breath management
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Breath Management Terminology
How Far Have We Come?
The Problem
Breath m anagementcoordinating,
training, and refining breathing has
been an area of disagreement among
teachers. A variety of terms and
descriptions are used in teaching
breathin g
and in pedagogical texts.
The potential for confusion
is great, as there is no
standard terminology.
Noted pedagogues have
alluded to this problem for
decades. Miller indicated
that breathing is an area of
pedagogical controversy
1)ozahl
(1977 ,p.xv). Fields (1947)
stated that commentary about breathing
for singing is diversified and
fragmentary (p.94) and also pointed
toward the need for scientific
organization of the subject, indicating
that authorities disagree on many
fundamental issues, basic teaching
concepts are not clearly defined,
conflicting and ambiguous
terminologies exist
(pp.
4-5).
Pedagogu es have pointed to the
controversy between scientific and
empirical methods of teaching voice
(Jorgensen, 1980; Fields, 1972; Hisey,
1970 ; W ohlmann, 195 3). Texts from the
turn of the century show differences
between scientific and empirical
teaching in approaches to b reathing.
F{isey (1 970 ) traced this difference to the
writings of Garcia and F. Lamperti. This
controversy has extended into more
recent times:
Support the tone is another bit of
ludicrous advice. To support a
material substanc e which is at rest is
a simple matter, but tone is not
material and w ill cease if brought to
rest. In every unskillful act the mind
overestimates the energy required.
That is why propulsive ideas are
destructive to correct tone
production. Every mental change
has in its twin bodily change and the
singers (sic) every thought tends to
realize itself in action;
therefore propulsive
concepts overload m uscles
and develop strains, pulls,
and tensions (McLean,
1951,p. 15).
Despite McLean's
commentary, recent texts
(Stanton,1983 ; Lindsley,1985 )
tillen Freed
se the term
support Miller
(1986), w hile using the term
breath
m a n a g e m e n t
and advising breath-
pacing versus more support (p.37),
titled his chapter on breathing The
Supported Singing Voice. Gregg (19 90)
indicated that use of the term
support,
without definition and relationship to
muscular balance w ith the larynx, can
cause undesirable abdom inal muscular
rigidity
(p.39).
This continued
controversy suggests that further
examination of breath management
terminology is warranted.
Purpose
The purpose w as to investigate
and compare de finitions and descrip-
tions of primary terms for teaching
breathing in two periods of American
voice pedagogy.
Research Questions
1. W hat are the similarities and
differences in breathing peda gogy
between the early 19 00s and the
contemporary period? Are there
terms which are consistent between
these periods?
2
W hat are the problems in
developing a standard terminology
for teaching breathing in singing?
3
How do texts, both recent and
historical, define breathing for
singing?
4
Are any terms preferred over
others and if so, are there reason s for
this preference?
5
Is there greater or less
standardization in terminology in
current pedagogy as comp ared to the
early period?
Definition of Terms
Textbooks were defined as method
books, such as those which might be
used to teach the individual student or
voice class, and books that might be
used for pedagog ical study or reference.
V ocal pedagogy is
defined as solo voice
pedagogy. The term
breathing refers to
the breathing process for singing.
Delimitations
This study examined texts published
in the U.S. 1970 -199 0 for current
terminology, and texts pub lished in the
U.S. from 190 0-19 10 for the historical
perspective, and could include works
first published in Europe and
subsequently published in the U .S.
during these periods. Subsequent
editions published within the periods
investigated were included, even if the
original work was pu blished prior to the
period.
Related Literature
Vocal terminology is a newer area of
research, although the use of terms to
define vocal concepts, including
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breathing, has a historical basis. A few
pedagogues (McClean, 1951; Van den
Berg & V ennard, 1959; Jorgensen, 1980;
Titze 1986a, 1986b) have called for
standardization of vocal terminology.
Otherwise, the literature indicates
varied and divergent opinion regarding
breathing terminology.
Reid s A Dictionary of Vocal
Terminology
(1983) is the most
comprehe nsive study of terminology.
Reid defines the following terms related
to breathing: (a)
breath
(which should
never be confused w ith the mechanics of
breathing ), (b)
breath capacity, (c) breath
compression,
(d)
breath consciousness,
e )
breath control,
(f)
breath expulsion,
g )
breath management,
(h) breath pressure
theory, (i) breath support,
and (j)
breathing.
