brinkley - iii japan history art literature

7/28/2019 Brinkley - III Japan History Art Literature

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(BxitnUl SeriesJAPAN AND CHINA

LIBRARY EDITIONLimited to One Thousand Numbered and Registered

Copies^ of which this is

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JAPANIts History Arts and LiteratureCAPTAIN r. ni:

fLLUSTRjrREAR VIEW OF A JAPANESE NOBLEMAN'S RESIDENCE.

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JAPANIts History Arts and LiteratureBY

CAPTAIN F. BRINKLEY

ILLUSTRATED

Volume III

J. B. MILLET COMPANYBOSTON AND TOKYO


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Copyright, igo2By J. B. Millet Co.

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London, England

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V.3

nnVBRSITY PKESP JOHN WILSONAND SON CAMBBIDOK, D. S. A.


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CONTENTSCHAPTER I Page

Refinements and Pastimes of the MilitaryEpoch (^Continued) i

CHAPTER IIRefinements and Pastimes of the Military

Epoch (^Continued) 49CHAPTER III

The Early Tokugawa Times 87CHAPTER IV

Middle Period of the Tokugawa 131CHAPTER V

Later Period of the Tokugawa 158CHAPTER VI

The Fall of the Tokugawa 198

Appendix 251


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ILLUSTRATIONSPage

Rear View of a Japanese Nobleman's Residence . FrontispieceInterior of the Imperial Palace, Kyoto i6Yoshitsune's Helmet (Iron) ; Twelfth Century ... 32Interior of one of the Largest Temples, Nikko ... 48Suicide of Oishi, Leader of the " Forty-seven Ronin " . 64Ceremony on the Arrival and Departure of a Guest . . 80No Dance . . . The Bugaku 96Capture of Osaka Castle by the Troops of lyeyasu . . 104Nakajima, Nagasaki 112Bugaku, the Sword Dance 128A Wrestling Ring 144Big Bronze Bell at Kyoto 152Kago Bearers 160Pappenburg at Nagasaki 176Japanese Types 192Stone Steps at Nikko 208The Village Water-Wheel 224Fishermen Launching Their Boat 240

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JAPANITS HISTORY ARTS ANDLITERATURE

Chapter IREFINEMENTS AND PASTIMES OFTHE MILITARY EPOCH [Continued).jL NOTHER aristocratic amusement of the/% Military epoch was the " comparing of

J % incQnsQ^" {Ko-awase). This particularproduct of Japanese civilisation hashitherto evoked only ridicule from the fewforeign writers who have made any reference toit.^ Apparently it presented itself to them underno guise except that of a frivolous game, designedto test the delicacy of men's sense of smell by re-quiring them to distinguish between the aromasof various kinds of incense. Even when thus in-terpreted, the pastime is not more childish thanmany of the diversions that hold the attention ofgrown persons at social reunions in Europe andAmerica. But the Ko-awase was not merely a^ See Appendix, no:e i

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JAPANquestion of smelling incense : it was a literarypursuit, designed in great part for testing theplayers' knowledge of classical poetry and theirability to apply the knowledge. Burning incensehad been fashionable in Japan long before theMilitary epoch. As early as the seventh cen-tury, the names of twenty-four varieties of fra-grant wood were known and used, the prince ofthem all being ranjatai^ a quantity of which wasimported by the Emperor Shomu (724748) andplaced in the temple Todai-ji. After the estab-lishment of the military administration at Kama-kura, it became the custom that each Shdgun, onreceipt of his patent from the Throne, shouldrepair to the temple, and cut off a small portionof the incense for his own use. The celebratedAshikaga chief, Takauji, performed this cere-mony with much state, and even the bluff soldierOda Nobunaga did not neglect it. Not yet, how-ever, had the pastime of " listening to incense " a devotee never spoke of" smelling " or " sniff-ing " but always of" listening " been elaboratedinto the form afterwards so fashionable. ShinoSoshin, who flourished at the beginning of thesixteenth century, is regarded as the "father" ofthe pursuit, but it had undoubtedly received agreat impulse from that king of dilettante, Ashi-kaga Yoshimasa, and his proteges Shuko andSoami, the founders of the tea cult. Now, forthe first time, compound incenses began to bemanufactured, so that the disciples of the Shino


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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESschool recognised sixty-six distinct kinds, all dis-tinguished by names derived from literary allu-sions. A great authority of later times allegedthat the use of compound incenses was confinedto the Court aristocracy, military men alwayspreferring a simple kind ; but that rule seems tohave received only limited recognition. Brieflystated, the outlines of the pastime were these.Three varieties of incense were taken and dividedinto three parcels each. A fourth kind was thenadded, making ten packets. This method ofdivision was so invariable that the game came tobe designated by the term "Jisshu-ko, or " ten va-rieties of incense." The units of each subdividedgroup were numbered from one to three, andeach group was indicated by one of the names" plum," " pine," " bamboo," " cherry," " snow,"or " moon," but the supplementary, or undivided,incense received invariably the title of " guest."The players having been formed into parties, astick from each of the subdivided groups of in-cense was placed in a censer and passed round tobe " listened to " by way of trial, the name beingdeclared, but the " guest incense " was never tried.Thereafter portions were taken from each groupindiscriminately, and the players had to identifythe names by the aroma only, writing down theresult of their identification. The most accurateidentifications constituted a partial title to victory,but to each incense a literary name had to begiven in addition to its identification, and by the

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JAPANerudition and ideality displayed in choosing namesthe contest was ultimately decided. For example,each side having made a correct identification,one was found to have chosen the name ** moon-light on a couch ; " the other that of ''water fromthe hill," the former being derived from thecouplet

When autumn's wind breathesChill and lone my chamber through,And night grows aged,Dark shadows of the moonlight.Cast athwart my couch,Sink deep into my being;

while the second was taken from the verse.Stream with scented breastFrom flower-robed hills that flowest.Here thy burden lay,Thy freight of perfumed dew-dropsSipped from sweet chrysanthemum.

Between these two names the judgment wasthat, concerning the second, it was comparativelycommonplace, the scent of flowers being anevery-day simile in praising incense ; whereas thefirst, while its derivation had no material allusionto anything suggestive of incense-burning, con-veyed a rarely forcible idea of the profoundlypenetrating influence of a fine aroma. Victory,then, went to the first. Sometimes the nameswere not necessarily taken from classical litera-ture but were invented by the players. Thus,

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESat a contest in Yoshimasa's Silver Pavilion, oneside chose the name " flowers of the Law^," theother ** sanderling ; " and the judgment was thatthough the flight of the sanderling across thechill skies of winter and its plaintive voice in-duce reflections on the uncertainty of life, theexpression " flowers of the Law " at once inclinesthe heart towards the all-merciful Buddha andfills the soul with pure yearning. The verdict,then, was in favour of the latter. One moreillustration may be given. At another contestthe names selected were *' myriad-fenced " and" Miyoshi moor," the former having the signifi-cation " primal verse," since the earliest coupleton record in Japan contained the word " myriad-fenced," and the latter being an indirect allusionto the cherry-blossom for which Miyoshi isfamous. The judgment was that an ancientcouplet could not be supposed to retain its per-fume, whereas the cherries of Yoshino were eventhen scenting the sunbeams.

Even this brief notice shows that the pastimesignified a great deal more than the mere smell-ing of different kinds of incense. It may beregarded as supplementary to the couplet-com-posing compositions {uta-awase) mentioned in aprevious chapter, the one being intended to testoriginal literary ability, the other to determineliterary knowledge. Every social usage that hasgrown to maturity in Japan shows traces of elab-orate care bestowed on it by generation after

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JAPANgeneration of refined practice. The incense pas-time illustrates that fact almost as strikingly asthe tea cult. It may be said to have a literatureof its own. Volumes have been compiled settingforth the exact principles that should be observedin the competition and explaining the numerousmodifications that the game underwent from timeto time. The various incenses were divided intogroups according to the seasons. Thus for springthere were the " white plum incense," the " agedplum," the *' blossom and snow," etc. ; for sum-mer, the " flower petal," the " green plum,"the ** iris," the " orange," etc. ; for autumn,the "waning moon," the "maple leaf," the" Weaver " (Vega), the " double chrysanthe-mum," etc. ; and for winter, the " evening rain,"the "early plum," the "first snow," the "frostynight," and so on. Then there were incensessuggesting love the " arm pillow," the " wak-ing from sleep," the "sweet face," the "dishev-elled hair," etc. ; there were miscellaneous in-censes, the "smoke of Fuji," the beautiful" Yokihi," the "myriad fences," and therewere many incenses called after famous places.The pastime itself took various forms, each ofthem deriving its name from some reconditemotive. For example : the anchorite Kisen,who lived on Mount Mimaro beside the UjiRiver, composed a thousand poems and threwnine hundred and ninety-nine of them into thestream, finding one alone worthy of preservation.

