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I recalled how the law was first composed in theHebrew language, and thereafter, when the Greekslearned it, they translated it all into their ownlanguage, and all other books as well. And so too theRomans, after they had mastered them, translatedthem all through myriad interpreters into their ownlanguage.… Therefore it seemed better to me …that we too should turn certain books which are themost necessary for all men to know into a languagethat we can all understand.

Alfred’s educational program was designed primarily tohelp him govern, but one of its legacies is the relativelylarge quantity of literary, historical, legal, spiritual, andpolitical writing in English (about 30,000 lines of poetryand about ten times as much prose) that has survived,almost all of it in manuscripts from the tenth andeleventh centuries. Under Alfred the Anglo-SaxonChronicle was probably begun; to this year-by-yearhistorical record we owe a great deal of our knowledgeof the period.

The authority of even the most capable andambitious rulers in the early Middle Ages was seldomable to survive long after their deaths. More often thannot family feuding would undo much of what had beenaccomplished, as happened when fighting amongCharlemagne’s three sons led to the tripartite division ofthe Carolingian empire. Alfred had rather better luckwith his descendants, who were able to consolidate hisaccomplishments and even extend them somewhat; hisdescendant Edgar (r. 959–75) commanded theallegiance of all of the most important English lords,had ties to the most important families on thecontinent, and had in his control all senior churchappointments. Under the weaker leadership of the nextgeneration, however, in particular Æthelred II (r.978–1016), and in the face of a renewed series of Vikingattacks (dramatically depicted in the poetic Battle ofMaldon, written some time after the actual battle in991), the allegiance of the great lords and landholders tothe king loosened, and the shameful decline of theEnglish nobility described in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicleculminated in the Danish King Cnut (r. 1016–35)taking the English throne.

The end of the tenth century was by no meansentirely a period of decline, however; it was also a time

of such literary figures as the homilist and grammarianÆlfric, the archbishop Wulfstan, and the scholarByrhtferth of Ramsey; during these years a number ofdeluxe decorated manuscripts were produced, andimportant works such as the Rule of St. Benedict andthe Gospels were translated into English. It is a tributeto the strength of Alfred’s reforms that much of theadministrative, military, and church structures he hadput into place survived the conquest of England by aDanish king—as, indeed, they would in part survive theconquest fifty years later by the Normans. That theseconquests did not cause more destruction than they didmust also be attributed in part to the fact that theseinvading cultures were far from alien to English culture.In the centuries between the early Viking invasions andthe reign of Cnut, Christianity had reached Scandinavia;whereas the early Vikings had raided and destroyedmonasteries, Cnut was a Christian who continued tosupport the monasteries much as Alfred and hisdescendants had done. Similarly, while the Vikings hadconquered Normandy in the early tenth century, by thetime the Normans invaded Britain in 1066, the Vikingculture of Normandy had largely been assimilated tothat of Christian France.

England after the Norman Conquest

The Normans and Feudalism

The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 was thenext in the long series of invasions and migrations—Celts, Romans, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Vikings—that have shaped English culture. That it has held aspecial place as a focal point in English history is nodoubt partly due to its timing, almost exactly at thepoint where many scholars see larger forces creating adividing line between the early and the later MiddleAges. French language and culture never threatened toextinguish the existing Anglo-Saxon culture and Englishlanguage, although they did exert enormous and lastinginfluence on them. The contrast with the Anglo-Saxonmigrations is striking: these effectively and permanentlyimposed an English culture on Britain, while conquestby the Normans never permanently imposed French

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From the Bayeux Tapestry (late eleventh century). This object is actually an embroidered banner, around 20 inches high and 230feet long, rather than a woven tapestry. It was probably created by English embroiderers, who were particularly skilled in this kindof work. This section of the tapestry shows the Norman ships landing at Pevensy, Sussex, 28 September; several ships have alreadylanded on the beach, and horses are being unloaded from another ship that has just arrived. The text of the tapestry at this point(translated from the Latin) reads as follows: Here the horses are getting out of the ships. And here the soldiers [hurry to Hastingsto seize supplies].

culture on England. But the Norman invasion helped tochange Britain in fundamental ways—most obviously inlanguage, but also in social and economic structure.

For all its far-reaching consequences, the invasionitself was a relatively modest affair. When Harold wascrowned as king following the death of King Edward,the succession was disputed by William, Duke ofNormandy, who settled the matter militarily; with aforce probably numbering no more than 8,000, hecrossed the Channel and soon defeated and killedHarold in a day-long battle just outside Hastings. Hisvictory brought England under the rule of a French-speaking king with substantial territorial claims inFrance, a situation that would persist for roughly thenext three hundred years. Despite this obvious shift, anddespite the triumphant narrative of the Bayeux Tapestry(probably made within a generation of the battle for aNorman patron), the effects of the Conquest,particularly as it was viewed at close range rather thanyears later, apparently did not always loom so large. Inthis connection it is interesting to compare the fivedifferent accounts in different manuscripts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that have come down to us. At oneextreme is the remarkably brief account of a scribewriting at Winchester in the manuscript known as the

Parker MS: “In this year King Edward died and EarlHarold succeeded to the kingdom, and held it fortyweeks and one day; and in this year William came andconquered England. And in this year Christ Church wasbuilt and a comet appeared on 18 April.” By contrast, ascribe writing a generation or more later in Peter-borough presents a much fuller account of how Haroldwas forced to fight a Norse invader in the north of thecountry before meeting William at Hastings, andconveys more of the immediate effects of William’sconquest. Yet even here one has the sense that the deathof a local abbot is regarded as being of almost as muchimportance as the Norman invasion:

And King Harold was informed [of the victory of aNorse king near the town of York], and he camewith a very great force of English men and met himat Stamford Bridge, and killed him and Earl Tostigand valiantly overcame all the invaders. MeanwhileCount William landed at Hastings on MichaelmasDay, and Harold came from the north and foughtwith him before all of the army had come and therehe fell and his two brothers Gyrth and Leofwine;and William conquered this country, and came toWestminster, and Archbishop Aldred consecratedhim king, and people paid taxes to him, and gave

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him hostages and afterwards bought their land. AndLeofric, Abbot of Peterborough, was at that cam-paign and fell ill there, and came home and diedsoon after, on the Eve of All Saints. God have mercyon his soul. In his day there was every happiness andevery good at Peterborough, and he was beloved byeveryone, so that the King gave to Saint Peter andhim the Abbacy of Burton and that of Coventrywhich Earl Leofric, who was his uncle, had built,and that of Crowland and that of Thorne. And hedid much for the benefit of the monastery ofPeterborough with gold and silver and vestmentsand land, more indeed than any before or after him.

Significant here is the mention of people paying taxes toWilliam and “buying” their lands. William exactedtribute from the conquered both in the immediateaftermath of his invasion and on an ongoing basis,keeping as much as a fifth of English lands for himselfand dividing much of the rest among members of hisfamily and the barons who had supported him, who inturn maintained their own followers. While neither thelords nor the peasants of Anglo-Saxon England had heldlegal title to their land in quite the way that we conceiveof it today, they had in practice exercised rights overthat land similar to those that we would describe as therights of ownership. Under the Normans, by contrast,nobles held the land that they occupied not on anypermanent basis but as part of a system of exchange.The king granted land to a nobleman as a fief; in returnfor the right to its use the nobleman was obliged toperform services for the king, including makingpayments at various times and providing armed knightswhenever the king might demand them. The nobleman,in his turn, would grant land—again, as a fief—to aknight, who in return would owe to the noblemanmilitary service and other dues. The knight wouldtypically retain a substantial portion of this land, andthen divide the rest among the peasantry. There wereobligations in the other direction, as well: knights wereobliged to provide protection for the peasantry, noblesfor the knights, and the king for the nobles. Therelationship at each level was, in theory at least, entirelyvoluntary and often publicly proclaimed, with the“vassal” (or holder of the fief) kneeling and promising

homage and fealty to his lord, and a kiss between thetwo then sealing their mutual obligation.

The institution of this new system was marked in aunique way by William through the compilation of theDomesday Book (so-called in reference to the “Day ofJudgment” at the end of the world), an extraordinarysurvey on a county-by-county basis of all the lands heldby the king and by his vassals, recording all theobligations of the landholders. Without the sort ofcommitment to record-keeping and enforcement thatthe Domesday Book represented (a commitment madepossible, it must be said, by the underlying social orderinherited from the Anglo-Saxons), the Normans mightnot have succeeded to such a great degree in imposinga new network of obligation on the conquered people.It must be noted, however, that the Domesday Bookwas seldom used to settle disputes or clarify owner-ship—the two functions for which, one might suppose,such a comprehensive census would be undertaken—inthe first century of its existence. The eleventh-centuryability to make records outpaced the development of asystem in which to exploit them, and it would take sometime before the mechanisms of government could makeefficient use of such burdensome archives of documents.It has been argued that the Domesday Book, for all theimpressive bureaucracy that brought it about, reflects amistaken idea of the nature of written obligations:William may have imagined that the island of Britaincould be granted to him by a written charter, like anyother piece of land, and that recording the disposition ofproperty and population would somehow fix thempermanently in that state. But even if Domesday wasmore symbolic than useful, the imposition of feudalobligations was fairly thorough in England; the Anglo-Saxon nobles were quickly assimilated, dispossessed, orkilled, leaving William in effective control of England.The Norman conquests of Wales and Scotland,however, were much slower and more piecemeal, andthe Anglo-Norman kings never exercised very muchcontrol over Ireland.

The late eleventh century in England saw the arrivalof the Jews as well as the French invaders. Christiandisdain for moneylending—although there werecertainly Christian usurers—and the exclusion of Jews

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from some other professions meant that Jews tended tobecome strongly associated with, and very important in,the financial workings of the kingdom. In the twelfthand thirteenth centuries, until their expulsion in 1290,they served at times as a financial last resort for the king;their relatively unprotected status as non-Christiansmade them vulnerable to much more severe forms oftaxation and the abrogation of debts incurred byChristians but never repaid. Another importantdevelopment of the later eleventh century, which wouldbecome much more central to civic life in the lateMiddle Ages, was the rise of guilds—initially merchantguilds that exercised a monopoly over the trade in aparticular area, but later craft guilds that establishedregulations allowing them to control who could practicea given craft and that offered social and financial sup-port to their members, as well as regulating the qualityof production. While guilds and confraternities of somedescription, often purely religious in orientation, hadexisted since perhaps the seventh century, they becameincreasingly important in the course of the twelfth andthirteenth centuries, particularly in England, and theirrise coincided with the growth of urban centers and ofnew forms of religious devotion.

Henry II and an International Culture

If William was the key figure in establishing Normanand feudal rule in England, his great-grandson Henry II(r. 1154–89) was the key figure in its preservation andextension through the later Middle Ages. Henry’scoming to the throne in 1154 brought to an end almosttwenty years of civil war under the disputed kingship ofStephen, in the course of which barons and churchleaders had taken advantage of the collapse of royalauthority to expand local powers. Many of them beganto encroach on land claimed by the Crown, and to buildprivate castles to protect their domains. Henry put astop to these practices, taking back the lands, tearingdown the castles, and reorganizing royal authority in afashion that was increasingly supported by standardizedrecords and documents. Central authority over legalmatters, which had previously been largely restricted tocapital cases, was now extended to legal matters of allsorts; the first legal textbook was composed in Henry’s

reign. The expansion of the Crown’s legal control camein part at the expense of the church, and provoked oneof the most famous incidents of Henry’s reign, his clashwith Thomas Becket (1118–70), Archbishop ofCanterbury, who wanted the clergy to retain their rightto be tried in church courts independent of the secularlegal system. The Archbishop was subsequently mur-dered, allegedly on the orders of Henry, an event thatexercised a tremendous hold on the contemporaryimagination. As John of Salisbury tells the story (in theearliest surviving account of the murder, written in1171), Becket was standing before the altar when theknights who had come in pursuit of him arrived andtold him that it was his time to die. John writes:

Steadfast in speech as in spirit, he replied: “I amprepared to die for my God, to preserve justiceand my church’s liberty. But if you seek myhead, I forbid you on behalf of God almightyand on pain of anathema to do any hurt to anyother man, monk, clerk or layman, of high orlow degree.… I embrace death readily, so long aspeace and liberty for the church follow from theshedding of my blood.” … He spoke, and sawthat the assassins had drawn their swords; andbowed his head like one in prayer. His last wordswere “To God and St. Mary and the saints whoprotect and defend this church, and to theblessed Denis, I commend myself and thechurch’s cause.” … A son’s affection forbids meto describe each blow the savage assassins struck,spurning all fear of God, forgetful of all fealtyand any human feeling. They defiled thecathedral and the holy season with a bishop’sblood and with slaughter.

It remains unclear whether or not Henry orderedBecket’s murder. What is clear is that the outcry was sogreat that Henry was forced to perform publicpenance—and to accept that the church would, to someextent, remain outside the realm of royal authority.Becket’s martyrdom created the Canterbury shrine thatwas the destination of Chaucer’s pilgrims, among manyothers.

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Plan for Canterbury Cathedra l, c. 1160. Canterbury Cathedra l, the seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury, head of theEnglish Church, is a kind of time capsule of Christianity in Britain since Anglo-Saxon times. The earliest church knownto have stood on this site was that of St. Augustine of Canterbury, who arrived as a missionary in 597 CE; traces of thisbuilding are believed to lie beneath the current structure. An Anglo-Saxon church was built over that of Augustine in theninth or tenth century; it was destroyed by fire in 1067 and rebuilt by the Normans shortly afterward, and this constructionstill forms the basic fabric of the existing church, although it was modified and decorated further in the succeedingcenturies. The plan shows the extensive monastic buildings as well as the cathedral itself. The lines shown connecting thebuildings represent the plumbing system. At the top left the vineyard and orchard are indicated. The murder of St. ThomasBecket, then Archbishop, in the Cathedral’s altar, made Canterbury a major pilgrimage shrine.

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Durham Cathedral, begun in 1093, is regarded as oneof the finest examples of Norman architecture inEurope; this style, a form of the Romanesque, ischaracterized by round arches (as here, along the sidesof the nave) and vast but relatively spare interiors.Durham also displays some features (such as thepointed vaulting) that came to characterize the Gothicstyle of many later cathedrals.

Salisbury Cathedral (thirteenth century). With a spire of 404feet, this was until the 1960s the tallest building in England.It is a classic example of the high Gothic style, with itspointed arches, flying buttresses to support a higher vault, andgreater intricacy of design, including decorative features suchas exterior sculpture and stained glass windows.

Lincoln Cathedral, Galilee Porch. Begun in 1072 andsubstantially rebuilt in the late twelfth and early thirteenth

centuries, Lincoln Cathedral shows some of the classicfeatures of both Romanesque and Gothic architecture. TheGothic Galilee Porch dates from c. 1230.