The discussion of breathing includes
types of breathing: (a)
abdominal
o r
diaphragmatic;
(b)
anxious; (c) auxiliary;
(d)
back;
(e) belly
(similar to
abdominal,
but with slightly more emphasis on
protrusion); (f)
clavicular,
(g)
costal; h )
forced; (i) intercostal; (j) nose;
(k)
prone; (I)
shallow;
(m) silent;
and (n)
sustained.
Reid
also defines and discusses: (a) breathing
and em otion, and (b) breathing
exercises. Other related terms, such as
a) natural breathing,
(b)
appoggiare la voce,
and (c)
gesture of inhalation, appear in
Reid's
Dictionary.
Thus, Reid has
indicated that there are m any terms and
concepts of breathing. Reid's compre-
hensive analysis was his own and no t
without bias, he freely admitted,
al though he did much research to
comp ile these terms. Despite this, he did
not indicate a m ethod for his analysis.
Thus, his analysis may not be the only
approach.
Miller
( 1 9 77) undertook an
observational study comparing four
national schoolsItalian, Germ an,
French, and Englishin which he
described the national approaches he
discovered. M iller 's preferred term w as
breath manageme nt techniques, a
term Reid barely addressed. M iller
discussed management by descr ibing
physical function and pedagogical
principles, using terminology in the
language of each school. According to
Miller, elements of the European schools
are represented in American voice
pedagogy: There is no American
national school of singing because
teachers trained in each of the national
vocal traditions have continued to go
their diverse ways; within American
pedagogy there is less unity of approach
than in any of the m ajor countries of
We stern Europe (M iller,
19 77, p.201 ).
Fields (1947 )
examined books and
articles in Ame rican pedagogy from
1927 - 1942,
comparing breathing
concepts and directives for breathing.
His preference was for the term
breath
control.
In a study modeled on that of
Fields, Burgin
(1973)
summarized
concepts from the time of Fields's study
to circa
197 0 .
Monahan s (197 8)
study
was similar, but was international and
covered the period from
1777-1927.
Y e t
Monahan selected onl
y
100 works from
approximately
7 50
in this period, and
American books were included with
those from other countries, so a view of
American pedagogy is not represented,
unlike the studies of Fields and B urgin.
Mo nahan's conclusions are similar,
however: There is a w ide variety of
terminology and pedagogy of breathing.
Nonhistorical studies are also related.
Swank
( 1 9 8 4) ,
using an experimental
design in which sung tones were
compared with different breathing
directives, found that c hoice of
terminology can mak e a dif ference in
technique. Spifiane (1989), using a
modified Delphi (survey-resurvey)
technique, found that teachers use m any
ways to teach breathing and disagree
about wh at are good directives. Ninety-
three directives were generated in
Spillane's original survey, indicating the
diversity of directives currently used.
There w as also much variety in the top
20
directives chosen. A survey study on
training the m ale high voice also
showed diversity in breathing
terminology (Johnstone, 1991).
The literature on breathing
terminology suggests the following:
1.
There is controversy in the num ber
of approaches and terms used to teach
breathing.
2.
Differences in terminology used to
teach breathing are clearly evident.
3.
Some believe that standardized
terminology is important; some believe
it is less important.
4.
Some researchers believe that
clarification of terms is necessary.
5. Some researchers have found that
choice of breathing terminology affects
vocal production.
ethod
M aterials
Texts chosen from the recent period
received favorable review in
T h e N A T S
Bulletin
or
T h e N A T S Journal and are
marked in the references by a bullet(.) .
Historical tests investigated depended
upon av ailability and are marke d in the
preferences by an asterisk(*).
Procedure
Texts were examined for terms, key
words, and descriptions of breathing
used consistently throughout the text,
using a historical-qualitative a pproach.
Emphasis was upon internal consistency
and content analysis. Terms and
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DON ID FREEDJ
definitions
w r
compared and
summ arized, and conclusions drawn.
Data A nalysis
Folders were constructed containing
photocopied pages of m aterial
describing breathing. Annotations were
made indicating the use of a key term
and its related concepts. Key terms,
concepts, and relevant quotes were
noted. A primary term was chosen first
based upon frequency; if a term could
not be determined as primary because of
frequency, headings were used. Folders
were compared and comm on areas
determined. Then folders were re-
exam ined for congruent or divergent
definitions or descriptions of terms.