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESThis idea of infinite eclecticism suggested thename Uji-yama (Mount Uji) for a special kind ofincense competition. Again, it had been fromtime immemorial an aristocratic amusement thatladies should go in search of flowers peepingthrough the snow on the plains of Kasuga andSagano. Hence the identification of certain in-censes having the names of early wild flowerswritten on their envelopes, was called " littleflower incense." Another quaint variety wasthe " small birds incense," in which, insteadof identifying incenses by numbers, they wereindicated by duplicated syllables in a bird's name.Thus, if the second and third specimens in a grouphad been detected by the " listener," he wrotehototogisu (nightingale), because the same syl-lable, tOy occurs in the second and third numbersof the word. If the specimens detected werethe third and fourth, he wrote ishitataki (wag-tail), the duplication of ta giving the indication,and so on. There were also two variants of thegame, called the Gem-pet (Minamoto and Taira)and the " horse race " incenses, each of whichproceeded exactly after the manner of the West-ern " race game," a successful identification beingmarked by the advance of a flag or a puppetthrough a certain number of squares towards thegoal. Many others might be described, but itwill be enough to add that there was a minutecode of etiquette to be observed in conduct-ing the pastime ; that even here the ubiquitous

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JAPAN*' Book of Changes" made its appearance, theorder of the male and female principles beingstrictly observed, and that the implements usedin preparing and burning incense were of themost exquisite workmanship and costliest mate-rial. There are no finer specimens of lacquer tobe found than the boxes in which were kept thecensers, miniature chopping-blocks, mallets andknives ; tiny tongs and spatula of gold or silverelaborately chiselled silver stands for the in-struments ; marking-board of silver, gold, andvermilion lacquer, or of finely carved mother-of-pearl, and envelopes of illuminated paper.Incredible sums were paid for a choice set ofimplements in a rare box. The censer, above all,attracted attention. It might be of gold, or ofiron inlaid with gold or silver, or of porcelain.The most highly prized of all kinds was celado?iof the peculiar tint known as the greenish blueseen between the clouds after rain in summerthe u-kwo-tien-tsing of the Chinese 'Jo-yao. Oneof these tiny vessels, named the " sanderlingcenser," because its delicate colour recalled theplaintive note of that bird flying across wintermoonlight, was in the possession of the Taikoand enjoyed the credit of protecting him againstall danger. On another censer of the same wareTokugawa lyeyasu borrowed a sum of ten thou-sand pieces of gold to meet a sudden need.The Kb-awasa had its frivolous aspects, ofcourse ; it would not otherwise have been a


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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESgame. But some credit may be claimed for asociety which occupied itself with such refinedpastimes rather than with roulette, faro, orpoker.

Another remarkable outcome of the Militaryepoch was the art of flower arrangement. Thename applied to it, ike-bana^ or *' living flower,"explains at once the fundamental principle of theart ; namely, that the flowers must be so ar-ranged as to suggest the idea of actual life,must look as though they were growing, not asthough they had been cut from their stems. Inthe Occident flowers, whether grouped in bou-quets or placed in vases, are disposed with aunique view to colour effect. They are crushedtogether in glowing masses, delighting the bar-baric sense of colour but preserving no sem-blance of the conditions of their living existence.From a decorative point of view the Westernmethod has much to recommend it. But itsscope is narrow, and when compared with theart as practised in Japan, the great advantages ofthe latter are necessarily recognised. The Jap-anese considers that the beauty of a plant or atree is not derived from its blossoms more thanfrom the manner of their growth. The curveof a bough, the bend of a stalk, has for him acharm equal to that presented by the shape ofthe petal and the tint of the blossoms. Hencein arranging flowers he seeks to retain all thegraces that they possess in their natural condi-

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JAPANtion. His grouping of them is a compositionwherein linear effects are as much studied ascolour harmonies. It is not necessary, indeed,that colour should enter into the scheme at all,except in so far as it enters into every naturalpicture. A tree's foliage may be regarded as itsflowers, and not the least beautiful productionsof the ike-bana deal solely with branches andleaves. This art is essentially Japanese. ABuddhist origin has been attributed to it by some,on the ground that the idea of preserving theliving aspect of a flower is derived from theBuddhist veto against taking life. Such an ex-planation seems fanciful and far-fetched. It istrue that vases containing sprays of lotus formedan essential element in the altar furniture ofBuddhist temples, and that such decorativeobjects, having been entirely absent from Shintoparaphernalia may have been introduced to theJapanese for the first time by the propagandistsof Buddhism. That hypothesis is confirmed byexamination of the floral compositions attributedto Prince Shotoku and the religious teachers ofthe seventh and eighth centuries. They showall the essentially non-Japanese features of theart, being, in short, sprays and boughs symmet-rically disposed on either side of a centralstandard. The floral compositions of Indian,Persian, and Grecian decorative art obey thesame rule, symmetry by equipoise ; whereas thefundamental principle of Japanese decorative art,

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESas well as of Japanese floral arrangement, issymmetry by suggestion. What the Buddhistsimported from India was a method based onequality of distribution. What the Japanesethemselves conceived was a method based on bal-ance of inequalities. There can be little doubtthat the conception was derived from close obser-vation of nature's fashions, and that the widevogue its practice attained was due primarily to thebonsai cult, which, as already described, grew outof the great sesthetic movement of the fifteenthcentury. It is, indeed, to the celebrated painterSoami, whose name is so closely connected withthat movement, that the Japanese attribute thenew departure, and it was at the Silver Pavilion,where the cults, of the Cha-no-Yu and the Ko-awase may be said to have been evolved, thatthe art of ike-bana received its first great develop-ment. But though the theory and somethingof the practice were due to Soami, his pupil, apriest named Ikenobo, is justly credited withhaving elaborated the principles and canons ofthe art into something like an exact science.Thereafter many men of taste made contribu-tions to the cult, until finally it came to possessa code of its own, accurate and consistent, butnot without disfigurement of excessive detail.Here, too, as in the case of landscape gardening,the philosophy of the yang and the ying^ themale and the female principles, obtruded it-self; not with any transcendental significance,

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JAPANhowever, but merely for the purpose of extend-ing even to flower arrangement the applica-tion of the law that nature delights in balance,and that she contrives it primarily by the asso-ciation of correlated pairs. If the study ofJapanese ike-bana be approached with a con-stant recollection of its basic rule, namely,that a state of vigorous vitality and actualgrowth must always be simulated, the elab-orations of the art became easy to comprehend.Evidently the first requirement of such a ruleis that the floral or leafy sprays should springnaturally and strongly from the vase containingthem, and out of that necessity there grew vari-ous forms of " holder," as well as a series ofdirections for adapting each arrangement offlowers or branches to the shape of the vase andto its position in a room. Following the indica-tions of nature, the next point was to determinewhat combinations of plants or flowers werepermissible, and also to fix those appropriate foreach reason. Here, however, the influence oftradition and even of superstition made itselffelt, lucky or unlucky attributes being assignedto certain flowers and trees, partly in conse-quence of historical or mythological associations,and partly because of poisonous properties sup-posed to belong to them. Every one havingeven a passing acquaintance with Japanese dec-orative art is familiar with the trio, pine,bamboo, and plum, so often found in combination

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESand so perennially beautiful and harmonious ; butwithout special study of the ike-bana cult itcould not be inferred that there is an exactlist of proper combinations and improper com-binations, and that the flowers appropriate foroccasions of congratulation in each month ofthe year as well as for all ceremonials, social,religious, sad, or joyful, are exactly catalogued.Another consideration governing combinationswas that "strong" sprays (trees) must not beplaced on either side of " weak " (plants), orvice versa^ because, in the first place, such com-positions would show mathematical symmetry,and, in the second, they would violate the trueprinciples of natural balance. A still moreimportant law was that of lineal distribution.It has been well said that " the floral decorationsof Japan are synthetic designs in line, in whichevery individual stem, flower, and leaf standsout distinctly silhouetted.^ Appreciation oflineal grace seems, indeed, to be a speciallydeveloped faculty among the Japanese. Evi-dences of it are displayed in every branch oftheir art, and it found expression from the firstin the ike-bana science. Three-lined, five-lined,and seven - lined compositions were designed,forming what may be called the skeletons ofall arrangements. The directions and inter-relations of their curves were carefully mappedout ; their relative lengths were approximately^ See Appendix, note 2.