If Henry’s extension of the power of the Englishthrone throughout the realm was unprecedented—though not, as the example of Becket suggests, entirelyunopposed—so too was his extension of that powerbeyond the British Isles. Like previous Anglo-Normanmonarchs, Henry controlled much of what is nownorthern France as well as England. With his marriageto Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152 he had acquired controlof much of southern France; he also exerted control overmost of Scotland and Wales, and in 1171 he invadedand took control of Ireland, where he quickly imposedthe same feudal structures and judicial system on theIrish people as he had on the English. Despite England’s

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Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine sailing across theEnglish Channel. Detail of illustration from MatthewParis, Historia Major (c. 1240). The king and queenmade the crossing many times as they traveled betweentheir French and English kingdoms.

political control over Ireland—which itself was ofvarying strength over the next centuries—there wasrelatively little cultural assimilation, and the Englishnobles ruling in Ireland formed to a large extent a self-contained enclave. Like Scotland and Wales, with whichit formed intermittent alliances, Ireland throughout thisperiod pursued its own political strategies in the BritishIsles and on the continent. And despite the efforts ofHenry and the kings who followed him, the Englishpresence in France was far less enduring than itspresence in Ireland. By 1453, at the close of theHundred Years’ War between France and England, theport town of Calais was the only remnant of Englishcontrol over France.

The period around the Norman Conquest alsocoincided with important developments in learnedculture. England had produced outstanding scholars atvarious points in the early Middle Ages—among themBede, the Latin poet Aldhelm, Ælfric, Byrhtferth, andmost famously Alcuin of York, a monk who becamemaster of Charlemagne’s palace school—and in theeleventh century was home to the illustrious Anselm ofBec (1033–1109), one of the founders of scholasticthought, whose career demonstrates the internationalculture of the church and the schools, both of whichused Latin, an international language. Born in Italy,Anselm became abbot of a monastery in Normandy andwas eventually appointed Archbishop of Canterbury—the leading church position in England. His develop-ment of the ontological argument for the existence ofGod in his Why God Became Man (starting from thepremise that God is that than which nothing greater canbe conceived) is a good example of scholastic ways ofthinking, proceeding on the basis of deductive logic tonew theological conclusions. While there were outstand-ing individual thinkers at this time, however, theuniversities were still in their infancy; in most ofEurope, schools had existed for the most part only inassociation with cathedrals or monasteries and theirchief purpose was to provide training for clerics. In thewake of monastic and ecclesiastical reform in the tenthand eleventh centuries, these schools began to expandtheir curricula to provide a more highly educated clergyat all levels. Already by the end of the eleventh centurythere was some form of instruction taking place atOxford, and by the end of the twelfth century it was asubstantial enough center of learning to have attractedits first foreign student and to benefit when Henry IIforbade English scholars to study at the University ofParis. The University of Bologna was also already inexistence at this time, and these three were soonfollowed by others across Europe.

The British Isles in the twelfth century also saw therise of new modes of historical writing, including workssuch as William of Malmesbury’s Gesta Regum Anglorumor “Deeds of the English Kings,” Henry of Hunting-don’s Chronicle, and Geoffrey of Monmouth’s HistoriaRegum Britanniae or “History of the Kings of Britain.”These writers’ approach to history emphasized, as their

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titles suggest, the deeds of kings and the rise and fall ofnations; in this they departed from predecessors moreinterested in depicting the Christian framework ofhistory. The period also illustrates the political uses ofliterature. While Henry II—unlike, for example, KingAlfred—is not particularly remembered for his ownliterary activities, numerous works in Anglo-Norman areassociated with him as a patron or dedicatee, and hisdesire to solidify and extend his claims on both Frenchand English lands was one of the things that made himan important figure for literary history. Henry and hisdescendants are known as the Angevin (or Plantagenet)kings, a reference to Henry’s father, Geoffrey “Planta-genet” of Anjou, and this designation accurately repre-sents their ongoing political and cultural interest inFrance. Henry’s reign saw the production and widedissemination of numerous literary and historical worksthat proved foundational for British literature, especiallythe development of the Arthurian legend.

Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History, completed around1139, offers an account of the history of the realm goingback to its mythical Trojan founder, Brutus (fromwhom the name Britain supposedly derived), andprovided the foundation for the Arthurian stories of thelater Middle Ages. Henry II, the descendant ofNormans who, like the mythical British under Arthur,had battled the Saxons for control of Britain, was onlythe first in a long line of kings to find this legend, withits potential to offer an authoritative and legitimizinghistory, an appealing subject; Arthur’s imperial ambi-tions, as told in this version of the tale, also offered asupposed historical precedent for English claims to ruleon the continent.1 Geoffrey’s History was popularthroughout Europe, and in the British Isles alone wastranslated into Middle Welsh, Anglo-Norman, andMiddle English. The Anglo-Norman version Brut, bythe poet Wace, was dedicated to Henry’s queen, Eleanorof Aquitaine, a further suggestion of the story’s royalallure. Later in the century, French authors—mostnotably Chrétien de Troyes (c. 1150–90)—inserted intothe legendary history of Arthur episodes that focused on

the individual achievements of knights and on romantic(sometimes adulterous) love, creating a considerablygreater role for female characters. Their works took theirname from the language in which they were written,roman (French, from which we derive the modernliterary term romance as well as the name for theromance languages), as opposed to Latin, a choice thatreflected the growing audience for vernacular poetry inthe European courts.

A form closely related to the romance, and alsowritten in the vernacular, was the Breton lay, a shortnarrative with, usually, a significant element of themarvelous and a central emphasis on a romanticrelationship rather than large-scale political or militaryevents. The lays’ emphasis on the supernatural, which isoften attributed to their origin in the Celtic culture ofBrittany, is reminiscent at times of the early twelfth-century prose tales of the Mabinogi from medievalWales—which, however, also show notable chivalric andcourtly features. By far the most famous medieval laysare those by an Anglo-Norman author who calls herselfsimply “Marie” and who apparently wrote in England inHenry’s time; her twelve short tales—two of which areset in the world of Arthurian legend—offer particularlycareful attention to women’s roles in the conflicts ofloyalty that often characterize romance narratives, andare among the relatively few medieval works by a namedfemale author. The Marie who wrote the lays is usuallyidentified with the “Marie de France” who composed acollection of fables and an account of a knight’svisionary journey to purgatory. Romance and the laystook some time to make their way into English;Layamon translated Wace’s Brut into English aroundthe turn of the thirteenth century, but most MiddleEnglish romances date from the late thirteenth andfourteenth centuries, probably reflecting the linguistictendencies of their primary audience, the French-speaking nobility, before the fourteenth century.

As had happened centuries earlier in the wake ofAlfred’s rule, royal authority was scaled back underHenry’s successors, who included two of his sons: firstRichard I (the Lionheart), who ruled from 1189 to1199, and then John, who ruled until 1216. In order toraise money in his struggle against Philip II of France for

1 Although the Normans may have liked to associate themselveswith the British side in the Arthurian legends, Welsh poets of thetime, whose culture was the more direct descendant of the earlyBritish, cast the Normans in the role of the despised English.

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territory on the continent, John imposed extraordinarytaxes on English barons and other nobles; the baronsrebelled and forced the king to sign a document settingout the rights and obligations both of the nobles and ofthe king himself, and making explicit that the king wasnot to contravene these customary arrangements withoutconsulting the barons. The document also reaffirmed thefreedom of the English church, particularly the freedomfrom royal interference in the election of bishops or otherofficeholders. Under this “great charter” or Magna Carta,the power of the king was for the first time limited by theterms of a written document.

The Thirteenth Century

The year 1215 was momentous in medieval Europe. Inaddition to the signing of Magna Carta—whoseultimately far-reaching effects were at the time felt onlyin England—this year witnessed the Fourth LateranCouncil, a major gathering of church leaders under theguidance of the energetic Pope Innocent III. Lateran IVrepresented an extraordinarily wide-ranging attempt tounify Christian practice and raise standards of Christianobservance. The canons of the Council covered almostall aspects of Christian life, and their effects on bothreligious practice and religious instruction resoundedthrough the rest of the Middle Ages. Christians fromnow on were required to confess their sins formally andreceive Communion at least once a year, and thesacrament of the altar was officially declared to involvetransubstantiation, meaning that the body and blood ofChrist were actually present in, rather than merelyrepresented by, the bread and wine consecrated at theMass (a doctrine that became a matter of seriousdispute, however, in later medieval England). A newnetwork of regulation was put into place to governmarriages, with secret marriages prohibited and marriageitself declared a sacrament.

Associated with the increased emphasis on theimportance of priests administering sacraments to thefaithful were increased efforts to ensure that members ofthe clergy were educated and competent; one of thecanons involved the maintenance of cathedral schoolsfree to clerics. Bishops were required to preach in theirdioceses or ensure that there were others who could do

so in their stead, and clergy were forcefully reminded ofthe requirement of clerical celibacy. IndividualChristians, for their part, were expected to be able torecite a small number of prayers, but there was nothought of encouraging widespread education of a sortthat would enable the populace to read the word of Godon their own. On the contrary, it was consideredimportant to keep the Bible at a remove from thecommon people so that it could be safely interpreted tothem through church intermediaries. The controversythat later developed over this issue would extend overseveral centuries and become a crucial concern for theLollard or Wycliffite sect in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century England, as well as a central distinguishingpoint between the Roman Catholic Church and thevarious Protestant faiths in the Reformation.

As this suggests, the reforms of the Fourth LateranCouncil aimed to strengthen the Christian community,but with a new emphasis on differentiating, excluding,and penalizing unorthodox believers and non-Christians. The canons include extensive commentaryon the need to control and excommunicate heretics;they require Jews and “Saracens” (Muslims) to weardistinctive clothing lest they be mistaken for Christians;they prohibit Jews from holding public office; and theymake provisions to encourage crusading against Muslimcontrol of the Holy Land. The English joined whole-heartedly in the Crusades and the restrictions placed onJews. There had already been massacres of Jews,particularly at York, by the late twelfth century;expulsions from various cities by the local lords becamewidespread as early as the 1230s; and in 1290 Edward Iexpelled all Jews from England. It is not surprising, inview of this, that anti-Jewish miracle stories becamepopular across Europe during this period; Chaucer’sPrioress’s Tale is a later example of this genre. Heresyremained a concern throughout Europe, although inthis period the persecutions were more severe in Franceand other parts of the continent than in England.

The Fourth Lateran Council was in part a responseto increased lay devotion and interest in religion, whichoffered a challenge to the sometimes inadequate pastoralcare provided by the clergy. In the early thirteenthcentury, for example, the records of the Bishop ofWinchester show numerous priests being forced to

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Marie de Francec. 1155 – 1215

Although she is widely credited with being the earliest female poet in France, and was arguably theleading female writer of the Middle Ages, little is known about Marie de France; no surviving

documents refer to her life outside of her literary activity. What has come down to us are three works,which vary widely in genre: the Lais (c. 1155–70), a collection of short romance narratives; the Ysopetor Fables (c. 1167–89), a collection commonly accepted as the earliest translation of Aesop intoFrench; and the less-studied Espurgatoire de Saint Patrice (Legend of the Purgatory of Saint Patrick, c.1189), a didactic tale in which Patrick, an Irish knight, makes a spiritual journey through Purgatory.

Her name is known from the self-identification she makes in each of her texts; this occurs mostforcefully and descriptively in the epilogue of the Ysopet:

I shall name myself so that it will be remembered;Marie is my name, I am of France.It may be that many clerkswill take my labor on themselves.I don’t want any of them to claim it.

“France” itself is a slippery designation here, since it had multiple possible meanings in this period;it may be intended to convey that she was from Continental Europe instead of England, for instance,or from northern France instead of the southern Languedoc. The Norman dialect in which her worksare composed suggests that Marie was native to Normandy, and lived during the latter part of the12th century. The “King Henry” to whom she dedicates her Lais is usually identified as Henry II, theAngevin French king of England from 1154–89, and Marie is thought to have been a member of hiscourt, which spoke the form of Norman dialect in which her works come down to us. It hassometimes been suggested that she was Henry’s illegitimate sister Marie, who became Abbess ofShaftesbury around 1181, and who died in 1216, but without any other corroborating documents,such theories are no more than intriguing speculation. It seems very likely, however, that she wasattached to the court of Henry II and his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, and was of noble birth; herworks reveal a level of education and culture that would not usually have been available to a laypersonof lower rank during this time. It is clear that she was educated in Latin, as well as French, andperhaps even in the Breton language, since she claims to have translated her Lais from that tongue.

The Lais of Marie de France are brief narratives written in octosyllabic rhyming couplets, whichwas the conventional literary vehicle for French romance during this time. This collection is made upof twelve stories, each prefaced by a short prologue in which Marie reveals that she is translating intoFrench for the first time a number of “Breton lais.” The lais were Celtic tales of romance that ofteninvolved elements of the fantastic. The compressed space of the form requires Marie to handle hermaterial with considerable finesse and she recounts her tales with an economy of words and a tightnarrative control that lend the romances a down-to-earth precision without sacrificing meaning ornuance.

Many of the lais have a strongly female focus, and in this regard offer a certain contrast to theromances of Marie’s contemporaries. The works of male romancers, while treating the subject of love,often emphasized the tension between love and chivalric pursuits, and the need to balance the twoin order to fulfill both personal needs and social responsibilities. Marie is largely uninterested in such

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1 Lanval The translation is by Claire Waters, for The Broadview Anthology of British Literature.2 Logres The Celtic word for England.

concerns, and focuses instead on the personal desires of her characters, especially those of her femalecharacters. Her lais often depict intensely intimate love relationships set against a backdrop of athreatening society in which unfulfilling marriages, the arbitrary dictates of court life, and oppressivesocial practices hold sway.

Lanval is drawn from the larger literary universe of Arthurian legend. It recounts the tale of aknight whose inherent worth is unrecognized by the Arthurian court, and who is able to escape thisuncaring and arbitrary society through the love of an otherworldly fairy figure.zzz

Lanval1

L’aventure d’un autre lai, I shall tell you the adventurecum ele avient, vus cunterai. of another lay, just as it happened.Fait fu d’un mut gentil vassal; It was made about a very noble vassal;en bretans l’apelent Lanval. in Breton they call him Lanval.

