bronchodilators, long-acting beta-agonists therapeutic ...€¦ · treatment can be initiated with...

February 2020 Proprietary Information. Restricted Access – Do not disseminate or copy without approval. © 2004-2020 Magellan Rx Management. All Rights Reserved.

Bronchodilators, Long-Acting Beta-Agonists Therapeutic Class Review (TCR)

February 6, 2020

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, digital scanning, or via any information storage or retrieval system without the express written consent of Magellan Rx Management.

All requests for permission should be mailed to:

Magellan Rx Management Attention: Legal Department

6950 Columbia Gateway Drive Columbia, Maryland 21046

The materials contained herein represent the opinions of the collective authors and editors and should not be construed to be the official representation of any professional organization or group, any state Pharmacy and Therapeutics committee, any state Medicaid Agency, or any other clinical committee. This material is not intended to be relied upon as medical advice for specific medical cases and nothing contained herein should be relied upon by any patient, medical professional or layperson seeking information about a specific course of treatment for a specific medical condition. All readers of this material are responsible for independently obtaining medical advice and guidance from their own physician and/or other medical professional in regard to the best course of treatment for their specific medical condition. This publication, inclusive of all forms contained herein, is intended to be educational in nature and is intended to be used for informational purposes only. Send comments and suggestions to [email protected].

mailto:[email protected]

| Bronchodilators, Long-Acting Beta-Agonists – February 2020 Proprietary Information. Restricted Access – Do not disseminate or copy without approval. © 2004-2020 Magellan Rx Management. All Rights Reserved.

FDA-APPROVED INDICATIONS

Drug Manufacturer

Reversible

Bronchospasm Prevention of

Exercise-Induced

Broncho-constriction

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary

Disease (COPD)

Age of Use

(years) Prevention

and Treatment

Relief

arformoterol inhalation solution

(Brovana®)1

Sunovion

-- -- -- X ≥ 18

formoterol inhalation solution

(Perforomist®)2

Mylan

-- -- -- X ≥ 18

indacaterol inhalation powder (Arcapta™ Neohaler™)3

Sunovion -- -- -- X ≥ 18

olodaterol inhalation spray (Striverdi® Respimat®)4

Boehringer Ingelheim

-- -- -- X ≥ 18

salmeterol DPI (Serevent® Diskus)5

GlaxoSmithKline X -- X X ≥ 4

DPI=dry powder inhaler (breath activated device); COPD=Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Arformoterol (Brovana), formoterol (Perforomist), indacaterol (Arcapta Neohaler), and olodaterol (Striverdi) are not indicated for the treatment of acute deteriorations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or the management of asthma.

Salmeterol (Serevent Diskus) is only approved for use in patients with asthma when used in combination with an inhaled corticosteroid (ICS).

OVERVIEW

Beta2-agonist bronchodilators are used for the treatment and prevention of bronchospasm associated with asthma, prophylaxis of exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB), and in the treatment of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD).

Asthma

Prevalence of asthma in the United States continues to rise. More than 25 million Americans have asthma, and approximately 6 million of these are children.6 Further, the National Health Statistics Report shows that asthma appears to disproportionately affect minority groups, females, children, and individuals of low socioeconomic status which can place significant pressure on public health systems.7 The National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP) of the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) has defined asthma as a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which many cells and cellular elements play a role.8 In susceptible individuals, inflammation may cause recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing. These episodes are usually associated with airflow obstruction that is often reversible, either spontaneously or with treatment. The inflammation also causes an increase in bronchial hyper-responsiveness to a variety of stimuli.


Medications to treat asthma are classified as controllers or relievers. Controllers are medications taken daily on a long-term basis to maintain asthma control. Relievers are medications used on an as-needed basis that act quickly to reverse bronchoconstriction and relieve symptoms.9

The mainstay of asthma therapy is the use of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) alone or in combination with long-acting beta2-agonists (LABAs) as controller medications.10 While the corticosteroid reduces inflammation, the LABA acts principally to dilate the airways by relaxing airway smooth muscle. These agents lead to improvements in lung function and symptoms and reduce the need for short-acting beta2-agonists (SABAs) for quick relief. Due to the increased risk of severe exacerbations with regular or frequent use, short-acting beta agonist (SABA)-only treatment is no longer recommended.11 Likewise, LABAs are not to be used as monotherapy for controlling asthma. For most asthma patients, treatment can be initiated with an as-needed low dose ICS-formoterol, daily low dose ICS, or low dose ICS taken whenever SABA is taken.

The 2019 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) guidelines offer a control-based management plan to adjust treatment in a continuous cycle of assessment, treatment, and review of the patient’s response as it relates to symptom control, future risk of exacerbations, and side effects.12 In patients whose asthma is not adequately controlled on a low dose ICS-containing controller despite good adherence and correct technique, a step up in treatment may be added until control is achieved. A combination ICS/LABA product is the preferred step-up treatment for adults and adolescents ≥ 12 years of age currently on a low dose ICS or as needed low dose ICS-formoterol who continue to have persistent symptoms or exacerbations. For children aged 6 to 11 years with persistent symptoms, an increase in ICS dose or a combination low dose ICS/LABA agent is recommended. If control is maintained for at least 3 months on the current regimen, treatment can be stepped down to the lowest step and dosage that maintains control. The effect of a LABA or combination LABA/ICS has not been adequately studied in children aged 5 years and younger.13 Therefore, LABAs cannot be recommended in this patient population. The stepwise approach for asthma control in the GINA guidelines is described below. Notably, reliever therapy can be considered for symptom management of prior to exercise if needed.


Stepwise Approach to Asthma Control* from 2019 GINA Guidelines – Controller Therapy14

Step Age Group Preferred Controller Other Controller Options

Step 1:

Symptom-driven or regular controller

≥ 12 years ▪ As-needed low dose ICS-formoterol (unlabeled indication)†

▪ Low dose ICS whenever SABA is taken (unlabeled indication)

6 to 11 years

-- ▪ Low dose ICS whenever SABA is taken (unlabeled indication) or daily low dose ICS

Step 2:

One controller AND an as-needed reliever medication

≥ 12 years ▪ Low dose ICS or as needed low dose ICS-formoterol (unlabeled indication)†

▪ Leukotriene modifier or low dose ICS whenever SABA is taken (unlabeled indication)

6 to 11 years

▪ Low dose ICS ▪ Leukotriene modifier or low dose ICS whenever SABA is taken (unlabeled indication)

Step 3: Two controllers and an as-needed reliever medication

≥ 12 years ▪ Low dose ICS/LABA ▪ Medium dose ICS OR low dose ICS + leukotriene modifier

▪ Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) may be considered in adults with allergic rhinitis, house dust mite sensitivity, and FEV > 70% predicted

6 to 11 years

▪ Low dose ICS/LABA or medium dose ICS

▪ Low dose ICS + leukotriene modifier

Step 4:

Two controllers and an as-needed reliever medication

≥ 12 years ▪ Medium dose ICS/LABA ▪ High dose ICS, add-on tiotropium, or add-on leukotriene modifier

▪ Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) may be considered in adults with allergic rhinitis, house dust mite sensitivity, and FEV > 70% predicted

6 to 11 years

▪ Medium dose ICS/LABA; refer for expert advice

▪ High dose ICS/LABA, add-on tiotropium, or add-on leukotriene modifier

Step 5:


≥ 12 years ▪ High dose ICS/LABA; refer for phenotypic assessment with or without add-on therapy (e.g., tiotropium, anti-IgE [omalizumab], anti-interleukin-5[IL5]/5R [mepolizumab, reslizumab, benralizumab], anti-IL4R [dupilumab])

▪ Add-on low dose oral corticosteroid, considering adverse effects

6 to 11 years

▪ Refer for phenotypic assessment with or without add-on therapy (e.g., anti-IgE [omalizumab)

▪ Add-on anti-IL-5 or add-on low dose oral corticosteroid, considering adverse effects

FEV1 = forced expiratory volume in 1 second; ICS = inhaled corticosteroid; IgE = Immunoglobulin E; IL-5 = interleukin-5; LABA = long acting beta2-agonist; SABA = short acting beta2-agonist

*Additional recommendations published regarding the assessment and treatment of severe asthma, incorporating other treatment modalities (e.g., tiotropium, anti-IgE [omalizumab], anti-IL5/5R [mepolizumab, reslizumab, benralizumab], anti-IL4R [dupilumab], based on age).

† The data supporting the use of low dose ICS/formoterol as a reliever medication are primarily derived from budesonide-formoterol.


Stepwise Approach to Asthma Control* from 2019 GINA Guidelines (continued) – Reliever Therapy15

Age Group Step Preferred Reliever Other Reliever Options

≥ 12 years Steps 1 and 2 ▪ As-needed low dose ICS-formoterol (unlabeled indication)†

▪ As needed SABA

Steps 3 through 5 ▪ As-needed low dose ICS-formoterol (unlabeled indication)‡

6 to 11 years Steps 1 through 5 ▪ As needed SABA --

ICS = inhaled corticosteroid; SABA = short acting beta2-agonist

*Additional recommendations published regarding the assessment and treatment of severe asthma, incorporating other treatment modalities (e.g., tiotropium, anti-IgE [omalizumab], anti-IL5/5R [mepolizumab, reslizumab, benralizumab], anti-IL4R [dupilumab], based on age).


‡ Low dose ICS-formoterol is reliever for those prescribed budesonide-formoterol or beclomethasone dipropionate-formoterol maintenance and reliever therapy. GINA does not recommend use of ICS-formoterol as the reliever for patients taking combination ICS/LABA with a different LABA; rather, a SABA should be used in these patients.

In 2007, the National Asthma Education and Prevention Panel (NAEPP) released a summary of the third report of the Expert Panel (EPR-3) emphasizing the importance of asthma control and identifying asthma severity as the intrinsic intensity of the disease process.16 They recommend that, for patients over age 5 years with moderate persistent asthma or asthma not controlled by low dose corticosteroids, consideration be given for use of a combination of ICS and LABA or for increasing the dose of ICS. For patients with severe persistent asthma, a combination of a LABA and an ICS is recommended. For exercise induced bronchospasm (EIB), LABAs may be used for prevention; however, it is noted that frequent or chronic use may disguise poorly controlled persistent asthma.

The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology issued a practice parameter regarding EIB in 2016.17 They state that SABAs should be prescribed for protection against EIB and to accelerate recovery of lung function when in occurs (Strong recommendation, Evidence level A). They state that a single dose of SABA, LABA, or both on an intermittent basis (e.g., < 4 times/week) may protect against or mitigate symptoms of EIB (Strong recommendation, Evidence level A); however, prescribers should be cautious with daily use of inhaled beta-agonists, with or without an ICS, as this may lead to tolerance or decreased efficacy (Strong recommendation, Evidence level A).

COPD

The 2020 edition of the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) guidelines define chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) as a common, preventable, and treatable disease in which its pulmonary component is characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation that is usually progressive and is associated with airway and/or alveolar abnormalities caused by exposure to noxious particles or gases.18 It is estimated that the number of Americans with a COPD diagnosis is approximately 16 million.19 However, the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends against routine screening for COPD in asymptomatic adults.20

Pharmacotherapy for COPD is used to decrease symptoms, reduce the frequency and severity of exacerbations and hospitalizations, and improve health status and exercise tolerance. Bronchodilator medications are central to the symptomatic management of COPD.21,22,23,24 They improve emptying of the lungs, tend to reduce dynamic hyperinflation at rest and during exercise, and improve exercise performance.25 They are given either on an as-needed basis for the relief of persistent or worsening


symptoms or on a regular basis to prevent or reduce symptoms. Regular bronchodilation with these drugs does not modify the decline of lung function in mild COPD or the prognosis of the disease.26 The principal bronchodilator treatments are beta2-agonists, anticholinergics, and theophylline. These may be given either as monotherapy or in combination. While short-acting beta agonists (SABAs) can be used on an as-needed basis in mild COPD, regular treatment with a long-acting agent is required as the disease progresses.27

In their 2020 updated Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of COPD, GOLD stresses that a diagnosis of COPD should be considered in any individual who has dyspnea, chronic cough/sputum production, and a history of exposure to risk factors specific to the disease.28 Spirometry is required to effectively establish a clinical diagnosis of COPD. A post-bronchodilator forced expiratory volume in 1 second to forced vital capacity ratio (FEV1/FVC) < 0.7 confirms presence of airflow limitation and a diagnosis of COPD. The assessment of FEV1 alone is a poor descriptor of disease status. Therefore, assessment of the patient’s symptoms, future risks of exacerbations, severity of airflow limitation, and comorbidities is essential in guiding therapy. The GOLD Classification of Airflow Limitation, which is divided into 4 grades (GOLD 1 [mild] to GOLD 4 [very severe]), utilizes these airflow limitation grades in addition to the number of exacerbations/hospitalizations to describe a patient’s disease severity. A COPD exacerbation is defined as an acute event characterized by worsening of the patient’s respiratory symptoms that varies from the normal daily variations and requires a change in medication. Hospitalization for a COPD exacerbation signifies a poor prognosis and increased risk of death. The COPD Assessment Test (CAT, 0-40) or the Clinical COPD Questionnaire (CCQ) is recommended for a comprehensive assessment of symptoms. The Modified British Medical Research Council (mMRC) questionnaire may be used but only assesses breathlessness. The St. George’s Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ) is a comprehensive measure of health status but is considered too complex for routine practice. Notably, GINA uses the term asthma-COPD overlap to describe patients with features of both disease states; however, this description was removed from the GOLD guidelines to emphasize that they are different disorders, regardless of overlapping symptoms.29,30

Previously, patient groups were classified into an alphabetic (ABCD) classification system based on exacerbation risk and symptoms in combination with airway limitation. However, patients are now classified separately by both their GOLD severity (airflow limitation) and exacerbation/symptom assessment (e.g., GOLD grade 4, group D). Therefore, exacerbation risk and symptoms alone are used to define the ABCD classification. The patient groups, for which the definitions of airflow limitation and numerical values for exacerbations/symptoms have not changed, are summarized as follows:

Assessment of Airflow Limitation:

o GOLD 1: mild, FEV1 ≥ 80% predicted

o GOLD 2: moderate, FEV1 50% to 79% predicted

o GOLD 3: severe, FEV1 30% to 49% predicted

o GOLD 4: very severe, FEV1 < 30% predicted


Assessment of Exacerbation Risk and Symptoms:

o Patient Group A – Low Risk, Less Symptoms: 0 to 1 exacerbations per year (not leading to hospitalization); and CAT score < 10 or mMRC grade 0 to 1

o Patient Group B – Low Risk, More Symptoms: 0 to 1 exacerbations per year (not leading to hospitalization); and CAT score ≥ 10 or mMRC grade ≥ 2

o Patient Group C – High Risk, Less Symptoms: ≥ 2 exacerbations per year or ≥ 1 exacerbation leading to hospitalization; and CAT score < 10 or mMRC grade 0 to 1

o Patient Group D – High Risk, More Symptoms: ≥ 2 exacerbations per year or ≥ 1 exacerbation leading to hospitalization; and CAT score ≥ 10 or mMRC grade ≥ 2

The 2011 American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society (ACP/ACCP/ATS/ERS) guidelines include a fifth category. This “At Risk” group is defined as the presence (FEV1/FVC ratio < 0.7 and FEV1 ≥ 50% predicted) or absence (FEV1/FVC ratio ≥ 0.7) of mild to moderate airflow obstruction in asymptomatic individuals who also have other risk factors, including smoking or exposure to pollutants with cough, sputum, or dyspnea, or a family history of respiratory disease.31 These guidelines support the idea that history or physical examinations alone are poor predictors of airflow obstruction. Airway obstruction, as indicated by a post-bronchodilator ratio of FEV1/FVC < 0.7, can be predicted by the presence of wheezing on auscultation, smoking history greater than 55 pack years, and patient self-report of wheezing. Spirometry is a key diagnostic tool to determine respiratory disease and the severity of airflow obstruction. The guidelines recommend inhaled bronchodilators for symptomatic COPD patients with a FEV1 between 60% and 80% of the predicted value (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).32 For those with a FEV1 < 60%, they also recommend inhaled bronchodilators (strong recommendation, moderate-quality evidence) as well as monotherapy with either a long-acting muscarinic antagonists (LAMA) or long-acting beta2-agonists (LABA) (strong recommendation, moderate-quality evidence). Treatment selection should be based on patient-specific factors (e.g., adverse effects, preference, cost). Combination therapy may also be considered in this population (e.g., LAMA, LABA, or ICS) (weak recommendation, moderate-quality evidence). Notably, the guidelines do not support routine treatment with long-acting inhaled bronchodilators in the asymptomatic “At Risk” group who do not have airflow obstruction as there are limited data to support that such treatment influences the trajectory of the disease.33

The 2020 GOLD guidelines recommend treatment plans for COPD based on the aforementioned patient group categories, identified by symptoms/exacerbation risk and focus on individualized therapy.34 Bronchodilator medications continue to be central to symptom management in COPD across all groups. While the guidelines review multiple medications and state that bronchodilators are generally effective, GOLD notes that LAMAs, also known as long-acting anticholinergics, have a greater effect on exacerbation reduction and decreased hospitalizations compared to LABAs (Evidence A and B, respectively). Likewise, they generally state that combination treatment with long-acting bronchodilators (e.g., beta2-agonist and anticholinergic) is more effective than bronchodilator monotherapy. In regards to anti-inflammatory therapy, the addition of an inhaled corticosteroid (ICS) to a LABA is more effective than a LABA alone (Evidence A); however, regular treatment with ICS increases the risk of pneumonia especially in those with severe disease (Evidence A). Triple therapy (ICS/LAMA/LABA) is more effective compared to an ICS/LABA, LABA/LAMA, or LAMA monotherapy (Evidence, A). For the treatment of stable COPD with bronchodilators, LABAs and LAMAs are preferred over short-acting agents except in the case of patients with occasional dyspnea (Evidence A). Inhaled


therapy is also preferred over oral therapy (Evidence A). Patients may be initiated on either bronchodilator monotherapy or dual bronchodilator therapy (LAMA/LABA); those initiated on monotherapy with persistent symptoms should be escalated to dual bronchodilator therapy (Evidence A). For the treatment of stable COPD with ICS, monotherapy with an ICS is not recommended (Evidence A), but long-term treatment with an ICS may be considered in addition to a LABA in patients with a history of exacerbations despite bronchodilator therapy (Evidence A). For the treatment of acute exacerbations, GOLD recommends the use of a SABA with or without a short-acting anticholinergic agent (Evidence C).

Following these general medication recommendations, GOLD provides a treatment algorithm based on the patient’s ABCD exacerbation/symptom assessment.35 Previously, GOLD had focused on recommendations for preferred and alternative initial therapy. In the revised guidelines, Group A patients should be initiated on a bronchodilator (short- or long-acting). Patients in Group B should be initiated on a LABA or LAMA. Patients in Group C should be initiated on a LAMA, and Group D patients should be initiated on a LAMA + LABA (if symptomatic), LAMA monotherapy, or a LABA + ICS (may be preferred in patients with elevated eosinophils). For follow-up pharmacologic treatment, GOLD bases recommendations on the predominant treatable trait, either dyspnea or exacerbations. For dyspnea in patients on a LABA or LAMA, the next step is a LABA plus LAMA, and if dyspnea persists, a device or drug switch should be considered, along with investigation and treatment of other causes of dyspnea. For those on a LABA plus ICS, escalation to triple therapy can be considered. Likewise, de-escalation of the ICS component or a switch to LABA plus LAMA may be considered if there is a lack of response to the ICS or adverse effects (e.g., pneumonia). For targeting exacerbations, those on a LABA or LAMA can have treatment escalated to LABA plus LAMA, and subsequently, triple therapy (LABA/LAMA/ICS) in patients with an elevated eosinophil count (≥ 100 cells/μL). For those on a LABA or LAMA with a select eosinophil count (≥ 300 cells/μL or ≥ 100 cells/μL plus ≥ 2 moderate exacerbations or 1 hospitalization), treatment with a LABA plus ICS is recommended, followed by triple therapy if needed. If further escalation is needed or escalation is needed in those with an eosinophil count < 100 cells/μL, the addition of roflumilast or azithromycin can be considered in select patients. Similar to targeting dyspnea, de-escalation also should be considered, particularly of the ICS component or a switch to LABA plus LAMA in those on triple therapy may be considered if there is a lack of response to the ICS or adverse effects (e.g., pneumonia).

In 2017, ATS and ERS published joint guidelines on the prevention of COPD exacerbations.36 They suggest treatment with an oral mucolytic agent to prevent future exacerbations in patients who have COPD with moderate or severe airflow obstruction and exacerbations despite optimal inhaled therapy (conditional recommendation, low quality of evidence). For patients who have COPD with moderate or severe airflow obstruction and a history of at least 1 COPD exacerbations during the previous year, they recommend use of a LAMA over LABA monotherapy to prevent future exacerbations (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence). For patients with severe or very severe airflow obstruction and COPD exacerbations despite optimal inhaled therapy, they suggest a macrolide antibiotic (also for moderate airflow obstruction) or roflumilast (select patients with chronic bronchitis) to prevent future exacerbations (conditional recommendation, low [macrolide] and moderate [roflumilast] quality of evidence).

In 2015, ACCP published a joint guideline with the Canadian Thoracic Society (CTS) regarding the prevention of acute exacerbations of COPD.37 To prevent moderate to severe exacerbations in patients with moderate to severe COPD, they recommend use of a LABA or a LAMA over no therapy (placebo)


(Grade 1B and 1A, respectively). In this same group, they recommend the use of a LAMA over a LABA (Grace 1C) and a LAMA over a short-acting muscarinic antagonist (SAMA) (Grade 1A). To prevent mild to moderate exacerbations in patients with moderate to severe COPD, they recommend use of a SAMA over a SABA (Grade 2C) and a SAMA + LABA over a LABA alone (Grade 2C). In patients with moderate to severe COPD, they recommend use of a SAMA + SABA over SABA monotherapy (Grade 2B) to prevent acute moderate exacerbations and use of a LABA over a SAMA to prevent acute exacerbations (Grade 2C). In patients with stable moderate to very severe COPD, ACCP recommends maintenance therapy with an ICS + LABA over placebo, ICS monotherapy, and LABA monotherapy (Grade 1B, 1B, and 1C, respectively) to prevent acute exacerbations. For patients with stable COPD, they recommend either combination LAMA/LABA therapy or LAMA monotherapy as both are effective for exacerbations (Grade 1C). Likewise, in stable patients, either ICS/LABA or LAMA monotherapy is recommended (Grade 1C) and either a LAMA + ICS + LABA or LAMA monotherapy is recommended to prevent exacerbations (Grade 2C).

Devices

In 2005, the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) and the American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology (ACAAI) issued joint evidence-based guidelines for selecting aerosol delivery devices for use in asthma or COPD.38 The authors performed a systematic review of randomized controlled trials comparing the efficacy and adverse effects of treatment using nebulizers versus pressurized metered-dose inhalers (MDIs), with or without a spacer/holding chamber, versus dry powder inhalers (DPIs) as delivery systems for beta2-agonists, anticholinergic agents, and corticosteroids in several commonly encountered clinical settings and patient populations. DPIs are breath-actuated devices that release the medicine in the form of a dry powder when the user inhales. The authors conclude that devices used for the delivery of bronchodilators and steroids can be equally efficacious.

In children 5 years of age and younger, the 2019 GINA update maintains that inhaled therapy constitutes the cornerstone of asthma treatment.39 The preferred delivery system is a pressurized MDI with a valved spacer (with face mask for < 4 years old and mouthpiece for most 4 to 5 year olds). Since the dose may vary considerably from one spacer device to another, a spacer that has documented efficacy in young children is recommended. Nebulizers, the only viable alternative delivery system in children, should be reserved for the minority of children who cannot be taught effective use of a spacer device. Arformoterol (Brovana) and formoterol (Perforomist) inhalation solutions are delivered via a nebulizer. The breath-activated DPIs include Diskus (salmeterol [Serevent]), and Neohaler (indacaterol [Arcapta]). DPIs require high inspiratory flow rates and may not work effectively in a patient with severe COPD. DPIs are also associated with high oropharyngeal deposition. Respimat, is not a breath-activated device; it is designed to release a soft mist of fine particles that leads to a lower amount of drug depositing in the mouth and throat and improved delivery of drug to the lungs compared to the pressurized MDI and DPI devices.40,41 Although, the Respimat is not a breath-activated device and does require coordination of actuation and inhalation. Comparative studies of LABA agents delivered via Respimat and DPI devices are lacking.

The 2020 GOLD guidelines place a focus on the assessment of inhaler technique and adherence to improve therapeutic outcomes; these should be assessed regularly.42


PHARMACOLOGY43,44,45,46,47

Beta-agonists stimulate adenyl cyclase, the enzyme that catalyzes the formation of cyclic-3'5' adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP) from adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Increased cyclic AMP levels are associated with relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle and inhibition of release of mediators of immediate hypersensitivity, especially from mast cells. Beta2-agonists relieve reversible bronchospasm by relaxing the smooth muscles of the bronchioles in conditions associated with asthma, COPD, or bronchiectasis. Bronchodilation may additionally facilitate expectoration.48,49

Although there are both beta1 and beta2 receptors in the heart, the latter are more predominant in the lungs, where they serve as the primary adrenergic receptors in bronchial smooth muscle. In order to reduce cardiac toxicities (e.g., tachyarrhythmias), the use of beta2 specific agonists is preferred in the treatment of bronchospasm. To further reduce cardiac toxicities, non-systemic dosage forms given by inhalation are preferred to oral dosage forms.

PHARMACOKINETICS50,51,52,53,54,55

Drug Relative ß2

Specificity Onset of Action

(minutes) Duration of Action

(hours)

Long Acting Inhalation Agents

arformoterol inhalation solution (Brovana)

ß2 >>> ß1 7-20 12

formoterol inhalation solution (Perforomist)

ß2 >>> ß1 11-13 12

indacaterol inhalation powder

(Arcapta Neohaler) ß2 >>> ß1 5 24

olodaterol inhalation spray

(Striverdi Respimat) ß2 >>> ß1 5-20 24

salmeterol DPI

(Serevent Diskus) ß2 >>> ß1 30-48 12

CONTRAINDICATIONS/WARNINGS56,57,58,59,60

Salmeterol DPI (Serevent Diskus) contains a boxed warning about a small, but significant, increased risk of life-threatening asthma episodes or asthma-related deaths when used as monotherapy. This warning is based on results from the large, placebo-controlled Salmeterol Multicenter Asthma Research Trial (SMART) in which only the single component agent, salmeterol, was administered to patients. Post-hoc analysis indicates that the risk of these serious reactions was significantly higher in African Americans. However, the FDA did indicate that the benefits of salmeterol in patients with COPD or asthma outweigh the risks.61 This boxed warning was removed from labeling for indacaterol (Arcapta), arformoterol (Brovana), formoterol (Perforomist), and olodaterol (Striverdi) in May 2019. Nonetheless, labeling for all agents states that LABAs are contraindicated in patients with asthma without an ICS, as this is associated with an increased risk of asthma-related death and asthma-related hospitalizations. Fixed-dose combinations of ICS/LABA do not show a significant increase in the risk of serious asthma-related events compared with ICS alone.


In 2010, the FDA issued new recommendations on the safe use of LABAs in the treatment of asthma.62 These recommendations include the contraindication for use of LABAs without the use of an asthma controller medication, such as an inhaled corticosteroid (ICS). Single ingredient LABAs should only be used in combination with an asthma controller medication; they should not be used alone. LABAs should only be used long-term in patients whose asthma is not adequately controlled on asthma controller medications. LABAs should be used for the shortest duration of time required to achieve control of asthma symptoms and, if possible, discontinued once asthma control is achieved. Patients should then be maintained on an asthma controller medication. Labeling reflects this information. Pediatric patients who require the addition of a LABA to an ICS should use a combination product containing both an ICS and a LABA to ensure compliance with both medications. In December 2017, the FDA removed the asthma death risk warning from ICS/LABA combination inhalers.63 The removal of this warning follows the results from 4 large clinical safety trials in which no increase in serious asthma-related adverse effects or asthma-related deaths were observed with the ICS/LABA fixed-dose products compared to the ICS agents alone.