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JAPANdetermined so as to secure harmonious balance,and explicit vetoes were formulated againstfaults of interference, confusion, entanglement,or parallelism. As for receptacles, they werein themselves a science. Mr. Conder describesand depicts no less than forty-six varieties ofbamboo vases alone, each of which has a distinctappellation and a definitely approved shape.Then there were bronze vases, porcelain vases,pottery vases, basket vases, boat vases, bell-vases,wooden vases, bucket vases, chariot vases, sus-pended vases, standing vases, umbrella vases,margin vases, hooked vases, flower horses, andflower cabinets, each having its appropriatevarieties of floral arrangement. The scope ofthe art is well illustrated in the case of theboat vase, which, according to the descriptionof the sprays placed in it, was made to representa homeward-bound ship, an outward-bound ship,a ship-in-port, a swiftly-sailing ship, or a branch-laden ship. It will readily be supposed thatattention had to be paid to environment indesigning a floral composition. Every articleand every part of a Japanese chamber is regardedas a co-operative element in a general schemeof decoration, and each must enhance the valueof the rest. Hence a vase of floral or leaf spraysstanding or hanging in an alcove is required toharmonise with the picture hanging beside it,and even to be in accord with the landscapepresented by the nearest portion of the garden

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESoutside. There is also a philosophy of the art.It is supposed to educate certain moral qualitiesin those that practise it sincerely ; to wean themfrom earthly thoughts ; to lighten the burdensof life ; to impart gentleness and courtesy tothe demeanour, and to purge the heart ofselfishness. It has its rival schools, and someof them have sought to win credit by impartingesoteric elements into their methods. But suchthings are mere unessential mannerisms, entirelydistinct from the cult itself.To these refinements of life specially developedin the Military epoch may be added those be-queathed from previous ages, flower-viewingat all seasons, even in winter, when, by a prettyfancy, the snow was regarded as the bloom of thetime and the "silvered world" became a land-scape garden ; moonlight picnics in autumn ; pull-ing young pines at the New Year ; fishing withhand-nets ; mushroom-picking parties ; maplegathering ; go ; chess ; couplet composing ; foot-ball, and so forth. Foot-ball merits special notice,for it attained extraordinary vogue. It had thehonour of being classed with poetry-writing asone of the " two ways," and noblemen took asmuch pride in excelling in it as ever Anglo-Saxonyouths did in gaining fame at cricket or base-ball. Great families, families which enjoyed anhereditary title to such offices as councillor ofState and minister of justice, constituted them-selves professional instructors of the art, and the

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JAPANenclosure of the office of Public Roads was as-signed by the Imperial Court as a foot-ball ground.It will readily be inferred from what has beenalready written about the cults of the Cha-no-Yuythe Kb-awase and the Ike-bana^ that the pastimeof kicking a ball came to have its exact rules andeven its esoteric mysteries, the latter extravagancesbeing inventions of rival schools which sought towin popularity by appealing to the superstitionsof the time. The ordinary foot-ball ground oforthodox kickers took the form of a square, itsside either twelve, sixteen, or twenty-four yards,and at its four corners a pine-tree, a bamboo, amaple, and a willow were planted. If these di-mensions were exceeded, six pine-trees replacedthe varieties just mentioned. Two noble fam-ilies, however, special repositories of the arcanaof the game, enjoyed the estimable privilege ofsetting up a pine-tree and a post at each corner,and of enclosing the ground with a fence ofcrossed bamboos. A code of minute regulationsgoverned the apparel of the players, robes, head-gear, sandals, stockings, and fans, and anothercode indicated the proper postures of the body,the movements of the hands, the paces of thefeet, the expression of the face ; the pose ofthe hips ; the spread of the step ; the recover ; theside kick ; the fore kick ; the separate kick ; theextra-tree kick ; the numerical kick, and the in-definite kick all were clearly prescribed. Inshort, foot-ball became a cult, and even the

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.OTOY>l .a'JAJAI JAlMa-lMI SHT "^O HOI^iaTMI


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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESphysical strength that it demanded was decorouslyand elegantly exercised.

Gambling, which in the Nara and Heianepochs had been regarded as a somewhat vulgarpastime, prevailed extensively under the Militaryregimen. From the General officer to the trans-port coolie, almost every one was addicted to thisvice. Usually dice were employed, but some-times shells took their place, the hazard depend-ing upon the faces exposed by the shells whenthrown. Money was wagered also upon thegame of go^ and it is recorded that the ranks ofthe vagabond and burglar classes received largeaccessions, owing to the ruin which constantlyovertook devotees of these various games. Anattempt made by the Kamakura rulers at thezenith of their power, in the middle of the thir-teenth century, failed to check the abuse, and ata later period the samurai fell into the habit ofstaking their arms, armour, and horse-trappingson a cast of the dice, so that men would go intobattle with helmets and no cuirasses, or in partialpanoply without swords. Finally (in the middleof the fourteenth century), the vice prevailed soextensively that a fully equipped soldier, fromthe medium grade downward, was rarely seen inthe fight. One effect of the abuse was that menbegan to think robbery more respectable and lessdangerous than going into battle with deficientarms or armour. They took what they wantedwherever they could find it, and presently the

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JAPANright of property received so little respect thatarticles not in their possession were staked by-gamblers, the loser pledging himself to stealthem. Even the storehouses of temples andshrines were not safe against raids by unsuccess-ful gamesters, though not infrequently the winnerof a sum of money sought to make reparation forprevious acts of lawlessness by employing his gainsto build or furnish a store for the sometime vic-tim of his burglary. It has to be noted in partialextenuation of this disorderly conduct, that it wasdue, in some degree, to the contempt entertainedby the military class for the other orders of thepeople, and that the priests, by their violence andextortion during the Heian epoch, had conferredon the men of the Military age a kind of rightof retaliation. A samurai never thought of help-ing himself to the belongings of a comrade. Heobeyed the theory that all sections of the nationwere bound to contribute to the support of themilitary man, and that the highest codes ofhonour and integrity had binding force in theintercourse of military men only.

Singing and dancing were as much loved bythe soldier in the provinces as they had ever beenby the courtier in the capital. But there cameinto vogue now a new application of the formerart ; a kind of musical recitative, which neverthereafter ceased to be popular. A Buddhistpriest of the Tendai sect Shinano Zenji Yuki-naga composed a prose epic based on the for-

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMEStunes of the great Taira family, and taught it toone Shobutsu, a Biwa bonze (Biwa-hozu, priestfrom Biwa), as bHnd players of the four-stringedChinese lute were called; not that they were reallybonzes, but merely because they shaved their headsafter the manner of Buddhist priests. Yukinaganaturally instructed the lutist to adopt the mannerof intonation practised by the priests of theTendai sect in reading the Sutras or repeatinglitanies, and there resulted a recitative to whichthe name Heike-bushi [tunQ of the House of Hei)was given. The soldier class took keen pleasurein listening to this entertainment, and graduallythe repertoire of the blind lute-player was ex-tended so as to include stirring episodes ofmilitary history in every age. The Biwa-bozuexhibited great skill alike in the modulation ofhis voice, the excellence of his elocution, and thereality of his simulated passion. He could holdan audience in rapt attention and move it to tearsas well as to laughter.

Closely resembling the performance of theBiwa-bozu so far as method was concerned, butdiffering from it in the nature of the subject ofthe recitative as well as in the instrument em-ployed, was the ydruri. This is said to havebeen originated by Ono no O-tsu, a lady in thehousehold of either Oda Nobunaga or the Taiko,who recited the story of Yoshitsune's light oflove, ydruri, accompanying herself with the sa?ni-sen. Thus while the lutist took his subject from

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JAPANwarlike annals, the yoru?'i performer chose eventsfrom every-day life, singing some parts and re-citing others, the recitation being, of course,without music. The Joruri won the nation'sheart at once, and soon had numerous professors,both male and female, of whom the most cele-brated devised new styles and gave distinguishingnames to them. The Biwa-bozu always recitedfrom memory, and the stirring passages of thesubject were delivered in a manner bearing muchresemblance to the " patter " songs of modernEurope and America, the lute's rapid shower ofnotes being poured out so as to punctuate thepassage of the recitative rather than to accom-pany them. This was pre-eminently the martialmusic of Japan, and continues to be so, partlybecause deeds of bravery and devotion have alwaysbeen the theme of the song, partly because astrain of rattle and dash infuses the whole per-formance. The ydruri appeals rather to plaintiveand pitiful moods. Many of its passages are tear-ful, and the singer is expected to simulate emo-tions not permitted to the Biwa-bozu. A scorecontaining a species of musical notation as wellas the words of the yoruri is placed before theperformer on a lectern, and the samisen is tunedin a low minor key. It may be noted that boththe Biwa-bozu and the ydruri performer oftensing from the chest, instead of limiting them-selves to the head-voice usually characteristic ofJapanese singing. The lutist is frequently blind,

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESbut a blind Joruri performer would be out ofcharacter.An important fact connected with the Militaryepoch is that it saw the beginnings of the histri-

onic art in Japan. There is some obscurity aboutthis point, but the most accurate researches go toshow that the embryo of the Japanese drama isto be found in the Deti-gaku^ or " bucolic mime,"reference to which has already been made. TheDen-gaku suggested spectacular effects, and thedramatic idea was derived from the various kindsof song and dance described above, the spiritedepics of the Biwa-hozu ; the tragic recitative ofthe 'Joruri performer ; the genre sonnets {ima-yo)and semi-poetical chaunts {mono-gatari) of the"white measure-markers;" and the Buddhist"life-lengthening dance" {yennen-?nai)^ in whicha fan-bearing acolyte postured while friars beathand-drums.