A Kardoel surjurnot li reis The king was staying at Cardoel—5

Artur, li pruz e li curteis, Arthur, the valiant and courteous—pur les Escoz e pur les Pis, on account of the Scots and Pictsque destrui[ei]ent le païs; who were ravaging the country:en la tere de Loengre entroënt they came into the land of Logres2

e mut suvent la damagoënt. and repeatedly caused destruction there.10

A la Pentecuste en esté At Pentecost, in the summer,i aveit li reis sujurné. the king had taken up residence there.Asez i duna riches duns He gave many rich giftse as cuntes e as baruns. both to counts and to noblemen.A ceus de la table runde— To the members of the Round Table—15

n’ot tant de teus en tut le munde— they had no equal in all the world—femmes e tere departi he shared out wives and landpar tut, fors un ki l’ot servi: among all except one who had served him:ceo fu Lanval, ne l’en sovient, that was Lanval, whom he did not remember,ne nul de[s] soens bien ne li tient. nor did any of his men favor him.20

Pur sa valur, pur sa largesce, For his valor, his generosity,pur sa beauté, pur sa prüesce his beauty, his prowess,l’envioënt tut li plusur; most people envied him;tel li mustra semblant d’amur, many a one pretended to love himse al chevaler mesavenist, who wouldn’t have complained for a moment25

ja une feiz ne l’en pleinsist. if something bad had befallen the knight.Fiz a rei fu de haut parage, He was a king’s son, of high lineage,mes luin ert de sun heritage. but he was far from his heritage.De la meisné le rei fu. He was part of the king’s household.Tut sun aveir ad despendu, He had spent all his wealth,30

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kar li reis rien ne li dona for the king gave him nothing,ne Lanval rien ne li demanda. nor did Lanval ask him for anything.Ore est Lanval mut entrepris, Now Lanval is very unhappy,mut est dolent e mut pensis. very sorrowful and anxious.Seignurs, ne vus esmerveillez: Lords, do not wonder:35

hume estrange descunseillez a foreign man without supportmut est dolent en autre tere, is very sorrowful in another landquant il ne seit u sucurs quere. when he does not know where to seek help.Le chevaler dunt jeo vus di, The knight of whom I’m telling you,que tant aveit le rei servi, who had served the king so well,40

un jur munta sur sun destrer, got on his horse one daysi s’est alez esbaneer. and went off to enjoy himself.Fors de la vilë est eissuz, He went out of the towntut sul est en un pre venuz; and came, all alone, to a meadow;sur une ewe curaunt descent— he got down beside running water—45

mes sis cheval tremble forment. but his horse trembled terribly.Il le descengle, si s’en vait; He unsaddled it and went off;en mi le pre vuiltrer le lait. he let it roll around in the middle of the meadow.Le pan de sun mantel plia He folded the end of his mantledesuz sun chief puis le cucha. and lay down with it under his head.50

Mut est pensis pur sa mesaise; He is very worried by his difficult situation;il ne veit chose ke li plaise. he sees nothing that pleases him.La u il gist en teu maniere, As he lay there like this,garda aval lez la riviere, he looked down toward the bank[si] vit venir deus dameiseles; and saw two maidens coming;55

unc n’en ot veü[es] plus beles. he had never seen any more beautiful.Vestues ierent richement, They were richly dressedlacie[es] mut estreitement and very tightly laceden deus blians de purpre bis; in tunics of dark purple;mut par aveient bel le vis. they had exceedingly lovely faces.60

L’eisnee portout un[s] bacins, The elder was carrying basinsdoré furent, bien faiz e fins; of gold, fine and well made;le veir vus en dirai sans faile. I shall tell you the truth without fail.L’autre portout une tuaile. The other carried a towel.Eles s’en sunt alees dreit They went right along65

la u li chevaler giseit. to where the knight was lying.Lanval, que mut fu enseigniez, Lanval, who was very well bred,cuntre eles s’en levad en piez. got to his feet to meet them.Celes l’unt primes salué, They greeted him firstlur message li unt cunté: and told him their message:70

“Sire Lanval, ma dameisele, “Sir Lanval, my lady,que tant est pruz e sage e bele, who is most noble, wise, and beautiful,ele nus enveit pur vus; sent us for you;kar i venez ensemble od nus! now come along with us!Sauvement vus i cundurums: We will convey you safely to her.75

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veez, pres est li paveilluns!” Look, the pavilion is right here!”Le chevalers od eles vait; The knight goes with them;de sun cheval ne tient nul plait, he takes no heed of his horse,que devant li pe[ssei]t al pre. who was off grazing in the meadow.Treskë al tref l’unt amené, They led him up to the tent,80

que mut fu beaus e bien asis. which was very beautiful and well situated.La reïne Semiramis, Not Queen Semiramis,quant ele ot unkes plus aveir when she was at her richeste plus pussaunce e plus saveir, and most powerful and wisest,ne l’emperere Octovïen nor the emperor Octavian85

n’esligasent le destre pan. could have bought the right flap.Un aigle d’or ot desus mis; A golden eagle was set on top of it;de cel ne sai dire le pris, I can’t tell its value,ne des cordes ne des peissuns nor of the cords or the stakesque del tref tienent les giruns; that held the sides of the tent;90

suz ciel n’ad rei ki[s] esligast no king under heaven could buy thempur nul aver k’il i donast. for any wealth he might offer.Dedenz cel tref fu la pucele: Inside the tent was the maiden:flur de lis [e] rose nuvele, her beauty surpassedquant ele pert al tens d’esté, the lily and the new rose95

trespassot ele de beauté. when they bloom in summer.Ele jut sur un lit mut bel— She lay on a very beautiful bed—li drap valeient un chastel— the sheets were worth a castle—en sa chemise senglement. in nothing but her shift.Mut ot le cors bien fait e gent. Her body was very elegant and comely.100

Un cher mantel de blanc hermine, She had thrown on for warmthcovert de purpre alexandrine, a costly mantle of white ermine,ot pur le chaut sur li geté. lined with alexandrine silk.Tut ot descovert le costé, Her side was entirely uncovered,le vis, le col e la peitrine; her face, her neck, and her breast;105

plus ert blanche que flur d’espine. she was whiter than hawthorn blossom.Le chevaler avant ala, The knight went forward,

e la pucele l’apela; and the maiden called to him;il s’est devant le lit asis. he sat down in front of the bed.“Lanval,” fet ele, “beus amis, “Lanval,” she said, “handsome friend,110

pur vus vienc jeo fors de ma tere; for you I have come out of my own land;de luinz vus sui venu[e] quere. I have come from afar to look for you.Se vus estes pruz e curteis, If you are valiant and courteous,emperere ne quens ne reis no emperor, count, or kingn’ot unkes tant joie ne bien; ever had such joy or good fortune;115

kar jo vus aim sur tute rien.” for I love you more than anything.”Il l’esgarda, si la vit bele; He looked at her, and saw she was beautiful;amurs le puint de l’estencele, love stung him with a sparkque sun quor alume e esprent. that lit and inflamed his heart.Il li respunt avenantment. He responded fittingly.120

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1 Mut … herbergez Other manuscripts have here, “mut est Lanval bien assenez” (Lanval is very well provided for)and some editors prefer this reading, since the line as it stands is repeated below at l. 154.

“Bele,” fet il, “si vus pleiseit “Beautiful one,” he said, “if it pleased youe cele joie me aveneit that such joy should come to meque vus me vousissez amer, as to have you consent to love me,ja [ne savrïez] rien commander you could never command anythingque jeo ne face a mien poeir, that I would not do to the best of my power,125

turt a folie u a saveir. be it folly or wisdom.Jeo frai voz comandemenz; I will do what you command;pur vus guerpirai tutes genz. for you I will give up everyone.Jamés ne queor de vus partir: I never wish to part from you:ceo est la rien que plus desir.” this is what I most desire.”130

Quant la meschine l’ oï parler, When the maiden heard him speak,celui que tant la peot amer, he who could love her so well,s’amur e sun cors li otreie. she granted him her love and her body.Ore est Lanval en dreite veie! Now Lanval is on the right path!Un dun li ad duné aprés: She gave him still one more gift:135

ja cele rien ne vudra mes he will never again want anythingquë il nen ait a sun talent; without having as much of it as he likes;doinst e despende largement, let him give and spend generously,ele li troverat asez. she will provide him with enough.Mut est Lanval bien herbergez:1 Lanval is very well situated:140

cum plus despendra richement, the more richly he spends,plus averat or e argent. the more gold and silver he will have.“Ami,” fet ele, “ore vus chasti, “Friend,” she said, “now I warn you,si vus comant e si vus pri, I command and beg you,ne vus descoverez a nul humme! tell no one about this!145

De ceo vus dirai ja la summe: I will tell you the whole truth:a tuz jurs m’avrïez perdue, you would lose me foreverse ceste amur esteit seüe; if this love should be known;jamés ne me purriez veeir you could never see me againne de mun cors seisine aveir.” or have possession of my body.”150

Il li respunt que bien tendra He replies that he will certainly hold toceo que ele li comaundera. what she commands.Delez li s’est al lit cuchiez: He lay down beside her on the bed:ore est Lanval bien herbergez. now Lanval is well lodged.Ensemble od li la relevee All afternoon he stayed with her155

demurat tresque a l[a] vespree, until the evening,e plus i fust, së il poïst and he would have stayed longer, if he coulde s’amie lui cunsentist. and his beloved had consented.“Amis,” fet ele, “levez sus! “Friend,” she said, “get up!Vus n’i poëz demurer plus. You can’t stay here any more.160

Alez vus en, jeo remeindrai; You go on, I will remain—mes un[e] chose vus dirai: but one thing I will tell you:quant vus vodrez od mei parler, when you want to talk with me,

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ja ne saverez cel liu penser, there is no place you can think ofu nuls puïst aver sa amie where one could have his beloved165

sanz reproece, sanz vileinie, without reproach or villainyque jeo ne vus seie en present that I will not be with you at oncea fere tut vostre talent; to do all your will;nul humme fors vus ne me verra no man but you will see mene ma parole nen orra.” or hear my words.”170

Quant il l’oï, mut en fu liez; When he heard this, he was delighted;il la baisa, puis s’est dresciez. he kissed her, then got up.Celes quë al tref l’amenerent The maidens who had brought him to the tentde riches dras le cunreerent; covered him with rich clothes;quant il fu vestu de nuvel, when he was newly dressed,175

suz ciel nen ot plus bel dancel. there was no handsomer young man underheaven.

N’esteit mie fous ne vileins. He was not at all foolish or base.L’ewe li donent a ses meins They gave him water for his handse la tuaille a [es]suier; and the towel to dry them;puis li portent a manger. then they brought him to the table.180

Od s’amie prist le super: He took supper with his beloved:ne feseit mie a refuser. he by no means refused.Mut fu servi curteisement, He was served very courteously,e il a grant joie le prent. and accepted it with great joy.Un entremés i ot plener, There was an excellent extra dish185

que mut pleiseit al chevalier: that greatly pleased the knight,kar s’amie baisout sovent for he often kissed his ladye acolot estreitement. and embraced her closely.

Quant del manger furent levé, When they had gotten up from the table,sun cheval li unt amené. they brought him his horse.190

Bien li unt la sele mise; They have put its saddle on well;mut ad trové riche servise. it has been richly looked after.Il prent cungé, si est muntez; He took his leave and mounted;vers la cité s’en est alez. he went toward the city.Suvent esgarde ariere sei. Several times he looks back.195

Mut est Lanval en grant esfrei; Lanval is greatly troubled;de s’aventure vait pensaunt he goes along thinking about his adventuree en sun curage d[o]taunt. and worrying to himself.Esbaïz est, ne seit que creir, He is astonished, he doesn’t know what to

think,il ne la quide mie a veir. he doesn’t believe he will see her again.200

Il est a sun ostel venuz; He arrives at his lodging;ses hummes treve bien vestuz. he finds his men handsomely dressed.Icele nuit bon estel tient; That night he keeps a rich table,mes nul ne sot dunt ceo li vient. but no one knew where he got this from.N’ot en la vile chevalier There was no knight in the town205

ki de surjur ait grant mestier, who greatly needed sustenance

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quë il ne face a lui venir whom Lanval does not have brought to hime richement e bien servir. and well and richly served.Lanval donout les riches duns, Lanval gave rich gifts,Lanval aquitout les prisuns, Lanval ransomed prisoners,210

Lanval vesteit les jugleürs, Lanval clothed minstrels,Lanval feseit les granz honurs: Lanval did great honor:n’i ot estrange ne privé there was no stranger or dear frienda ki Lanval nen ust doné. to whom Lanval did not give.Mut ot Lanval joie e deduit: Lanval had great joy and pleasure:215

u seit par jur u seit par nuit, he can see his beloved often, s’amie peot veer sovent, whether by day or by night; tut est a sun comandement. she is entirely at his command.

Ceo m’est avis, memes l’an, That same year, as I understand,aprés la feste seint Johan, after the feast of St. John,220

d’ici qu’a trente chevalier as many as thirty knightssi erent alé esbanïer were going out to enjoy themselvesen un vergier desuz la tur in a garden below the toweru la reïne ert a surjur. where the queen was staying.Ensemble od eus [esteit] Walwains Gawain was with them225

e sis cusins, li beaus Ywains. and his cousin, the handsome Yvain.E dist Walwains, li francs, li pruz, Gawain, the noble, the valiant, que tant se fist amer de tuz: who made himself so beloved by everyone, said,“Par Deu, seignurs, nus feimes mal “By God, my lords, we have done wrongde nostre cumpainun Lanval, not to have brought along with us 230

que tant est larges e curteis, our companion Lanval,e sis peres est riches reis, who is so generous and courteous,que od nus ne l’avum amené.” and whose father is a rich king.”Atant se sunt ariere turné; They turned back at once;a sun ostel rev[u]nt ariere, they go back to his lodging235

Lanval ameinent par preere. and persuade Lanval to accompany them.A une fenestre entaillie The queen was leaning

s’esteit la reïne apuïe[e]; on a window ledge;treis dames ot ensemble od li. she had three ladies along with her.La maisné [le rei] choisi; She saw the king’s household;240

Lanval choisi e esgarda. she saw Lanval and noticed him.Une des dames apela; She called one of her ladies;par li manda ses dameiseles, she got her to send for her maidens,les plus quointes [e] les plus beles: the most elegant and lovely:od li si irrunt esbainïer they will go to enjoy themselves with her245

la u cil sunt al vergier. there where the men are in the orchard.Trente en menat od li e plus; She took thirty or more of them with her;par les degrez descendent jus. they go down by the stairs.Les chevalers encuntre vunt, The knights, who are delighted to see them, que pur eles grant joië unt. go to meet them.250

Il les unt prises par les mains; They took the ladies by the hand;

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cil [parlemenz] ni ert pas vilains. the conversation was not unrefined.Lanval s’en vait a une part, Lanval wanders off by himself,mut luin des autres. Ceo li est tart quite far from the others. It seems long to himque s’amie puïst tenir, until he might have his beloved,255

baiser, acoler e sentir; kiss, embrace, and touch her;l’autrui joie prise petit, he values little another’s joysi il n’ad le suen delit. if he does not have what pleases him.Quant la reïne sul le veit, When the queen sees him alone,al chevaler en va tut dreit; she goes right to the knight;260

lunc lui s’asist, si l’apela, she sat by him and spoke to him,tut sun curage li mustra: she showed him all her feelings:“Lanval, mut vus ai honuré “Lanval, I have honored you greatlye mut cheri e mut amé. and loved you and held you very dear.tute m’amur poëz aveir; You can have all my love;265

kar me dites vostre voleir! tell me your desire!Ma drüerie vus otrei; I am willing to be your lover;mut devez estre lié de mei.” you should be delighted with me.”“Dame,” fet il, “lessez m’ester! “Lady,” he said, “let me be!Jeo n’ai cure de vus amer. I have no interest in loving you.270

