brm_abs_1st_introduction to research methodology_77 pages

8/7/2019 BRM_ABS_1st_Introduction to Research Methodology_77 Pages

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Research Methodology

ABS-Bangalore

1Research Methodology - RVMReddy - ABS3 February 2011


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Dr. R. Venkatamuni ReddyAssociate Professor

Contact: 09632326277, 080-30938181

[email protected]

[email protected]



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"The secret of success is to know

something nobody else knows. "

- Aristotle Onassis

"It is the theory that decides what

can be observed."- Albert Einstein



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A Teacher can never teach

unless he/she is still learninghim/her self. A lamp can never

light another lamp unless it

continuous to burn its own flame



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Introduction

toResearch Methodology



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Discussion Topics Introduction

Difference Between-Method and Methodology?

Nature and Scope

Characteristics and Objectives

Foundation of Research

Types of Research

What Makes Research Good?

Motivation for Research6Research Methodology - RVMReddy - ABS3 February 2011


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Why we need Research

What they(He / She) Observes Around

In Response to a Felt Need

For the Solutions of Some Difficulties

In Search of a Better Life

A Number of Other Reasons

Introduction



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Contd

Individual Focused:

Critical Thinking on Particular Social

Problems

An Analytical Mind

Systematic Discipline Approach to the study

of Problems

Research Mindedness

Control of Emotional Bias and ensure

Objectivity



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Contd

By Trial and Error, we found:

Satisfactory Answers to Some Questions

Incomplete orInadequate Answers to some

And no Answers to Other Questions.



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Research is the process of investigating

Social/scientific questionsTo satisfy the need:

1. Explain events

2. Solve practical problems3. Demonstrate certain effects

legal, social, professional, and scientific

considerations

Research is process of planning, executing andinvestigating in order to find answers to ourspecific questions.

What is Research?



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Contd

Research information is neither sensitivenor unsystematically gathered.

Literally, research (re-search) -search

again Business research must be objective

Detached and impersonal rather than biased

It facilitates the managerial decision processfor all aspects of a business.



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Contd Research is defined as the systematic and

objective process of generating informationfor assist in making business decisions

Human Factors is the discipline that focuses

on investigating issues at the man-machineinterface. Human-Machine System as anintegrated unit

The role of experimental methods andstatistics in investigating the nature of theman-machine interface



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Objectives of Researchi) Discovery of facts and principles

ii) Revision of accepted conclusions in the lightof newly discovered facts

iii) Add to the existing store of knowledge

iv) To generalize, extend, correct or verifyknowledge

v) Solution of a Problem

vi) To explain human society or to understand aphenomenon in a better way.

Simply Explore, Describe, Explain, Predict and

Influence14Research Methodology - RVMReddy - ABS3 February 2011


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Basic Steps in Research

What?, When?, Why? Who? and How?

Find a topic What, When

Formulate questions What, Why

Define population Who, When

Select design & measurement How

Gather evidence How

Interpret evidence Why

Tell about what you did and found out



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Major Topics for Research in Business

The Housing Problem in MetropolitanCity

Family Planning and Government Policy

General Business Conditions and Corporate

Research

Financial and Accounting Research Management and Organizational Behavior Research

Sales and Marketing Research

I

nformation Systems Research Corporate Responsibility Research

Marriage Practice in different communities

Women and Employment16Research Methodology - RVMReddy - ABS3 February 2011


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Whats the Difference Between Method and

Methodology?

The termsResearch Methods and

ResearchMethodology will be used interchangeably.

Just using methodology as a more verbose

(containing more words or using more words than

necessary)

The term methods to refer to tools and techniques

used to obtain and analyses data. It includes

Questionnaires, observations and interviews as wellas both analytical and non analytical techniques

The term methodology refers to the theory of how

research should be undertaken17Research Methodology - RVMReddy - ABS3 February 2011


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Whats the Difference Between

Method and Methodology?

Method:

Techniques for

gathering evidence

The various ways of

proceeding in

gatheringinformation

Methodology:

The underlying

theory and

analysis of how

research does or

should proceed,

often influenced

by discipline



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The Importance of Methods and Methodology

The most common error made in

reading [and conducting] research is

overlooking the methodology, andconcentrating on the conclusions. Yet if

the methodology isnt sound, the

conclusions and subsequent

recommendations wont be sound.