LABAs should not be initiated in patients who are acutely deteriorating with COPD or for acute symptoms; a short-acting beta-agonist bronchodilator (SABA) should be used for acute symptoms.

Beta-adrenergic agonists can produce a clinically significant cardiovascular effect in some patients, as measured by pulse rate, blood pressure, or symptoms. They should be used with caution in patients with cardiovascular disorders, especially coronary insufficiency, cardiac arrhythmias, and hypertension.

LABAs should also be used with caution in patients with convulsive disorders, thyrotoxicosis, diabetes, hypokalemia, hepatic impairment, or with sensitivity to sympathomimetic drugs.

Agents in this class should not be used in patients with known sensitivity to the active component (including a racemic mixture, when applicable) or any of its components.

Salmeterol (Serevent) and indacaterol (Arcapta Neohaler) contain lactose with trace levels of milk proteins. Allergic reactions to products containing milk proteins may occur in patients with severe milk protein allergy.

DRUG INTERACTIONS64,65,66,67,68

Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Inhibitors and Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)

All LABAs should be administered with extreme caution to patients being treated with MAO inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), or drugs known to prolong the QTc interval because these agents may potentiate the action of adrenergic agonists on the cardiovascular system. Allow 2 weeks after discontinuation of MAO inhibitors before initiating therapy with agents in this category.

Beta-Adrenergic Receptor Blocking Agents

Beta-blockers not only block the pulmonary effect of LABAs but also may produce severe bronchospasm in patients with asthma or COPD. In general, patients with asthma or COPD should not be treated with beta-blockers. However, under certain circumstances, such as prevention of myocardial re-infarction, there may be no acceptable alternatives to the use of beta-adrenergic blocking agents in patients with asthma or COPD. In this setting, cautious use of cardioselective beta-blockers could be considered.


Diuretics

The electrocardiogram (ECG) changes and/or hypokalemia that may result from the administration of non-potassium-sparing diuretics (such as loop or thiazide diuretics) can be acutely worsened by beta-agonists, especially when the recommended dose of the beta-agonist is exceeded. Although the clinical significance of these effects is not known, caution is advised in the co-administration of beta-agonists with non-potassium-sparing diuretics. Concomitant treatment with xanthine derivatives, steroids, or diuretics may potentiate any hypokalemic effect of adrenergic agonists.

CYP3A4 Inhibitors

Co-administration of salmeterol and strong CYP3A4 inhibitors (e.g., ketoconazole, ritonavir, atazanavir, clarithromycin, indinavir, itraconazole, nefazodone, nelfinavir, saquinavir, and telithromycin) may result in a significant increase in plasma salmeterol exposure. Due to the potential increased risk of cardiovascular adverse event, the concomitant use of salmeterol with these agents is not recommended.

ADVERSE EFFECTS69,70,71,72,73

Drug Headache Nausea/ Vomiting

Nervousness Palpitations Tachycardia Tremor


reported reported reported < 2 < 2 < 2


nr 4.9/2.4

(2.6/1.8) nr nr nr nr

indacaterol inhalation powder (Arcapta Neohaler)

5.1 2.4 nr nr reported nr

olodaterol inhalation spray (Striverdi Respimat)

nr nr nr nr nr nr

salmeterol DPI (Serevent Diskus)

13-17 (9-14)

3 (3)

reported reported reported reported

Adverse effects are reported as a percentage. Adverse effects data are obtained from package inserts and are not meant to be comparative or all-inclusive. Incidences for the placebo group are indicated in parentheses.

nr = not reported.

Common adverse effects reported with arformoterol (reported ≥ 5% and twice as often as placebo) include back pain (6%).

Common adverse effects reported with salmeterol (reported ≥ 5% and twice as often as placebo) include influenza (5%).

SPECIAL POPULATIONS74,75,76,77,78

Pediatrics

Salmeterol (Serevent) is indicated for the prevention and treatment of asthma and prevention of EIB in children as young as 4 years.

Safety and effectiveness of indacaterol (Arcapta), arformoterol (Brovana), formoterol (Perforomist), and olodaterol (Striverdi) have not been established in children.


Pregnancy

The labeling for all agents in this category, with the exception of indacaterol (Arcapta), have been updated to comply with the Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling Rule (PLLR) and now contain descriptive text rather than an assigned Pregnancy Category. Indacaterol (Arcapta) is still assigned Pregnancy Category C. The labeling for formoterol, arformoterol, olodaterol, and salmeterol states data are too limited to inform of a drug-associated risk of adverse developmental outcomes; however, beta-agonists may interfere with uterine contractility.

DOSAGES79,80,81,82,83

Drug Usual Adult

Dosage Prevention of EIB Usual Pediatric Dose Availability

Long Acting Inhalation Agents


15 mcg twice daily -- -- 15 mcg/2 mL inhalation

solution


20 mcg every 12 hours

-- -- 20 mcg/2 mL inhalation

solution

indacaterol inhalation powder

(Arcapta Neohaler)

75 mcg inhaled once daily using

the Neohaler inhaler

-- --

75 mcg capsules in aluminum blister cards

(breath activated device)

olodaterol inhalation spray (Striverdi Respimat)

2 inhalations once daily

-- -- 2.5 mcg per inhalation

salmeterol DPI (Serevent Diskus) 1 inhalation every

12 hours

1 inhalation 30 minutes before exercise; not to

administer a second dose within 12 hours

Ages 4 years and up: 1 inhalation every 12 hours

50 mcg per inhalation


CLINICAL TRIALS

Search Strategy

Studies were identified through searches performed on PubMed and review of information sent by manufacturers. Search strategy included the FDA-approved use of all drugs in this class. Randomized, comparative, controlled trials comparing agents within this class for the approved indications are considered the most relevant in this category. Studies included for analysis in the review were published in English, performed with human participants and randomly allocated participants to comparison groups. In addition, studies must contain clearly stated, predetermined outcome measure(s) of known or probable clinical importance, use data analysis techniques consistent with the study question and include follow-up (endpoint assessment) of at least 80% of participants entering the investigation. Despite some inherent bias found in all studies including those sponsored and/or funded by pharmaceutical manufacturers, the studies in this therapeutic class review were determined to have results or conclusions that do not suggest systematic error in their experimental study design.


While the potential influence of manufacturer sponsorship and/or funding must be considered, the studies in this review have also been evaluated for validity and importance.

Asthma

Salmeterol DPI (Serevent Diskus) is the only agent within this class approved for asthma when used with inhaled corticosteroids. Its efficacy for this indication was demonstrated in 4 randomized, double-blind trials in 1,922 adolescents and adults. Its efficacy versus placebo in pediatric patients 4 to 11 years of

age has also been demonstrated.84

formoterol DPI inhalation powder versus salmeterol DPI (Serevent Diskus) versus terbutaline MDI (Brethine®)

Twenty-five subjects with asthma and a history of exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) were enrolled in a double-blind, double-dummy, placebo-controlled, randomized, 4-period crossover study.85 Exercise challenge was performed after 12 days at 5, 30, or 60 minutes after inhalation of a single dose of formoterol dry powder inhaler (DPI) 12 mcg, salmeterol DPI 50 mcg, terbutaline metered-dose inhaler (MDI) 500 mcg, or placebo. EIB did not differ significantly among the active treatments at 5, 30, or 60 minutes postdose. In contrast, the onset of bronchodilation was slower after salmeterol DPI compared to terbutaline MDI (p<0.05) and formoterol DPI (p<0.05), both of which showed a similar time course. At all time points between 5 and 60 minutes, formoterol DPI provided significantly greater bronchodilation than salmeterol DPI (p<0.05). Terbutaline MDI is not currently marketed in the United States. Formoterol DPI inhalation powder, once marketed as Foradil®, is no longer available in the US.

COPD

All agents in this class have demonstrated superiority over placebo in clinical trials; however, within class, high-quality, comparative trials are lacking. Formoterol fumarate (Perforomist) has demonstrated superiority over placebo in a randomized, double-blind clinical trial that included 351 patients with COPD and has demonstrated noninferiority to placebo in a randomized, double-blind, noninferiority postmarketing study that included 1,071 patients with COPD assessed over a 1-year treatment period. Indacaterol (Arcapta Neohaler) has demonstrated superiority over placebo in 6 randomized, double-blinded clinical trials in 5,474 patients COPD.86,87 Both olodaterol (Striverdi) and salmeterol (Serevent) have also demonstrated superiority over placebo in patients with COPD: olodaterol in 8 randomized, double-blind clinical trials consisting of 3,533 patients, and salmeterol in 2 clinical trials randomized, double-blind clinical trials consisting of 702 patients.88,89,90

arformoterol (Brovana) versus placebo with salmeterol (Serevent) MDI as an active comparator

A 12-week, double-blind, randomized, double-dummy, placebo- and active-controlled trial in the US compared arformoterol and salmeterol in 717 patients with COPD.91 Patients were randomized to arformoterol 15 mcg twice daily, 25 mcg twice daily, or 50 mcg daily via nebulizer, salmeterol 42 mcg twice daily via MDI, or placebo. Groups were similar at baseline and had a mean baseline FEV1 of 1.2 L (41% predicted). Mean improvement in trough FEV1 over 12 weeks was significantly greater with all 3 arformoterol doses (15 mcg twice daily, +16.9%; 25 mcg twice daily, +18.9%; 50 mcg daily, +14.9%) and for salmeterol (+17.4%) relative to placebo (+6%; p<0.001). There were significantly greater improvements in the mean percentage change in FEV1 area under the curve from 0 to 12 hours (AUC(0-

12h)) from the predose value over 12 weeks (arformoterol 15 mcg twice daily, 12.7%; 25 mcg twice


daily, 13.9%; 50 mcg daily, 18.9%; salmeterol, 9.8%) versus placebo (2.7%; p<0.001); all doses of arformoterol were statistically different from salmeterol for this endpoint (p=0.024). Adverse effects and COPD exacerbations (defined as worsening respiratory status requiring a change in medication or an unscheduled provider visit) were similar in frequency across groups, including placebo.

Data were pooled from 2, identical, 12-week, double-blind, randomized trials to determine the effect of nebulized arformoterol on airway function in adult patients with COPD.92 Patients were randomized to 1 of the following 5 treatment groups: arformoterol 15 mcg twice daily (n=147), 25 mcg twice daily (n=149), or 50 mcg daily (n=147); salmeterol 42 mcg twice daily via MDI (n=146); or placebo (n=150). Both arformoterol and salmeterol showed an improvement in trough FEV1 over 12 weeks greater than placebo. The arformoterol groups showed the following improvements in trough FEV1: 15 mcg (11.4%); 25 mcg (15.4%); and 50 mcg (10.9%), respectively. The salmeterol group had an 11.6% improvement in trough FEV1. Also, after 12 weeks, 78% to 87% of arformoterol patients had at least a 10% increase in FEV1 compared to 56% for the salmeterol and 44% for the placebo groups. The study was conducted and funded by the manufacturer of arformoterol.

Exercised-Induced Bronchospasm

Salmeterol DPI (Serevent Diskus) is the only agent within this class approved for exercise-induced bronchospasm. Its efficacy for this indication was demonstrated in 2 randomized, single-dose, crossover trials in 52 adolescents and adults and in 2 randomized trials, single-dose studies in 50 children aged 4 to 11

years.93

META-ANALYSES

A systematic review of pertinent randomized, controlled, clinical trials was undertaken using MEDLINE, EmBase, and the Cochrane Library databases to determine if a difference in efficacy and adverse effects exists among the various aerosol delivery devices (MDI versus DPI versus nebulizers) used in the management of asthma and COPD exacerbations.94 A total of 254 outcomes were tabulated. Of the 131 studies that met the eligibility criteria, only 59 (primarily those that tested beta2-agonists) proved to have useable data. None of the pooled meta-analyses showed a significant difference among devices in any efficacy outcome in any patient group for each of the clinical settings that were investigated. The adverse effects that were reported were minimal and were related to the increased drug dose that was delivered. Each of the delivery devices provided similar outcomes in patients using the correct technique for inhalation.

A Cochrane review of 33 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) assessing the efficacy and safety of adding a LABA to an ICS in 6,381 children and adolescents with asthma found that the LABA addition did not result in a significant reduction in exacerbation rate requiring systemic corticosteroids (risk ratio [RR], 0.95; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.7 to 1.28; 12 RCTs; 1,669 children; moderate quality evidence) but did find superiority in improving lung function compared to the same or higher doses of ICS monotherapy (FEV1, morning PEF, reduction in use of daytime rescue inhalations, and reduction in use of nighttime rescue inhalations).95 No significant differences were found in adverse effects; however, there was lower linear growth velocity in the higher ICS monotherapy group compared to the ICS/LABA group. Another Cochrane review assessed the addition of formoterol to an ICS and found no difference in all-cause or asthma-related death; however, this risk cannot be completely ruled out.96 Of note, formoterol is only approved for use in asthma in select fixed-dose ICS/LABA combination inhaler products.


SUMMARY

Arformoterol (Brovana), formoterol (Perforomist), salmeterol (Serevent Diskus), indacaterol (Arcapta Neohaler), and olodaterol (Striverdi Respimat) are long-acting beta2-agonist (LABA) bronchodilators. The main difference between formoterol, arformoterol, indacaterol, and olodaterol compared to salmeterol is that the former have an earlier onset of action. Whether this translates to a clinically significant effect is unknown.

Indacaterol (Arcapta Neohaler) and olodaterol (Striverdi Respimat) are not indicated for use in the treatment of asthma nor should they be used in patients during rapidly deteriorating or potentially life-threatening episodes of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Arformoterol (Brovana) and formoterol (Perforomist) are LABAs for nebulization indicated for the twice-daily, long-term maintenance treatment of bronchoconstriction in patients with COPD, which includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema. The nebulized form may prove beneficial for patients who have difficulty synchronizing breath and actuation using the other existing LABAs available as dry powder inhalers (Arcapta Neohaler and Serevent Diskus) or an inhalational spray (Striverdi Respimat). There are no comparative data to suggest that either arformoterol (Brovana) or formoterol (Perforomist) is superior in efficacy or safety to the other agents in this class. Olodaterol (Striverdi Respimat) and indacaterol (Arcapta Neohaler) offer once-daily administration.