Lungement ai servi le rei; For a long time I have served the king;ne li voil pas mentir ma fei. I don’t want to betray my faith to him.Ja pur vus ne pur vostre amur Never for you or for your love ne mesfrai a mun seignur.” shall I wrong my lord.”La reïne s’en curuça; The queen became furious at this;275

irie[e] fu, si mesparla. in her anger, she spoke wrongly.“Lanval,” fet ele, “bien le quit, “Lanval,” she said, “it’s quite clear to mevuz n’amez gueres cel delit. you have no interest in that pleasure.Asez le m’ad humme dit sovent People have often told meque des femmez n’avez talent. that you’re not interested in women.280

Vallez avez bien afeitiez, You have shapely young menensemble od eus vus deduiez. and take your pleasure with them.Vileins cüarz, mauveis failliz, Base coward, infamous wretch,mut est mi sires maubailliz my lord is very badly repaidque pres de lui vus ad suffert; for allowing you to remain in his presence;285

mun escïent que Deus en pert!” I believe that he will lose God by it!”Quant il l’oï, mut fu dolent; When he heard this, he was very distressed;del respundre ne fu pas lent. he was not slow to respond.Teu chose dist par maltalent Out of anger he said somethingdunt il se repenti sovent. that he would often regret.290

“Dame,” dist il, “de cel mestier “Lady,” he said, “I know nothingne me sai jeo nïent aidier; about that line of work;mes jo aim, [e] si sui amis but I love, and am loved by,cele ke deit aver le pris one who should be valued more highlysur tutes celes que jeo sai. than all the women I know.295

E une chose vus dirai, And I’ll tell you one thing,

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bien le sachez a descovert: know it well and openly:une de celes ke la sert, any one of her servants,tute la plus povre meschine, even the poorest maid,vaut meuz de vus, dame reïne, is worth more than you, lady queen,300

de cors, de vis e de beauté, in body, face, and beauty,d’enseignement e de bunté.” in manners and goodness.”La reïne s’en par[t] atant, The queen leaves at onceen sa chambrë en vait plurant. and goes into her chamber, crying.Mut fu dolente e curuciee She was very upset and angry305

de ceo k’il [l’]out [si] avilee. that he had insulted her in this way.En sun lit malade cucha; She took to her bed, sick;jamés, ceo dit, ne levera, never, she said, would she get upsi li reis ne l’en feseit dreit if the king did not do the right thingde ceo dunt ele se plein[d]reit. about the complaint she would make to him.310

Li reis fu del bois repeiriez; The king returned from the woods;mut out le jur esté haitiez. he had had a very pleasant day.As chambres la reïne entra. He went into the queen’s rooms.Quant ele le vit, si se clamma; When she saw him, she made her appeal;as piez li chiet, merci crie, she falls at his feet and asks for mercy315

e dit que Lanval l’ad hunie. and says that Lanval has shamed her.De drüerie la requist; He asked her to be his lover;pur ceo que ele l’en escundist, because she refused him,mut [la] laidi e avila. he insulted her greatly and said ugly things.De tele amie se vanta, He boasted of such a beloved,320

que tant iert cuinte e noble e fiere one who was so elegant, noble, and proud,que meuz valut sa chamberere, that her chambermaid,la plus povre que [la] serveit, the poorest girl who served her,que la reïne ne feseit. was worth more than the queen.Li reis s’en curuçat forment; The king got extremely angry;325

juré en ad sun serement: he swore an oath thatsi il ne s’en peot en curt defendre, if Lanval cannot defend himself in court,il le ferat arder u pendre. he will have him burnt or hanged.Fors de la chambre eissi li reis, The king went out of the chamberde ses baruns apelat treis; and called three of his nobles;330

il les enveit pur Lanval, he sends them for Lanval,quë asez ad dolur e mal. who has sorrow and trouble enough.A sun [o]stel fu revenuz; He had gone back to his lodging;il s’est[eit] bien aparceüz it was quite evident to him qu’il aveit perdue s’amie: that he had lost his beloved:335

descovert ot la drüerie. he had revealed their love.En une chambre fu tut suls, He went into a chamber by himself,pensis esteit e anguissus; anxious and distraught;s’amie apele mut sovent, he calls on his beloved over and over,mes ceo ne li valut neent. and it does him no good at all.340

Il se pleigneit e suspirot, He lamented and sighed,

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d’ures en autres se pasmot; he fainted repeatedly;puis li crie cent feiz merci then a hundred times he begs her to have pityque ele par[ol]t a sun ami. and appear to her beloved.Sun quor e sa buche maudit; He cursed his heart and his mouth;345

ceo est merveille k’il ne s’ocit. it’s a wonder he does not kill himself.Il ne seit tant crïer ne braire He cannot cry out or wailne debatre ne sei detraire or reproach or torment himselfque ele en veulle merci aveir enough to make her take pity on him,sul tant que la puisse veeir. even enough that he might see her.350

Oi las, cument se cuntendra? Alas, what will he do?Cil ke li reis ci enveia, Those the king sent there

il sunt venu, si li unt dit arrived, and said to himque a la curt voise sanz respit: that he must go to the court without delay:li reis l’aveit par eus mandé, the king had sent the order through them,355

la reïne l’out encusé. the queen had accused him.Lanval i vait od sun grant doel; Lanval goes there in his great sorrow;il l’eüssent ocis [sun] veoil. they could have killed him for all he cared.Il est devant le rei venu; He came before the king;mut fu dolent, taisanz e mu, he was very sorrowful, silent and unspeaking,360

de grant dolur mustre semblant. showing the appearance of great sorrow.Li reis li dit par maltalant, The king says to him angrily,“Vassal, vus me avez mut mesfait! “Vassal, you have done me a great wrong!Trop començastes vilein plait You began too base a suitde mei hunir e aviler to shame and revile me365

e la reïne lendengier. and insult the queen.Vanté vus estes de folie: You boasted foolishly:trop par est noble vostre amie, your beloved is far too exaltedquant plus est bele sa meschine when her maid is more beautifule plus vaillante que la reïne.” and worthy than the queen.”370

Lanval defent la deshonur Lanval denies the dishonore la hunte de sun seignur and shame of his lordde mot en mot, si cum il dist, word by word, just as he said it,que la reïne ne requist; for he had not requested the queen’s love;mes de ceo dunt il ot parlé but he acknowledged the truth375

reconut il la verité, of what he had saidde l’amur dunt il se vanta: concerning the love about which he boasted:dolent en est, perdue l’a. he is sorrowful, for he has lost her.De ceo lur dit qu’il en ferat Concerning this he says that he will doquanque la curt esgarderat. whatever the court judges best.380

Li reis fu mut vers li irez; The king was quite furious with him;tuz ses hummes ad enveiez he sent for all his menpur dire dreit que il en deit faire, to say rightly what he must do,que hum ne li puis[se] a mal retraire. so that no one would speak ill of it. Cil unt sun commandement fait, They did what he ordered,385

u eus seit bel, u eus seit lait. whether they liked it or not.

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Comunement i sunt alé They all went off togethere unt jugé e esgardé and judged and decidedque Lanval deit aveir un jur; that Lanval should have his day in court;mes plegges truisse a sun seignur but he must provide guarantees for his lord390

qu’il atendra sun jugement that he will await his judgmente revendra en sun present: and return to his presence:si serat la curt esforcie[e], a larger court will be gathered,kar n’i ot dunc fors la maisne[e]. for now there was no one there but the

household.Al rei revienent li barun, The nobles return to the king395

si li mustrent la reisun. and explain to him their judgment.Li reis ad plegges demandé. The king demanded guarantees.Lanval fu sul e esgaré; Lanval was alone and in great distress;n’i aveit parent në ami. he had no family or friends.Walwain i vait, ki l’a plevi, Gawain goes to act as a guarantor for Lanval,400

e tuit si cumpainun aprés. and all his companions after him.Li reis lur dit: “E jol vus les The king says to them: “I commend him to yousur quanke vus tenez de mei, on the basis of whatever you may hold of me,teres e fieus, chescun par sei.” lands and fiefs, each one for himself.”Quant plevi fu, dunc n’[i] ot el; Once the pledge was made, there was405

nothing more to do;alez s’en est a sun ostel. Lanval went off to his lodging.Li chevaler l’unt conveé; The knights went along with him;mut l’unt blasmé e chastïé they greatly rebuked and counseled himk’il ne face si grant dolur, not to be in such sorrow,e maudïent si fol’amur. and they cursed such mad love.410

Chescun jur l’aloënt veer, Every day they went to see him,pur ceo k’il voleient saveir for they wanted to knowu il beüst, u il mangast; if he was drinking, if he was eating;mut dotouent k’il s’afolast. they greatly feared that he would do himself

harm.Al jur que cil orent numé On the day that they had named415

li barun furent asemblé. the nobles gathered.Li reis e la reïne i fu, The king and queen were there,e li plegge unt Lanval rendu. and the guarantors brought Lanval.Mut furent tuz pur li dolent: Everyone was very sad for him:jeo quid k’il en i ot teus cent I believe that there were some hundred there420

ki feïssent tut lur poeir who would have done anything in their powerpur lui sanz pleit delivre aveir; to free him without a trial;il iert retté a mut grant tort. he was very wrongly accused.Li reis demande le recort The king demands the verdictsulunc le cleim e les respuns; according to the charges and the defense;425

ore est trestut sur les baruns. now it is entirely up to the nobles.Il sunt al jugement alé, They went to sit in judgment,mut sunt pensifz e esgaré very anxious and dismayed

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1 d’un’amur … honur Lines 441–49 appear in a different order in the manuscript: 443–48, 442, 441. Thisemendation is made by most editors.

del franc humme d’autre païs over the noble man from another countryquë entre eus ert si entrepris. who was in such trouble among them.430

Encumbrer le veulent plusur Many want to find him guilty pur la volenté sun seignur. according to their lord’s wishes.Ceo dist li quoens de Cornwaille: The count of Cornwall said,“Ja endreit [nus] n’i avera faille; “We must not fall short,kar ki que en plurt e ki que en chant, for whoever may weep or sing,435

le dreit estuet aler avant. the law must take precedence.Li reis parla vers sun vassal, The king has spoken against his vassal,que jeo vus oi numer Lanval; whom I hear you call Lanval;de felunie le retta he accused him of a crimee d’un mesfait l’acheisuna, and brought charges of wrongdoing against440

him,d’un’amur dunt il se vanta, concerning a love of which he boasted,e ma dame s’en curuça. which made my lady angry.Nuls ne l’apele fors le rei; No one accuses him but the king;par cele fei ke jeo vus dei, by the faith I owe you,ki bien en veut dire le veir, whoever wants to speak the truth,445

ja n’i deüst respuns aveir, there would not even be a casesi pur ceo nun que a sun seignur except that to the name of his lorddeit [hum] par tut fairë honur.1 a man should do honor in everything.Un serement l’engagera, Lanval can affirm this by oath,e li reis le nus pardura. and the king will turn him over to us for450

judgment.E s’il peot aver sun guarant And if he can have his guarantor—e s’amie venist avant if his lady should come forwarde ceo fust veir k’il en deïst, and what he said about her,dunt la reïne se marist, which made the queen angry, was true—de ceo avera il bien merci, then he will certainly receive mercy,455

quant pur vilté nel dist de li. since he did not say it out of baseness.E s’il ne peot garant aveir, And if he cannot produce proof,ceo li devum faire saveir: we must make him understand this:tut sun servise perde del rei, he loses all his service to the kinge sil deit cungeer de sei.” and must take his leave of him.”460

Al chevaler unt enveé, They sent to the knight,si li unt dit e nuntïé and they told him and announcedque s’amie face venir that he should make his beloved comepur lui tencer e garentir. to defend and bear witness for him.Il lur dit qu’il ne poeit: He told them that he could not:465

ja pur li sucurs nen avereit. he would never get help from her.Cil s’en rev[un]t as jugeürs, They go back to the judges,ki n’i atendent nul sucurs. who expect no help from that quarter.Li reis les hastot durement The king urged them fiercely

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pur la reïne kis atent. for the sake of the queen who was waiting.470

Quant il deveient departir, Just as they were about to make their ruling,deus puceles virent venir they saw two maidens comingsur deus beaus palefreiz amblanz. on two beautiful brisk palfreys.Mut par esteient avenanz; They were extremely lovely;de cendal purpre sunt vestues they were dressed in purple taffeta475

tut senglement a lur char nues. down to their bare skin.Cil les esgardou volenters. Everyone gazed at them eagerly.Walwain, od li treis chevalers, Gawain, and three knights with him,vait a Lanval, si li cunta; went to Lanval and told him;les deus puceles li mustra. he showed him the two maidens.480

Mut fu haitié, forment li prie He was very happy, and begged himqu’il li deïst si ceo ert [s]’amie. to say whether this was his beloved.Il lur ad dit ne seit ki sunt Lanval tells them that he does not know who

they arene dunt vienent ne u eles vunt. or where they come from or where they are

going.Celes sunt alees avant The maidens went along485

tut a cheval; par tel semblant on their horses; in this fashiondescendirent devant le deis, they got down in front of the daisla u seeit Artur li reis. where King Arthur was sitting.Eles furent de grant beuté, They were very beautifulsi unt curteisement parlé: and spoke courteously:490

“Reis, fai tes chambers delivrer “King, make your chambers readye de pa[il]es encurtiner, and spread out silksu ma dame puïst descendre where my lady can stepsi ensemble od vus veut ostel prendre.” if she wants to take lodging with you.”Il lur otria mut volenters, He very willingly granted this to them,495

si appela deus chevalers: and called two knights:as chambres les menerent sus. they led them up to the chambers.A cele feiz ne distrent plus. At that time they said no more.