Tables were constructed indicating
frequency of a primary term's use and a
listing of comm only held concepts.
RESULTS
1900-1910: BR EA TH
ONTROL
THE CENTR L TERM
Forty-four sources were identified
from 1900-1910. Thirty-five (80%) were
available for examinations.
Control
according to some, is a
contradictory term in that it does not
always produce vocal freedom in the
student: . . . it is the effort to control
breath which is productive of much of
the want of freedom that so disturbs the
student (M anchester, 1907 , p.13).
Despite this, the favored term in turn-of-
the-century Am erica was
breath control
as indicated in Table 1. General areas of
agreement about control are also
presented in Table 1.
Breath control's main descriptors
included: (a) muscles used, (b) effort, (c)
rigidity versus flexibility, (d) efficiency
versus capacity, (e) control and nature,
f
automatic versus conscious control,
(g )
sources in which control wa s not the
primary term, and finally, (h) a source
which was anti-control.
Breath control in the early 190 0s was
discussed in terms of respiratory
mu scles. This included the use of one
muscle as the center of control, two or
three mu scles, or points, as centers of
control, and a m ore holistic app roach.
There were varied descriptions of
control in terms of wh ich muscles are
active in breath managem ent.
There were also those wh o believed
that studying breathing p hysiology w as
not important, and thus mentioned no
muscles as being im portant. Powell
(1905 , p.7) wrote of the evil of vocal
physiology :
I spent years in trying to hold down
the back of my tongue, and more
years in studying diaphragmatic and
abdominal breathing. Both resulted
in serious inflamm ation of the abused
organs. Will the mastication of your
food be more thoroughly
accomplished by a knowledge of the
position of the m uscles when the
teeth close upon the food?
contrast: The lungs and diaphragm and
the whole breathing apparatus must be
understood, because the foundation of
singing is breathing and breath c ontrol.
However, Tetrazzini offered no
descriptions nor anatomical diagrams.
This was also the case with Miller (1910).
A relative balance exists between
sources which discussed phy siology and
those which addressed the subject
sparsely or not at all.
One Center of Control
The function of the diaphragm a s a
nonpaired muscle often has been
discussed, both correctly and
incorrectly. For some, it was the only
important muscle (Girard, 1909;
Clippinger, 1910). In contrast, Heinrich
(191 0) advised holding out the rib
mu scles. Other single muscle definitions
of control were more unusual: The
breath should therefore be controlled at
the lower end of the trach ea, by the
bronchial tubes, and not by the lips of
(N=35)
Frequencies
BreathControl..........................................................................................21
BreathSupport...........................................................................................1
BreathManagement..................................................................................2
App oggio....................................................................................................1
Vocalized Brea th ........................................................................................ I
Inspira tion-E xpira tion .............................................................................. I
R espiratio n.................................................................................................3
NoCentral Term........................................................................................3
Anti-C ontrol...............................................................................................
Genera l reas of greemen t
Deep Breath
Silent and E ffortless Breath
Physical Exercise to Increase Breathing E fficiency
Central Importance of B reath and Breathing Pedagogy for C ontrol
Steady Pressure/ Flow of Breath
Breathe Through the Nose (M ore Efficient; Expansion)
Clavicular Breathing to Be Avoided
Exercises for Training the Breath (with and without vocalization)
Expanded or L ifted Chest
TABLE I
Frequencies of M ajor Term s and G eneral Areas of Ag reement in Am erican Voice Ped agogy
T e x b o o k s
1 9 0 0 1 9 1 0
Control Def ined in Muscular Term s
etrazzim (1909, p.8) offered a
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the glottis (Broekhoven, 1908, p.' )) . Lunn
(1900) and Mye r (1903) identified a
double valve in the larynx as the source
of control.
More than One enter
o f
ontrol
One pedagogue advoca ted the
use o f
two muscle groupsthe diaphragm and
the intercostals (Hulbert, 1903).