None of the LABAs have demonstrated an impact on delaying the progression of disease or improving survival of patients with COPD. The boxed warning that has previously appeared in the labeling for all agents within this class and the contraindication for the use of all single-component LABAs without an ICS may discourage the use of these agents, particularly in the African American population. In December 2017; however, the FDA removed the boxed warning from the inhaled corticosteroids (ICS)/LABA combination inhalers. Furthermore, in May 2019, the FDA removed the boxed warning from the labeling for indacaterol (Arcapta Neohaler), arformoterol (Brovana), formoterol (Perforomist), and olodaterol (Striverdi). The warning still remains in the labeling of salmeterol (Serevent Diskus).

REFERENCES

1 Brovana [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 2 Perforomist [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2019. 3 Arcapta [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 4 Striverdi Respimat [package insert]. Ridgefield, CT; Boehringer Ingelheim; May 2019. 5 Serevent Diskus [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; January 2020. 6 Asthma. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/asthma/most_recent_data.htm. Accessed February 6, 2020. 7 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Surveillance of Asthma: United States, 2001–2010. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/asthma/asthmadata.htm. Accessed February 10, 2020. 8 National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. Full report 2007. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/index.htm. Accessed February 10, 2020. 9 Global strategy for asthma management and prevention. Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 10 National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. Full report 2007. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/index.htm. Accessed February 10, 2020. 11 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 12 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 13 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 14 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020.

https://www.cdc.gov/asthma/most_recent_data.htm

https://www.cdc.gov/asthma/asthmadata.htm

http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/index.htm

http://ginasthma.org/







15 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 16 National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. Full report 2007. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/index.htm. Accessed February 10, 2020. 17 Weiler JM, Brannan JD, Randolph CC, et al. Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction update-2016. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016 Nov;138(5):1292-1295.e36. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.05.029. Available at: https://www.aaaai.org/practice-resources/statements-and-practice-parameters/practice-parameter-guidelines. Accessed February 28, 2020. 18 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2020. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 19 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/copd/index.html. Accessed February 10, 2020. 20 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Screening. Available at: https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/UpdateSummaryFinal/chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-screening?ds=1&s=copd. Accessed February 10, 2020. 21 Vathenen AS, Britton JR, Ebden P, et al. High-dose inhaled albuterol in severe chronic airflow limitation. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988; 138:850-855. 22 Gross NJ, Petty TL, Friedman M, et al. Dose response to ipratropium as a nebulized solution in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A three-center study. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989; 139:1188-1191. 23 Chrystyn H, Mulley BA, Peake MD. Dose response relation to oral theophylline in severe chronic obstructive airways disease. BMJ. 1988; 297:1506-1510. 24 Higgins BG, Powell RM, Cooper S, et al. Effect of salbutamol and ipratropium bromide on airway calibre and bronchial reactivity in asthma and chronic bronchitis. Eur Respir J. 1991; 4:415-420. 25 Wilson DH, Wakefield MA, Steven ID, et al. “Sick of smoking”: evaluation of a targeted minimal smoking cessation intervention in general practice. Med J Aust. 1990; 152:518-521. 26 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2020. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 27 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2020. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 28 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2020. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 29 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 30 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2020. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 31 Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, et al. Diagnosis and Management of Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Clinical Practice Guideline Update from the American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society. Ann Int Med. 2011;155:179-191. Available at: https://www.thoracic.org/statements/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 32 Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, et al. Diagnosis and Management of Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Clinical Practice Guideline Update from the American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society. Ann Int Med. 2011;155:179-191. Available at: https://www.thoracic.org/statements/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 34 Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, et al. Diagnosis and Management of Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Clinical Practice Guideline Update from the American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society. Ann Int Med. 2011; 155:179-191. Available at: https://www.thoracic.org/statements/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 34 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2020. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 35 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2020. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 36 Wedzicha JA, Calverley PMA, Albert RK, et al. Prevention of COPD exacerbations: a European Respiratory Society/American Thoracic Society guideline. Eur Respir J 2017; 50: 1602265. DOI: 10.1183/13993003.02265-2016. Available at: https://www.thoracic.org/statements/copd.php. Accessed February 10, 2020. 37 Criner GJ, Bourbeau J, Diekemper RL, et al. Prevention of acute exacerbations of COPD: American College of Chest Physicians and Canadian Thoracic Society guideline. Chest. 2015; 147(4): 894-942. DOI: 10.1378/chest.14-1676. Available at: https://www.chestnet.org/Guidelines-and-Resources/CHEST-Guideline-Topic-Areas/Airway-Disorders. Accessed February 10, 2020. 38 Dolovich MB, Ahrens RC, Hess DR, et al. Device selection and outcomes of aerosol therapy: evidence-based guidelines: American College of Chest Physicians/American College of Asthma, Allergy, and Immunology. Chest. 2005; 127:335-371. 39 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 40 Schurmann W, Schmidtmann S, Moroni P, et al. Respimat soft mist Inhaler versus hydrofluoroalkane metered dose inhaler; patient preference and satisfaction. Treat Respir Med. 2005; 4(1):53-61. 41 Anderson P. Use of Respimat soft mist inhaler in COPD patients. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2006; 1(3): 251–259. 42 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2020. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 10, 2020. 43 Brovana [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 44 Perforomist [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2019. 45 Serevent Diskus [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; January 2020. 46 Arcapta [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 47 Striverdi Respimat [package insert]. Ridgefield, CT; Boehringer Ingelheim; May 2019. 48 Sharma G. Asthma: treatment & medication. Available at: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1000997-treatment. Accessed February 10, 2020.



https://www.aaaai.org/practice-resources/statements-and-practice-parameters/practice-parameter-guidelines

https://www.aaaai.org/practice-resources/statements-and-practice-parameters/practice-parameter-guidelines

http://goldcopd.org/

http://www.cdc.gov/copd/index.html

https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/UpdateSummaryFinal/chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-screening?ds=1&s=copd






https://www.thoracic.org/statements/





https://www.thoracic.org/statements/copd.php



http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1000997-treatment


49 Kleinschmidt P. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Emphysema: treatment & medication. Available at: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/807143-treatment. Accessed February 10, 2020. 50 Brovana [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 51 Perforomist [package insert]. Morgantown, WV, CA; Mylan; May 2019. 52 Arcapta Neohaler – pharmacokinetics. Available at: http://www.clinicalpharmacology-ip.com. Accessed February 10, 2020. 53 Arcapta [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 54 Striverdi Respimat [package insert]. Ridgefield, CT; Boehringer Ingelheim; May 2019. 55 Serevent Diskus [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; January 2020. 56 Perforomist [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2019. 57 Brovana [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 58 Serevent Diskus [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; January 2020. 59 Arcapta [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 60 Striverdi Respimat [package insert]. Ridgefield, CT; Boehringer Ingelheim; May 2019. 61 Food and Drug Administration. FDA Talk Paper: Labeling changes for drug products that contain salmeterol. August 2003. 62 Koshak EA. New FDA safety warnings for LABAs: A call for asthma guidelines revisit for solo beta agonist. Ann Thorac Med. 2010; 5(2): 65–66. Ann Thorac Med. 2010 Apr-Jun; 5(2): 65–66. DOI: 10.4103/1817-1737.62468. 63 FDA removes asthma death risk warning from ICS/LABA drugs. Medpage Today. Available at: https://www.medpagetoday.com/pulmonology/asthma/70043?xid=NL_breakingnews_2017-12-21&eun=g776714d0r. Accessed February 10, 2020. 64 Perforomist [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2019. 65 Brovana [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 66 Serevent Diskus [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; January 2020. 67 Arcapta [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 68 Striverdi Respimat [package insert]. Ridgefield, CT; Boehringer Ingelheim; May 2019. 69 Brovana [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 70 Perforomist [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2019. 71 Arcapta [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 72 Striverdi Respimat [package insert]. Ridgefield, CT; Boehringer Ingelheim; May 2019. 73 Serevent Diskus [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; January 2020. 74 Perforomist [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2019. 75 Brovana [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 76 Serevent Diskus [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; January 2020. 77 Arcapta [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 78 Striverdi Respimat [package insert]. Ridgefield, CT; Boehringer Ingelheim; May 2019. 79 Brovana [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 80 Perforomist [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2019. 81 Arcapta [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 82 Striverdi Respimat [package insert]. Ridgefield, CT; Boehringer Ingelheim; May 2019. 83 Serevent Diskus [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; January 2020. 84 Serevent Diskus [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; January 2020. 85 Richter K, Janicki S, Jorres RA, et al. Acute protection against exercise-induced bronchoconstriction by formoterol, salmeterol and terbutaline. Eur Respir J. 2002; 19:865-71. 86 Perforomist [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2019. 87 Arcapta [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; May 2019. 88 Striverdi Respimat [package insert]. Ridgefield, CT; Boehringer Ingelheim; May 2019. 89 Serevent Diskus [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; January 2020. 90 Hanania NA, Sethi S, Koltun A, et al. Long-term safety and efficacy of formoterol fumarate inhalation solution in patients with moderate-to-severe COPD. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2018 Dec 27;14:117-127. DOI: 10.2147/COPD.S173595 91 Baumgartner RA, Hanania NA, Calhoun WJ, et al. Nebulized arformoterol in patients with COPD: a 12-week, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, placebo- and active-controlled trial. Clin Ther. 2007; 29(2):261-278. 92 Hanrahan J, Hanania N, Calhoun W, et al. Effect of nebulized arformoterol on airway function in COPD: results from two randomized trials. COPD. 2008; 5(1):25-34. 93 Serevent Diskus [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; January 2020. 94 Dolovich MB, Ahrens RC, Hess DR, et al. Device selection and outcomes of aerosol therapy: evidence-based guidelines: American College of Chest Physicians/American College of Asthma, Allergy, and Immunology. Chest. 2005; 127:335-371. 95 Chauhan BF, Chartrand C, Ni Chroinin M, et al. Addition of long-acting beta2-agonists to inhaled corticosteroids for chronic asthma in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;11:CD007949. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD007949.pub2. 96 Janjua S, Schmidt S, Ferrer M, et al. Inhaled steroids with and without regular formoterol for asthma: serious adverse events. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;9:CD006924. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006924.pub4.


http://www.clinicalpharmacology-ip.com/

https://www.medpagetoday.com/pulmonology/asthma/70043?xid=NL_breakingnews_2017-12-21&eun=g776714d0r

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Baumgartner%20RA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Hanania%20NA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Calhoun%20WJ%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

February 2020 Proprietary Information. Restricted Access – Do not disseminate or copy without approval. © 2004-2020 Magellan Rx Management. All Rights Reserved.

Bronchodilators, Short-Acting Beta-Agonists Therapeutic Class Review (TCR)

February 6, 2020

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, digital scanning, or via any information storage or retrieval system without the express written consent of Magellan Rx Management.

All requests for permission should be mailed to:

Magellan Rx Management Attention: Legal Department

6950 Columbia Gateway Drive Columbia, Maryland 21046

The materials contained herein represent the opinions of the collective authors and editors and should not be construed to be the official representation of any professional organization or group, any state Pharmacy and Therapeutics committee, any state Medicaid Agency, or any other clinical committee. This material is not intended to be relied upon as medical advice for specific medical cases and nothing contained herein should be relied upon by any patient, medical professional or layperson seeking information about a specific course of treatment for a specific medical condition. All readers of this material are responsible for independently obtaining medical advice and guidance from their own physician and/or other medical professional in regard to the best course of treatment for their specific medical condition. This publication, inclusive of all forms contained herein, is intended to be educational in nature and is intended to be used for informational purposes only. Send comments and suggestions to [email protected].



| Bronchodilators, Short-Acting Beta-Agonists – February 2020 Proprietary Information. Restricted Access – Do not disseminate or copy without approval. © 2004-2020 Magellan Rx Management. All Rights Reserved.

FDA-APPROVED INDICATIONS

Drug Name Manufacturer

Reversible Bronchospasm

Prevention of

Exercise Induced Broncho-

spasm

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary

Disease (COPD)

Age of Use (years) Prevention

and Treatment

Relief

Short-Acting Inhalation Agents

albuterol DPI (ProAir RespiClick®, ProAir® Digihaler™)1,2

Teva X X X – ≥ 4

albuterol HFA (ProAir® HFA, Proventil® HFA, Ventolin® HFA)3,4,5

generic*, Teva, Merck Sharp & Dohme, GlaxoSmithKline

X X X – ≥ 4

albuterol inhalation solution6,7

generic – X – – ≥ 2

albuterol low-dose inhalation solution8

generic – X – –

children 2 to 12 years and

adolescents

levalbuterol HFA (Xopenex® HFA)9

generic†, Sunovion X – – – ≥ 4

levalbuterol inhalation solution (Xopenex)10,11

generic, Akorn X – – – ≥ 6

Oral Agents

albuterol oral syrup12 generic – X – – ≥ 2

albuterol oral tablets13,14

generic – X – – ≥ 6

metaproterenol oral syrup15

Silarx/Lannett X – – X ≥ 6

terbutaline tablets16 generic – X – X ≥ 12

DPI = dry powder inhaler, HFA = hydrofluoroalkane

* An authorized generic for Proventil HFA is available from Prasco and Par, and an authorized generic for Ventolin HFA is available from Teva.

† An authorized generic for Xopenex HFA is available by Actavis/Teva.

OVERVIEW

Beta2-agonist bronchodilators are the medications of choice for the treatment and prevention of bronchospasm associated with asthma and prophylaxis of exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB) in adults and children. They are also used in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).17

In some patients with chronic asthma, a clear distinction between asthma and COPD may be difficult. Differing features between asthma and COPD include: the onset of asthma is usually in childhood, while onset of COPD is in mid-life; asthma symptoms vary widely from day to day and are generally


worse at night/early mornings, COPD symptoms progress slowly; allergy, rhinitis and/or eczema, as well as obesity are usually present in asthma patients. There may be a genetic link with asthma; COPD is generally due to tobacco smoke and occupational pollutants.18

Asthma

Prevalence of asthma in the United States (US) continues to rise. More than 25 million Americans have asthma, and approximately 6 million of these are children.19 Further, the National Health Statistics Report shows that asthma appears to disproportionately affect minority groups, females, children, and individuals of low socioeconomic status which can place significant pressure on public health systems.20 The National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP) of the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) has defined asthma as a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which many cells and cellular elements play a role.21 In susceptible individuals, inflammation may cause recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing. These episodes are usually associated with airflow obstruction that is often reversible, either spontaneously or with treatment. The inflammation also causes an increase in bronchial hyper-responsiveness to a variety of stimuli.