Li reis demande a ses baruns The king asks his noblesle jugement e les respuns for the judgment and the verdict500

e dit que mut l’unt curucié and says that they have made him very angryde ceo que tant l’unt delaié. by delaying for so long.“Sire,” funt il, “nus departimes “Sire,” they say, “we broke off our discussionpur les dames que nus veïmes; on account of the ladies that we saw;[nus n’i avum] nul esgart fait. we have not made a decision.505

Or recumencerum le plait.” Now we will resume the trial.”Dunc assemblerent tut pensif; Then they gathered, quite concerned;asez i ot noise e estrif. there was a great deal of noise and debate.Quant il ierent en cel esfrei, While they were in this disarray,deus puceles de gent cunrei— they saw coming down the road 510

vestues de deus pa[il]es freis, two maidens of noble bearing, chevauchent deus muls espanneis— dressed in cool silks,

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virent venir la rue aval. riding two Spanish mules.Grant joie en eurent li vassal; The vassals were delighted by this;entre eus dïent que ore est gariz they say to each other that now Lanval,515

Lanval li pruz e li hardiz. the bold and strong, is cured.Yweins i est a lui alez, Yvain went to him,ses cumpainuns i ad menez. taking his companions with him.“Sire,” fet il, “rehaitiez vus! “Sir,” he said, “rejoice!Pur amur Deu, parlez od nus! For the love of God, speak to us!520

Ici vienent deus dameiseles Here come two maidens,mut acemees e mut beles: very elegant and beautiful:ceo est vostre amie vereiment!” surely it is your beloved!”Lanval respunt hastivement Lanval answers hastilye dit qu’il pas nes avuot and says that he neither claimed them525

ne il nes cunut ne nes amot. nor knew them nor loved them.Atant furent celes venues, Just then the maidens arriveddevant le rei sunt descendues. and dismounted before the king.Mut les loërent li plusur Many people greatly praised de cors, de vis e de colur; their bodies, faces and coloring;530

n’i ad cele meuz ne vausist both of them were certainly worthque unkes la reïne ne fist. more than the queen ever was.L’aisnee fu curteise e sage, The elder was courteous and wise;avenantment dist sun message: she spoke her message becomingly:“Reis, kar nus fai chambres baillier “King, make ready rooms for us535

a oés ma dame herbergier; to receive my lady;ele vient ici a tei parler.” she is coming here to speak to you.”Il les cumandë a mener He orders that they be takenod les autres quë ainceis viendrent. to the others who had arrived previously.Unkes des muls nul plai[t] ne tindrent. They need not worry about the mules.540

Quant il fu d’eles deliverez, When he had sent them off,puis ad tuz ses baruns mandez he ordered all his noblesque le jugement seit renduz: that the judgment be given:trop ad le jur esté tenuz. too much of the day had been taken up.La reïne s’en curuceit, The queen was getting angry545

que si lunges les atendeit. that she was kept waiting so long by them.Ja departissent a itant, They were about to take a decision,quant par la vile vient errant when through the town comestut a cheval une pucele: a maiden riding on a horse:en tut le secle n’ot plus bele. there was no lady in the world more beautiful.550

Un blanc palefrei chevachot, She was riding a white palfrey,que bel e süef la portot. which carried her well and gently.Mut ot bien fet e col e teste: It had a well-shaped neck and head:suz ciel nen ot plus bele beste. there was no more beautiful animal under heaven.Riche atur ot al palefrei: The palfrey was richly harnessed:555

suz ciel nen ad quens ne rei no count or king under heavenki tut [le] p[e]üst eslegier could have afforded it all

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sanz tere vendre u engagier. without selling or mortgaging land.Ele iert vestue en itel guise: She was dressed in this manner:de chainsil blanc e de chemise, in a shift of white linen,560

que tuz les costez li pareient, which let both her sides be seen,que de deus parz laciez esteient. as it was laced on either side.Le cors ot gent, basse la hanche, She had a lovely body, a long waist,le col plus blanc que neif sur branche, a neck whiter than snow on a branch,les oilz ot vairs e blanc le vis, grey-green eyes and white skin,565

bele buche, neis bien asis, a beautiful mouth, a well-formed nose,les surcilz bruns e bel le frunt dark eyebrows and a lovely foreheade le chef cresp e aukes blunt; and curling golden hair;fil d’or ne gette tel luur no golden thread casts such a gleamcum sun chevel cuntre le jur. as did her hair in the sun.570

Sis manteus fu de purpre bis; Her mantle was dark purple;les pans en ot entur li mis. she had wrapped its ends around her.Un espervier sur sun poin tient, She holds a falcon on her fist,e un leverer aprés lui vient. and a greyhound runs behind her.Il n’ot al burc petit ne grant There was no one in the town, great or small,575

ne li veillard ne li enfant not the old men or the children,que ne l’alassent esgarder. who did not go to look at her.Si cum il la veent errer, As they saw her pass,de sa beauté n’iert mie gas. there was no joking about her beauty.Ele veneit meins que le pas. She came along quite slowly.580

Li jugeür, que la veeient, The judges, who saw her,a [grant] merveille le teneient; considered it a great marvel;il n’ot un sul ki l’esgardast there was not one who looked at herde dreite joie ne s’eschaufast. who did not grow warm with sheer joy.Cil ki le chevaler amoënt Those who loved the knight585

a lui veneient, si li cuntouent came to him, and told himde la pucele ki veneit, of the maiden who was coming,si Deu plest, que le delivereit: who, if it pleased God, would set him free:“Sire cumpain, ci en vient une, “Sir companion, here comes onemes ele n’est pas fave ne brune; who is not tawny nor dark;590

ceo’st la plus bele del mund, she is the loveliest in the world,de tutes celes kë i sunt.” of all the women who live.”Lanval l’oï, sun chief dresça; Lanval heard this, he lifted his head;bien la cunut, si suspira. he knew her well, and sighed.Li sanc li est munté al vis; The blood rose to his face;595

de parler fu aukes hastifs. he was very quick to speak.“Par fei,” fet il, “ceo est m’amie! “In faith,” he said, “it is my beloved!Or m’en est gueres ki m’ocie, Now I care little who may kill me,si ele n’ad merci de mei; if she does not take pity on me;kar gariz sui, quant jeo la vei.” for I am cured when I see her.”600

La damë entra al palais; The lady entered the palace;unc si bele n’i vient mais. such a beauty had never come there.

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Devant le rei est descendue She dismounted before the kingsi que de tuz iert bien [veüe]. so that she was quite visible to all.Sun mantel ad laissié ch[e]eir, She let her mantle fall605

que meuz la puïssent veer. so that they could see her better.Li reis, que mut fu enseigniez, The king, who was very well-bred,il s’est encuntre lui dresciez, got up to meet her,e tuit li autre l’enurerent, and all the others honored herde li servir se presenterent. and offered themselves to serve her.610

Quant il l’orent bien esgardee When they had looked at her welle sa beauté forment loëe, and greatly praised her beauty,ele parla en teu mesure, she spoke in this way,kar de demurer nen ot cure: for she did not wish to delay:“Reis, jeo ai amé un tuen vassal: “King, I have fallen in love with one of your615

vassals:veez le ici, ceo est Lanval! you see him here, it is Lanval!Acheisuné fu en ta curt. He was accused in your court.Ne vuil mie que a mal li turt I do not wish it to be held against him,de ceo qu’il dist; ceo sachez tu concerning what he said; you should knowque la reïne ad tort eü: that the queen was wrong:620

unc nul jur ne la requist. he never asked for her love.De la vantance kë il fist, And concerning the boast he made,si par me peot estre aquitez, if he can be acquitted by me,par voz baruns seit deliverez!” let your nobles set him free!”Ceo qu’il jugerunt par dreit The king grants that it should be so,625

li reis otrie ke issi seit. that they should judge rightly.N’i ad un sul que n’ait jugié There was not one who did not judgeque Lanval ad tut desrainié. that Lanval was completely exonerated.Deliverez est par lur esgart, He is freed by their judgment,e la pucele s’en depart. and the maiden takes her leave.630

Ne la peot li reis retenir; The king cannot detain her;asez gent ot a li servir. she had enough people to serve her.Fors de la sale aveient mis Outside the hall was setun grant perrun de marbre bis, a great block of dark marble,u li pesant humme muntoënt, where heavy men mounted,635

que de la curt le rei [aloënt]: who were leaving the king’s court:Lanval esteit munté desus. Lanval got up on it.Quant la pucele ist fors a l’us, When the maiden came through the gate,sur le palefrei, detriers li, with one leap Lanvalde plain eslais Lanval sailli. jumped on the palfrey, behind her.640

Od li s’en vait en Avalun, With her he went to Avalon,ceo nus recuntent li Bretun, so the Bretons tell us,en un isle que mut est beaus; to a very beautiful island;la fu ravi li dameiseaus. the young man was carried off there.Nul hum n’en oï plus parler, No one ever heard another word of him,645

ne jeo n’en sai avant cunter. and I can tell no more.

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Sir Thomas Maloryc. 1405– 1471

Thomas Malory’s place in English literary history rests on one great work, his Morte Darthur (TheDeath of Arthur), the first major prose work of the English language. Malory’s version is the basis

for the Arthurian mythology that endures to the present day. Malory drew on various sources, bothFrench and English, but crafted those sources to provide a full narrative of the life of Arthur and theKnights of the Round Table. Tennyson’s Idylls of the King is perhaps the best known of the worksinspired by Morte Darthur, but Malory’s work has also strongly influenced the writings of Spenser,Milton, and Arnold, the paintings of Rossetti and Watts, and the music of Wagner.

The facts of Malory’s life are few, his story a matter of conjecture and dispute, but the availableinformation suggests that he led an extraordinary life. There were several individuals with the nameThomas Malory in the fifteenth century. The one who is most commonly, though by no meanscertainly, identified with the author of the Morte Darthur was born to John Malory and PhilippaChetwynd of Newbold Revell, Warwickshire, near the beginning of the fifteenth century. JohnMalory was a man of some distinction, having served as a sheriff, a Member of Parliament, and aJustice of the Peace in Warwickshire.

The records that survive, however, give John’s son Thomas a rather dubious reputation. Thepolitical intrigues of the 1450s eventually led to the Wars of the Roses, the battle for the Englishthrone that was carried on by the families of York and Lancaster, and Thomas Malory appears to havebeen a participant in the turmoil. Surviving records show that he was charged with significant crimesduring the 1450s including extortion, theft, horse stealing, and rape. It is possible that Malory’spolitical activities earned him some enemies who engaged in a slander campaign against him, or hemay indeed have been responsible for the crimes for which he was charged. In 1451 a warrant wasissued for Malory’s arrest. He was imprisoned at Coleshill, Warwickshire, but escaped; in 1452 he wasrecaptured and put in jail in London, where he spent most of the next eight years awaiting trial.

By the mid-1450s the Wars of the Roses were in full force. Malory’s loyalty seems to have waveredbetween the two warring houses, and his fortunes rose and fell on that basis. While in prison, Malorywas pardoned by the Duke of York; the Lancastrian court, however, dismissed the pardon. When theYorkists overthrew the Lancastrians, Malory was pardoned and released. He then fought against theLancastrians in a number of key battles. Malory seems then to have changed sides in the dispute—in1468 his name appeared on a list of men allied with the Lancastrians. He was arrested by the Yorkistsfor his support of the Lancastrians, and again imprisoned in London. During these last years ofimprisonment, Malory wrote Morte Darthur, describing himself in the text as a “knight presoner.”

Malory’s primary source for the Morte Darthur was the French Arthurian Prose Cycle (1225–30),but he also borrowed from Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain (1136–39) andtwo anonymous English works of the later fourteenth century, the alliterative Morte Arthure and thestanzaic Morte Arthur. Some of the details of the narrative are purely Malory’s own inventions, buthe nevertheless takes care to ascribe each of his additions to “the Freynshe booke.”

Morte Darthur is vast in its scale. Malory tells eight tales over 21 books with 507 chapters. Maloryoriginally titled the work The Book of King Arthur and his Noble Knights of the Round Table; WilliamCaxton, the printer who published the book in 1485, changed the title to Morte Darthur. Caxton alsomade a significant number of editorial changes, as was discovered in 1934, when a manuscript copyof Malory’s work that was significantly at variance with Caxton’s text came to light. It became clearthat Caxton had brought together what had been eight separate romances into twenty-one books,

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making alterations so as to give the appearance of a more unified text. Caxton had also deleted thepersonal remarks with which Malory concluded each romance.

Within a year of the completion of Morte Darthur, the Lancastrians briefly returned to power, andMalory was once again released from prison. He died six months later and was buried in GreyfriarsChurch, in London. zzz

from Morte Darthur

from Book I, Chapter 51

So in the greatest church of London, whether it werePaul’s2 or not the French book3 maketh no mention,

all the estates4 were long ere day5 in the church for topray. And when matins6 and the first mass was donethere was seen in the churchyard, against the high altar,a great stone four square,7 like unto a marble stone, andin midst thereof was like an anvil of steel a foot on high,and therein stuck a fair sword naked8 by the point, andletters there were written in gold about the sword thatsaid thus: “WHOSO PULLETH OUT THIS SWORD OF THIS

STONE AND ANVIL IS RIGHTWISE9 KING BORN OF ALL

ENGLAND.” Then the people marvelled and told it tothe Archbishop.

“I command,” said the Archbishop, “that ye keepyou within your church and pray unto God still; that noman touch the sword till the high mass be all done.”

So when all masses were done all the lords went tobehold the stone and the sword. And when they saw the

scripture some essayed,10 such as would have been king,but none might stir the sword nor move it.

“He is not here,” said the Archbishop, “that shallachieve the sword, but doubt not God will make himknown. But this is my counsel,”11 said the Archbishop,“that we let purvey12 ten knights, men of good fame,13

and they to keep14 this sword.”So it was ordained, and then there was made a cry15

that every man should essay that would for to win thesword. And upon New Year’s Day the barons let makea jousts and a tournament, that all knights that wouldjoust or tourney there might play. And all this wasordained for to keep the lords together and the com-mons,16 for the Archbishop trusted that God wouldmake him known that should win the sword.

So upon New Year’s Day, when the service wasdone, the barons rode unto the field, some to joust andsome to tourney. And so it happed17 that Sir Ector, thathad great livelihood18 about London, rode unto thejousts, and with him rode Sir Kay, his son, and youngArthur that was his nourished brother;19 and Sir Kay wasmade knight at All Hallowmass20 afore. So as they rode

1 Book I, Chapter 5 The numbering of books and chaptersemployed here is that used in the Eugene Vinaver edition.2 Paul’s Church of St. Paul. This church stood on the site of thepresent-day St. Paul’s Cathedral.3 French book Unnamed French source from which Malorysupposedly takes his material, actually a group of thirteenth-centuryOld French texts.4 estates Clergy, nobility, and commoners.5 long ere day Long before dawn.6 matins Church service conducted at daybreak.7 four square Having four equal sides.8 naked Unsheathed.9 Rightwise Rightfully.

10 essayed Tried.11 counsel Advice.12 let purvey Appoint.13 fame Reputation.14 keep Guard.15 cry Request.16 commons Commoners.17 happed Happened.18 livelihood Property from which income is derived.19 nourished brother Foster brother.20 All Hallowmass All Saint’s Day, Christian holy day celebrated on1 November.