However, a majori ty recommended the
use of three mu scle groups in brea th
control, although not all were in
agreement . Most of ten suggested were
the abdom inals, intercostals (rib), and the
diaphragm (Lehmann, 1902; James, 1903;
Aikin, 1910, Henderson 1906;
Manchester, 1907; M iller, 1910). Russell
(1904a, b, c; 1907) and My er (1903), while
advocat ing the use of abdominal
/diaphragmatic/ intercostal breathing,
took a more holistic approach: . . the
body must be t ra ined to a condi t ion of
automa tic action, which throws the effort
of singing upon the muscles surrounding
the lower thorax, relieving the throat of
all strain (Russell, 1904b, p.11). Expan d
the entire body in a f lexible, elastic
manner. This will bring into action every
muscle of the body, and apply st rength
and supp ort to the voice, for, as we hav e
found, there is no strength correctly
appl ied except through r ight movement
(Myer, 1903, p. 58).
Balance of Muscles Forces
Implicit in the use of muscle grou ps is
balance, also referred to as equ ilibrium or
opposing forces. Russe ll 's (1904b)
discussion of control referred to
equipoise: Buoy ancy is the perfection of
physical equipoise; there is in i t no
interfering muscular tension; every fibre
of the body is ac t ive
(p.
12), an idea to
which James (1903) and others
subscribed. Other ideas of balance
included: (a) l ift ing the intercostals and
the simul taneous descent of the
diaphragm (Lehma nn, 1902); (b)
opposi tes which need to be ba lanced
the vitalization zone of the breath is
the area below the breast bone, while the
relaxation zone is from the shoulders
upward to the jaw (Mills, 1908, p .
7 3 ) ; c )
the vertical versus horizontal direction of
the air against the vocal cords and false
vocal cords (Lunn, 1900).
ffort
Nearly all agreed that effort should be
invisible and silent. Beyond this, control
also centered around issues of freedom
versus rigidity, and efficiency versus
capacity; for some, these issues were
intertwined. Efficiency involved a steady
flow of breath, whether based on retain-
ing air or narrowing the strea m of air .
Freedom versus Rigidity
Lehmann (1902) wrote of
st rengthening the brea thing muscles and
then gradually releasing them over t ime.
Russell (1904a) referred to correct
tension: The matter of developing
power
for breath-control is one simple
development of the muscles of the waist
and lower wa lls of the thorax, so that
they may be in any degree of control l ing
tension without the least degree of
sympathetic tension elsewhere.
p.
20). Tension was to be avo ided in the
spine, according to Tetrazzini (1909).
M ills (1908) defined breath relaxation
and tension in the upper zone of the
bodylarynx, throat , and shoulders
which should be relaxed by displacing
the tension to the vitalization zone, in
the body below the relaxation zone.
breathing apparatus . . . must be fully
f lexible, easily responsive to the mind,
and capable of making thoughtful
movements... (Hulbert, 1903,
p.
i i i ) .
But: Flexibility of the muscles does not
mean looseness, or flabbiness of the
muscles (Broekho ven 1908,
p.
1 7 ) , a
concept with which Manchester (1908)
and Russell (1907) agreed. Myer favored
the right amount of effort: Flexible
firmness without rigidity, the result of
flexible, vitalized position an d a ction, is
the only true condition (1903,
pp.
1 9 - 2 0 ) .
Eff iciency versus apacity
Breath control defined as capacity
versus efficiency was important. For
Clippinger, the issue of rigidity vs.
f lexibility was closely related to capacity:
In the effort to breathe deeply the pu pil
often crowds the lung s so full that, in
order to hold i t he must assume a r igid
condition from head to foot. Breath
control for the purpose of singing can
never be gained in this way. . . . It is
well to avoid extremes. Too much breath
is as bad as too little (Clippinger, 1910,
p.')). Miller (1910) and Heinrich (1910)
agreed, and also indicated that
nervousness is a hindrance to efficient
breath. Thus, efficient use was as
important as quant i ty. Pedagogues ha d
two different ways of defining
efficiencyretention (Miller, 1910;
Broekhov en, 1908) and focusing the air
stream (Lehmann, 1902; Henderson,
1906). Mills (1908) was opposed to
re tent ion, and instead encouraged
rhythmical breathing.
Control and Nature
The law of na tura lness = beauty in
movement (Hulbert, 1903). Yet nature
had many di f ferent meanings. What i s a
natural mod e of breathing? Is i t
desirable? These questions were
be trained (Smith, 1907; Lehmann, 1902;
Russell, 1904b, 1907; James, 1903; Girard,
1909); and (b) nature must be obeyed
(Myer, 1903; H enderson, 1906).