It seems impossible to trace the exact processesby which a true drama was evolved from theseelements, but there is little room to doubt thatBuddhist priests first conceived the project ofcombining the spectacular effects of the Den-gakuwith the emotional appeals of the various musicaland recitative performances in vogue from thethirteenth century downward. Unfortunatelythere does not survive even one clearly identifiedexample of a Den-gaku performance thus modi-fied. The Den-gaku, as tradition describes it andas the national memory recalls it, was simply a

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JAPANdisplay of acrobatic feats. Popular patois, moreretentive than history, applies the name Den-gakuto a rectangular slice of bean-curd having askewer thrust through it from end to end, be-cause a cake thus transfixed is supposed to re-semble a Den-gaku gymnast mounted on a singlestilt. By the Hojo rulers in Kamakura, however,the Den-gakUy even before it had emerged fromits acrobatic stage, was generously patronised.The Taiheiki, a celebrated work, part history, partromance, compiled in the fourteenth century,contains a unique but brief account of the Den-gaku as performed at Kamokura before theBuddhist priests had interfered to change it froma musical and spectacular display of gymnasticexercises to an artistic and dramatic representa-tion :

The pure tones of the music ringing in the ears ofthe audience, the drums beating blithely and the flutesounding the cadence, there emerge ft-om the easternorchestra-room eight beautifiilly apparelled youths,wearing tunics of gold brocade. Simultaneously eighttonsured youths, robed in pure white tunics decoratedwith designs of flowers and birds lightly traced in gold,and wearing voluminous ankle-gathered trousers with avariegated pattern in silver, flash into sight from theWestern room, beating out the measure and swayingtheir broad hats in unison. Then, led respectively byAko of the Honza and Hikoyasha of the Shinza, theyplay with daggers and balls, showing such divine skillthat eyes and ears alike of the audience are astounded.This display ended, a boy of eight or nine, wearing a

11


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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESmonkey mask and holding a sacred wand {gohei) onhigh, crosses the steeply arched bridge diagonally fromthe orchestra-room of the Shinza^ and springing uponthe high railing, spins round to the right, spins roundto the left, leaps down and leaps up again, with suchgrace and agility as to seem more than mortal.This is merely a refined exhibition of dancingand acrobatics, distinguished, however, from anyprevious performances by the fact that a regularstage was provided. Exactly how the Buddhistpriests proceeded to introduce the innovationsattributed to them, history and tradition alike aresilent. But it was natural that after the unionof Shinto and Buddhism, the representatives ofthe latter should pay some attention to dancing,for an essential part of Shinto worship had alwaysbeen the Kagura, a dance derived, as alreadystated, from the mythical performance of theCelestial Deities before the cave of the Sun God-dess ; and it was equally natural that while theirshrewd eclecticism enabled the Buddhist monksto detect the dramatic and spectacular possibili-ties of the chaunts and recitative of the "whitemeasure-marker," the Biwa-bozu and the Joruriexperts, their literary ability should have helpedthem to work up these materials into a histri-onic form. Perhaps the simplest explanationis that, seeing the passionate fondness of theJapanese people for dance and song, the Bud-dhist monks conceived the idea of enlisting thoseagents in the cause of religious propagandism.

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JAPANThe following is an example of the words theyput into the mouth of the musician who ac-companied the dance :Our days are a dream that fades in the darkness -,A hundred years hence who can hope to remain ?Empty and vain are all things around us ;Where to find permanence who can pretend ?Life is as foam that flaketh the water.Shred by the wild wind and scattered at willMan's soul like a caged bird the opening awaitethTo wing to the skies its foredestined flight -;That which is gone can ne'er be recalled.He that departs will come not again ;Followeth death after birth in a moment,Bloom in an instant by blight is replaced ;And for him that in fame and in fortune rejoices, IRiseth already the smoke of the grave-pyre.What travail from hell's doom can purchase evasion ?Mammon or moil, can they save from the grave ?Gathereth who by what labour so ceaseless,Shall not his sins outnumber his gains ? jRecall with closed eyes the days that have faded.All the old friendships, have they not gone ? Count with bent fingers the men that were once here, ^Dear ones and distant, hidden are all.Times change and things pass, who shall set limits ?One stays and one goes, nothing is safe.As flame-shrivelled tinder vanish the three worlds ; ^Angel or anchorite, death's pangs for each.Whence then reprieve for common or low-born ?Light not their trespass, heavy their painsSins they have sowed bear ripe crop of sorrow,The tale of their deeds is reckoned in full.Brayed in the mortar of hell without pity

^ See Appendix, note 3.24

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESHewed into myriads of blood-streaming parts ;Dying ten thousand deaths daily, yet living ;Clutching sharp blades and treading on spears ;Shattered and crushed by the rock-piling tortureWrithing in flames that fuse marrow and boneChoked by the breath of fierce-burning firesClasped in the bergs of the frozen blood-seaFamished, and feeding on fragments of iron ;Slaking parched thirst with drafts of lead moltenCountless the tortures hell holds for the wicked.Shall they be spared that have wittingly sinned ?Shall not the demon that dwells in their bosomGive them shrewd earnest of sufferings to come ?And like frail clouds that float through the moonlight.In the after-world life they shall wander distraught.

In the absence of any rational connectionbetween religious chaunts like the above andacrobatic performances of the nature of the Den-gaku^ it seems reasonable to assume that therelation between the two did not extend beyondthe borrowing of the Den-gaku stage and acces-sories for the purposes of the Buddhist dance.At the same time, the credit of originating astage does not belong to the Den-gaku per-formers. Stages for the Kagura dance hadlong existed at many of the principal Shintoshrines three in the province of Ise for theDaijin-gu services ; three in Omi for the Hyoshiservices ; one in Tamba, one in Kawachi andone in Settsu for the Sumiyoshi services, andfour in Nara for the Kasuga services. TheDen-gaku stage was only a modified form of

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JAPANthat used for the Kagura^ one of the modifica-tions being the addition of a bridge with asteeply arched roadway on which the acrobatscommenced their feats as they emerged fromthe orchestra-room. Danced upon this stagethe Buddhist versions of the Den-gaku assumeda stateUness and a splendour not previouslyimagined. But they did not obtain more thantemporary patronage at the Imperial Court.Perhaps the favour with which they were viewedby the military rulers in Kamakura tended todiscredit them in Kyoto, but concerning thatconjecture alone is possible. At all events, the |jDen-gaku was put aside in the Imperial capital,and the Saru-gaku (monkey mime) was adoptedin its place.The traditional origin of this curiously nameddance has already been described, and the varioustheories about the derivation of the name havebeen noted. Whatever be truth as to thosepoints, it is certain that up to the time nowunder consideration, namely, the middle of thefourteenth century, the Saru-gaku was simplya comic dance, and that its character then under-went a complete change. The Buddhist monkstook it up, just as they had taken up the Den-gakuy and not only converted it into an instru-ment for propagating religious truths, but alsoemployed it as a means of obtaining funds forcharitable purposes. It is to be observed that atthis time the Buddhist priesthood had virtually

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESa monopoly of literary ability, and that such ofthe Kyoto aristocrats as might have disputed thattitle were not less profoundly imbued withBuddhist doctrine than the friars themselves.Thus the task of compiling new odes or recita-tive for dances devolved of necessity on thepriests, who, to use the words of an eminentJapanese author, " saw in the blossoms of sum-mer and the red leaves of autumn only typesof heaven's beauties ; heard in the sigh of thewind and the plash of the water only echoes ofShaka's voice ; recognised in a mother's lovefor her child only a reflection of Kwannon'sinfinite mercy, and regarded the death of awarrior on the battlefield as only a link in thegreat chain of destiny." The inevitable tendencyof such authors was strengthened by the circum-stances amid which they lived, the endless fight-ings, bloodshed, and commotions. They thoughtthat a grave and softening tone should beimparted even to the frivolities of life, and theydid thoroughly for the Saru-gaku what theyhad already done tentatively for the Den-gaku,transformed it into a religious performance,inculcating the instability of life and the vanityof all things human. The change in each casewas radical, from the spectacular acrobaticsof the original Den-gaku to the religious recita-tive of the later Kamakura performance ; andfrom the broad jests and suggestive antics of the" monkey mime '* to the stately measure, solemn

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESreached a high level of art. It is, indeed, morethan doubtful whether any other people everdeveloped such an expressiv^e vocabulary of mo-tion, such impressive eloquence of gesture.These masked dancers of the No, deprived ofthe important assistance of facial expression, andlimited to a narrow range of cadence, never-theless succeeded in investing their performancewith a character of noble dignity and profoundintensity of sentiment. Very soon the No ob-tained extraordinary vogue. With the soleexception of the Emperor himself, every greatpersonage took part in the performance ; a stagewas erected within the precincts of the Palace ;costumes of the costliest and most beautiful ma-terials were provided, and a collection of suchgarments as well as of masks and other acces-sories for the A^^, was counted an essential partof every aristocratic mansion's furniture. Bydegrees the practice of the art became a profes-sion, but princes, nobles, and high officials didnot cease to study it assiduously, and were pre-pared at any moment to organise performancesor to take part in them. It need scarcely besaid that various schools came into existence.At first, although Buddhist priests had takensuch a large share in developing the No^ Shintoshrines continued to be the principal scenes ofits performance, the dance being then a cere-mony of worship. But from the days of theAshikaga Shogun Yoshimitsu (1368 1394) it29