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to the jousts-ward1 Sir Kay had lost2 his sword, for hehad left it at his father’s lodging, and so he prayed3

young Arthur for to ride for his sword.“I will well,” said Arthur, and rode fast after the

sword.And when he came home the lady and all were out

to see the jousting. Then was Arthur wroth,4 and said tohimself, “I will ride to the churchyard and take thesword with me that sticketh in the stone, for my brotherSir Kay shall not be without a sword this day.” So whenhe came to the churchyard Sir Arthur alight and tied hishorse to the stile,5 and so he went to the tent and foundno knights there, for they were at the jousting. And sohe handled the sword by the handles, and lightly andfiercely6 pulled it out of the stone, and took his horseand rode his way until he came to his brother Sir Kayand delivered him the sword.

And as soon as Sir Kay saw the sword he wist7 wellit was the sword of the stone, and so he rode to hisfather Sir Ector and said,

“Sir, lo here is the sword of the stone, wherefore8 Imust be king of this land.”

When Sir Ector beheld the sword he returned againand came to the church, and there they alight all threeand went into the church, and anon9 he made Sir Kayto swear upon a book10 how he came to that sword.

“Sir,” said Sir Kay, “by my brother Arthur, for hebrought it to me.”

“How got ye this sword?” said Sir Ector to Arthur.“Sir, I will tell you. When I came home for my

brother’s sword I found nobody at home to deliver mehis sword, and so I thought my brother Sir Kay shouldnot be swordless, and so I came hither eagerly11 and

pulled it out of the stone without any pain.”12

“Found ye any knights about this sword?” said SirEctor.

“Nay,” said Arthur.“Now,” said Sir Ector to Arthur, “I understand ye

must be king of this land.”“Wherefore13 I?” said Arthur, “and for what cause?”“Sir,” said Ector, “for God will have it so, for there

should never man have drawn out this sword but he thatshall be rightwise king of this land. Now let me seewhether ye can put the sword thereas14 it was and pull itout again.”

“That is no mastery,”15 said Arthur, and so he put itin the stone. Therewithal16 Sir Ector essayed to pull outthe sword and failed.

“Now essay,” said Sir Ector unto Sir Kay. And anonhe pulled at the sword with all his might, but it wouldnot be.

“Now shall ye essay,” said Sir Ector to Arthur.“I will well,” said Arthur, and pulled it out easily.And therewithal Sir Ector kneeled down to the earth

and Sir Kay.“Alas!” said Arthur, “my own dear father and

brother, why kneel ye to me?”“Nay, nay, my lord Arthur, it is not so. I was never

your father nor of your blood, but I wot17 well ye are ofan higher blood than I weened18 ye were.” And then SirEctor told him all, how he was betaken19 him for tonourish him and by whose commandment, and byMerlin’s deliverance.20

Then Arthur made great dole21 when he understoodthat Sir Ector was not his father.

“Sir,” said Ector unto Arthur, “will ye be my goodand gracious lord when ye are king?”

1 jousts-ward Toward the jousting-place.2 lost Realized he had forgotten.3 prayed Asked.4 wroth Angry.5 stile Turnstile entrance to the churchyard.6 lightly and fiercely Easily and boldly.7 wist Knew.8 lo Behold; wherefore For which reason.9 anon Immediately.10 a book I.e., a copy of the Bible.11 hither eagerly Here quickly.

12 pain Difficulty.13 Wherefore Why.14 thereas Where.15 mastery Action requiring great skill.16 Therewithal That being done.17 wot Know.18 weened Understood, knew.19 betaken Entrusted to.20 deliverance Delivery.21 dole Sorrow.

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“Else were I to blame,” said Arthur, “for ye are theman in the world that I am most beholding1 to, and mygood lady and mother your wife that as well as her ownhath fostered me and kept. And if ever it be God’s willthat I be king as ye say, ye shall desire of me what I maydo, and I shall not fail you. God forbid I should failyou.”

“Sir,” said Sir Ector, “I will ask no more of you butthat ye will make my son, your foster brother Sir Kay,seneschal2 of all your lands.”

“That shall be done,” said Arthur, “and more, by thefaith of my body, that never man shall have that officebut he while he and I live.”

Therewithal they went unto the Archbishop andtold him how the sword was achieved and by whom.And on Twelfth-day3 all the barons came thither4 and toessay to take the sword who that would essay, but thereafore them all there might none take it out but Arthur.Wherefore there were many lords wroth, and said it wasgreat shame unto them all and the realm to be over-governed with a boy of no high blood born. And so theyfell out5 at that time, that6 it was put off till Candlemas,7

and then all the barons should meet there again; butalways the ten knights were ordained to watch the swordday and night, and so they set a pavilion over the stoneand the sword, and five always watched.

So at Candlemas many more great lords came hitherfor to have won the sword, but there might noneprevail. And right as Arthur did at Christmas he did at

Candlemas, and pulled out the sword easily, whereof thebarons were sore aggrieved8 and put it off in delay tillthe high feast of Easter. And as Arthur sped9 afore so didhe at Easter. Yet there were some of the great lords hadindignation that Arthur should be king, and put it off ina delay till the feast of Pentecost.10 Then the Archbishopof Canterbury, by Merlin’s providence,11 let purvey thenof the best knights that they might get, and such knightsas Uther Pendragon12 loved best and most trusted in hisdays, and such knights were put about Arthur as SirBaudwin of Britain, Sir Kaynes, Sir Ulfius, Sir Brastias;all these with many other were always about Arthur dayand night till the feast of Pentecost.

And at the feast of Pentecost all manner of menessayed to pull at the sword that would essay, but nonemight prevail but Arthur, and he pulled it out afore allthe lords and commons that were there. Wherefore allthe commons cried at once,

“We will have Arthur unto13 our king! We will puthim no more in delay, for we all see that it is God’s willthat he shall be our king, and who that holdeth against14

it we will slay him!”And therewithal they kneeled at once, both rich and

poor, and cried Arthur mercy15 because they had delayedhim so long. And Arthur forgave them, and took thesword between both his hands and offered it upon thealtar where the Archbishop was, and so was he madeknight of the best man that was there. …

1 beholding Bound in duty.2 seneschal Steward, official overseeing the administration of aking’s lands and court. 3 Twelfth-day Twelfth day after Christmas, or the Feast of theEpiphany, celebrating the visit of the three wise men Jesus and theirrecognition of his divinity.4 thither There.5 fell out Quarreled.6 that So that.7 Candlemas Holy day commemorating the purification of theVirgin Mary after the birth of Jesus and the presentation of Christat the Temple, celebrated on 2 February.

8 aggrieved Distressed.9 sped Succeeded.10 Pentecost Christian celebration commemorating the descent ofthe Holy Spirit on the apostles, at which time they were given thegift of tongues, which would allow them to spread Christianity toother lands. The Feast of Pentecost is celebrated on the seventhSunday after Easter.11 providence Arrangement.12 Uther Pendragon King of Britain before the action of the storyand Arthur’s true father.13 unto As.14 holdeth against Holds out against his acclamation.15 cried … mercy Begged Arthur’s forgiveness.

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The D eath of King Arthuror The Most Piteous Tale of the Morte Arthur Saunz Guerdon1

1Slander and Strife

In May, when every heart flourisheth and burgeoneth(for as the season is lusty2 to behold and comfortable,3

so man and woman rejoiceth and gladdeth4 of summercoming with his fresh flowers, for winter with his roughwinds and blasts causeth lusty5 men and women tocower and to sit by fires), so this season it befell in themonth of May a great anger and unhap that stinted6 nottill the flower of chivalry of all the world was destroyedand slain.

And all was long upon two unhappy knights7 whichwere named Sir Agravain and Sir Mordred,8 that werebrethren unto Sir Gawain.9 For this Sir Agravain and SirMordred had ever a privy10 hate unto the Queen, DameGuinevere, and to Sir Lancelot;11 and daily and nightlythey ever watched upon Sir Lancelot.

So it misfortuned Sir Gawain and all his brethren12

were in King Arthur’s chamber, and then Sir Agravainsaid thus openly, and not in no counsel,13 that manyknights might hear:

“I marvel that we all be not ashamed both to see andto know how Sir Lancelot lies daily and nightly by theQueen. And all we know well that it is so, and it isshamefully suffered of us all14 that we should suffer sonoble a king as King Arthur is to be shamed.”

Then spoke Sir Gawain and said,“Brother, Sir Agravain, I pray you and charge you,15

move no such matters no more16 afore me, for wit17 youwell, I will not be of your counsel.”18

“So God me help,” said Sir Gaheris and Sir Gareth,“we will not be known of 19 your deeds.”

“Then will I!” said Sir Mordred.“I lieve20 you well,” said Sir Gawain, “for ever unto

all unhappiness, sir, you will grant.21 And I would22 thatye left all this and made you not so busy, for I know,”said Sir Gawain, “what will fall23 of it.”

“Fall whatsoever fall may,”24 said Sir Agravain, “Iwill disclose it to the king!”

“Not by my counsel,” said Sir Gawain, “for, an25

there arise war and wrake26 betwixt Sir Lancelot and us,wit you well, brother, there will many kings and greatlords hold27 with Sir Lancelot. Also, brother Sir Agra-vain,” said Sir Gawain, “ye must remember how often-times Sir Lancelot has rescued the king and the queen;and the best of us all had been full cold to theheart-root28 had not Sir Lancelot been better than we,and that has he proved himself full oft.29 And as for my

1 Saunz Guerdon Old French: without reward.2 lusty Here, joyful.3 comfortable Pleasant.4 gladdeth Are glad.5 lusty Here, strong, healthy.6 unhap that stinted Misfortune that ceased.7 long upon … knights Because of two ill-fated knights.8 Sir Mordred Arthur’s son from his accidental incestuous unionwith Morgause, his half-sister.9 Sir Gawain Arthur’s nephew and one of the chief knights of theRound Table.10 privy Secret.11 Dame Guinevere … Lancelot The Queen has been in a love-affairwith Lancelot, the foremost knight of Arthur’s court, universallyacclaimed for his prowess in battle.12 brethren Gawain’s brothers are Agravain, Gaheris, Gareth andMordred.13 not … counsel Not in private.

14 it … us all It is shameful to us that we should allow.15 pray … you Beg you and order you.16 move … more Suggest no such thing any more.17 wit Know.18 I … counsel I will not go along with you. 19 not … of We do not wish to be associated with your plans.20 lieve Believe.21 grant Go with, agree with. 22 would Wish.23 fall Happen.24 Fall … may Whatever may happen.25 an If.26 wrake Strife.27 hold Side.28 full … heart-root Dead.29 full oft Often.

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part,” said Sir Gawain, “I will never be against SirLancelot for one day’s deed, and that was when herescued me from King Carados of the Dolorous Towerand slew him and saved my life. Also, brother SirAgravain and Sir Mordred, in like wise1 Sir Lancelotrescued both you and three score and two2 from Sir Tar-quin. And therefore, brother, methinks such nobledeeds and kindness should be remembered.”

“Do you as ye list,”3 said Sir Agravain, “for I willlain4 it no longer.”

So with these words came in Sir Arthur.5

“Now, brother,” said Sir Gawain, “stint6 your strife.”“That will I not,” said Sir Agravain and Sir Mordred.“Well, will ye so?” said Sir Gawain. “Then God

speed7 you, for I will not bear of your tales, neither be ofyour counsel.”8

“No more will I,” said Sir Gaheris.“Neither I,” said Sir Gareth, “for I shall never say

evil by that man that made me knight.”And therewithal they three departed, making great

dole.9

“Alas!” said Sir Gawain and Sir Gareth, “now is thisrealm wholly destroyed and mischieved,10 and the noblefellowship of the Round Table shall be disparbled.”11

So they departed, and then King Arthur asked themwhat noise they made.12

“My lord,” said Sir Agravain, “I shall tell you, for Imay keep it no longer. Here is I and my brother SirMordred break13 unto my brother Sir Gawain, SirGaheris and to Sir Gareth—for this is all, to make itshort—how that we know all that Sir Lancelot holdeth

your queen, and hath done long, and we be your sister’ssons, we may suffer it no longer. And all we wote14 thatyou should be above Sir Lancelot; and ye are the kingthat made him knight, and therefore we will prove itthat he is a traitor to your person.”

“If it be so,” said the king, “wit you well, he is noneother. But I would be loth15 to begin such a thing but16

I might have proofs of it, for Sir Lancelot is an hardy17

knight, and all you know that he is the best knightamong us all, and but if he be taken with18 the deed hewill fight with him that bringeth up the noise,19 and Iknow no knight that is able to match him. Therefore, anit be sooth20 as ye say, I would that he were taken withthe deed.”

For, as the French book saith, the king was full loaththat such a noise21 should be upon Sir Lancelot and hisqueen; for the king had a deeming22 of it, but he wouldnot hear thereof, for Sir Lancelot had done so much forhim and for the queen so many times that wit you wellthe king loved him passingly well.

“My lord,” said Sir Agravain, “ye shall ride to-mornan-hunting, and doubt ye not, Sir Lancelot will not gowith you. And so when it draweth toward night ye maysend the queen word that ye will lie out all that night,and so may ye send for your cooks. And then, upon painof death, that night we shall take23 him with the queen,and we shall bring him unto you, quick24 or dead.”

“I will well,” said the king. “Then I counsel you totake with you sure25 fellowship.”

“Sir,” said Sir Agravain, “my brother Sir Mordredand I will take with us twelve knights of the RoundTable.”

1 like wise Similar fashion.2 three … two Sixty-two.3 list Please.4 lain Hide.5 Sir Arthur I.e., King Arthur.6 stint Cease.7 speed Help.8 neither … counsel Nor will I participate in your plans.9 dole Sorrow.10 mischieved Brought to ruin.11 disparbled Dispersed.12 what noise they made What had upset them, why they were upset.13 break Make known.

14 wote Know.15 loth Reluctant.16 but Unless.17 hardy Strong.18 but if … with Unless he be caught at.19 bringeth up the noise Presents the accusation.20 sooth True.21 noise Accusation.22 deeming Suspicion.23 take Catch.24 quick Alive.25 sure Trustworthy.

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“Beware,” said King Arthur, “for I warn you, ye shallfind him wight.”1

“Let us deal,”2 said Sir Agravain and Sir Mordred.So on the morn King Arthur rode an-hunting and

sent word to the queen that he would be out all thenight. Then Sir Agravain and Sir Mordred got to themtwelve knights and hid themselves in a chamber in thecastle of Carlisle. And these were their names: SirColgrevance, Sir Madore de la Porte, Sir Guingalen, SirMeliot de Logres, Sir Petipace of Winchelsea, SirGaleron of Galway, Sir Melion de la Mountayne, SirAscomore, Sir Gromorsom Eriore, Sir Cursessalain, SirFlorence, and Sir Lovell. So these twelve knights werewith Sir Mordred and Sir Agravain, and all they were ofScotland, other else3 of Sir Gawain’s kin, other well-willers4 to his brother.

So when the night came Sir Lancelot told Sir Borshow he would go that night and speak with the queen.