Medications to treat asthma are classified as controllers or relievers. Controllers are medications taken daily on a long-term basis to maintain asthma control. Relievers are medications used on an as-needed basis that act quickly to reverse bronchoconstriction and relieve symptoms.22

The mainstay of asthma therapy is the use of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) alone or in combination with long-acting beta2-agonists (LABAs) as controller medications.23 While the corticosteroid reduces inflammation, the LABA acts principally to dilate the airways by relaxing airway smooth muscle. These agents lead to improvements in lung function and symptoms and reduce the need for short-acting beta2-agonists (SABAs) for quick relief. Due to the increased risk of severe exacerbations with regular or frequent use, short-acting beta agonist (SABA)-only treatment is no longer recommended.24 Likewise, LABAs are not to be used as monotherapy for controlling asthma. For most asthma patients, treatment can be initiated with an as-needed low dose ICS-formoterol, daily low dose ICS, or low dose ICS taken whenever a SABA is taken.

The 2019 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) guidelines offer a control-based management plan to adjust treatment in a continuous cycle of assessment, treatment, and review of the patient’s response as it relates to symptom control, future risk of exacerbations, and side effects.25 In patients whose asthma is not adequately controlled on a low dose ICS-containing controller despite good adherence and correct technique, a step up in treatment may be added until control is achieved. A combination ICS/LABA product is the preferred step-up treatment for adults and adolescents ≥ 12 years of age currently on a low dose ICS or as needed low dose ICS-formoterol who continue to have persistent symptoms or exacerbations. For children aged 6 to 11 years with persistent symptoms, an increase in ICS dose or a combination low dose ICS/LABA agent is recommended. If control is maintained for at least 3 months on the current regimen, treatment can be stepped down to the lowest step and dosage that maintains control. The effect of a LABA or combination LABA/ICS has not been adequately studied in children aged 5 years and younger; therefore, LABAs cannot be recommended in this patient population. The stepwise approach for asthma control in the GINA guidelines is described below. Notably, reliever therapy can be considered for symptom management prior to exercise if needed.


Stepwise Approach to Asthma Control* from 2019 GINA Guidelines – Controller Therapy26

Step Age Group Preferred Controller Other Controller Options

Step 1:

Symptom-driven or regular controller

≥ 12 years ▪ As-needed low dose ICS-formoterol (unlabeled indication)†

▪ Low dose ICS whenever SABA is taken (unlabeled indication)

6 to 11 years

-- ▪ Low dose ICS whenever SABA is taken (unlabeled indication) or daily low dose ICS

Step 2:

One controller AND an as-needed reliever medication

≥ 12 years ▪ Low dose ICS or as-needed low dose ICS-formoterol (unlabeled indication)†

▪ Leukotriene modifier or low dose ICS whenever SABA is taken (unlabeled indication)

6 to 11 years

▪ Low dose ICS ▪ Leukotriene modifier or low dose ICS whenever SABA is taken (unlabeled indication)

Step 3: Two controllers and an as-needed reliever medication

≥ 12 years ▪ Low dose ICS/LABA ▪ Medium dose ICS OR low dose ICS + leukotriene modifier

▪ Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) may be considered in adults with allergic rhinitis, house dust mite sensitivity, and FEV1 > 70% predicted

6 to 11 years

▪ Low dose ICS/LABA or medium dose ICS

▪ Low dose ICS + leukotriene modifier

Step 4:


≥ 12 years ▪ Medium dose ICS/LABA ▪ High dose ICS, add-on tiotropium, or add-on leukotriene modifier

▪ Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) may be considered in adults with allergic rhinitis, house dust mite sensitivity, and FEV1 > 70% predicted

6 to 11 years

▪ Medium dose ICS/LABA; refer for expert advice

▪ High dose ICS/LABA, add-on tiotropium, or add-on leukotriene modifier

Step 5:


≥ 12 years ▪ High dose ICS/LABA; refer for phenotypic assessment with or without add-on therapy (e.g., tiotropium, anti-IgE [omalizumab], anti-interleukin-5[IL5]/5R [mepolizumab, reslizumab, benralizumab], anti-IL4R [dupilumab])

▪ Add-on low dose oral corticosteroid, considering adverse effects

6 to 11 years

▪ Refer for phenotypic assessment with or without add-on therapy (e.g., anti-IgE [omalizumab)

▪ Add-on anti-IL-5 or add-on low dose oral corticosteroid, considering adverse effects

FEV1 = forced expiratory volume in 1 second; ICS = inhaled corticosteroid; IgE = Immunoglobulin E; IL-5 = interleukin-5; LABA = long acting beta2-agonist; SABA = short acting beta2-agonist

*Additional recommendations are published regarding the assessment and treatment of severe asthma, incorporating other treatment modalities (e.g., tiotropium, anti-IgE [omalizumab], anti-IL5/5R [mepolizumab, reslizumab, benralizumab], anti-IL4R [dupilumab], based on age)



Stepwise Approach to Asthma Control* from 2019 GINA Guidelines (continued) – Reliever Therapy27

Age Group Step Preferred Reliever Other Reliever Options

≥ 12 years Steps 1 and 2 ▪ As-needed low dose ICS/formoterol (unlabeled indication)†

▪ As needed SABA

Steps 3 through 5 ▪ As-needed low dose ICS/formoterol (unlabeled indication)‡

6 to 11 years Steps 1 through 5 ▪ As needed SABA --

ICS = inhaled corticosteroid; SABA = short acting beta2-agonist

*Additional recommendations are published regarding the assessment and treatment of severe asthma, incorporating other treatment modalities (e.g., tiotropium, anti-IgE [omalizumab], anti-IL5/5R [mepolizumab, reslizumab, benralizumab], anti-IL4R [dupilumab], based on age)


‡ Low dose ICS-formoterol is the reliever for those prescribed budesonide-formoterol or beclomethasone dipropionate-formoterol maintenance and reliever therapy. GINA does not recommend use of ICS-formoterol as the reliever for patients taking combination ICS/LABA with a different LABA; rather, a SABA should be used in these patients.

In 2007, the NAEPP released a summary of the third report of the Expert Panel (EPR-3) that emphasizes the importance of asthma control, and identifies asthma severity as the intrinsic intensity of the disease process.28 The EPR-3 advises of the need to first assess severity as the basis of initial therapy and then assess control to adjust therapy. The NAEPP recommends that inhaled SABAs are the drugs of choice for treating acute asthma symptoms and exacerbations and for preventing exercise induced bronchospasm (EIB). Regularly scheduled, daily, chronic use of a SABA is not recommended. Use of a short-acting agent greater than 2 days per week for symptom relief is indicative of inadequate asthma control and the need for a step-up in treatment (i.e. anti-inflammatory medication should be started or intensified). These guidelines also state that the inhaled route is preferred due to faster onset of action, fewer adverse effects, and increased efficacy. Likewise, agents less selective for the beta2 receptor, including metaproterenol, are not recommended due to excessive cardiac stimulation.

The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology issued a practice parameter regarding EIB in 2016.29 They state that SABAs should be prescribed for protection against EIB and to accelerate recovery of lung function when it is compromised (Strong recommendation, Evidence level A). They state that a single dose of SABA, LABA, or both on an intermittent basis (e.g., < 4 times/week) may protect against or mitigate symptoms of EIB (Strong recommendation, Evidence level A); however, prescribers should be cautious with daily use of inhaled beta-agonists, with or without an ICS, as this may lead to tolerance or decreased efficacy (Strong recommendation, Evidence level A).

COPD

The 2020 edition of the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) report defines chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) as a heterogenous disease characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation that is due to airway and/or alveolar abnormalities typically caused by exposure to noxious particles or gases.30 It is estimated that the number of Americans with a COPD diagnosis is approximately 16 million.31 The US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends against routine screening for COPD in asymptomatic adults.32

Pharmacotherapy for COPD is used to decrease symptoms, reduce the frequency and severity of exacerbations and hospitalizations, and improve health status and exercise tolerance. Bronchodilator


medications are central to the symptomatic management of COPD.33,34,35,36 They improve emptying of the lungs, tend to reduce dynamic hyperinflation at rest and during exercise, and improve exercise performance.37 They are given either on an as-needed basis for the relief of persistent or worsening symptoms or on a regular basis to prevent or reduce symptoms. The principal bronchodilator treatments are beta2-agonists, anticholinergics, and theophylline, which may be given either as monotherapy or in combination. Regular bronchodilation with these drugs does not modify the decline of function in mild COPD or the prognosis of the disease.38 While SABAs can be used on an as-needed basis in mild COPD, regular treatment with a long-acting agent is required as the disease progresses, although most studies indicate that the existing medications for COPD do not modify the long-term decline in lung function. Therefore, pharmacotherapy for COPD is mainly used to decrease symptoms and/or complications, potentially improving quality of life.

The 2020 GOLD updated report, stresses that a diagnosis of COPD should be considered in any individual who has dyspnea, chronic cough/sputum production, and a history of exposure to risk factors specific to the disease.39 Spirometry is required to effectively establish a clinical diagnosis of COPD. A postbronchodilator forced expiratory volume in 1 second to forced vital capacity ratio (FEV1/FVC) < 0.7 confirms presence of airflow limitation and a diagnosis of COPD. The assessment of FEV1 alone is a poor descriptor of disease status. Therefore, individual assessment of the patient’s symptoms, future risks of exacerbations, severity of airflow limitation, and presence of comorbidities is essential in guiding therapy. The GOLD Classification of Airflow Limitation, which is divided into 4 grades (GOLD 1 [mild] to GOLD 4 [very severe]), utilizes these airflow limitation grades in addition to the number of exacerbations or hospitalizations to describe a patient’s disease severity. A COPD exacerbation is defined as an acute event characterized by worsening of the patient’s respiratory symptoms that varies from the normal daily variations and requires additional therapy. Hospitalization for a COPD exacerbation signifies a poor prognosis and increased risk of death. The COPD Assessment Test (CAT, 0-40) or the Clinical COPD Questionnaire (CCQ) is recommended for a comprehensive assessment of symptoms. The Modified British Medical Research Council (mMRC) questionnaire may be used but only assesses breathlessness. The St. George’s Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ) is comprehensive but is considered too complex for routine practice. Notably, GINA uses the term asthma-COPD overlap to describe patients with features of both disease states; however, this description was removed from the GOLD guidelines to emphasize that they are different disorders, regardless of overlapping symptoms.40,41

Previously in the GOLD report, patient groups were classified into an alphabetic (ABCD) classification system based on exacerbation risk and symptoms in combination with airway limitation.42 However, patients are now classified separately by both their GOLD severity (airflow limitations) and exacerbation/symptom assessment (e.g., GOLD grade 4, group D). Therefore, exacerbation risk and symptoms alone are used to define the ABCD classification. The patient groups, for which the definitions of airflow limitation and numerical values for exacerbations/symptoms have not changed, are summarized as follows:


Assessment of Airflow Limitation:

o GOLD 1: mild, FEV1 ≥ 80% predicted

o GOLD 2: moderate, FEV1 50% to 79% predicted

o GOLD 3: severe, FEV1 30% to 49% predicted

o GOLD 4: very severe, FEV1 < 30% predicted

Assessment of Exacerbation Risk and Symptoms:

o Patient Group A – Low Risk, Less Symptoms: 0 to 1 exacerbations per year (not leading to hospitalization); and CAT score < 10 or mMRC grade 0 to 1

o Patient Group B – Low Risk, More Symptoms: 0 to 1 exacerbations per year (not leading to hospitalization); and CAT score ≥ 10 or mMRC grade ≥ 2

o Patient Group C – High Risk, Less Symptoms: ≥ 2 exacerbations per year or ≥ 1 exacerbation leading to hospitalization; and CAT score < 10 or mMRC grade 0 to 1

o Patient Group D – High Risk, More Symptoms: ≥ 2 exacerbations per year or ≥ 1 exacerbation leading to hospitalization; and CAT score ≥ 10 or mMRC grade ≥ 2

The 2011 American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society (ACP/ACCP/ATS/ERS) guidelines include a fifth category, namely “At Risk”, which is based on the presence (FEV1/FVC ratio < 0.7 and FEV1 ≥ 50% predicted) or absence (FEV1/FVC ratio ≥ 0.7) of mild to moderate airflow obstruction in asymptomatic individuals and risk factors including smoking or exposure to pollutants with cough, sputum, or dyspnea, or a family history of respiratory disease.43 These guidelines support the idea that history or physical examinations alone are poor predictors of airflow obstruction. Airway obstruction, as indicated by a post-bronchodilator ratio of FEV1/FVC < 0.7, can be predicted by the presence of wheezing on auscultation, smoking history greater than 55 pack years, and patient self-report of wheezing. Spirometry is a key diagnostic tool to determine respiratory disease and the severity of airflow obstruction.

The 2020 GOLD guidelines recommend treatment plans for COPD based on the aforementioned patient group categories, identified by symptoms/exacerbation risk and focus on individualized therapy.44 Inhaled bronchodilator medications continue to be central to symptom management in COPD (Evidence A). Regular and as-needed use of a SABA or a short-acting anticholinergic agent, also known as a short-acting muscarinic agent (SAMA), improve symptoms and FEV1 (Evidence A). For the treatment of stable COPD with bronchodilators, LABAs and long-acting anticholinergics, also known as long-acting muscarinics (LAMAs), are preferred over short-acting agents except in cases of only occasional dyspnea (Evidence A). Inhaled therapy is also preferred over oral therapy (Evidence A). Patients may be initiated on either bronchodilator monotherapy or dual bronchodilator therapy (LAMA/LABA); those initiated on monotherapy with persistent symptoms should be escalated to dual bronchodilator therapy (Evidence A).