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JAPANunderwent popularisation, and without losingits moral character, received an extension ofmotive, becoming an adjunct of congratulatoryor commemorative occasions and even a purediversion. With this change is associated askilled performer (Yusaki) upon whom Yoshi-mitsu conferred the name Kwanami. Thisman, as well as his son Seami,^ compiled severaldramas based upon historical incidents of theKamakura epoch, though the two writers care-fully refrained from seeking materials in theevents of their own time. Buddhist priests alsocontinued to contribute to the literature of theart, and before the end of the fifteenth centurysome twenty dramas were regarded as theclassics of the No. That prince of dilettante,Yoshimasa, who has already been seen extendinglavish patronage to the tea cult, the incense cult,the landscape-garden cult and art in every form,gave a new impetus to the No by officiallydeclaring it a ceremonious accomplishment ofmilitary men. He organised the renowneddancers into four orders, and enacted that arepresentative of each must repair to Kyoto andgive a performance there once during his career.Naturally that performance became the culmi-nation of each great expert's triumph, and the*' once-in-a-life No " were conducted on a con-spicuously magnificent scale. The Taikb lovedthe No. Several of the best dramas were written^ See Appendix, note 5.

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESat his suggestion, a new school was started by-one of his protegeSy and despite his personal dis-advantages he took a place enthusiastically on theplatform. When he attained the post of Regent,the highest office within reach of a subject, herepaired to the Court and himself performed aNo dance in the presence of the Emperor.The No as here described was solemn andstately, the postures and paces as well as thedrama itself being purged of every comic ele-ment, and thus completely differentiated fromthe mimes out of which it had grown. But artdemanded that the sombreness of such representa-tions should be relieved by some lighter scenes,and to satisfy that requirement farces were com-piled for independent acting between the No.These farces {Kyogen) were essentially of a his-trionic character, the dance being omitted alto-gether, or entirely subordinated to the action ofthe piece and the dialogue. Many of themshowed not only humour but wit, and the skillof the actors was excellent. The chief and thefirst-assistant performers in the No and the Kyogenalike received the title of taiyu^ which conferredupon them the right to have the curtain of thegreen-room held up by two men for their exitsor entries, and also rendered them eligible foradmission to any society. The Kyogen may beregarded as a revival of the Saru-gaku from whichthe Nd was originally evolved. History is silentas to the author or circumstances of the revival,31


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JAPANbut since several Kyvgen composed in the Ashi-kaga era are still extant, it may fairly be concludedthat the laughter-loving element of Japanese char-acter did not long consent to the abolition of thecomic Saru-gaku.The similarity between the No performancesand the ancient Greek drama has often attractedattention. The chorus, the masked actors, thereligious tone pervading the piece, the stage inthe open air, all these features were commonto the two dramas. But a closer analogy can befound without going so far afield. The embryoof the Indian drama was a combination of songand dance at sacred festivals, just as the Kagurawas the foundation of the Japanese A^^, and thedevelopment of the art in India was by narrativerecitation and subsequently by dialogue, first sung,then spoken, just as the stages of progress in Japanwere the recitative of the " tonsured lutist " andthe " white measure-marker," followed by thesung and spoken dialogue of the No. A furtherpoint of resemblance is seen in the fact that, whilethe Japanese Kagura was founded on a mythicaldance performed by the divinities before the caveof the Sun Goddess, so the Indian natya is sup-posed to have been a dance accompanied by ges-ticulation and speech, which was performed bythe spirits and nymphs of Indra's heaven beforethe gods. Again, in the Indian drama the con-nection of the narrative was often preserved byinterpreters, whose function closely resembled that

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' in the Ashi-be concluded

Japanese char-ah-olition of the

the No performancesna has often attracted

the masked actors, thethe piece, the stage in

- e features were common. . ^ . ... '^ut a closer analogy can be

tound withouT. ^, . ^ -o far afield. The embryo' *^-^ Indian drama was a combination of song

-iunce at vSacred festivals, just as the Kagurahe foundation of the Japanese A^^, and the

' ' ' '' '*' "'- ' ''r-'-'-^ Vv-as by narrativeYOSHITSUNE'S HELMET JXJi,Of^ ; ..^XYMItMgugEfiTMMing,cu, ju.M iia the j^tages ot progress in Japan

citativc of the "tonsured lutist " andmeasure-marker," followed by the

'' " \ further

: that, whilemythical

elore the caveii is sup

Jed by ges-^eech. performed b\

.sot In heaven beforeit the Indian drama the con-ative was often preserved by

ction closely resembled that


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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESof the chorus in the Japanese NO, and both aHkebeing performed in the open courts of palaces ortemples, artificial scenery was of necessity absent,and unity of place became, therefore, an impos-sibility, nor was it considered strange that a char-acter should make journeys on the stage underthe eyes of the audience. Further, from bothdramas exhibitions of what may be called thevulgar acts of life were banished : actors did notdie in public, or eat, or sleep, or make love.Displays of that kind were relegated to the regionof the theatre proper in Japan, and were notsanctioned at all on the Indian stage. It may,perhaps, be a little forced to draw an analogybetween the dramatic languages of the two coun-tries, yet note may at least be taken of the factthat the classical phraseology invariably adoptedby the Indian dramatists was as far beyond the un-derstanding of the majority of a Hindu audienceas the language of the No was beyond the com-prehension of ordinary Japanese spectators. Ofcourse there were many differences, especiallyin the matter of construction. For whereas theIndian drama opened with a kind of prologueand closed with a prayer or benediction, and wasof necessity divided into a minimum number ofacts, the Japanese No had neither prologue norapologue, and its division, in the rare cases whendivision was resorted to, obeyed no rule but theconvenience of the action. Within the space ofeven a one-act Noy the unity of time was often con-

VOL. in. 3 -io


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JAPANspicuously neglected, but it need scarcely be saidthat the unities of time and place have lost, inmodern days, the importance they once possessedin the eyes of dramatic critics.

Considering the close relations that existed be-tween the civilisations and literatures of Japanand China, the student naturally expects to findan easily traced connection between the histrionicarts of the two countries. But comparison re-veals differences rather than affinities. When ithas been said that both arose from the union ofdance and song, their points of resemblance havebeen virtually exhausted. The singing actor, theprincipal figure of the Chinese drama, found nocounterpart in Japan ; the religious element inthe former country's art is often mere buflx)onery,whereas in the latter's it is always reverent ; therewas no chorus in China nor any open-air stage,and the Chinese never made between tragedy andcomedy the sharp distinction which the Japanesedrew. Perhaps these comparisons possess littlevalue. It may be urged, for example, that what-ever similarities seem to exist between the dra-matic art of India and that of Japan, they are atonce conclusively differentiated by the fact that,whereas the latter dealt mainly with the tragicaspects of life and appealed principally to thesentiments of pathos and pity, all fatal or tear-ful conclusions were prohibited in the former.Nevertheless the analogies certainly possess pass-ing interest.

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JAPANself as a_pilgrim friar and escaped northward to Hidehira, chief-tain of Oshu, his uncle, who had sheltered him in his early days.There he ultimately died by his own hand, when the last of hiscomrades had fallen under the swords of Yoritomo's emissaries.The drama h^re translated is based on a celebrated episode ofthe flight to Oshu. Yoritomo established barrier-guards on allthe roads leading northward, giving them orders to forbid thepassage of any pilgrim band that answered to the description ofthe fugitives, and, if possible, to apprehend them. One of theseguard-houses, at Atalca, is the scene of the drama. The gianthalberdier, Benkei, almost as celebrated in Japanese history asYoshitsune himself, devises a plan to pass the barrier. He dis-guises Yoshitsune as the baggage-bearer of the party, and, at acritical moment, disarms suspicion by beating him as though hewere a common coolie. To the barrier-guards it seems in-credible that the brilliant young nobleman, with whose exploitsthe whole empire is ringing, should be submitted to such a ter-rible indignity, and they allow the pilgrims to pass. The pro-found pathos of the notion that Benkei, who had again andagain risked his life in Yoshitsune's cause, should have been'obliged to raise his hand against the man he loved, and theshockingly sacrilegious nature of such conduct on the part of avassal towards his lord, appeal with intense force to the mindof every Japanese ; force not to be estimated unless it is re-membered that to have thrown himself upon the barrier-guardsand fallen fighting, would have been an incomparably less pain-ful and more orthodox alternative to the loyal halberdier thanthe course he adopted. It was necessary, however, to furnishto the captain of the guard some pretext for granting passageto the party, and Benkei chose a method for which he afterwardsoffered to apologise by suicide. A particularly dramatic inci-dent of the scene at the barrier is Benkei's pretence of readingfrom a sacred record, which, had the party been veritable pilgrim-priests, they must have possessed. The captain of the barriercalls for the record, and the big soldier, producing an itineraryscroll, reads some extemporised passages from it in a thunderousvoice, his coolness and presence of mind carrying him throughan ordeal where the smallest hesitation or confusion would haveinvolved death.