“Sir,” said Sir Bors, “ye shall not go this night by mycounsel.”5

“Why?” said Sir Lancelot.“Sir, for I dread me ever of Sir Agravain that6 waits

upon you daily to do you shame and us all. And nevergave my heart against no going that ever ye went to thequeen so much as now,7 for I mistrust that the king isout this night from the queen because peradventure8 hehas lain some watch for you and the queen. Therefore Idread me sore of some treason.”

“Have you no dread,” said Sir Lancelot, “for I shallgo and come again and make not tarrying.”9

“Sir,” said Sir Bors, “that me repents,10 for I dreadme sore that your going this night shall wrath11 us all.”

“Fair nephew,” said Sir Lancelot, “I marvel me muchwhy you say thus, since the queen has sent for me. Andwit you well, I will not be so much a coward, but sheshall understand I will see her good grace.”

“God speed you well,” said Sir Bors, “and send yousound and safe again!”

So Sir Lancelot departed and took his sword underhis arm, and so he walked in his mantle,12 that nobleknight, and put himself in great jeopardy. And so hepassed on till he came to the queen’s chamber, and solightly13 he was had into the chamber. For, as theFrench book says, the queen and Sir Lancelot weretogether, and whether they were abed other at othermanner of disports me list not thereof make no men-tion,14 for love at that time was not as love is nowadays.

But thus as they were together there came SirAgravain and Sir Mordred with twelve knights withthem of the Round Table, and they said with greatcrying and scaring voice,

“Thou traitor, Sir Lancelot, now art thou taken!”And thus they cried with a loud voice, that all the courtmight hear it. And these fourteen knights all were armedat all points,15 as they should fight in a battle.

“Alas!” said Queen Guinevere, “now are we mis-chieved both!” “Madame,” said Sir Lancelot, “is there here anyarmour within you that might cover my body withal?16

And if there be any, give it me and I shall soon stinttheir malice, by the grace of God!”

“Now, truly,” said the queen, “I have none armour,neither helm, shield, sword, neither spear, wherefore Idread me sore our long love is come to a mischievousend. For I hear by their noise there be many nobleknights, and well I wot they be surely armed, andagainst them ye may make no resistance. Wherefore yeare likely to be slain, and then I shall be brent!17 For anye might escape them,” said the queen, “I would not

1 wight Strong and courageous.2 deal Take action.3 other else Or else.4 other well-willers Or well-wishers.5 counsel Advice.6 I … that I fear always Sir Agravain, who.7 And … now Never before now did my heart warn me so muchagainst your visiting the Queen.8 peradventure Perhaps.9 make not tarrying Not delay.10 me repents Distresses me.11 wrath Bring to disaster.

12 mantle Cloak.13 lightly Quickly.14 disports Amusements; me … mention I do not wish to discuss.15 armed … points Fully armed.16 withal With.17 brent Burned at the stake.

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doubt but that ye would rescue me in what danger thatI ever stood in.”

“Alas,” said Sir Lancelot, “in all my life thus was Inever bestrad1 that I should be thus shamefully slain forlack of mine armour.”

But ever Sir Agravain and Sir Mordred cried,“Traitor knight, come out of the queen’s chamber!

For wit thou well thou art beset2 so that thou shalt notescape.”

“Ah, Jesu mercy!” said Sir Lancelot, “this shamefulcry and noise I may not suffer, for better were death atonce than thus to endure this pain.”

Then he took the queen in his arms and kissed herand said, “Most noblest Christian queen, I beseech ye,as you have been ever my special good lady, and I at alltimes your poor knight and true unto my power and asI never failed you in right nor in wrong since the firstday King Arthur made me knight, that you will pray formy soul if that I be slain. For well I am assured that SirBors, my nephew, and all the remnant of my kin, withSir Lavain and Sir Urry, that they will not fail you torescue you from the fire. And therefore, mine own lady,recomfort yourself,3 whatsoever come of me, that ye gowith Sir Bors, my nephew, and Sir Urry, and they allwill do you all the pleasure that they may, and you shalllive like a queen upon my lands.”

“Nay, Sir Lancelot, nay!” said the queen. “Wit thouwell that I will not live long after thy days. But an yoube slain I will take my death as meekly as ever deadmartyr take his death for Jesu Christ’s sake.”

“Well, madame,” said Sir Lancelot, “sith4 it is so thatthe day is come that our love must depart, wit you wellI shall sell my life as dear as I may. And a thousandfold,”said Sir Lancelot, “I am more heavier5 for ye than formyself! And now I had liefer6 than to be lord of allChristendom that I had sure armour upon me, that menmight speak of my deeds or ever I were slain.”7

“Truly,” said the queen, “an it might please God, Iwould that they would take me and slay me and sufferyou to escape.”

“That shall never be,” said Sir Lancelot, “Goddefend me from such a shame! But, Jesu Christ, be thoumy shield and mine armour!”

And therewith Sir Lancelot wrapped his mantleabout his arm well and surely; and by then they hadgotten a great form8 out of the hall, and therewith theyall rushed at the door.

“Now, fair lords,” said Sir Lancelot, “leave9 yournoise and your rushing, and I shall set open this door,and then may ye do with me what it liketh you.”10

“Come off, then,” said they all, “and do it, for itavaileth thee not to strive against us all! And thereforelet us into this chamber, and we shall save thy life untilthou come to King Arthur.”

Then Sir Lancelot unbarred the door, and with hisleft hand he held it open a little, that but one manmight come in at once. And so there came striding agood knight, a much11 man and a large, and his namewas called Sir Colgrevance of Gore. And he with asword struck at Sir Lancelot mightily, and so he putaside the stroke, and gave him such a buffet12 upon thehelmet that he fell grovelling13 dead within the chamberdoor.

Then Sir Lancelot with great might drew the knightwithin the chamber door. And then Sir Lancelot, withhelp of the queen and her ladies, he was lightly armed inColgrevance14 armour. And ever stood Sir Agravain andSir Mordred, crying,

“Traitor knight! Come forth out of the queen’schamber!”

“Sirs, leave your noise,” said Sir Lancelot, “for wityou well, Sir Agravain, ye shall not prison me this night!And therefore, an ye do by my counsel, go ye all fromthis chamber door and make you no such crying and

1 bestrad Attacked.2 beset Surrounded.3 recomfort yourself Take courage.4 sith Since.5 more heavier More sorrowful.6 liefer Rather.7 or … slain Before I was killed.

8 form Bench.9 leave Cease.10 what … you What pleases you.11 much Big.12 buffet Stroke.13 grovelling Upon his belly.14 Colgrevance I.e., Colgrevance’s.

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such manner of sclander1 as ye do. For I promise you bymy knighthood, an ye will depart and make no morenoise, I shall as to-morn appear afore you all and beforethe king, and then let it be seen which of you all, otherelse ye all,2 that will depreve3 me of treason. And thereshall I answer you, as a knight should, that hither I cameto the queen of no manner of mal engin,4 and that willI prove and make it good upon you with my hands.”

“Fie5 upon thee, traitor,” said Sir Agravain and SirMordred, “for we will have thee maugre thine head6 andslay thee, an we list!7 For we let thee wit we have thechoice of King Arthur to save thee other slay thee.”

“Ah, sirs,” said Sir Lancelot, “is there none othergrace with you? Then keep8 yourself!”

And then Sir Lancelot set all open the chamberdoor, and mightily and knightly he strode in amongthem. And anon at the first stroke he slew Sir Agravain,and anon after twelve of his fellows. Within a while hehad laid them down cold to the earth, for there wasnone of the twelve knights might stand Sir Lancelot onebuffet. And also he wounded Sir Mordred, and there-withal he fled with all his might. And then Sir Lancelotreturned again unto the queen and said,

“Madame, now wit you well, all our true love isbrought to an end, for now will King Arthur ever be myfoe. And therefore, madame, an it like you9 that I mayhave you with me, I shall save you from all manneradventurous10 dangers.”

“Sir, that is not best,” said the queen, “meseems,11

for now ye have done so much harm it will be best thatye hold you still12 with this. And if ye see that asto-morn they will put me unto death then may ye rescue

me as ye think best.”“I will well,” said Sir Lancelot, “for have ye no

doubt, while I am a man living I shall rescue you.”And then he kissed her, and either of them gave

other a ring, and so the queen he left there and wentuntil13 his lodging.

When Sir Bors saw Sir Lancelot he was never so gladof his home-coming.

“Jesu mercy!” said Sir Lancelot, “why be ye allarmed? What meaneth this?”

“Sir,” said Sir Bors, “after ye were departed from uswe all that been of your blood and your well-willers wereso adretched14 that some of us leapt out of our bedsnaked, and some in their dreams caught naked swordsin their hands. And therefore,” said Sir Bors, “wedeemed there was some great strife on hand, and so wedeemed that we were betrapped with some treason; andtherefore we made us thus ready what need that ever yewere in.”

“My fair nephew,” said Sir Lancelot unto Sir Bors,“now shall ye wit all that this night I was more hardbestad than ever I was days of my life. And thanked beGod, I am myself escaped their danger.” And so he toldthem all how and in what manner, as ye have heardtoforehand.15 “And therefore, my fellows,” said SirLancelot, “I pray ye all that you will be of heart good,and help me in what need that ever I stand, for now iswar coming to us all.”

“Sir,” said Sir Bors, “all is welcome that God sendethus, and we have taken much weal16 with you and muchworship,17 we will take the woe18 with you as we havetaken the weal.” And therefore they said, all the goodknights, “Look you take no discomfort! For there is noband of knights under heaven but we shall be able togrieve19 them as much as they may us, and thereforediscomfort not yourself by no manner. And we shallgather together all that we love and that loves us, and

1 sclander Slander.2 other else ye all Or else you all.3 depreve Accuse.4 mal engin Old French: ill intent.5 Fie Shame.6 maugre … head In spite of your head, i.e., despite all you can do.7 an … list If we wish.8 keep Defend.9 an … you If it pleases you.10 adventurous Here, accidental. 11 meseems It seems to me.12 hold … still Be content.

13 until Unto, i.e., to.14 adretched Troubled.15 toforehand Beforehand.16 weal Prosperity.17 worship Praise, honor.18 woe Misfortune.19 grieve Injure.

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what that you will have done shall be done. And there-fore let us take the woe and the joy together.”

“Grantmercy,”1 said Sir Lancelot, “of your goodcomfort, for in my great distress, fair nephew, ye com-fort me greatly. But this, my fair nephew, I would thatye did in all haste that you may or it is far days past:2

that ye will look in their lodging that been lodged nighhere about the king, which will hold with me and whichwill not. For now I would know which were my friendsfrom my foes.”

“Sir,” said Sir Bors, “I shall do my pain,3 and or it beseven of the clock I shall wit of such as ye have doubtfor,4 who that will hold with you.”

Then Sir Bors called unto him Sir Lionel, Sir Ectorde Maris, Sir Blamour de Ganis, Sir Bleoberis de Ganis,Sir Gahalantin, Sir Galyhodin, Sir Galihud, Sir Mena-duke, Sir Villiers the Valiant, Sir Hebes le Renown, SirLavain, Sir Urry of Hungary, Sir Neroveous, Sir Plenor-ius (for these two were knights that Sir Lancelot wonupon a bridge, and therefore they would never beagainst him), and Sir Garry le Fitz Lake, and Sir Selisesof the Dolorous Tower, Sir Melias de Lisle, and SirBellengere le Beuse, that was Sir Alexander le Orphelin’sson; because his mother was Alice la Belle Pellerine, andshe was kin unto Sir Lancelot, he held with him. Socame Sir Palomides and Sir Saphir, his brother; SirClegis, Sir Sadok, Sir Dinas and Sir Clarius of Clere-mont.

So these two-and-twenty5 knights drew themtogether, and by then they were armed and on horse-back they promised Sir Lancelot to do what he would.Then there fell to6 them, what of North Wales and ofCornwall, for Sir Lamorak’s sake and for Sir Tristram’ssake, to the number of a seven score7 knights. Thenspoke Sir Lancelot:

“Wit you well, I have been ever since I came to thiscourt well-willed unto my lord Arthur and unto my ladyQueen Guinevere unto my power.8 And this nightbecause my lady the queen sent for me to speak withher, I suppose it was made by9 treason; howbeit I darelargely10 excuse her person, notwithstanding I was thereby a forecast nearhand slain but as11 Jesu provided forme.”

And then that noble knight Sir Lancelot told themhow he was hard bestad in the queen’s chamber, andhow and in what manner he escaped from them.

“And therefore wit you well, my fair lords, I am surethere is but war unto me and to mine. And for cause Ihave slain this night Sir Agravain, Sir Gawain’s brother,and at the least twelve of his fellows, and for this causenow am I sure of mortal war. For these knights weresent by King Arthur to betray me, and therefore theking will in this heat12 and malice judge the queen untobrenning, and that may not I suffer that she should bebrent for my sake. For an I may be heard and sufferedand so taken,13 I will fight for the queen, that she is atrue lady14 until her lord. But the king in his heat, Idread, will not take15 me as I ought to be taken.”

“My lord, Sir Lancelot,” said Sir Bors, “by mineadvice, ye shall take the woe with the weal, and take it inpatience and thank God of it. And since it is fallen as itis, I counsel you to keep yourself, for an ye willyourself,16 there is no fellowship of knights christenedthat shall do you wrong. And also I will counsel you, mylord, that my lady Queen Guinevere, an she be in anydistress, insomuch as she is in pain for your sake, that yeknightly rescue her; for an you did any other wise all theworld would speak you shame to the world’s end.Insomuch as ye were taken with her, whether you didright other wrong, it is now your part to hold with the

1 Grantmercy Thank you.2 or … past Before too many days go by.3 I … pain I will strive to do so.4 ye … for You are uncertain of.5 two-and-twenty As some editors have pointed out, this may be ascribal error; there are twenty-five knights in total.6 fell to Joined with.7 seven score One hundred and forty.

8 unto … power As far as it was in my power.9 made by Arranged by.10 largely Wholly.11 by a forecast … but as By a pre-arrangement nearly slain had not.12 heat Anger.13 so taken Accepted (as Guinevere’s protector).14 true lady Faithful wife.15 take Accept.16 an ye will yourself I.e., as you must accept yourself (“if you will”).

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queen, that she be not slain and put to a mischievousdeath. For an she so die, the shame shall be evermoreyours.”

“Now Jesu defend me from shame,” said Sir Lance-lot, “and keep and save my lady the queen from villainyand shameful death, and that she never be destroyed inmy default.1 Wherefore, my fair lords, my kin and myfriends,” said Sir Lancelot, “what will ye do?”

And anon they said all with one voice, “We will doas ye will do.”