While the guidelines review multiple medications and state that bronchodilators are generally effective in their medication overview, GOLD notes that LAMAs have a greater effect on exacerbation reduction and decrease hospitalizations compared to LABAs (Evidence A and B, respectively).45 Likewise, GOLD generally states that combination treatment with bronchodilators (e.g., beta2-agonist and anticholinergic) is more effective than bronchodilator monotherapy (Evidence A/B). For the treatment of acute exacerbations, GOLD recommends the use of a SABA, with or without a SAMA (Evidence C). Following these general medication recommendations, GOLD provides a treatment algorithm based on


the patient’s ABCD exacerbation/symptom assessment. Group A patients should be initiated on a bronchodilator (short- or long-acting). Patients in Group B should be initiated on a LABA or LAMA. Two bronchodilators may be used in patients with severe breathlessness. No specific long-acting bronchodilator class is preferred in this population. Patients in Group C should be initiated on a LAMA, and if they have further exacerbations, treatment can be escalated to LAMA + LABA combination therapy (preferred) or a LABA + ICS combination therapy. Finally, Group D patients should be initiated on a LAMA + LABA (if highly symptomatic/CAT > 20), LAMA monotherapy, or a LABA + ICS (if eosinophils ≥ 300 cells/μL). Treatment escalation is based on symptoms. If the symptoms are primarily dyspnea while on a LABA or LAMA, escalating to a LABA/LAMA combination is recommended. If on an ICS/LABA, escalating to a LABA/LAMA or triple therapy is recommended. Other causes of dyspnea and inhaler technique should be assessed. If the symptoms are primarily exacerbations while on a LABA or LAMA, escalating to a LABA/LAMA or LABA/ICS (based on eosinophils level) is recommended. If those are insufficient, escalation to triple therapy is recommended or a switch to LABA/LAMA if previously on an ICS/LABA. If on triple therapy or LABA/LAMA (if eosinophils < 100 cells/μL), roflumilast or a macrolide (e.g., azithromycin) may be appropriate based on patient-specific factors. If there is a lack of response to the addition of ICS or pneumonia, regardless of symptom type, ICS discontinuation should be considered. GOLD states that the choice of inhaler device should be individually tailored based on access, cost, prescriber, patient ability, and patient preference. Inhaler technique and adherence to therapy should be assessed before concluding the current therapy is insufficient. In addition, spirometry should be repeated at least annually.

The 2017 American Thoracic Society and European Respiratory Society (ATS/ERS) guidelines provide answers to specific questions pertaining to COPD exacerbations prevention and management.46,47 To prevent COPD exacerbations in patients with severe/very severe airflow obstruction, treatment with roflumilast and a macrolide antibiotic are suggested, in addition to optimal inhaled therapy. In those with moderate/severe airflow obstruction, a long-acting muscarinic antagonist (LAMA) is preferred over LABA monotherapy; treatment with an oral mucolytic drug and a macrolide are also recommended. Fluoroquinolones should not be used to solely prevent recurrent COPD exacerbations. To manage COPD exacerbations, an oral corticosteroids course of ≤ 14 days and an antibiotic are both advised.

In 2015, ACCP published a joint guideline with the Canadian Thoracic Society (CTS) regarding the prevention of acute exacerbations of COPD.48 To prevent moderate to severe exacerbations in patients with moderate to severe COPD, they recommend use of a LABA or a LAMA over no therapy (placebo) (Grade 1B and 1A, respectively). In this same group, they recommend the use of a LAMA over a LABA (Grace 1C) and a LAMA over a SAMA (Grade 1A). To prevent mild to moderate exacerbations in patients with moderate to severe COPD, they recommend use of a SAMA over a SABA (Grade 2C) and a SAMA + LABA over a LABA alone (Grade 2C). In patients with moderate to severe COPD, they recommend use of a SAMA + SABA over SABA monotherapy (Grade 2B) to prevent acute moderate exacerbations and use of a LABA over a SAMA to prevent acute exacerbations (Grade 2C). In patients with stable moderate to very severe COPD, ACCP recommends maintenance therapy with an ICS + LABA over placebo, ICS monotherapy, and LABA monotherapy (Grade 1B, 1B, and 1C, respectively) to prevent acute exacerbations. For patients with stable COPD, they recommend either combination LAMA/LABA therapy or LAMA monotherapy as both are effective for exacerbations (Grade 1C). Likewise, in stable patients, either ICS/LABA or LAMA monotherapy is recommended (Grade 1C) and


either a LAMA + ICS + LABA or LAMA monotherapy is recommended to prevent exacerbations (Grade 2C).

The 2011 ACP/ACCP/ATS/ERS guidelines do not support routine treatment with bronchodilators in the asymptomatic “At Risk” group as there are limited data to support that such treatment influences the trajectory of the disease.49

Devices, Delivery, and Deposition

Non-ozone-depleting propellants, such as hydrofluoroalkane (HFA), for use in pressurized MDIs have replaced the older chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)-containing devices. In clinical studies HFA MDIs have been shown to be equivalent, in terms of efficacy and tolerability, to the original CFC MDIs.50,51,52,53

In 2005, the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) and the American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology (ACAAI) issued joint evidence-based guidelines for selecting aerosol delivery devices for use in asthma or COPD.54 The authors performed a systematic review of randomized controlled trials comparing the efficacy and adverse effects of treatment using nebulizers versus pressurized metered-dose inhalers (MDIs) with or without a spacer/holding chamber versus dry powder inhalers (DPIs) as delivery systems for beta2-agonists, anticholinergic agents, and corticosteroids in several commonly encountered clinical settings and patient populations. DPIs, including the Respiclick® device, are breath-actuated devices that release the medicine in the form of a dry powder when the user inhales. The authors conclude that devices used for the delivery of bronchodilators and steroids can be equally efficacious. The 2019 GINA guidelines state DPIs may be used to deliver SABAs as an alternative to a pressurized MDI and spacer during worsening asthma or exacerbations; however, the available studies did not include patients with severe acute asthma.55

In children 5 years of age and younger, the 2019 GINA update maintains that inhaled therapy constitutes the cornerstone of asthma treatment.56 The preferred delivery system is a pressurized MDI with a valved spacer (with face mask for < 4 years old and mouthpiece for most 4 to 5 year old patients). Since the dose may vary considerably from one spacer device to another, a spacer that has documented efficacy in young children is recommended. Nebulizers, the only viable alternative delivery system in children, should be reserved for the minority of children who cannot be taught effective use of a spacer device.

The 2020 GOLD guidelines place a great focus on the assessment of inhaler technique and adherence to improve therapeutic outcomes; these should be assessed regularly.57

PHARMACOLOGY58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74

Beta-agonists stimulate adenyl cyclase, the enzyme that catalyzes the formation of cyclic-3'5' adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP) from adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Increased cyclic AMP levels are associated with relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle and inhibition of release of mediators of immediate hypersensitivity from inflammatory cells, especially from mast cells. This increase of cyclic AMP also results in activation of protein kinase A, which inhibits the phosphorylation of myosin and lowers intracellular ionic calcium concentrations, leading to relaxation. Beta2-agonists relieve reversible bronchospasm by relaxing the smooth muscles of the bronchioles in conditions associated with asthma, COPD, or bronchiectasis. Bronchodilation may additionally facilitate expectoration.75,76

Albuterol is a moderately selective beta2 receptor agonist. Levalbuterol (Xopenex) is the R-enantiomer form of racemic albuterol. The R-enantiomer is responsible for the bronchodilator effects of albuterol.


Metaproterenol is neither as beta2-selective nor as long-acting as albuterol. Another beta2-agonist, terbutaline, is more beta2-selective than metaproterenol.

Although there are both beta1 and beta2 receptors in the heart, the latter are more predominant in the lungs, where they serve as the primary adrenergic receptors in bronchial smooth muscle. In order to reduce cardiac toxicities (e.g., tachyarrhythmias), in the treatment of bronchospasm, the use of beta2

specific agonists to nonselective agents (e.g., epinephrine, isoproterenol [Isuprel®], racepinephrine [Asthmanefrin™]) is preferred. In 2012, the FDA revised the labeling of over-the-counter (OTC) bronchodilator products (e.g. ephedrine, epinephrine, and racepinephrine HCl), including revising the indication (for temporary relief of mild symptoms of intermittent asthma) and maximum dosage guidance.77 To further reduce cardiac toxicities, non-systemic dosage forms given by inhalation are preferred to oral dosage forms.

PHARMACOKINETICS78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94

Drug Relative ß2 Specificity Onset of Action

(minutes) Duration of Action

(hours)


albuterol DPI (ProAir RespiClick, ProAir Digihaler)

ß2 >> ß1 5 – 15 3 – 6

albuterol HFA (ProAir HFA, Proventil HFA, Ventolin HFA)

ß2 >> ß1 5.4 – 8.2 3 – 6

albuterol inhalation solution ß2 >> ß1 5 – 15 3 – 6

levalbuterol HFA (Xopenex HFA) ß2 >> ß1 5.5 – 10.2 3 – 6

levalbuterol inhalation solution (Xopenex) ß2 >> ß1 10 – 17 5 – 8

Oral Agents

albuterol syrup, tablets ß2 >> ß1 30 6 – 12

metaproterenol syrup ß2 > ß1 30 2 – 6

terbutaline tablet ß2 >> ß1 30 4 – 8

CONTRAINDICATIONS/WARNINGS95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,

109,110,111

Severe hypersensitivity to milk proteins is a contraindication to albuterol DPI (ProAir RespiClick, ProAir Digihaler). Pre-existing cardiac arrhythmias associated with tachycardia is a contraindication to metaproterenol.

Acute or maintenance tocolysis is a contraindication for terbutaline.

Warnings that are common to the SABAs include: paradoxical bronchospasm (can be life threatening), cardiovascular effects (e.g., effects on blood pressure and pulse rate), excessive dose and usage, acute deterioration of asthma and use of anti-inflammatory agents (e.g., corticosteroids). SABAs should be used with caution in patients with heart disease, seizure disorder, diabetes, glaucoma, hypokalemia, renal impairment, and hyperthyroidism.

There have been rare reports of seizures in patients receiving terbutaline; seizures did not recur in these patients after the drug was discontinued.


DRUG INTERACTIONS112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128

Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Inhibitors and Tricyclic Antidepressants

All beta2-agonists should be administered with extreme caution to patients being treated with MAO inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, or drugs known to prolong the QTc interval because these agents may potentiate the action of adrenergic agonists on the cardiovascular system. Allow 2 weeks after discontinuation of MAO inhibitors before initiating therapy with agents in this category.

Beta-Adrenergic Receptor Blocking Agents

Beta-blockers not only block the pulmonary effect of beta-agonists but may also produce severe bronchospasm in patients with asthma or COPD. Therefore, patients with asthma or COPD should not normally be treated with beta-blockers. However, under certain circumstances, such as prevention of myocardial re-infarction, there may be no acceptable alternatives to the use of beta-adrenergic blocking agents in patients with asthma or COPD. In this setting, cardioselective beta-blockers could be considered, although they should be administered with caution.

Diuretics

Electrocardiogram (ECG) changes and/or hypokalemia that may result from the administration of non-potassium-sparing diuretics (such as loop or thiazide diuretics) can be acutely worsened by beta2-agonists, especially when the recommended dose of the beta2-agonist is exceeded. Although the clinical significance of these effects is not known, caution is advised in the coadministration of beta2-agonists with non-potassium-sparing diuretics. Concomitant treatment with xanthine derivatives, steroids, or diuretics may potentiate any hypokalemic effect of adrenergic agonists.

Digoxin

Mean decreases of 16% and 22% in serum digoxin levels were demonstrated after single-dose intravenous and oral administration of racemic albuterol, respectively, to normal volunteers who had received digoxin for 10 days. The clinical significance of these findings for patients with obstructive airway disease who are receiving albuterol and digoxin on a chronic basis is unclear; nevertheless, it would be prudent to carefully evaluate the serum digoxin levels in patients who are concurrently receiving digoxin with albuterol or levalbuterol.


ADVERSE EFFECTS129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145

Drug Headache Nausea/ Vomiting

Nervousness Palpitations Tachycardia Tremor



reported nr nr reported nr reported


7 – 20 7 – 10 7 < 3 < 3 – 7 2 – 7

albuterol inhalation solution reported 1.7/0.9 reported reported nr reported

levalbuterol HFA (Xopenex HFA) reported 10.5 reported reported reported reported

levalbuterol inhalation solution (Xopenex)

7.6 – 11.9 < 2 2.8 – 9.6 reported 2.7 – 2.8 0 – 6.8

Oral Agents

albuterol syrup 4 < 1 – 2 9 – 15 < 1 1 – 2 10

albuterol tablets 7 2 20 5 5 20

metaproterenol syrup 1.1 1.3 4.8 < 1 6.1 1.6

terbutaline tablets 7.8 – 10 1.3 – 10 < 5 – 31 < 23 1.3 – 3 < 5 – 38

Adverse effects data are reported as a percentage. Adverse effects data are obtained from package inserts and are not meant to be comparative or all-inclusive. nr = not reported.

SPECIAL POPULATIONS146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162

Pediatrics

Most of the short-acting beta-agonists (SABAs) have been studied in pediatric patients and shown to be safe and effective in children as young as 2 years of age. Levalbuterol (Xopenex HFA) is approved in patients at least 4 years of age. Additionally, ProAir RespiClick and ProAir Digihaler are intended for patients 4 years of age and older. There is insufficient clinical data to establish safety and efficacy of terbutaline sulfate; therefore, it is not recommended for patients under the age of 12 years.

Pregnancy

There are no adequate and well-controlled studies of these agents in pregnant women. Terbutaline is Pregnancy Category B. All of the SABAs still assigned a Pregnancy Category are Pregnancy Category C. They should only be used during pregnancy if the potential benefit outweighs the potential risk. As product labeling is updated in compliance with the Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling Rule (PLLR), assigned Pregnancy Categories have been replaced with descriptive text. No longer considered Pregnancy Category C, labeling for albuterol (Ventolin HFA, Proair HFA) and levalbuterol (Xopenex HFA, Xopenex) now states that there are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women to inform of a drug-related risk to the fetus.

Geriatrics

These agents have not been studied in a geriatric population. Special caution should be observed when using these agents in elderly patients with coexisting conditions like impaired renal function and cardiovascular disease that could be adversely affected by this class of drug.


