfornaturalhistory.onweekendbug-collectingjaunts,thewould-beadventurersdiscussedsuchfavoritebooksasthe Voy­age of HMS Beagle(1845)anddreamedofexploringthelushAmazonrainforestsofCharlesdarwin’secstaticdescriptions.

Anotherbookalsoinspiredthem:robertChambers’sanonymouslypublishedVestiges of Creation(1844),acontroversial,literarytreatiseonevolution.scornedbyscientists,Ves­tigeschampionedtheideathatnewspeciesoriginatethoughordinarysexualreproduction

rather than by spontaneous creation.Wallace andBates decidedtheywouldcombtheexoticjunglestocollectevidencethatmightproveordisprovethisexciting“developmenthypothesis”(onlylaterknownasevolution).Whendarwinhadembarkedonhisownvoy-ageofdiscoverysome20yearsearlier,hehadhadnosuchclearpurposeinmind.

sciencewasnotyetawell-establishedprofession,andnaturalistswereoftendedicatedamateursfromwealthyfamilies.Whendarwinwentonhiscircumglobalvoyage,hisfatherpaidallexpenses,evenprovidingaservanttoassistwithhiswork.Wallace’sachievementsareallthemoreremarkable,forhehadtofinancehisexpeditionsbysellingthousandsofnaturalhistoryspecimens,mainlyinsects,forafewcentsapiece.Whenhisexploringandcollectingdayswereover,Wallace struggled to supporthis familyonauthor’s royalties andbygradingexaminationpapers.(Hesaidin My Life(1905)thatthe“capabilityofamaningettingrichisinaninverseproportiontohisreflectivepowersinindirectproportiontohisimpudence.”)

BatesandWallacereachedPará,atthemouthoftheAmazon,inMay1848;theycollectedandexploredthesurroundingregionsforseveralmonths,thendecidedtosplitup.Wallacewentuptheunknown rio negro, leaving Bates to explore the upper Amazonregions. From 1848 until 1852, Wallace collected, explored, andmadenumerousdiscoveriesdespitemalaria,fatigue,andthemostmeagersupplies.

WhenhefinallyreturnedtorejoinBatesdownriver,hefoundthat

brilliant, eCCentriC, and utterly his own man, alfred

russel Wallace independently developed the theory of evo-

lution by natural selection.

435WAllACe,AlFredrUssel

hisbelovedyoungerbrotherhadtraveledacrosstheworldtojointheadventureandhadjustdiedofyellowfeverinBates’scamp.grief-stricken,exhausted,andsufferingfrommalariahimself,Wallaceboardedthenextshipforengland.Withhimwenthispreciousnotebooksandsketches,animmensecollectionofpreservedinsects,birds,andreptiles,andamenag-erieofliveparrots,monkeys,andotherjunglecreatures.

InthemiddleofthenorthAtlantic,asWallacesufferedanewattackofmalaria,theshipsuddenlyburstintoflames.HewroteinMy life,“Ibegantothinkthatalmostalltherewardofmyfouryearsofprivationanddangerwaslost.”Hewasabletorescueonlyafewnotebooksashedraggedhimselfintoalifeboat;everythingelseburnedorsankbeneaththewaves.InTravels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, herecalled:

Howmanytimes,whenalmostovercomebytheague,hadIcrawledintotheforestandbeenrewardedbysomeunknownandbeautifulspecies!Howmanyplaces,whichnoeuropean footbutmyownhad trodden,wouldhavebeenrecalledtomymemorybytherarebirdsandinsectstheyhadfurnishedtomycollection!...AndnowIhadnotonespecimentoillustrate...thewildscenesIhadbeheld!

ThemeasureofWallace’senormouscourageandresilienceshoweditselfshortlyafterreturningtoengland.Withtheinsurancemoneyhereceivedforpartofhislostcollections,heimmediatelysetoutonanewexpedition—thistimetotheMalayArchipelago(1854–1862).

WallacemasteredMalayandseveral tribal languages, forhewasintenselyinterested(asdarwinneverwas)in“becomingfamiliarwithmanners, customsandmodesof thoughtofpeople so far removedfromtheeuropeanracesandeuropeancivilization.”Aself-taughtfieldanthropologist, hemade pioneering contributions to ethnology andlinguisticsanddeveloped“ahighopinionofthemoralityofuncivilizedraces.”He laterrecalledwithsatisfactionthatwhilehe livedamongthemhenevercarriedagunorlockedhiscabindooratnight.