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Nature and Scope of Research When listening to the radio, watching the television or

reading a daily news paper it is difficult to avoid the termResearch .The result of research are all around us

Example:

A debate about the findings of a recent poll of peoples

opinions inevitably includes ofResearch

Politicians often justify their policy decisions on the

basis ofResearch

Document programmes will tell about ResearchFindings

Advertisers may highlight(+ves) results of research to

encourage you to buy a particular product or brand



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The term is used wrongly

Just collecting facts or information with no

clear purpose

Reassembling and reordering facts or

information without interpretation

The term is used rightly

Data are collected systematically and

interpreted systematically

There is a clear purpose : to find things out

Nature and Scope of Research



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The research will involve an explanation of

the methods used to collect the data, will

argue why the results obtained are

meaningful and will explain any limitations

that are associated with them

Nature and Scope of Research



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Characteristics of ResearchThe definitions of research, when considered

together, give us the following characteristics:1. There is searching, investigation, or inquiry

presumably of a careful nature

2. The effort may be of a limited or of an extensive

nature3. The purpose is to gain new knowledge or at

least a new arrangement and interpretation ofexisting knowledge

4. The methods used may be those designated asscientific or otherwise, but the attitudepresumably should be critical and the procedureexhaustive



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Contd5. In its commonly accepted application, research

is often more a search than re-search. Theaim of research is not always the revision ofaccepted conclusions, in the light of the newlydiscovered facts, but an attack on relatively or

entirely new or unexplored fields, becauseevery inquiry conducted scientifically hasreliability and inter-subjective certifiability.

6. The knowledge sought by means of research is

new knowledge, an addition to the existingone such additions involve various levels ofgeneralizations.



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Contd

7. Research serves public and not private ends.

Consequently, it is incomplete if it is notreported and made available to others. In otherwords, research seeks to add to knowledge in aform that is communicable and verifiable.

8. Research involves systematic investigation, orthe use of standardized procedures, whichmeans, in a specific study, method serves theinvestigation and it is up to the investigator tochose a method or methods suited to his

problem.In general, research is the application of the

scientific method that is the hallmark ofresearch.



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Approaches to Research:

Precision vs. Generalizability

Experimental Research The research setting is

highly constrained and the measurement

procedures must be carefully defined andprecisely followed. Participants are randomly

assigned to conditions.

Differential Research Similar to experimental

research characteristics, except that the

comparison groups are two or more pre-

existing groups of participants.



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Contd

Naturalistic Observation Observing

participants in their natural environment.

The researcher should do nothing to limit or

change the environment or the behavior of

the participants. Major constraint imposedon observational methods. There is much

flexibility in choice of behaviors to observe.

Exploratory Research Preliminary effortspreceding a more organized research plan.



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Foundations of Research

This will provides an overview the majorissues in research and in evaluation and the

best place for you to begin learning about

research.

Language of Research (LR)

Philosophy of Research (PR)

Ethics in Research (ER)

Conceptualizing (Con)

Evaluation of Research (ER)



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Language of Research (LR)

I) Five Big Words Theoretical: Social research is theoretical,

meaning that much of it is concerned with

developing, exploring or testing the theories or

ideas that social researchers have about how the

world operates

Empirical: It is based on observations and

measurements of reality -- on what we perceiveof the world around us



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(LR) Contd Nomothetic refers to laws or rules that

pertain to the general case and is contrastedwith the term "idiographic" which refers to

laws or rules that relate to individuals

Probabilistic: It describes muchcontemporary social research or based on

probabilities

Causal: The term causal means that mostsocial research is interested (at some point) in

looking at cause-effect relationships (Note:

That it is spelled causalnot casual)31Research Methodology - RVMReddy - ABS3 February 2011