Hepatic Impairment

No dosage adjustments are needed in hepatically impaired patients who use albuterol, albuterol HFA, or levalbuterol.

Renal Impairment

Exercise caution and monitor patients with renal impairment who use albuterol, albuterol HFA, or levalbuterol. No special monitoring or dosage adjustments are needed in patients with renal impairment who use metaproterenol.

DOSAGES163,164,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179

Drug Usual Adult Dosage Usual Pediatric Dose Availability



Bronchospasm: 2 inhalations every 4 to 6 hours as needed

Prevention of EIB: 2 inhalations 15 to 30 minutes prior to exercise

Do not use in patients under 4 years of age

90 mcg per actuation* from the mouth piece in a box containing 200 actuations; contains dose counter



Bronchospasm: 2 inhalations every 4 to 6 hours as needed


2 inhalations every 4 to 6 hours as needed


90 mcg per actuation* from the mouth piece in a canister containing 200 actuations (Proventil HFA, Ventolin HFA and ProAir HFA have dose counters attached to the actuator)

albuterol inhalation solution

2.5 mg every 6 to 8 hours as needed

2 to 12 years of age: 0.1 to 0.15 mg/kg (not to exceed 2.5 mg) nebulized 3 to 4 times a day

>12 years of age: 2.5 mg nebulized 3 to 4 times daily

generic: 2.5 mL/0.5 mL (0.5%)† and 2.5 mg/3 mL (0.083%) in unit-dose vials; 5 mg/mL in multi-dose bottles

low-dose generic: 0.63 mg/3 mL (0.021%) and 1.25 mg/3 mL (0.042%) in unit-dose vials

levalbuterol HFA (Xopenex HFA)



45 mcg per actuation in a canister containing 200 actuations (with dose counter)

levalbuterol inhalation solution (Xopenex)

0.63 to 1.25 mg 3 times daily

0.31 to 0.63 mg 3 times daily 0.31 mg/3 mL, 0.63 mg/3 mL, 1.25 mg/3 mL, and 1.25 mg/0.5 mL (concentrate) in unit-dose vials

* 90 mcg of albuterol is equivalent to 108 mcg of albuterol sulfate

† Available from Nephron Pharmaceuticals only

Authorized generic products have the same functionality as the branded product (e.g., dose counter).


Dosages (continued)

Drug Usual Adult Dosage Usual Pediatric Dose Availability

Oral Agents

albuterol oral syrup 2 to 4 mg every 6 to 8 hours 2 to 6 years of age: 0.1 to 0.2 mg/kg every 8 hours

6 to 12 years of age: 2 mg 3 to 4 times a day

2 mg/5 mL

albuterol oral tablets Immediate-release: 2 to 4 mg every 6 to 8 hours

Extended-release: 8 mg every 12 hours

Immediate-release

6 to 12 years: 2 mg every 6 to 8 hours

> 12 years: 2 mg every 6 to 8 hours

Extended-release

6 to 12 years of age: 4 mg every 12 hours

> 12 years of age: 8 mg every 12 hours

Immediate-release: 2 mg, 4 mg

Extended-release: 4 mg, 8 mg‡

metaproterenol oral syrup 20 mg 3 to 4 times daily 10 mg 3 to 4 times daily 10 mg/5 mL

terbutaline tablets 2.5 to 5 mg 3 times daily 2.5 mg 3 times daily 2.5 mg, 5 mg

‡ ER formulation available from Mylan only.

ProAir Digihaler is a multi-dose breath-actuated dry powder inhaler with a built-in electronic module that detects, records, and stores data on inhaler events, including peak inspiratory flow rate (L/min). Data can be transmitted via a wireless connection to a companion mobile application (App) that categorizes inhaler events and can be shared with a healthcare provider. Use of the App is not required for administration of albuterol sulfate to the patient. There is, however, no evidence that using the App results in improved clinical outcomes. ProAir Digihaler should not be used with a spacer or volume holding chamber. ProAir Digihaler does not need to be primed.

CLINICAL TRIALS

Search Strategy

Studies were identified through searches performed on PubMed and review of information sent by manufacturers. Search strategy included the FDA-approved use of all drugs in this class. Randomized, comparative, controlled trials comparing agents within this class for the approved indications are considered the most relevant in this category. Studies included for analysis in the review were published in English, performed with human participants and randomly allocated participants to comparison groups. In addition, studies must contain clearly stated, predetermined outcome measure(s) of known or probable clinical importance, use data analysis techniques consistent with the study question and include follow-up (endpoint assessment) of at least 80% of participants entering the investigation. Despite some inherent bias found in all studies including those sponsored and/or funded by pharmaceutical manufacturers, the studies in this therapeutic class review were determined to have results or conclusions that do not suggest systematic error in their experimental study design.


While the potential influence of manufacturer sponsorship/funding must be considered, the studies in this review have also been evaluated for validity and importance.

While some historical data have demonstrated efficacy of oral agents in the treatment of asthma or COPD, their adverse effect profile, decreased efficacy compared to inhaled formulations, and slower onset of action limit their role as primary treatments for these disorders.180,181,182 As a result, current comparative data focuses on inhaled beta-agonists.

Asthma

albuterol inhalation solution (Proventil, Ventolin) versus levalbuterol inhalation solution (Xopenex)

In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study, 20 adults with mild-to-moderate asthma received single doses of levalbuterol inhalation solution (0.31, 0.63, and 1.25 mg) and albuterol inhalation solution (2.5 mg).183 All doses of active treatment produced a significantly greater degree of bronchodilation (measured by change in forced expiratory volume in 1 second [FEV1]) than placebo, and there were no significant differences between any of the active treatment arms. The bronchodilator response of levalbuterol 1.25 mg and albuterol 2.5 mg showed similar efficacy over the 6 hour evaluation period, except for a slightly longer duration of action after administration of levalbuterol 1.25 mg. Systemic beta adrenergic adverse effects were observed with all active doses. Levalbuterol 1.25 mg produced a slightly higher rate of systemic beta adrenergic adverse effects than the albuterol 2.5 mg dose. This study was funded by the manufacturer of levalbuterol.

A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled study was conducted in 338 children with mild-to-moderate asthma.184 Following a 1-week placebo run-in period, subjects were randomized to nebulized levalbuterol 0.31 or 0.63 mg, albuterol 1.25 or 2.5 mg, or placebo given 3 times daily for 3 weeks. Of the 338 patients who were randomized, 316 patients completed the study. Efficacy, measured by mean peak change in FEV1, was demonstrated for all active treatment regimens compared with placebo (p<0.001). The onset and duration of effect of levalbuterol are consistent with those of albuterol.

A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial was conducted in children age 1 to 18 years (n=482) in the emergency department (ED) and inpatient asthma care unit of an urban tertiary children's hospital.185 Patients received a nebulized solution of either 2.5 mg racemic albuterol or 1.25 mg levalbuterol every 20 minutes (maximum 6 doses). Patients admitted to the asthma care unit were treated in a standardized fashion by using the same blinded drug assigned in the ED. Hospitalization rate was the primary outcome. Hospitalization rate was significantly lower in the levalbuterol group (36%) than in the racemic albuterol group (45%, p=0.02). The adjusted relative risk of admission in the racemic group compared with the levalbuterol group was 1.25 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.01 to 1.57). Hospital length of stay was not significantly shorter in the levalbuterol group (levalbuterol, 44.9 hours; racemic albuterol, 50.3 hours; p=0.63). No significant adverse events occurred in either group.

A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial was conducted in 99 children aged 6 to 17 years in the emergency department (ED). Inclusion criteria included a history of asthma, ED presentation consistent with asthma exacerbation, and an initial FEV1 of less than 70% predicted.186 Patients were randomized to receive via continuous nebulization either 7.5 mg of albuterol or 3.75 mg of levalbuterol over a 1 hour period, in addition to standard asthma therapies. Spirometry and asthma scoring were performed at the end of the first hour, and a second hour-long nebulization with the same drug was administered


if deemed necessary. Spirometry and asthma scoring were again performed and recorded. As a second, optional part of the study, baseline serum albuterol levels were collected on some patients prior to treatment. Baseline characteristics were similar except that the albuterol group had a higher baseline asthma score. Children in the albuterol group had a greater improvement in their FEV1 (p=0.043) as well as in their asthma scores (p=0.01) after 1 hour of continuous treatment compared to the levalbuterol group. The greater improvement in asthma scores was maintained after the second hour of continuous therapy in the albuterol group (p=0.008) but not for FEV1 measurements (p=0.57). There were no differences between groups for changes in heart rate, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, or rates of admission. The authors concluded that at the doses used, albuterol appears to be superior to levalbuterol with respect to changes in FEV1 and asthma score. There was no significant difference between the drugs with respect to admission rates or side-effect profile.

COPD

albuterol MDI (Proventil, Ventolin) versus formoterol DPI (Foradil) versus salmeterol DPI (Serevent) in COPD

A cross-over, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was carried out on 20 patients with COPD.187 Patients underwent pulmonary function testing and dyspnea evaluation in basal condition and at 5, 15, 30, 60, and 120 minutes after bronchodilator (albuterol metered-dose inhaler (MDI), formoterol dry powder inhaler [DPI], or salmeterol DPI) or placebo administration. The results indicated that in COPD patients with decreased baseline inspiratory capacity, there was a much greater increase of inspiratory capacity after bronchodilator administration, which correlated closely with the improvement of dyspnea sensation at rest. On average, formoterol DPI elicited the greatest increase in inspiratory capacity than the other bronchodilators used.

META-ANALYSES

A systematic review of pertinent randomized, controlled, clinical trials was undertaken using MEDLINE, EmBase, and the Cochrane Library databases to determine if a difference in efficacy and adverse effects exists among the various aerosol delivery devices (metered-dose inhalers [MDIs] versus dry powder inhalers [DPIs] versus nebulizers) used in the management of asthma and COPD exacerbations.188 A total of 254 outcomes were tabulated. Of the 131 studies that met the eligibility criteria, only 59 (primarily those that tested beta2-agonists) proved to have useable data. None of the pooled meta-analyses showed a significant difference among devices in any efficacy outcome in any patient group for each of the clinical settings that were investigated. However, proper technique is a key component for optimal drug delivery and desired therapeutic outcome. The adverse effects that were reported were minimal and were related to the increased drug dose that was delivered. Each of the delivery devices provided similar outcomes in patients using the correct technique for inhalation.

SUMMARY

The 2019 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) guidelines for asthma recommend an inhaled short-acting beta2-agonist (SABA) as one option for quick relief of asthma symptoms and bronchoconstriction including in acute exacerbations and for exercise-induced bronchoconstriction. Due to the increased risk of severe exacerbations with regular or frequent use, however, short-acting beta agonist (SABA)-monotherapy is no longer recommended. For most asthma patients, treatment can be initiated with an


as-needed low dose inhaled corticosteroid (ICS)/formoterol, daily low dose ICS, or low dose ICS taken whenever a SABA is taken. Due to its rapid onset of action, relative lack of adverse systemic effects, and availability of multiple dosage forms, albuterol remains the most commonly used SABA bronchodilator. Merck (Proventil HFA), Teva (ProAir HFA), and GlaxoSmithKline (Ventolin HFA) produce albuterol inhalers using HFA propellant. Teva also manufactures albuterol inhalers (ProAir RespiClick, ProAir Digihaler) using dry powder meters. In addition, Teva introduced an albuterol inhaler in a multi-dose breath-actuated dry powder albuterol inhaler (ProAir Digihaler) that contains a built-in electronic module to detect inhaler usage and measure inspiratory flow. The data from the device can be transmitted to a companion mobile application (App) and shared with a healthcare provider. Inhaled SABAs are also used in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), particularly for the treatment of acute dyspnea or exacerbations.

Levalbuterol (Xopenex) is the R-enantiomer form of albuterol. Levalbuterol inhalation solution has similar efficacy to albuterol inhalation solution when given in equivalent doses. In addition, an HFA-propelled inhaler containing the enantiomer of albuterol is available as levalbuterol HFA (Xopenex HFA). There are no significant differences in adverse effects between albuterol and levalbuterol formulations.

In general, oral dosage forms of albuterol are less utilized than the inhaled forms due to systemic beta-adrenergic stimulation of the former, especially in patients sensitive to these effects, such as those with cardiovascular disease. Metaproterenol is neither as beta2 selective nor as long acting as albuterol, and, therefore, should not be considered for first-line therapy. Another beta2-agonist, terbutaline, is more beta2 selective than metaproterenol but is available only as oral tablets. The short duration of action of terbutaline reduces its value in the treatment of bronchoconstriction.