IntheMoluccashetrackedorangutansthroughthedeepforest,shotseveral fortheBritishMuseum’scollection,andraisedanorphanedinfantoranginhisfieldcamp.sincelocaltribesmenregardedthered-hairedapesas“menofthewoods,”theywerehorrifiedwhenheshotand skinned them, convincedhewouldnextwant to add their ownskullstohiscollection.

Wallacecollectednaturalhistoryspecimenswithanextraordinarypassion.AsherecountsinThe Malay Archipelago(1869),

Ifound...aperfectlynewandmostmagnificentspecies[ofbutterfly]....Thebeautyandbrilliancyofthisinsectareindescribable,andnonebutanaturalistcanunderstandtheintenseexcitementIexperienced....ontakingitoutofmynetandopeningthegloriouswings,myheartbegantobeatviolently,thebloodrushedtomyhead,andIfelt...likefainting...sogreatwastheexcitementproducedbywhatwillappeartomostpeopleaveryinadequatecause.

Wallacecametotheideaofevolutionnotthroughartificialselectionofdomesticani-mals, as darwin did, but through his observations of the natural distribution of plants,animals,andhumantribalgroupsandtheircompetitionforresources.likedarwin,hewasinfluencedbyThomasMalthus’sEssay on the Principle of Population(1798),whichhehadreadsomeyearsbefore.

In1855,whileinsarawak,hecomposed“myfirstcontributiontothegreatquestionoftheoriginofspecies.”CombininghisknowledgeofplantandanimaldistributionwithsirCharleslyell’saccountof“thesuccessionofspeciesintime,”hecameupwithaconclusionaboutwhenandwherespeciesoriginate.(“Thehow,”hewrote,“wasstillasecretonlytobepenetratedsomeyearslater.”)Hispaper,titled“onthelawWhichHasregulatedtheIntroductionofnewspecies,”statedthat“everyspecieshascomeintoexistencecoincident

natUralist, exPlorer, an-thropologist, and founder of zoogeography, alfred russel Wallace was also the first eu-ropean to observe orangutans in the forest.

436 WAllACe,AlFredrUssel

bothinspaceandtimewithapre-existing,closely-alliedspecies.”Thispreliminaryconclu-sion,heknew,“clearlypointedtosomekindofevolution.”

Publishedinanenglishnaturalhistoryjournalinseptember1855,Wallace’s“sarawaklaw”wasgenerallyignoredbythescientificworld.Whenheexpressedhisdisappointmentinalettertodarwin,“HerepliedthatbothsirCharleslyellandMr.edwardBlyth,twoverygoodmen, specially called his attention to it.”Writing years later, ThomasHuxley said,“onreadingitafreshIhavebeenastonishedtorecollecthowsmallwastheimpressionitmade.”

InFebruary1858,WallacewaslivingonTernate,oneoftheMoluccanIslands,andwassufferingfromasharpattackofintermittentmalarialfever,whichforcedhimtoliedownforseveralhourseveryafternoon.Fromhiscombinedaccountsina1903articleandinMy Life, his1905autobiography,hereareWallace’srecollectionsabouthisindependentdiscoveryofnaturalselection:

Itwasduringoneofthesefits,whileIwasthinkingoverthepossiblemodeoforiginofnewspecies thatsomehowmy thoughts turned to the“positivechecks” to increaseamongsav-agesandothersdescribed...inthecelebratedEssay on PopulationbyMalthus...Ihadreadadozen years before. These checks—disease, famine, accidents,wars, etc.—arewhat keepdownthepopulation....[Then]theresuddenlyflasheduponmetheideaofthesurvivalofthefittest...thatineverygenerationtheinferiorwouldinevitablybekilledoffandthesuperiorwouldremain. Consideringtheamountofindividualvariationthatmyexperienceasacollectorhadshownmetoexist...IbecameconvincedthatIhadatlengthfoundthelong-sought-forlawofnaturethatsolvedtheproblemoftheoriginofspecies....onthetwosucceedingevenings[I]wroteitoutcarefullyinordertosendittodarwinbythenextpost.