Some were more comprehensive: The answered in two ways: (a) Nature must
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Automatic Control
Psychology insists upon the
breathing apparatus being in a suitable
condition to satisfy the dictates of the
mind. It must be fully flexible, easily
responsive to the mind, and capable of
making thoughtful movements
(Hulbert, 1903,
p.
iii). According to
Hulbert, mastering all the muscles of
breathing gives the singer automatic
control. This control must be made
automatic. . . with such certainty and
ease that it becomes a second nature.
(Manchester, 1907, p. 13). Automatic
control was to come as a result of
conscious control: Automatism is the
final result of physical culture, toward
which all voice study should tend
(Russell, 1907,
pp.
8-9).
Control was also
equated with artistry in singing and
breathing: The brain's culture asserts
itself,
and
art controls the processes
(Russell, 1904a, p.4) (italics original).
Myer (1903,
pp.
43-4 4) agreed: . . . the
singer whose pos ition and action are
correct need never give his breathing a
thought. M ills (190 8) also supported
this position.
Term
escriptors
Breath Support
ush the diaphragm inward
Breath Management
teady breath pressure; the less singer
concentrates, the better
Vocalized Breath
ir should be focused as far forward as
possible
N atural Breathing
ontrol of the bronchial tubes and lungs;
diaphragm m entioned; balance
internal
I
external breath pressure
Appoggio I steady pressure balance of muscles and
deep inspiration; exertion to be avoided;
exercises important
Inspiration-Expiration
lattening the abdom en; against breathing
through nose and expanded chest; exercises
important
Respiration
losely linked with freedom; inspiration and
expiration sub-terms; d iaphragm /abdomen;
agreement with major concepts of breath
control
N o Central Term
ne cannot readily be identified or no one
central term; involuntary/ subconscious
Anti-Control
aryngeal factors come first, then breath in
relationship
TABLE 2
Primary Terms Other than Breath Control 1900-1910)
breathing. Later, all the breathing
uter edge of the lips. (p. 36). Focusing
apparatus works freely and
ir and changing its shape were how to
spontaneously (p.23).
anage the breath.
Primary Terms Other Than reath
ontrol
In addition to the twenty-one source s
in which
control was the primary term,
there were sources which gave a key
term other than control, or in which
there was no central term. A summary
of these terms and their descriptors is
found in Table 2. An ex amination of
each follows.
Breath Support
N eidlinger (1903) used the term
support. To
obtain proper support, one
must push the diaphragm inward: .
at first this exaggeration of m otion is
necessary to overcome bad habits of
Breath Management
Two sources advocated a steady
pressure as the greatest factor in breath
management, and said that sometimes
the less singers concentrate on
breathing, the better it becomes (Breare,
1907; Santley, 1908). There is no great
mystery or difficulty about breathing.
All it requires is care in arranging
convenient and appropriate places to
take breath, and practicing.
(Santley, 1908,
pp.
62-63).
Vocalized Breath
Preetorius (1907) discussed breathing
under the the placement of tone,
indicating that the air should be focused
as far forward as possible, near the
Natural B reathing
Brouillet believed in artistic tone
production through natural breathing.
However, his concepts of nature were
curious. A goal was to get the control
of the bronchial tubes and lungs (p.43),
a unique concept. The diaphragm was
mentioned, but its use depends upon
one's voice type and the lung structure
one has (was an X-ray necessary?).
Balancing internal and external air
pressure was also important.
A ppoggio
Appoggio was Lamperti's (1905)
central term. It involved steady
pressure, balance of muscles, and deep
inspiration, especially for higher tones.
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"Exertion" was to be avoided and
exercises were important. Eventually the
terms
support and
control
appeared as
synonyms; this may have been due to
the unidentified translator 's bias
(Lamperti, 1905, p.9).
Inspiration-Expiration
Howard (1904) used
inspiration-
expiration
and gave e xercises and
directives mu ch mo re than others. His
emph asis was upon flattening the
abdom en. He disagreed with the
majority of pedagogues who advocated
breathing through the nose and w as also
against the expanded chest.
Respiration
Cappiani (1908) closely linked the
term
respiration with freedom. M archesi 's
discussion of respiration used
inspiration
and expiration
as sub-terms; "these two
movem ents succeed one another in a
regular and rhythmical manner and
without any intervention of the will, as
during sleep" (Marchesi,
1903, p. xi).