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(LR) Contd

Causal: A study is designed to determine

whether one or more variables (e.g., a

program or treatment variable) causes or

affects one or more outcome variables

Ex: If we did a public opinion poll to try todetermine whether a recent political

advertising campaign changed voter

preferences, we would essentially bestudying whether the campaign (cause)

changed the proportion of voters



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IV) Types of Relationship

Correlational Relationship: It simply says thattwo things perform in a synchronized manner. For

instance, we often talk of a correlation between

inflation and unemployment. When inflation is

high, unemployment also tends to be high. Wheninflation is low, unemployment also tends to be

low. But knowing that two variables are correlated

does not tell us whether one causes the other.

no relationship

positive relationship

negative relationship

(LR) Contd



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V)Variables

A variable is any entity that can take on different

values

For instance, age can be considered a variablebecause age can take different values for different

people or for the same person at different times.

Variables aren't always 'quantitative' or numerical.

The variable 'gender' consists of two text values:

'male' and 'female'.

(LR) Contd



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the term 'variable' is the distinction between an

independentand dependentvariable.

Independent Variable is what you (or nature)

manipulates -- a treatment or program or cause.

Dependent Variable is what is affected by theindependent variable -- your effects or outcomes.

Ex: If you are studying the effects of a new

educational program on student achievement, theprogram is the independent variable and your

measures ofachievement are the dependent ones.

(LR) Contd



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VI) Hypotheses: A hypothesis is a specific statement of

prediction.It describes in concrete (rather than

theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your

study. Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a

study is designed to be exploratory. There is no formal

hypothesis, and perhaps the purpose of the study is toexplore some area more thoroughly in order to develop

some specific hypothesis or prediction that can be

tested in future research. Note: A single study may

have one or many hypotheses. Hypothesis that yousupport (your prediction) the alternative hypothesis,

and all the hypothesis that describes the remaining

possible outcomes the nullhypothesis

(LR) Contd



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VII) Types of Data: Fundamental distinction

between two types of data: qualitative and

quantitative. The way we typically define them,

we call data 'quantitative' if it is in numerical form

and 'qualitative' if it is not

All quantitative data is based upon qualitative

judgments; and all qualitative data can be

described and manipulated numerically

(LR) Contd



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VIII) Unit of Analysis: One of the mostimportant ideas in a research is unit of analysis.

For instance, any of the following could be a unit of

analysis in a study:

Individuals

Groups

Artifacts (books, photos, newspapers)

Geographical units (town, census tract, state)

Social interactions (dyadic relations, divorces,

arrests)

(LR) Contd



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IX) Two Research Fallacies: A fallacy is an error

in reasoning, usually based on mistaken assumptions.

The Ecological Fallacy occurs when you make

conclusions about individuals based only on analyses

of group data

An Exception Fallacy is sort of the reverse of the

ecological fallacy. It occurs when you reach a group

conclusion on the basis of exceptional cases

(LR) Contd



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Philosophy of Research (PR)

I) Structure of Research: Most research projects

share the same general structure. The research processusually starts with a broad area of interest, the initial

problem that the researcher wishes to study.

These, then, are the major components in a causal study:

The Research Problem

The Research Question

The Program (Cause)

The Units

The Outcomes (Effect)

The Design



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(PR) Contd

II) Deduction & Induction Deductive reasoning works from the more

general to the more specific. Sometimes this is

informally called a "top-down" approach



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Inductive reasoning works the other way,

moving from specific observations to broader

generalizations and theories. Informally, we

sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach

(PR) Contd



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III) Positivism & Post-Positivism:

Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge

or of how we come to know.

Methodology is also concerned with how we

come to know, but is much more practical in

nature. Methodology is focused on the specific

ways -- the methods -- that we can use to try to

understand our world better. Epistemology and

methodology are intimately related: the formerinvolves the philosophy of how we come to

know the world and the latter involves the

practice.