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESScene. 'The harrier guard-house at Ataka,

ToGASHi {Jyenawo^ whose title is Togashi-no-suke).I am Togashi. Yoritomo and Yoshitsune, havingbecome foes, and Yoritomo having learned that LordHangwan {Toshitsune^ commonly called Hangwan) andhis eleven followers, adopting the guise of pilgrim-priests, are making their way to Mutsu, has causedbarriers to be set up in all the provinces, and hasordered that all pilgrim-priests shall be rigorously-examined. I am thus charged with the duty ofarresting the passage of pilgrims at this place, and Ihave to give strict injunctions in that sense. Hothere!

Man-at-arms. At your service. Sir.Togashi. If any pilgrim-priests seek to pass to-

day, report to me.Man-at-arms. It shall be done. Sir.

{Enter a party ofpilgrim-priests.)Chorus. From traveller's vestment

Pendent bells ring notesOf pilgrim's foot-fallsAnd from road-stained sleevesPendent dew-drops presageTears of last meetings.

Chorus. Hankai ^ with tattered shieldOf stole and surplice.From Miyako wendsHis many-morned way.To northern limits.Oh weary distance !Even thought grows tired.

* See Appendix, note 6.37


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JAPANBenkei. His lordship's followers !Pilgrims. Ise no Samuro, Suruga no Jiro, Kataoka,

Masuwo, Hitachibo.Benkei. Benkei, the pilgrim pioneer.'^Pilgrims. We twelve our lord leads.Robed in unwonted

Vestment of travelPilgrim-bells dangling.Facing the far north,Through dew and hoar-frostFare we, if haplyThere, mid the white snows.Some ray of spring's sunWe may find shining.

Chorus, The second month's midnightsAre counted by ten whenThey wend from Myako.Coming or going.Each alike parting,Witting or ignorant,Equally reaching^The hills of Osaka,Shrouded in spring's haze,Fairest at farewell.To Kaizu-no-uraTheir wave-way the boats wend.Softly the dawning dayGlints on the newly greenedReeds of Arachi.Now Kehi's sacred pines,Ringing the red faneOn Konome's summit,Rise from the lake's breast.And yet more distant.

1 See Appendix, note 7. ^ See Appendix, note 8.38


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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESMount ItatoriTrodden by woodmen.^Shallow-streamed Asasuzu;^Mikuni's haven ;And Shinowara, whereLapping the reeds' feet,Salt wavelets ripple.Till at AtakaSpring's early blossomsLower meek heads toTheir foe, the wind's onset.'

YosHiTSUNE.* Benkei !Benkei. At your service, my lord.YosHiTsuNE. Did you hear what those travellers

said just now ?Benkei. No, my lord, I did not hear anything.YosHiTSUNE. They said that a new barrier-guard

has been set at Ataka, and that pilgrims attemptingto pass are subjected to rigorous examination.

Benkei. What incredible ill-fortune ! They musthave set a guard because they heard of your lordship'sjourney. This is of the gravest import. Let us takecounsel here.The other Pilgrims. It does not seem to us thatthe case is so serious. We have only to cut a way forour lord's passage.

Benkei. A moment ! It is true, as you say, thatwe might easily force this one barrier. But we have toconsider our lord's subsequent movements. Everyeffort must be made, in my opinion, to avoid dis-turbance.

YosHiTsuNE. I trust the matter to your manage-ment, Benkei.^ See Appendix, note 9. * See Appendix, note 10.^ See Appendix, note 11. * See Appendix,' note 12.39


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JAPANBenkei. I accept the trust, my lord. An idea

occurs to me. We others have all the semblanceof poor pilgrims, but unless you are further disguised,we cannot hope to escape notice. With your pardonI would suggest that you doff your pilgrim's robe,take that baggage-bearer's pack on your back, pull yourhat far over your face, and follow us at a little dis-tance, simulating extreme weariness. You will scarcelybe recognised if you take these precautions.

YosHiTSUNE. It is wisely said. Remove this robe then.Benkei. At your service, my lord. Here, baggage-

bearer !Baggage-bearer. At your service, Sir.Benkei. Bring your pack here.Baggage-bearer. It is here, Sir.Benkei. A sacrilege, in truth, that your pack should

be placed on my lord's shoulders. Now go forward,and see how things fare at the barrier. Bring a truereport whether they are really subjecting pilgrims toclose scrutiny.

Baggage-bearer. I obey.Benkei. My lord, we may now go forward. Aye !

It is well said that the purple flower, wherever it beplanted, cannot be hidden.

Chorus. Surely his robe changedFor coarsest of raiment.His lordly gait alteredTo lowly churl's slouching,No heed will be paid toThis humble-miened toiler.

Benkei. Aye, and the baggage-pack YosHiTSUNE. Yoshitsune has shouldered.

Chorus. Shelter to give toThe borne not the bearer,A common churl's rain-cape !40


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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESYosHiTSUNE. His face he conceals withA hat of wreathed rushes ;

Chorus. Leans on an iron staff;YosHiTSUNE. Wears drudge's pattens ;

Chorus. And with a halting gaitTramps slowly onward,A spectacle pitiful.Benkei. Follow in our rear, my lord. Now, are

all ready ?Pilgrims. We are ready.Man-at-arms {at the barrier). Sir, a number of pil-

grims seek passage.ToGASHi. What say you ? Pilgrims seeking pas-

sage ? Aye, so it is. Pilgrims, this is a barrier.Benkei. Sir, we are pilgrims who have been sent to

travel through the country seeking aid for the re-build-ing of Todaiji ^ in Nara. We are instructed to visit thenorthern circuit, and have thus reached this place. Wepray your contribution.

ToGASHi. You do well. I will contribute. Butthis barrier all save pilgrims may pass.

Benkei. Sir, the reason ?ToGASHi. The reason! Yoritomo and Yoshitsune

have become enemies, and it has been reported to mylord Yoritomo that Lord Hangwan (Yoshitsune), witheleven followers disguised as pilgrims, is on his waynorthward to seek the assistance of Hidehira of Mutsu.Orders have therefore been issued that barriers shall beset up in all the provinces and pilgrim-friars rigorouslyscrutinised. This barrier is in my charge : pilgrimscannot pass. Above all, a band so numerous as yours.Not one of you can have passage.^ See Appendix, note 13. 41


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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESPilgrims. Here without interval.Benkei. Be it not doubted. (All together rapidly rub-

bing their rosaries. Om mani padme hum!)ToGASHi. It is well done! I gather then that youexhort men to contribute to the re-building of Todaijiin Nara. Presumably you carry with you the pro-spectus of the temple. I desire to hear it read.

Benkei. Is it your wish to hear the prospectus read?ToGASHi. Assuredly.Benkei. I obey. Naturally we have the prospectus.

{He takes from the valise a scroll in which correspondenceis inscribed, and pretending it to be the prospectus, reads ina stentorian voice:) "After the autumnal moon of theGreat Teacher (Shaka) set in the clouds of Nirvana,there remained no man capable of rousing the livingand the dead from the long dream in which they weresunk. Then, in mid antiquity, the Mikado, whosename was reverentially called the Emperor Shomu, beingseparated from his best beloved and powerless to subduehis yearnings, the round tears, welling, fell like stringsof pearls from his eyes, and turning into the three paths,he erected a statue of Birushana. Now ShunjoboChogen, grieving that the image should not have afane, travelled throughout the land seeking alms, andpromising that if any gave even a single sheet of paperor so much as half a coin, he should enjoy limitlesshappiness here, and sit hereafter upon the thousandpetalled lotus." (As Benkei concludes his reading in avoice that rises reverberating to the sky, the guards at thebarrier all bow their heads in awe.)

ToGASHi. Pass speedily.Benkei. We obey. ('They pass the barrier.)Man-at-arms. Sir, Sir, Lord Hangwan is passing.ToGASHi. How? Halt there, baggage-bearer !Pilgrims. How now! They suspect our lord.

The crisis 1 The crisis ! (They all turn back.)43


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JAPANBenkei. Hold ! Hold ! Let not haste misdirect

you. Why is our baggage-bearer seized?ToGASHi. I propose to detain him.Benkei. For what reason ?ToGASHi. He is said to resemble a certain man.

Stop him thereBenkei. A man resemble a man! What then?

That is not strange. Whom does he resemble ?ToGASHi. He is said to resemble Yoshitsune. I

shall detain him for examination.Benkei. Incredible ! Wretched coolie with your

likeness to Yoshitsune ! A life-time's not long enoughto be angry with you. We have to reach Noto beforesunset, and you with your light load lag behind excitingpeople's suspicions ! You rascal ! I '11 teach you a les-son. {Raises his pilgrim s iron staffand beatsYosuiTSVn^unmercifully.) No one would trouble himself whethersuch a fellow passed or did not pass had you notsneaked along like a thief.