Use of the diaphragm/ abdomen was
central to this seemingly natural
breathing pedagogy . Much of Curtis's
1909)
writing about respiration agreed
with the major areas of breath con trol
(Table 2).
No entral Term
T hree sources contained no primary
term (Marchesi, 1901; C urry,
1910;
Thiers, 1903).
These sources referred to
breathing as "involuntary" and
"subconscious"
(pp.
8-9),
and may have
come closest to the one source which is
anti-control (see below).
Some pedagogues who used
control
as their primary term used
management
or support
as secondary terms. These
terms were used with much less
frequency but nonetheless were present
Anti-Control and Anti-Terminology
Taylor (1908) believed that control by
any method w as impossible, and
criticized both the "opposed ac tion" and
"breath band" control pedagogues. He
attacked retention; he also criticized
those who believed that anatomical
forcefully: "An understanding of
muscular processes does not contribute
in any way to skilful (sic) execution. The
anatomist does not play b illiards or row
a boat one w hit the better for all his
know ledge of the muscular structure of
the body"
(p.
145). "Further, no amount
of attention paid to m uscular sensations
will inform us exactly what muscles are
contracted in any complex action"
p
171). T aylor instead advocated
empirical pedagogy based upon
hearing, psychology, sensations, and
imitation, "These few simple phrases
open the throat, support the tone, sing
the tones forward, sing on the breath
embod y a most beautiful and comp lete
description of vocal perfection. The
empirical study of the voice can hardly
be expected to g o further than this"
(p. 197). (T aylor used the term support
but as an un conscious process.) Rather
than mak ing control automatic, action is
cords remain in the position for
producing tone, they also control
expiration. In this sense breath-control is
an inseparable feature of tone
production" (pp. 224-22 5).
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD SUPPORT
AND CONTROL AS CONCURRENT
CENTRAL TERMS
While the favored terms of recent
pedagogues are
breath control
and breath
support
used concurrently, there is much
variance in the choice of a preferred
primary term, as shown in T able 3.
General areas of agreement among
nearly all contemporary sources are
presented in Table 3.
understanding was necessary, but more
lready
automatic: "So long as the vocal
(N=23)
requencies
Br eathSup port & Con trol..........................................................................7
BreathControl..............................................................................................3
Appog gio...................................................................................................... .3
BreathSupport.............................................................................................2
Support
Con trol / Man ageme nt...............................................................2
BreathPressure............................................................................................2
BreathManagement....................................................................................I
Bre athE nerg y ............................................................................................... I
NoCentral Term..........................................................................................1
Anti-Control Terminology.......................................................................
General Areas of Agreement
Deep Breath
Silent and Effortless Breath
Physical Exercise to Increase B reathing Efficiency
Central Importance of Breath and Breathing Pegagogy
Steady Pressure Flow of Breath
Clavicular Breathing to be Avoided
Exercises for T raining the Breath (w ith and without Vocalization)
Expanded or Lifted Chest
Importance of Posture/ Body Alignment to B reathing
Greater Integration of Laryngeal Pharyngeal (Production Resonance) Factors
with Breathing
Basic Anatomical Physiological Understanding Is Important
TABLE 3
Frequenc ies of
Major Terms and General Areas
of
A gr e e m e n t in A m e r ic a P e d ago gy T e x tbo o k s , 1970- 1990
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Support and Control in
Muscular Terms
Support and con trol included the use
of two, three, or four major muscles or
muscle groups, with numerous
definitions and descriptions because
two terms are involved, explanations of
support and control become somewhat
more complex. Those who advocated
support and control generally indicated
that knowledge of physiology is
important, either through descriptions
or illustrations.
Tw o M uscle Groups
Henderson (1979) and Harlow (1985)
advocated the use of the abdominal
muscles and the diaphragm in con trol
and support of the breath, and related
both to vocal production.
Diaphragmatic/ costal breathing w as the
key for Stanton (1983), although he
included the muscles of the lower back.
Three or More Muscle Groups
Fields (1977) referred to the
interrelated actions of ribs, diaphragm
and abdom inal wall,
(p.
5 1 .
Abdom inals, intercostals, and back
muscles were discussed by Sable (1982).
Lindsley (1985) discussed diaphrag-
matic-costal breathing, but also
introduced the abdom inals in relation
to the diaphragm. M uscles of the chest,
back, abdomen, and the diaphragm
were mentioned by McKinney (1982);
with abdominal expansion being
most important.