(PR) Contd



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Ethics in Research (ER)

What are Research Ethics? Ethics are norms or standards of behavior

that guide moral choices about our behavior

and our relationships with others

The goal is to ensure that no one is harmed

or suffers adverse consequences from

research activities



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Ethical Treatment of Respondents and

Subjects

Begin data collection by explaining to therespondent the benefits expected from the

research Explain to the respondent that their rights

and well-being will be adequately protected,and say how this will be done

Be certain that interviews obtain theinformed consent of the respondent

(ER) Contd



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Issues Related to Protecting Respondents

Informed consent Debriefing

Confidentiality

Right to PrivacyEthical Issues Related to the Client

Sponsor nondisclosure

Purpose nondisclosure

Findings nondisclosure

Right to quality research

(ER) Contd



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Deception

The respondent is told only part of the truthwhen the truth is fully compromised

To prevent biasing the respondents before the

survey or experiment

To protect the confidentiality of a third party

Ethical Issues Related to Researchers and

Team Members

Safety

Ethical behavior of assistants

Protection of anonymity

(ER) Contd



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ConceptualizingI) Problem Formulation: One of the most difficult aspects of

research -- and one of the least discussed -- is how to develop

the idea for the research project in the first place. In trainingstudents, most faculty just assume that if you read enough ofthe research in an area of interest, you will somehow magically

be able to produce sensible ideas for further research

Problem Formulation: "Well begun is half done" --Aristotle,quoting an old proverb

Where do research topics come from?

Probably one of the most common sources of research ideas is

the experience of practical problems in the field. Manyresearchers are directly engaged in social, health or human

service program implementation and come up with their ideas

based on what they see happening around them



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Evaluation Research (ER)I) Introduction to Evaluation: Evaluation is a

methodological area that is closely related to

traditional social research.

Evaluation takes place within a political and

organizational context, it requires group skills,

management ability, political dexterity, sensitivity tomultiple stakeholders and other skills that social

research in general does not rely on as much.

Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the worth or

merit of some object Evaluation is the systematic acquisition and assessment

of information to provide useful feedback about some

object54

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Evaluation Research (ER)

Types of Evaluation: Formative evaluation includes several

evaluation types needs assessment determines who needs the program, how

great the need is, and what might work to meet the need

evaluability assessment determines whether an evaluation is

feasible and how stakeholders can help shape its usefulness structured conceptualization helps stakeholders define the

program or technology, the target population, and the possible

outcomes

implementation evaluation monitors the fidelity of the

program or technology delivery

process evaluation investigates the process of delivering the

program or technology, including alternative delivery

procedures55

Research Methodology - RVMReddy - ABS3 February 2011

E l ti R h (ER)


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Summative evaluation can also be subdivided:

outcome evaluations investigate whether the program or

technology caused demonstrable effects on specifically defined

target outcomes

impact evaluation is broader and assesses the overall or net

effects -- intended or unintended -- of the program or technology

as a whole cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis address questions

of efficiency by standardizing outcomes in terms of their dollar

costs and values

secondary analysis reexamines existing data to address newquestions or use methods not previously employed

meta-analysis integrates the outcome estimates from multiple

studies to arrive at an overall or summary judgment on an

evaluation question




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III) An Evaluation Culture

action-oriented

teaching-oriented

Our evaluation culture will be diverse,

inclusive, participatory, responsive and

fundamentally non-hierarchical.




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Basic ResearchBasic Research

Applied ResearchApplied Research

Types of Research



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Basic Research It is also called Fundamental or Theoretical or

Pure Research

It aims to expanding the frontiers of knowledge

Not directly involved in the solution to a pragmatic

problem

It addresses itself to more fundamental questions/ not to

the problems with immediate commercial potential

Development of theory, principles and findings that

generalize over a wide range of people, tasks, andsettings



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Basic Research - CharacteristicsAdvantages

Greater generality Conducted in controlled lab which prevents

intrusion of potentially confounding variablesthird-variable sources of causation

More confidence when drawing causalinferences between variables (the cause/effectrelationship)

Disadvantages Lab environments can often be simplistic and/or

artificial and they may have little resemblanceto the real world.



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Basic Research - Example

Is executive success correlated with high

need for achievement?

Are members of highly cohesive work

groups more satisfied than members of less

cohesive work groups?

Do consumers experience cognitive

dissonance in low-involvement situations?