Chorus. Why lay thy hand to sword and sabrefor the sake of a common baggage-bearer ? Whencethis perturbation ? Is it terror ? As the elevenpilgrims, their trenchant blades half-drawn, stride for-ward like one man, their aspect might affright even ademon

ToGASHi. It was a mistake. Pass then; pass.(Yoshitsune passes rapidly.)

Benkei. Now that we have left that barrier behind,let us halt here a moment. Draw near all of you.What am I to say? In this extremity I have beenguilty of a monstrous act. When my lord's fortune isat this low ebb that Benkei should have struck himthe thought overwhelms me with shame !

Yoshitsune. You imagine that I resent it, BenkeiI tell you it was an inspiration. It was not the act otan ordinary mortal. I am persuaded that Heaven is

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JAPANOr o'er Akashi's dunes where ringsThe boom of evening billow thereIn three brief years a mighty foeBroken and crushed. Of these leal deedsWhat guerdon now ? Oh ! Fate, what sinsOf previous life are punished thus!The tide of fortune at its heightBears fullest freight of broken hopes.Such is the world's sad lesson ! ButTo know makes not to be resigned.The soldier's spirit, straight and fair.As stringless bow of Azusa,Spurns the foul thought that calumnyIts crooked way should win unchecked ;^As mists born in the far-off southMake snow clouds in the northern sky,And in the drifts brave men are choked.Are there no gods to whom we pray ?Oh ! World of misery and spite !Oh ! World of misery and spite 1

(The scene here returns to the barrier guard-house^ToGASHi. Ho, there !Man-at-arms. At your service, Sir.ToGASHi. The rough usage those pilgrim-friars

received at our hands irks me. I would follow themand exchange a cup of regret. Go you ahead, and bidthem wait.Man-at-arms. I obey, Sir. {To the pilgrims whomhe has followed) Ho, Sirs ! I am ordered to expressregret for the rude treatment you received at thebarrier, and to say that the Captain of the Guardis coming to offer you a cup o^ sake.

Benkei. Are we then to meet his honour again ?* See Appendix, note 17.

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESMan-at-arms. 'Tis so, Sir.Benk-EI. Truly, truly ! {aside.) I understand. This

cup of kindness is to wash away our caution ! Let itbut increase our vigilance !Chorus. Show no surprise ! By Benkei warned,

Under the shadow of the hillIn watchful round each pilgrim sits,To drink the cup of compliment.

Benkei. Joy! In the mountain stream.^Chorus. Joy ! In the mountain stream

Floating the wine-cup.Caught by the current, itSpins down the eddies.Waving sleeves, come, come

!

Tread we a measure.Erstwhile at HiyeizanBenkei an acolyte,^Skilled in the sacred dance." Song of the water-fall,Echoed from rock to rock,Sweeter no melody." ^

Benkei. I have well drunk. Let me fill your cup.ToGASHi. Then I will pledge you. Pray you,

dance a measure.Benkei. At your service.Chorus. " Song of the water-fall " Benkei [singing and dancing). " Song of the water-

fall " Chorus. " Song of the water-fall

Plash plash and babble IGurgle and drip drop ! "

^ See Appendix, note l8. * See Appendix, note 19.* See Appendix, note 20.

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Chapter IIREFINEMENTS AND PASTIMES OFTHE MILITART EPOCH [Continued).THE Kyogen^ or farces, with which thesolemnity of the No was reheved, areoften very comical, but their humour

does not always appeal to foreign read-ers. A great many were composed during theMilitary epoch, and it is notable that, like theNo proper, not one of them contains anythingopposed to the canons of propriety. The samecannot be said of early Japanese prose literature,for though the diction is graceful and the stylerefined, subjects are sometimes introduced thatare distinctly indelicate. It must not be sup-posed, however, that early and mediaeval Japaneseliterature was worse in this respect than contem-porary European writings. On the whole, it wasbetter. Still freedom from the taint of immoralitycannot be claimed for it ; whereas in the realms offarce and of the drama a very strict rule seems tohave been prescribed and observed. The experi-ence of other nations would lead us to expect thatin this branch of literature above all others realismwould sometimes degenerate into immodesty andVOL. III. 4 4^


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JAPANhumour into obscenity. But such is not thecase in Japanese dramas or farces. The formerdeal solely with the higher sentiments, seekingtheir subjects among instances of signal bravery,heroic devotion, loyal piety, and pitiful misfor-tunes ; the latter take their material from theevery-day life of the people, but avoid all itserotic and indecorous aspects. This remarkapplies only to No and Nd-Kydgen, not to thefarces and comedies represented on the boards ofthe theatre in later times. Concerning theselatter no such favourable verdict can be passed.But the vulgar theatre and the aristocratic Noand Nd-Kydgen remained always distinct. Thetheatre, indeed, in the ordinary sense of the term,had not come into existence in the age now underconsideration : it was a creation of subsequenteras, as will presently be shown. Common folksin the Military epoch had no opportunity ofwitnessing a histrionic performance unless a dramaof the No type was put upon one of the religiousstages for purposes of charity, and even thena certain measure of selection was applied to theaudience. The drama {No) and its associatedfarce (Kydgeri) were essentially a pastime of theupper classes, and to that reason, perhaps, is tobe chiefly attributed their authors' obedience tothe rules of pudicity. The plots were nevercomplicated. A skinflint leaves his servants incharge of a jar of sugar, telling them that it ispoison. They eat it in his absence, and then

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JAPANTHE THREE CRIPPLES

A FARCE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY{Enter Householder.)

Householder. I am a person of this neighbourhood.For reasons of my own I am going to support someinfirm folks. I'll put up a placard. {Hasshi^ hasshinoise of nailing up placard^ That 's excellent. \Eicit.

{Enter Blindman.)Blindman. I 'm a gambler of this neighbourhood.

I 've had a terrible run of bad luck lately and lost allmy money. Even my household furniture has gone.I don't see any way to get a living, but I hear that aplacard has been put up promising that infirm folksshall be supported. I have n't any natural infirmity,but as people are wont to say that the scabbards haveslipped off my eyes, my sight is so sharp, I 'm going tomake a radical change and be blind for a time. I 'vegot myself up for the purpose. Now to hurry to theplace. {En route.) Well! Well! It would have beenbetter if I 'd stopped when every one warned me ; butI kept thinking, I '11 get even this time, I '11 winback this time, and so I 've come to a pretty plightHulloa ! Here 's the place. Now to be a blindman.Within there ! Within there ! {calling at the gate.)

Householder. Somebody outside. Who's there?Blindman. Beg pardon. I 'm a blindman come

on account of the placard posted up.Householder. What do you say? A blindmancome on account of the placard ? I '11 support you, byall means. Come in.

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESBlindman. Thank you, Sir. With your permis-

sion. {Goes inside^ and the door is closed.){Enter Cripple.)

Cripple. I 'm a famous gentleman at large belong-ing to this neighbourhood. Keeping company withthose " boys " and playing games with them, I 've lostall my money and my house and property into the bar-gain. I don't see my way to get a living, but I hearthat a rich fellow over there has put up a placard prom-ising that infirm folks shall be supported. I have n'tany natural infirmity, but as I 'm particularly strong inthe legs, I 'm going to make a radical change and be acripple for the time. Now to hurry to the place. {Enroute.) Well ! Well ! What an idiot I 've been ! Ifound it so amusing, so amusing ; and now I 've cometo this ! But repentance is of no use. Well, here I am !Now to be a regular cripple. Within there ! Withinthere ! {calling at the gate.)

Householder. Somebody outside. Who's there?Cripple. It's I; a cripple come on account of the

placard posted up.Householder, What's that? A cripple come on

account of the placard? Why, you are quite young.How sad ! I '11 support you, by all means. Come in.Cripple. Thank you, Sir. With your permission.

{Goes in, and the door is closed.){Enter a Mute.)

Mute. I 'm a well-known gambler of this neighbour-hood. Keeping company with idle fellows of late andplaying games, I 've had a terrible run of bad luck, andlost not only all my money but even my wife's clothesinto the bargain. I don't see any way of supportingmyself, but I hear that a rich fellow over there has put


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JAPANup a placard promising that infirm folks shall be sup-ported. It's true I haven't any natural infirmity, butas people are in the habit of saying that my tongue isparticularly sharp, I 'm going to make a radical changeand be a mute for a time. I 've come provided withthe implements. Now to hurry to the place. This istruly a case of the old saying, " Heaven does n't leavepeople to die." I 've only to go over there and I shallget food. Hulloa ! Here 's the place. Now to be amute. Mutes carry two bits of bamboo like these andstrike them together thus Wa-a-a ! Wa-a-a !

Householder. Hulloa! There's a strange noiseoutside. What can it be! Who's there?Mute. Wa-a-a!