Balance of Muscles Forces
The balance of when inspiratory
muscles should cease and expiratory
muscles should begin, as well as
posture, are important balancing factors
in breathing (Fields 1977). Balance of the
abdominal muscles w ith the diaphragm
was important for I lendersoii (1979).
The epigastrium was important to
Harlow's (1985 ) idea of balance. For
Sable (1982), balance was closely related
to the involvement of the abdominal,
intercostal, and back muscles; balance
of breath control and breath support
with the method of phonation is
important. The student might have to be
taught an overbalance: In order to
establish one habit or to break another,
the student is often taught to overdo; he
must then relearn as he brings the sound
into balance (Sable, 1982, p.fi). Thus,
opposing terminology might be used to
achieve a balance result.
Lindsley (1985) referred to a balance
between the intercostals and diaphrag-
matic-abdominal support and con trol,
and used the Greek term
diad ocho kin esis
for breath management as described by
Vennard (1967 , p. 260). This concept was
not much different from McKinney's
(1982 ): W hen a person establishes the
correct posture, breathes in properly,
and then suspends the breath, a
balanced tension is set up between
muscles of inhalation and the muscles of
exhalation (p. 56). McKinney also
preferred a balance between b reathing
and laryngeal factors, and posited that
either overbalance or underbalance of
the breathing mechanism can present
vocal problems.
Effort
Nearly all agree that breathing
should be invisible and silent, whether
effort is local or balanced in the body.
Discussion of effort centers around
issues of freedom versus rigidity, and
efficiency versus capacity. These factors
were intertwined with balance for some
pedagogues. Inherent in nearly all
discussions of efficiency was the idea of
a steady flow of breath (Table 3).
Freedom versus R igidi ty
Sable (1982) described the delicate
balance between rigidity and flexibility
that is tonicity of the breathing m uscles:
Vitality is not tension
...Tension over
clutched muscles, will destroy good
tone (Sable, 1982, p. 2). McKinney
(1982) seemed to agree. While most
were against excessive rigidity, there
was not always agreement as to which
muscles should be held firm and which
should be more relaxed.
Eff iciency versus apaci ty
Capacity was also related to freedom
and efficiency (Stanton, 1983). Lindsley
(1985) also believed capacity was
important, and was related to relaxed
abdominal muscles. Sable (1982) defined
capacity as a reservoir. . . a feeling of
expansion between the waistband and
the bottom tw o ribsthe floating ribs-
which grows w hen breath is taken
properly (p. 1). Capacity was important
to McKinney (198 2), but not as
important as efficient
use
of breath.
Fields (1977) also encouraged a
moderate approach, but was perhaps
the strongest advocate of co ntrol of
expiration and breath economy (p.
57). McK inney (1982) also believed in
retention, but added the idea of
suspension, or momentarily holding
back, before releasing the breath. In
contrast, Sable (1982) advocated release:
the singer should be prepared to let the
air out (
p.
3 .
Nature Must Be Trained
Although the singer is not
necessarily aware of specific breathing
controls. . . during the training period
preceding the mastery of his art he
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Breath Management
abdominal expansion; silent and deep
breath; integration with posture and larynx;
balance of muscles
Breath P ressure
laryngeal pharyngeal function closely
allied; cords act as a valve against the breath
Appoggio
2 overall body balance; including
laryngeal/ pharyngeal factors; nature less
disturbed
No Central Term
I
balance; automatic control; problems in
studying breathing
Breath Energy
I
supportproblems of wrongful tension;
careful consideration of terminology as
related to freedom and balance
Anti-Control and
terminology is evil; empirical teaching based
Anti-Terminology
on vo cal sensations instead
TABLE 4
Primary Terms Other Than Control/Support 1970-1990)
needs much expert guidance.
Moreover, the approach to this
achievement often demand s rigorous
training or retraining of muscles and
movements that are used in quiet
breathing or in everyday speech
reath Support
behavior" (Fields, 1977, p. 50). Fields
provided a convincing argum ent for the
idea that natural breathing is not
reath
adequate for singing, which was the
upport Control/
Management
predominant view among
2
ension freedom, muscles
I
balance; released
energy vs. stronger muscular tensions;
abdominal
2
sed interchangeably; ribs and
back; automatic control; importance of
individual; inspiration and ex piration; need
for physical exercise
rm
escription
Breath Control
ll muscle groups, but m ainly abdominal;
(separate term)
ature must be trained; disagreed with
abdominal expansion; controlled by
abdomen and ch est, diaphragm relaxed
support
control pedagogues. McKinney
(1983 ) agreed, especially in regard to the
idea of suspension before exhaling.