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Applied Research

It is also called Decisional Research

It proceeds with a certain problem, and it

specifies alternative solutions and the possible

outcomes of each alternative

Conducted when a decision must be made abouta specific real-life problem

Development of theory, principles and findings

that are relatively specific with respect toparticular populations, tasks, products, systems

and/or environments

6



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Advantages

More likely to resemble real-world conditions

Can be more efficient in identifying designflaws and/or more effective alternative

designsDisadvantages

Harder to generalize from the specific test

group studied to the larger population ofinterest

Less control over potentially confoundingevents

Applied Research - Characteristics



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Applied Research - Examples

Should McDonalds add Italian pasta dinners

to its menu?

Business research told McDonalds it should

not?

Should Procter & Gamble add a high-priced

home teeth bleaching kit to its product line?

Research showed Crest White strips would

sell well at a retail price of Rs. 44



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What Makes Research Good?

Validity

Reliability

Replicability Consistent application/analysis

Trustworthiness

Rigor


Validity in Research


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Validity in Research Refers to whether the research actually measures what

it says itll measure. Validity is the strength of our

conclusions, inferences or propositions.Internal Validity: The difference in the dependent

variable is actually a result of the independentvariable

External Validity: The results of the study aregeneralizable to other groups and environmentsoutside the experimental setting

Conclusion Validity: We can identify a relationship

between treatment and observed outcomeConstruct Validity: We can generalize our

conceptualized treatment and outcomes to broaderconstructs of the same concepts



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Reliability in Research

The consistency of a measurement, or the

degree to which an instrument measures thesame way each time it is used under the same

condition with the same subjects. In short, it is

the repeatability of your measurement. Ameasure is considered reliable if a person's

score on the same test given twice is similar. It

is important to remember that reliability is not

measured, it is estimated. Measured by

test/retest and internal consistency.



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Validity and Reliability

The relationship between reliability andvalidity is a fairly simple one to understand: ameasurement can be reliable, but not valid.However, a measurement must first bereliable before it can be valid. Thus reliabilityis a necessary, but not sufficient, condition ofvalidity. In other words, a measurement mayconsistently assess a phenomena (or

outcome), but unless that measurement testswhat you want it to, it is not valid.



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Rigorin Research

Validity and Reliability in conducting research Adequate presentation of findings: consistency,

trustworthiness

Appropriate representation of study for aparticular field: disciplinary rigor

Rhetorical Rigor: how you represent yourresearch for a particular audience



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What kinds of information are needed tomake the decisions you need to make and/or

to enlighten your intended audiences, e.g., do

you need information to really understand a

process, the students who engage in a process,strengths and weaknesses of a curriculum or

program, benefits to students or institution or

agency, how aspect of a program areproblematic, etc.?

How accurate will this information be?

Key Considerations - Research Approach



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How can that information be collected in a

reasonable fashion, e.g., questionnaires,interviews, examining documentation,observing staff and/or clients in the program,conducting focus groups among staff and/or

students, etc? When is the information needed (so, by when

must it be collected)?

What resources are available to collect theinformation?

How will this information be analyzed?

Key Considerations - Research Approach



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Research Related Topics


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Research Related Topics

"Managerial Ownership and Corporate

Diversification: A Longitudinal View" - Strategic

Management Journal, 28: 211-225., 2007, &

Goranova, M., Alessandri, T., & Dharwadkar, R.

"Institutional Ownership and CEO Compensation:

A Longitudinal Examination" - Journal of Business Research, 58(8): 1078-1088, 2005, &

Khan, R., & Dharwadkar, R.

The Executive Ready Reference Manual TextBook, ISBN 978-81-7273-438-1, Authors press,

New Delhi, 1st Edition 2008, R. Venkatamuni

Reddy75Research Methodology - RVMReddy - ABS3 February 2011

Contd


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Contd "Understanding the Rise and Fall of Stock Options

Compensation: Taking PrincipalAgent

Conflicts to

the Institutional (Battle)Field" - Human Resource

Management Review, 15(2): 97-118, 2005, Brandes,

P., & Das, D.

Corporate Finance Structure in Indian Capital

Market: A Case of Indian Pharmaceutical

Industries, The Icfai Journal of FinancialEconomics, Page No: 70-85, Vol.VI , No.2 June

2008, R. Venkatamuni Reddy



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Thank You

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