Householder. A mute, eh?Mute. Wa-a-aHouseholder. I '11 support you. But have n't you

any accomplishment ?Mute {striking the attitude of an archer). Wa-a-aHouseholder. You can shoot with a bow, can you?Mute. Wa-a-a!Householder. Any other accomplishment?Mute {striking a spearman s attitude). Wa-a-a!Householder. You can use a spear, can you?Why, you 're a very serviceable fellow. I '11 give you

plenty to eat.Mute. Oh, thank {Remembers that he is a mute^covers his mouthy and begins to move away.)

Householder. What's this? A mute speaking!However, the proverb says " The speech of a mute is anearnest of good fortune." I think I '11 support him.Hi ! Hi! I '11 support you. Come in here.Mute. Wa-a-a!

Householder. Put yourself there.Mute. Wa-a-a!Householder {soliloquising). Come, come ! I 've54


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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESwhat a lot of jars ! Which shall we go for ? I '11 takethe lid off this. It looks like capital sake {rice-wine).I '11 pour out for you. Drink away ! Drink away !The Other Two. Pour out. Now then 1 Ha,ha ! capital wine. Have a drink yourself, mute.Mute. Come, shall I give you a song?The Other Two. Good, good !The Three {together). Zaranza, zaranza {soundsmade to accompany a song).

Blindman. Then I '11 do the pouring out.Mute. Full enough ! Full enough ! Have a drink,Blindman. {Sings.)

Spring again; buds and basking;Kyomizu, Kyomizu !Ask and get, all 's for askingLove among the leaves.

{All sing together.)

Mute. Ha, ha ! A fine song, is n't it ? The bottle 'swith me. Fill up. Now, Blindman, give us a littledance.

Blindman. Anything for sport! Shall I dance?The Other Two. Good, good !Blindman. Sing, then.The Other Two. We 're with you.Blindman {sings).

Down the hill a friar slim,At his waist a conch-shell.See his hands the beads tellShall I ask across the fence ?Whither, friar, and from whence.Prythee, priest so prim?

The Other Two. Fine ! Zaranza^ zaranza !Mute. Another drink. Come, Cripple, can't youdance a step?

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESThe italicised portions represent the coupled

lines. It would seem that literature in this formhad a special charm for the smimrai^ and that hefound it sufficiently interesting to occupy his briefintervals of leisure even on campaign. Historytells of a military noble, Miyoshi, who attendeda renka party where the theme to be cappedwas

Soft eularia andRushes in green company.

While the convives sat searching for an aptcouplet, a letter was handed to Miyoshi. Heread it, and after a moment's thought composedthese lines,

Shallow grows the swampChanging slowly to a field.

The couplet having been received with ac-claim, Miyoshi said quietly : ** This letter bringsme news that my troops have been defeatedand that my brother Saneyoshi was killed in thefight. Our verse, then, is the last gift I shallreceive in my lifetime." Thereupon he wentout and fell in battle.In the Military epoch there was constantdisplay of a satirical habit of mind, which hasalways marked the Japanese people, and is atleast as strong to-day as it ever was. The Chi-nese language, and the Japanese in a lesser degree,lend themselves readily to a species of ironywhich owes its force almost entirely to plays6i


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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESand appropriated their estates, he found a coup-let placarded throughout his camp :

One's liege lord to slay,One's son-in-law to slaughter,Seems to be the vogueIn Mino of Owari.

" Mi-no-owari " has also the significance of" fate," or " the end of all things," and in thispunning allusion is to be found the whole pointof the verse.

It may almost be said that in the absence ofa newspaper press public opinion found in thecomposition of anonymous verselets a vehiclefor expressing itself. They did not all derivetheir interest solely from jeu-de-mots. Many werepolitical criticisms undisfigured by any such verbaldevices, political, that is to say, in the senseattaching to the term among men who gave nothought to such matters as popular representation,forms of government or party platforms, sincethey had only one orthodox, though often vio-lated, code of action, fealty to a liege lord ; onlyone ideal of success, the assertion of militaryprowess, and only one object of pursuit, theassertion of family interests.When Kiyomori created a social panic by re~moving the capital from Kyoto, with all its clas-sical associations and sensuous delights, to thebleak, uninteresting, and vulgarly new Fukuhara,an indignant critic set up by the wayside a plac-63


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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESdances throughout the whole of the seventhmonth (modern August) in the capital and itsvicinity. At first these were confined to thehigher classes, brilliancy and richness of cos-tume being an essential. But by degrees thecircle vv^idened, and in the days when OdaNobunaga, the Tatko, and Tokugawa lyeyasuwere engaged in restoring peace and order, au-tumn dances began to be organised by the mer-cantile, manufacturing, and agricultural orders,aristocrats taking the place of spectators. Theseand other popular dances will be referred to ina future chapter.

Wrestling was a favourite exercise of the Japan-ese samurai from the earliest time. When firstheard of historically, two decades before the com-mencement of the Christian era, it presents itselfsimply as the art of applying one's strength tothe best advantage for the destruction of anenemy. There were no rules, no restrictions, novetoes ; only devices. Kicking, striking, grip-ping anywhere and anyhow ; attacking the mostvital parts of the body all were permissible.A man sought only to kill his adversary, and if,after throwing him, he could break bones orribs by stamping, or kicking, or pounding withthe knees, success was complete. The earliesthistorical wrestler served his opponent in thatmanner. One of the Emperor Suinin's (b. c.2970 A. D.) Palace guards, Tayema no Kehaya,or '* Tayema the quick-kicker," had such thews

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JAPANeschewed it, and the military men throughoutthe provinces took it up, treating it as one of theexercises that a soldier should practise. There-after it was classed with the dances and mimeticdramas performed at shrines and temples in hon-our of the deities and to attract monetary contri-butions, and Kanjin-zii?no, or wrestling displaysfor charitable purposes, became one of the regularperformances of the time. The professionalwrestler made his appearance at this stage, andth.Q yose-zu?no, or " collection of wrestlers," is forthe first time mentioned. By yose-ziimo^ as thenpractised, is to be understood a kind of wrestlingin which a champion set up a booth and chal-lenged all comers, meeting them one after anotheruntil he was ousted from the championship orconfirmed in it. Such a method suited the moodof the Military epoch, and was so zealouslypatronised by the great captains, Oda Nobunagaand Hideyoshi (the Taiko)^ that the sarnurai ofthe sixteenth century paid almost as much atten-tion to wrestling as to archery or swordsmanship.Under the Tokugawa Regents, who had theircourt in Yedo, the sport was not less popular.In the year 1630 an athlete, Akashi Shiganosuke,opened lists at Yotsu-ya in that city, and for sixdays held his own against the strongest men ofthe time. Shiganosuke is as famous in Japanto-day as though he had been an illustriousscholar or a great legislator. But some fiercequarrels broke out among the sajnurai who

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JAPANbow commemorates the fact that Oda Nobunagaconferred that weapon upon Miai Ganyemon, whoworsted all opponents on the occasion (i 570 a. d.)of a great wrestling-match organised by Nobu-naga's order at Joraku-ji in Omi. After thechampion an attendant enters bearing a sword,in token of the fact that Tokugawa lyeyasu hon-oured the strongest wrestler of his era by a giftof a sword, the highest distinction that can beconferred even on a soldier. The championwears a magnificently embroidered silk apron,above which the yoko-zuna (silk belt) is knotted.Having solemnly thrown his limbs into certainordered postures, he takes the bow and describessome picturesque but meaningless curves with it.The old-fashioned title of Hote-yaku is no longeremployed. The premier champion is calledToko-zu?ia ; the two champions of the East andWest are known as 0-zeki ; the assistant cham-pions are termed Seki-waki^ and the second assist-ant champions have the curious and unexplainedname of Kofnusubi (little knot) . The O-zeki^ likethe Toko-zu7ia^ are privileged to enter the ring andposture before the audience, but in their case itis a divided glory, for they make their entreetogether.The Japanese wrestler is generally a man offine stature and grand muscular development.His proportions difi^er so greatly from those ofthe generality of his countrymen, that by someobservers he has been supposed to belong to a

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REFINEMENTS AND PASTIMESdistinct race. But there is no basis for such atheory. Among the rural and sea-coast popula-tion of Japan men of splendid physique are tobe found. The wrestler is one of these. Thereis no mystery about his origin. A country ladgifted with conspicuously fine thews conceivesthe ambition of becoming a wrestler, and makesapplication to one of the old masters, who takeshim as a pupil, supporting him during his periodof training, which is long and arduous. At last,if he shows sufficient aptitude, his name is placedon the roll of wrestlers, and he makes his debutin the ring at the Yeko-in in Tokyo. TheYeko-in is a temple where were buried, in 1657,the charred and unidentifiable remains of an im-mense multitude of people tradition says overa hundred thousand v/ho perished in one ofthe stupendous conflagrations by which that cityhas been periodically visited. Funds to procurethe performance of Buddhist rites for the soulsof these unfortunates were collected, accordingto mediaeval custom, by performances of dances,mimes, and wrestling, and from that time theplace became the wrestlers' metropolitan circus.Twice every y

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