Itwasthisarticle,“ontheTendencyofVarietiestodepartIndefinitelyfromtheoriginalType”(1858),thatsentdarwinintoapanic,convincedhisfriendCharleslyell’swarningthathewouldbe“forestalled”byWallace“hadcometruewithavengeance.”

lyellandsirJosephHooker,attemptingtorescuetheirfriend’sthreatenedpriorclaim,arrangedtohaveWallace’spaperpublishedalongwithsomeofdarwin’searlydrafts.Theannouncementofthedarwin-Wallacetheoryofevolutionbymeansofnaturalselectionwasreadatthelinneansocietyandpublishedinitsjournalin1858;thefollowingyeardarwincompletedtheOrigin of Speciesandrusheditintoprint.

WallacewasinformedofthesedevelopmentswhilestillintheMoluccas,andhewrotethathehappilyandgraciouslyapproved.Whenhereturnedtoenglandin1862,darwinwasstillanxiousaboutWallace’sreaction,andwasrelievedtodiscoverhis“nobleandgenerousdisposition.”laterWallacemaintainedthatevenifhisonlycontributionwasgettingdarwintowritehisbook,hewouldbecontent.ButthefactremainsthatWallacewasnotgivenanopportunitytoexercisehisnobilityorgenerosity,sincethejointpublicationwasdecidedwithoutanyoneconsultinghim.

Inaddition to thechroniclesofhis travels,Wallace turnedout a remarkable seriesofbooks,alllandmarkstudiesinevolutionarybiology:Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (1870),Geographical Distribution of Animals(1876),Island Life(1880),andDar­winism(1889).InThe World of Life(1910),hedescribesthelivingearthasasingle,complexsystem,anideathatseems,insomesense,tohaveforeshadowedthegaiahypothesis:

Therearenowintheuniverseinfinitegradesofpower,infinitegradesofknowledgeandwis-dom,infinitegradesofinfluenceofhigherbeingsuponlower....Thisvastandwonderfuluni-verse,withitsalmostinfinitevarietyofforms,motions,andreactionsofpartuponpart,fromsunsandsystemsuptoplantlife,animallife,andthehumanlivingsoul,haseverrequiredandstillrequiresthecontinuousco-ordinatedagencyofmyriadsofsuchintelligences.

Unlike the cloistered, tactful darwin, in his later yearsWallacewas imprudently out-spoken about his religious and political beliefs. outraged colleagues wanted to dismisshimasa“senilecrank”forhisstrongadvocacyofutopiansocialism,pacifism,wildernessconservation,women’srights,psychicresearch,phrenology,andspiritualism,aswellashis

yoUnG WallaCe set off for the brazilian rain forest on a quest to find evidence for or

against the idea of evolution.

437WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL

campaign against vaccination. Wallace replied he was not “brain-softening” with age, but had held many of these beliefs for 30 years.

Spiritualism strongly influenced his ideas on human evolution, causing him to differ with Darwin in 1869 on whether natural selection could explain “higher intelligence” in man. Wallace thought the human mind was supernaturally injected into an evolved ape from “the unseen world of Spirit.” He also rejected Darwin’s concept of “sexual selection,” which he dismissed as merely a special case of natural selection. Although the two men remained friendly and mutu-ally respectful, they never really understood each other’s perspective. [See SPIRITUALISM; “WALLACE’S PROBLEM.”] Nevertheless, Wallace was called upon to be an honored pallbearer at Darwin’s funeral at Westminster Abbey.

In 1876, Wallace helped introduce a Spiritualist paper at the British Asso-ciation’s scientific meetings, which apparently touched off the notorious Slade affair. [See SLADE TRIAL.] He testified for the defense at the trial of Henry Slade and often defended other professional “spirit-mediums” who were accused of conducting fraudulent “psychic experiments.” In 1881, Wallace joined the Society for Psychic Research.

He headed the Land Nationalisation Society in 1882 and openly declared himself a Socialist in 1890. Some of his admirers had recommended he be appointed director of the proposed new park at Epping Forest, but Wallace immediately lost the position by stating that he would keep the woodland exactly as it was for future generations, allowing no restaurants, hotels, or other concessions.