“Then I put this case unto you,” said Sir Lancelot,“that my lord King Arthur by evil counsel will to-mornin his heat put my lady the queen unto the fire, andthere to be brent, then, I pray you, counsel me what isbest for me to do.” Then they said all at once with onevoice,

“Sir, us thinks best that ye knightly rescue thequeen. Insomuch as she shall be brent, it is for yoursake; and it is to suppose, an ye might be handled,2 yeshould have the same death, other else a more shame-fuller death. And, sir, we say all that you have rescuedher from her death many times for other men’s quarrels;therefore us seems it is more your worship that yourescue the queen from this quarrel, insomuch that shehas it for your sake.”

Then Sir Lancelot stood still and said,“My fair lords, wit you well I would be full loath

that my lady the queen should die such a shamefuldeath. But an it be so that ye will counsel me to rescueher, I must do much harm or I rescue her, and perad-venture I shall there destroy some of my best friends,and that should much repent me.3 And peradventurethere be some, an they could well bring it about ordisobey my lord King Arthur, they would soon come tome, the which4 I were loath to hurt. And if so be that Imay win the queen away, where shall I keep her?”

“Sir, that shall be the least care of us all,” said SirBors, “for how did the most noble knight Sir Tristram?5

By your good will, kept not he with him La Beale Isode6

near three year in Joyous Gard,7 the which was done byyour althers advice?8 And that same place is your own,and in like wise may ye do, an ye list, and take thequeen knightly away with you, if so be that the king willjudge her to be brent. And in Joyous Gard may ye keepher long enough until the heat be past of the king, andthen it may fortune you to bring the queen again to theking with great worship, and peradventure you shallhave then thank for your bringing home, whether othermay happen to have maugre.”9

“That is hard for to do,” said Sir Lancelot, “for bySir Tristram I may have a warning: for when by meansof treatise10 Sir Tristram brought again La Beale Isodeunto King Mark from Joyous Gard, look ye now whatfell on11 the end, how shamefully that false traitor KingMark slew him as he sat harping afore his lady, La BealeIsode. With a grounden glaive12 he thrust him in behindto the heart, which grieveth sore me,” said Sir Lancelot,“to speak of his death, for all the world may not findsuch another knight.”

“All this is truth,” said Sir Bors, “but there is onething shall courage13 you and us all: you know well thatKing Arthur and King Mark were never like of condi-tions,14 for there was never yet man that ever couldprove King Arthur untrue of his promise.”

But so, to make short tale, they were all conde-scended15 that, for better other for worse, if so were thatthe queen were brought on that morn to the fire, shortlythey all would rescue her. And so by the advice of SirLancelot they put them all in a bushment16 in a woodas nigh Carlisle as they might, and there they abode17

still to wit what the king would do.

1 in my default Because of my failure, because I am not there.2 handled Captured.3 that … me I.e., I would be sorry about that.4 the which Whom.5 how … Tristram What did the most noble knight Sir Tristramdo?; Tristram Knight who fell in love with Iseut, the wife of hisuncle Mark. Malory recounts this episode in The Book of Sir Tristramde Lyones.

6 La Beale Isode The Beautiful Iseut, Tristram’s lover.7 Joyous Gard Lancelot’s castle.8 your … advice The advice of you all.9 whether … maugre Even if some may dislike it.10 treatise Negotiation.11 fell on Happened in.12 grounden glaive Sharpened spear or lance.13 courage Encourage.14 like of conditions Similar in disposition, character.15 condescended In agreement.16 bushment Ambush.17 abode Waited.

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430 Sir Thomas Malory

Now turn we again, that when Sir Mordred wasescaped from Sir Lancelot he got his horse and mountedupon him, and came to King Arthur sore wounded andall forbled,1 and there he told the king all how it was,and how they were all slain save himself alone.

“Ah, Jesu, mercy! How may this be?” said the king.“Took ye him in the queen’s chamber?”

“Yea, so God me help,” said Sir Mordred, “there wefound him unarmed, and anon he slew Sir Colgrevanceand armed him in his armour.”

And so he told the king from the beginning to theending.

“Jesu mercy!” said the king, “he is a marvellousknight of prowess. And alas,” said the king, “me sorerepenteth that ever Sir Lancelot should be against me,for now I am sure the noble fellowship of the RoundTable is broken for ever, for with him will many a nobleknight hold. And now it is fallen so,” said the king,“that I may not with my worship but2 my queen mustsuffer death,” and was sore amoved.3

So then there was made great ordinance in this ire,4

and the queen must needs be judged5 to the death. Andthe law was such in those days that whatsoever theywere, of what estate or degree, if they were found guiltyof treason there should be none other remedy but death,and other the menour6 other the taking with the deedshould be causer7 of their hasty judgement. And right sowas it ordained for Queen Guinevere: because SirMordred was escaped sore wounded, and the death ofthirteen knights of the Round Table, these proofs andexperiences caused King Arthur to command the queento the fire, and there to be brent. Then spake SirGawain and said,

“My lord Arthur, I would counsel you not to beover-hasty, but that ye would put it in respite,8 thisjudgement of my lady the queen, for many causes. Oneis this, though it were so that Sir Lancelot were found in

the queen’s chamber, yet it might be so that he camethither for none evil. For you know, my lord,” said SirGawain, “that my lady the queen has oftentimes beengreatly beholden9 unto Sir Lancelot, more than to anyother knight; for oftentimes he hath saved her life anddone battle for her when all the court refused the queen.And peradventure she sent for him for goodness and fornone evil, to reward him for his good deeds that he haddone to her in times past. And peradventure my lady thequeen sent for him to that intent that Sir Lancelotshould come privily10 to her, weening that it had be bestin eschewing11 and dreading of slander; for oftentimeswe do many things that we ween for the best be, and yetperadventure it turns to the worst. For I dare say,” saidSir Gawain, “my lady, your queen, is to you both goodand true. And as for Sir Lancelot, I dare say he will makeit good upon any knight living that will put upon him12

villainy or shame, and in like wise he will make good formy lady the queen.”

“That I believe well,” said King Arthur, “but I willnot that way work with Sir Lancelot,13 for he trusteth14

so much upon his hands and his might15 that he doubt-eth16 no man. And therefore for my queen he shallnevermore fight, for she shall have the law. And if I mayget17 Sir Lancelot, wit you well he shall have as shamefula death.”

“Jesu defend me,” said Sir Gawain, “that I never seeit nor know it!”

“Why say you so?” said King Arthur. “For, pardy,18

ye have no cause to love him! For this night last past heslew your brother, Sir Agravain, a full good knight, andalmost he had slain your other brother, Sir Mordred,and also there he slew thirteen noble knights. And alsoremember you, Sir Gawain, he slew two sons of yours,Sir Florence and Sir Lovell.”

1 forbled Covered with blood.2 I may … but I may not keep my honor unless.3 amoved Moved to emotion.4 ordinance … ire Preparation in this wrath.5 must needs … judged Must be condemned.6 menour Manner, behavior.7 taking … causer Being caught in the act is the reason for.8 respite Delay.

9 beholden Obligated, in debt.10 privily Privately.11 eschewing Avoiding.12 put … him Accuse him of.13 I … Lancelot I will not deal in that manner with Sir Lancelot.14 trusteth Has confidence in.15 might Strength.16 doubteth Fears.17 get Capture.18 pardy By God.

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Morte Darthur, The Death of King Arthur, Ch. 1 431

“My lord,” said Sir Gawain, “of all this I have aknowledge, which of their deaths sore repents me. Butinsomuch as I gave them warning and told my brotherand my sons afore-hand what would fall on the end, andinsomuch as they would not do by my counsel, I willnot meddle me thereof, nor revenge me nothing of theirdeaths; for I told them that there was no boot to strive1

with Sir Lancelot. Howbeit I am sorry of the death ofmy brother and of my two sons, but they are the causersof their own death; and oftentimes I warned my brotherSir Agravain, and I told him of the perils the which benow fallen.”

Then said King Arthur unto Sir Gawain,“Make you ready, I pray you, in your best armour,

with your brethren, Sir Gaheris and Sir Gareth, to bringmy queen to the fire and there to have her judgement.”

“Nay, my noble king,” said Sir Gawain, “that will Inever do, for wit you well I will never be in that placewhere so noble a queen as is my lady Dame Guinevereshall take such a shameful end. For wit you well,” saidSir Gawain, “my heart will not serve me for to see herdie, and it shall never be said that ever I was of yourcounsel 2 for her death.”

“Then,” said the king unto Sir Gawain, “suffer yourbrethren Sir Gaheris and Sir Gareth to be there.”

“My lord,” said Sir Gawain, “wit you well they willbe loath to be there present, because of many adventuresthat is like to fall,3 but they are young and full unable tosay you nay.”

Then spake Sir Gaheris and the good knight SirGareth unto King Arthur,

“Sir, you may well command us to be there, but wityou well it shall be sore against our will. But an we bethere by your straight commandment, ye shall plainlyhold us there excused: we will be there in peaceablewise, and bear none harness4 of war upon us.”

“In the name of God,” said the king, “then makeyou ready, for she shall have soon her judgement.” “Alas,” said Sir Gawain, “that ever I should endureto see this woeful day!”

So Sir Gawain turned him and wept heartily, and sohe went into his chamber. And so the queen was ledforth without Carlisle, and anon she was despoiled intoher smock.5 And then her ghostly father6 was brought toher to be shriven7 of her misdeeds. Then was thereweeping and wailing and wringing of hands of manylords and ladies; but there were but few in comparisonthat would bear any armour for to strength8 the death ofthe queen.

Then was there one that Sir Lancelot had sent untothat place, which went to espy what time the queenshould go unto her death. And anon as he saw thequeen despoiled into her smock and shriven, then hegave Sir Lancelot warning anon. Then was there butspurring and plucking up9 of horse, and right so theycame unto the fire. And who that stood against them,there were they slain; there might none withstand SirLancelot.

So all that bore arms and withstood them, there werethey slain, full many a noble knight. For there was slainSir Belias le Orgulous, Sir Segwarides, Sir Griflet, SirBrandiles, Sir Aglovale, Sir Tor, Sir Gauter, Sir Gillimer,Sir Reynold, three brethren, and Sir Damas, Sir Pria-mus, Sir Kay l’Estrange, Sir Driant, Sir Lambegus, SirHerminde, Sir Pertolip, Sir Perimones, two brethrenwhich were called the Green Knight and the RedKnight.

And so in this rushing and hurling,10 as Sir Lancelotthrang11 here and there, it misfortuned him to slay SirGaheris and Sir Gareth, the noble knight, for they wereunarmed and unawares. As the French book saith, SirLancelot smote12 Sir Gareth upon the brain-pan, where-through that13 they were slain in the field. Howbeit invery truth Sir Lancelot saw them not. And so were theyfound dead among the thickest of the press.14

1 no boot to strive No use in quarreling.2 I … counsel I was in agreement with you.3 adventures … fall Perils likely to happen.4 harness Gear.

5 despoiled … smock Stripped to her undergarment.6 ghostly father Confessor.7 shriven Confessed and given absolution.8 for … strength To assist in.9 plucking up Spurring forward.10 rushing and hurling Pushing and dashing violently.11 thrang Thrust (his weapon) about.12 smote Struck.13 brain-pan … that Skull by means of which.14 press Crowd.

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432 Sir Thomas Malory

Then Sir Lancelot, when he had thus done, and slainand put to flight all that would withstand him, then herode straight unto Queen Guinevere and made cast akirtle1 and a gown upon her, and then he made her tobe set behind him and prayed her to be of good cheer.Now wit you well the queen was glad that she was atthat time escaped from the death, and then she thankedGod and Sir Lancelot.

And so he rode his way with the queen, as theFrench book saith, unto Joyous Gard, and there he kepther as a noble knight should. And many great lords andmany good knights were sent him, and many full nobleknights drew unto him. When they heard that KingArthur and Sir Lancelot were at debate2 many knightswere glad, and many were sorry of their debate.

2The Vengeance of Sir Gawain

Now turn we again unto King Arthur, that when it wastold him how and in what manner the queen was takenaway from the fire, and when he heard of the death ofhis noble knights, and in especial Sir Gaheris and SirGareth, then he swooned for very pure sorrow. Andwhen he awoke of his swough, then he said,

“Alas, that ever I bore crown upon my head! Fornow have I lost the fairest fellowship of noble knightsthat ever held Christian king together. Alas, my goodknights be slain and gone away from me, that nowwithin this two days I have lost nigh forty knights, andalso the noble fellowship of Sir Lancelot and his blood,3

for now I may nevermore hold them together with myworship. Now, alas, that ever this war began!”

“Now, fair fellows,” said the king, “I charge you thatno man tell Sir Gawain of the death of his two brethren,for I am sure,” said the king, “when he heareth tell thatSir Gareth is dead, he will go nigh out of his mind.Mercy Jesu,” said the king, “why slew he Sir Gaherisand Sir Gareth? For I dare say, as for Sir Gareth, heloved Sir Lancelot of 4 all men earthly.”

“That is truth,” said some knights, “but they wereslain in the hurling as Sir Lancelot thrang in the thickestof the press. And as they were unarmed he smote themand wist not whom that he smote, and so unhappilythey were slain.”

“Well,” said Arthur, “the death of them will causethe greatest mortal war that ever was, for I am sure thatwhen Sir Gawain knoweth thereof that Sir Gareth isslain, I shall never have rest5 of him till I have destroyedSir Lancelot’s kin and himself both, other else he todestroy me. And therefore,” said the king, “wit you well,my heart was never so heavy as it is now. And muchmore I am sorrier for my good knights’ loss than for theloss of my fair queen; for queens I might have enough,but such a fellowship of good knights shall never betogether in no company. And now I dare say,” said KingArthur, “there was never Christian king that ever heldsuch a fellowship together. And alas, that ever SirLancelot and I should be at debate! Ah, Agravain,Agravain!” said the king, “Jesu forgive it thy soul, forthine evil will that thou hadst and Sir Mordred, thybrother, unto Sir Lancelot has caused all this sorrow.”

And ever among these complaints the king wept andswooned.

Then came there one to Sir Gawain and told himhow the queen was led away with Sir Lancelot, and nigha four-and-twenty knights slain.

“Ah, Jesu, save me my two brethren!” said SirGawain. “For full well wist I,” said Sir Gawain, “that SirLancelot would rescue her, other else he would die inthat field; and to say the truth he were not of worshipbut if he had rescued the queen, insomuch as she shouldhave been brent for his sake. And as in that,” said SirGawain, “he has done but knightly, and as I would havedone myself an I had stood6 in like case. But where aremy brethren?” said Sir Gawain, “I marvel that I see notof them.”

Then said that man, “Truly, Sir Gaheris and SirGareth be slain.”

“Jesu defend!” said Sir Gawain, “For all this world Iwould not that they were slain, and in especial my goodbrother, Sir Gareth.”

1 kirtle Petticoat, under-skirt. 2 at debate At odds.3 blood Kin.4 of Above.

5 rest Peace.6 stood Been.

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