REFERENCES

1 ProAir RespiClick [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; April 2018. 2 ProAir Digihaler [package insert]. Frazer, PA; Teva; December 2018. 3 Proventil HFA [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ; Merck Sharp & Dohme; July 2018. 4 Ventolin HFA [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; December 2019. 5 ProAir HFA [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; February 2019. 6 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.083% [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; January 2013. 7 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.5% [package insert]. West Columbia, SC; Nephron; October 2017. 8 Albuterol low dose inhalation solution [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2018. 9 Xopenex HFA [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; February 2017. 10 Xopenex inhalation solution [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 11 Xopenex inhalation solution concentrate [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 10 Albuterol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Parsippany, NJ; Actavis; November 2016. 11 Albuterol sulfate tablet [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; July 2019. 14 Albuterol sulfate extended-release tablets [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; March 2015. 15 Metaproterenol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Carmel Valley, NY; Silarx; June 2014. 16 Terbutaline tablet [package insert]. Baudette, MN; ANI; September 2018. 17 The GOLD Guidelines: Executive summary: global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of COPD 2019. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 18 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2019. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 19 Asthma. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/asthma/most_recent_data.htm. Accessed February 6, 2020. 20 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Surveillance of Asthma: United States, 2001–2010. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_03/sr03_035.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2020. 21 National Asthma Education and Prevention Program Expert Panel Report: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. Expert panel report 3. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.htm. Accessed February 6, 2020. 22 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020.







http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_03/sr03_035.pdf

http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_03/sr03_035.pdf

http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.htm





23 National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. Full report 2007. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/index.htm. Accessed February 6, 2020. 24 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 25 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 26 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 27 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 28 National Asthma Education and Prevention Program Expert Panel Report: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. Expert panel report 3. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.htm. Accessed February 6, 2020. 29 Weiler JM, Brannan JD, Randolph CC, et al. Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction update-2016. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016 Nov;138(5):1292-1295.e36. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.05.029. 30 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2020. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 3, 2020. 31 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/copd/index.html. Accessed February 3, 2020. 32 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Screening. Available at: https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/UpdateSummaryFinal/chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-screening?ds=1&s=copd. Accessed February 6, 2020. 33 Vathenen AS, Britton JR, Ebden P, et al. High-dose inhaled albuterol in severe chronic airflow limitation. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988; 138:850-855. 34 Gross NJ, Petty TL, Friedman M, et al. Dose response to ipratropium as a nebulized solution in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A three-center study. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989; 139:1188-1191. 35 Chrystyn H, Mulley BA, Peake MD. Dose response relation to oral theophylline in severe chronic obstructive airways disease. BMJ. 1988; 297:1506-1510. 36 Higgins BG, Powell RM, Cooper S, et al. Effect of salbutamol and ipratropium bromide on airway calibre and bronchial reactivity in asthma and chronic bronchitis. Eur Respir J. 1991; 4:415-420. 37 Wilson DH, Wakefield MA, Steven ID, et al. “Sick of smoking”: evaluation of a targeted minimal smoking cessation intervention in general practice. Med J Aust. 1990; 152:518-521. 38 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2019. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 39 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2019. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 40 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 41 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2019. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 42 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2019. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 43 Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, et al. Diagnosis and Management of Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Clinical Practice Guideline Update from the American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society. Ann Int Med. 2011; 155:179-191. Available at: https://www.thoracic.org/statements/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 44 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2019. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 45 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2019. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 46 Wedzicha JA, Calverley PMA, Albert RK, et al. Prevention of COPD exacerbations: a European Respiratory Society/American Thoracic Society guideline.

Eur Respir J 2017; 50: 1602265. Available at: https://www.thoracic.org/statements/copd.php. Accessed February 6, 2020. 47 Papi A, Rabe KF, Rigau D, et al. Management of COPD exacerbations: a European Respiratory Society/American Thoracic Society guideline. Eur Respir J

2017; 49: 1600791. Available at: https://www.thoracic.org/statements/copd.php. Accessed February 6, 2020. 48 Criner GJ, Bourbeau J, Diekemper RL, et al. Prevention of acute exacerbations of COPD: American College of Chest Physicians and Canadian Thoracic Society guideline. Chest. 2015; 147(4): 894-942. DOI: 10.1378/chest.14-1676. Available at: https://www.chestnet.org/Guidelines-and-Resources. Accessed February 18, 2020. 49 Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, et al. Diagnosis and Management of Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Clinical Practice Guideline Update from the American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society. Ann Int Med. 2011; 155:179-191. Available at: https://www.thoracic.org/statements/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 50 Lumry W, Noveck R, Weinstein S, et al. Switching from Ventolin CFC to Ventolin HFA is well tolerated and effective in patients with asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2001; 86:297-303. 51 Langley SJ, Sykes AP, Batty EP, et al. A comparison of the efficacy and tolerability of single doses of HFA 134a albuterol and CFC albuterol in mild-to-moderate asthmatic patients. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2002; 88:488-93. 52 Shapiro G, Bronsky E, Murray A, et al. Clinical comparability of Ventolin formulated with hydrofluoroalkane or conventional chlorofluorocarbon propellants in children with asthma. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2000; 154:1219-1225. 53 Hawksworth RJ, Sykes AP, Faris M, et al. Albuterol HFA is as effective as albuterol CFC in preventing exercise-induced bronchoconstriction. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2002; 88:473-7.




































https://www.chestnet.org/Guidelines-and-Resources

https://www.chestnet.org/Guidelines-and-Resources




54 Dolovich MB, Ahrens RC, Hess DR, et al. Device selection and outcomes of aerosol therapy: evidence-based guidelines: American College of Chest Physicians/American College of Asthma, Allergy, and Immunology. Chest. 2005; 127:335-371. 55 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 56 Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available at: http://ginasthma.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 57 The GOLD Guidelines Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – Updated 2019. Available at: http://goldcopd.org/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 58 ProAir RespiClick [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; April 2018. 59 ProAir Digihaler [package insert]. Frazer, PA; Teva; December 2018. 60 Proventil HFA [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ; Merck Sharp & Dohme; July 2018. 61 Ventolin HFA [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; December 2019. 62 ProAir HFA [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; February 2019. 63 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.083% [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; January 2013. 64 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.5% [package insert]. West Columbia, SC; Nephron; October 2017. 65 Albuterol low dose inhalation solution [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2018. 66 Xopenex HFA [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; February 2017. 67 Xopenex inhalation solution [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 68 Xopenex inhalation solution concentrate [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 69 Albuterol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Parsippany, NJ; Actavis; November 2016 70 Albuterol sulfate tablet [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; July 2019. 71 Albuterol sulfate extended-release tablets [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; March 2015. 72 Metaproterenol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Carmel Valley, NY; Silarx; June 2014. 73 Terbutaline tablet [package insert]. Baudette, MN; ANI; September 2018. 74 Clinical Pharmacology. Available at: https://www.clinicalpharmacology.com/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 75 Sharma G. Pediatric Asthma: treatment & management. Available at: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1000997-treatment. Accessed February 6, 2020. 76 Kleinschmidt P. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and emphysema: treatment & medication. Available at: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/807143-treatment. Accessed February 6, 2020. 77 Department of Health and Human Services: Food and Drug Administration. 21 CFR Parts 201 and 341: Labeling for bronchodilators to treat asthma; cold, cough, allergy, bronchodilator, and antiasthmatic drug products for over-the-counter human use. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2011-07-26/pdf/2011-18347.pdf. Accessed February 6, 2020. 78 ProAir RespiClick [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; April 2018. 79 ProAir Digihaler [package insert]. Frazer, PA; Teva; December 2018. 80 Proventil HFA [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ; Merck Sharp & Dohme; July 2018. 81 Ventolin HFA [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; December 2019. 82 ProAir HFA [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; February 2019. 83 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.083% [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; January 2013. 84 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.5% [package insert]. West Columbia, SC; Nephron; October 2017. 85 Albuterol low dose inhalation solution [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2018. 86 Xopenex HFA [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; February 2017. 87 Xopenex inhalation solution [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 88 Xopenex inhalation solution concentrate [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 89 Albuterol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Parsippany, NJ; Actavis; November 2016 90 Albuterol sulfate tablet [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; July 2019. 91 Albuterol sulfate extended-release tablets [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; March 2015. 92 Metaproterenol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Carmel Valley, NY; Silarx; June 2014. 93 Terbutaline tablet [package insert]. Baudette, MN; ANI; September 2018. 94 Clinical Pharmacology. Available at: https://www.clinicalpharmacology.com/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 95 ProAir RespiClick [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; April 2018. 96 ProAir Digihaler [package insert]. Frazer, PA; Teva; December 2018. 97 Proventil HFA [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ; Merck Sharp & Dohme; July 2018. 98 Ventolin HFA [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; December 2019. 99 ProAir HFA [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; February 2019. 100 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.083% [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; January 2013. 101 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.5% [package insert]. West Columbia, SC; Nephron; October 2017. 102 Albuterol low dose inhalation solution [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2018. 103 Xopenex HFA [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; February 2017. 104 Xopenex inhalation solution [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 105 Xopenex inhalation solution concentrate [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 106 Albuterol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Parsippany, NJ; Actavis; November 2016 107 Albuterol sulfate tablet [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; July 2019. 108 Albuterol sulfate extended-release tablets [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; March 2015. 109 Metaproterenol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Carmel Valley, NY; Silarx; June 2014. 110 Terbutaline tablet [package insert]. Baudette, MN; ANI; September 2018. 111 Clinical Pharmacology. Available at: https://www.clinicalpharmacology.com/. Accessed February 6, 2020.





https://www.clinicalpharmacology.com/






http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2011-07-26/pdf/2011-18347.pdf









112 ProAir RespiClick [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; April 2018. 113 ProAir Digihaler [package insert]. Frazer, PA; Teva; December 2018. 114 Proventil HFA [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ; Merck Sharp & Dohme; July 2018. 115 Ventolin HFA [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; December 2019. 116 ProAir HFA [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; February 2019. 117 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.083% [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; January 2013. 118 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.5% [package insert]. West Columbia, SC; Nephron; October 2017. 119 Albuterol low dose inhalation solution [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2018. 120 Xopenex HFA [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; February 2017. 121 Xopenex inhalation solution [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 122 Xopenex inhalation solution concentrate [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 123 Albuterol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Parsippany, NJ; Actavis; November 2016 124 Albuterol sulfate tablet [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; July 2019. 125 Albuterol sulfate extended-release tablets [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; March 2015. 126 Metaproterenol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Carmel Valley, NY; Silarx; June 2014. 127 Terbutaline tablet [package insert]. Baudette, MN; ANI; September 2018. 128 Clinical Pharmacology. Available at: https://www.clinicalpharmacology.com/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 129 ProAir RespiClick [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; April 2018. 130 ProAir Digihaler [package insert]. Frazer, PA; Teva; December 2018. 131 Proventil HFA [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ; Merck Sharp & Dohme; July 2018. 132 Ventolin HFA [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; December 2019. 133 ProAir HFA [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; February 2019. 134 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.083% [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; January 2013. 135 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.5% [package insert]. West Columbia, SC; Nephron; October 2017. 136 Albuterol low dose inhalation solution [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2018. 137 Xopenex HFA [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; February 2017. 138 Xopenex inhalation solution [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 139 Xopenex inhalation solution concentrate [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 140 Albuterol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Parsippany, NJ; Actavis; November 2016 141 Albuterol sulfate tablet [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; July 2019. 142 Albuterol sulfate extended-release tablets [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; March 2015. 143 Metaproterenol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Carmel Valley, NY; Silarx; June 2014. 144 Terbutaline tablet [package insert]. Baudette, MN; ANI; September 2018. 145 Clinical Pharmacology. Available at: https://www.clinicalpharmacology.com/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 146 ProAir RespiClick [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; April 2018. 147 ProAir Digihaler [package insert]. Frazer, PA; Teva; December 2018. 148 Proventil HFA [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ; Merck Sharp & Dohme; July 2018. 149 Ventolin HFA [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; December 2019. 150 ProAir HFA [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; February 2019. 151 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.083% [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; January 2013. 152 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.5% [package insert]. West Columbia, SC; Nephron; October 2017. 153 Albuterol low dose inhalation solution [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2018. 154 Xopenex HFA [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; February 2017. 155 Xopenex inhalation solution [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 156 Xopenex inhalation solution concentrate [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 157 Albuterol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Parsippany, NJ; Actavis; November 2016 158 Albuterol sulfate tablet [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; July 2019. 159 Albuterol sulfate extended-release tablets [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; March 2015. 160 Metaproterenol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Carmel Valley, NY; Silarx; June 2014. 161 Terbutaline tablet [package insert]. Baudette, MN; ANI; September 2018. 162 Clinical Pharmacology. Available at: https://www.clinicalpharmacology.com/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 163 ProAir RespiClick [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; April 2018. 164 ProAir Digihaler [package insert]. Frazer, PA; Teva; December 2018. 165 Proventil HFA [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ; Merck Sharp & Dohme; July 2018. 166 Ventolin HFA [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC; GlaxoSmithKline; December 2019. 167 ProAir HFA [package insert]. Horsham, PA; Teva; February 2019. 168 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.083% [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; January 2013. 169 Albuterol sulfate inhalation solution 0.5% [package insert]. West Columbia, SC; Nephron; October 2017. 170 Albuterol low dose inhalation solution [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; May 2018. 171 Xopenex HFA [package insert]. Marlborough, MA; Sunovion; February 2017. 172 Xopenex inhalation solution [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 173 Xopenex inhalation solution concentrate [package insert]. Lake Forest, IL; Akorn; January 2019. 174 Albuterol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Parsippany, NJ; Actavis; November 2016 175 Albuterol sulfate tablet [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; July 2019. 176 Albuterol sulfate extended-release tablets [package insert]. Morgantown, WV; Mylan; March 2015. 177 Metaproterenol sulfate syrup [package insert]. Carmel Valley, NY; Silarx; June 2014.








178 Terbutaline tablet [package insert]. Baudette, MN; ANI; September 2018. 179 Clinical Pharmacology. Available at: https://www.clinicalpharmacology.com/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 180 Clinical Pharmacology. Available at: https://www.clinicalpharmacology.com/. Accessed February 6, 2020. 181 National Asthma Education and Prevention Program Expert Panel Report: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. Expert panel report 3. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.htm. Accessed February 6, 2020. 182 Nathan RA. Beta 2 agonist therapy: oral versus inhaled delivery. J Asthma 1992; 29(1): 49-54. 183 Handley DA, Tinkelman D, Noonan M, et al. Dose-response evaluation of levalbuterol verses racemic albuterol in patients with asthma. J Asthma. 2000; 37:319-27. 184 Milgrom H, Skoner DP, Bensch G, et al. Low-dose levalbuterol in children with asthma: safety and efficacy in comparison with placebo and racemic albuterol. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001; 108:938-45. 185 Carl JC, Myers TR, Kirchner HL, et al. Comparison of racemic albuterol and levalbuterol for treatment of acute asthma. J Pediatr. 2003; 143(6):731-6. 186 Wilkinson M, Bulloch B, Garcia-Filion P, et al. Efficacy of racemic albuterol versus levalbuterol used as a continuous nebulization for the treatment of acute asthma exacerbations: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. J Asthma. 2011; 48(2): 188-93. 187 Di Marco F, Milic-Emili J, Boveri B, et al. Effect of inhaled bronchodilators on inspiratory capacity and dyspnoea at rest in COPD. Eur Respir J. 2003; 21:86-94. 188 Dolovich MB, Ahrens RC, Hess DR, et al. Device Selection and Outcomes of Aerosol Therapy: Evidence-Based Guidelines: American College of Chest Physicians/American College of Asthma, Allergy, and Immunology. Chest. 2005; 127:335-371.




bronchodilators, long-acting beta-agonists therapeutic ...€¦ · treatment can be initiated with...

Documents