When Darwin started a petition among scientists to get Wallace a civil pen-sion, botanist Sir Joseph Hooker and others objected to appealing for govern-ment funds on behalf of “a public and leading spiritualist.” However, Darwin and Huxley pre-vailed and Wallace got his pension. (Huxley, though differing with Wallace on many issues, assured him in 1866 that he would never seek “a Commission of Lunacy against you”!)

In his last book, Social Environment and Moral Progress (1913), Wallace cataloged the horrors of the urban poor, colonial exploitation, and unchecked greed: “It is not too much to say that our whole system of society is rotten from top to bottom, and the Social Environ-ment as a whole, in relation to our possibilities and our claims, is the worst that the world has ever seen.” He was deeply saddened and outraged, as he wrote in The Wonderful Cen-tury (1898), by “reckless destruction of the stored-up products of nature, which is even more deplorable because more irretrievable.”

He was furious when apologists for the status quo told him society needed no safety net for its poor or infirm, since, according to the “law” of natural selection, they ought to be eliminated. “Having discovered the theory,” he fumed in his 1913 book, “it is rather amusing to be told . . . that I do not know what natural selection is, nor what it implies.” Eugenicists who sought to regulate human breeding for selective improvement he considered “danger-ous and detestable,” and he warned that lawmakers were “sure to bungle disastrously” any legislation on the subject.

Influenced by the socialist Henry George, Wallace urged a policy of land nationalization and an economy in which “all shall contribute their share either of physical or mental labor, and . . . every one shall obtain the full and equal reward for their work. [Then] the future progress of the race will be rendered certain by the fuller development of its higher nature acted on by a special form of selection which will then come into play.”

What “special form of selection” might be the salvation of humanity? Wallace argued that human populations produce many more males than females, but in his day young men were dying by the millions. Alcoholism, dangerous occupations, and particularly the frequent wars left Europe with a huge proportion of unattached women. But under a just and nonmili-taristic social system, Wallace predicted, the number of males would rise dramatically, until they greatly outnumbered women: “This will lead to a greater rivalry for wives, and will give to women the power of rejecting all the lower types of character among their suitors.” The

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well-educated,enfranchised,responsible“womenofthefuture[willbe]theregeneratorsoftheentirehumanrace...inaccordancewithnaturallaws.”

Wallace’sspecialhopeforthesalvationofmankind,then,wasnoneotherthan“sexualselection,”oneofdarwin’sfavoritemechanismsforexplainingtheevolutionofman—whichWallacehadalways insisteddidnot exist!However,Wallace addeda twist todarwiniansexualselection:anexplicitacknowledgmentof the largeevolutionaryeffectsofaslightchangeinsexratio,asurprisinglymodernwayofthinkingaboutpopulations.

duringthe1970sand1980s,AlfredrusselWallacebecomeaheroamongdisaffectedacademicsandindependentscholars.Theysawinhimabrilliantscientist,workingoutsidetheestablishment,scrabblingforaliving,snubbedbythosewithwealthandposition,perse-cutedforunpopularsocialviews—possiblyevendeprivedofhisrightfulplaceinhistory.yetWallacewasmorallytriumphantasagreathumanbeingandfearlesstruthseeker,cheerful,optimistic,andproductiveintohisninetiethyear.

In1985,theBritishentomologicalsociety,ofwhichWallacewasoncepresident,launchedaseriesofmajorexpeditionstostudytheinsectsoftheworld’stropicalrainforests.Theycalledit“ProjectWallace.”

seealsoBATes,HenryWAlTer;BeeTles;gAIAHyPoTHesIs;HAMPden,JoHn;PHrenology;

“sArAWAklAW”;seXUAlseleCTIon;VESTIGES OF CREATION;WAllACe’slIne

Wallace’s lInelandmark in Zoogeography

a lfredrusselWallace(1823–1913),thetalentedenglishnaturalistwhocodiscoveredthetheoryofevolutionbynaturalselection,hasoftenbeentheforgottenmaninthedarwin-Wallacetheory.Butthereisanothermonumenttohisbrilliancethatstands

alone,andcanstillbeseentodayoneverygeologist’sandbiologist’smapof theworld:Wallace’sline.

WallaCe’s line is an inferred natural boundary between animals evolved

from asian precursors (western side) and those of

australian (eastern side). a century after Wallace proposed it, geologists confirmed that his line is near the edge of the indo-australian plate.