Finally, one works to increase natural
breath capacity, (Stanton, 1983;
Henderson, 1979).
Automatic Control
Those who spoke of support and
control generally believed in automatic
control, even though it was not always
described in the same manner. Sable
(1982 ) wrote about the rhythm of
breathing: "The rhythm of breathing
ought to become habitual: an open
throat, the inhalation, followed by an
sigh that carries the singing tone
outward with no catches during the
entire cycle
..... p.
3). Fields (1977)
advocated that automatic control should
replace conscious control. Stanton (1983)
presented the idea of automatic control
at the outset. Henderson (1979) stated
that exercises are important in acquiring
automatic control. McKinney (1982) was
somew hat more reluctant to give up
conscious con trol, but finally did so:
"Breathing for singing has four stages:
(1) a breathing-in period (inhalation), (2)
a setting-up-controls period
(suspension), (3) a controlled-exhalation
period (phonation), and (4) a recovery
period; these stages must be under
conscious control until they become
conditioned reflexes" (p.51).
Primary Terms Other than
Control Support
In addition to the sources in which
support
and control were used
concurrently as primary terms, other
sources used either
support
or
control a s
the primary term, or in comb ination
with other terms. One source gave no
central term, one source proposed a new
term, and one source w as anti-control
and even anti-terminology. A summ ary
of these terms and their descriptors is
found in Table 4.
Breath Control as a Separate Term
Proctor (1980 ) believed that control
involved all muscle groups, but was
mainly abdominal, with some help from
the intercostals, and should be
conscious. He agreed that nature must
be trained, although we do not know
everything about physiology. Sundberg
(1987) agreed with Proctor in that not
everything is known abo ut breathing,
but disagreed with abdominal
expansion:". . . one can phonate with
the abdominal wall both expanded or
pulled in
(p.
25). Control for Sundberg
was p rimarily laryngeal, but respiratory
muscles and laryngeal control may be
interrelated; there is a relationship
between breathing and phonation, but
the degree of that relationship may not
be easy to define, nor may it be the same
for everyone. H e also discussed a
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difference between na ture and training.
Punt's discussion was relatively simple
. . . release of breath ... is controlled
by muscles of the walls of the abdomen
and chest, the diaphragm being in
relaxation (1979, p.58).
B reath Supp ort
Alderson (1979) discussed tension
and freedom, m uscles and balance, yet
seemed contradictory: Support is a
sensation of released energy is a
contrast to the stronger the muscular
tensions, the stronger the support (p.
29). L ike Proctor's definition of control,
for Schmidt (1989) support was
primarily abdominal, yet she agreed
with Sundberg in terms of laryngeal
relationship. Like Alderson, Schmidt
used
control
as a secondary term.
Breath Su pport/Control/Management
Two sources used a com bination of
support control
and
management.
Worm houdt (1981) used the terms more
or less interchangeably, and referred
primarily to rib and back breathing
which lowers the larynx because the
breathing muscles and larynx are
hooked up physiologically (pp. 25-2 6).
She referred to nature and agreed with
Sable (1982) but disagreed with
McK inney (1982) in calling for
immediate expiration of the breath
(p.23), and suggested automatic control
and the importance of the individual.
Leyerle (1986) associated support and
control with inspiration and expiration,
carefully separating physiology and
pedagogy. Both Leyerle and
W ormhoudt agreed on the need for
developing the breathing m uscles.
Breath Management
Hammar (1 978) preferred breath
management; there was no need to
concentrate on control. Yet many of his
ideas agreed with support and control
pedagoguesa bdominal expansion,
silent and deep breath, integration with
posture and larynx, and balance of
muscular forces.
Breath Pressure
For Coffin (1980 ), breath and
laryngeal pharyngeal function w ere
closely allied. There was very little
discussion of the breath, except in terms
of retention, and breath pressure was the
only central term used in his extremely
abbreviated discussion. Coffin's
laryngeal relationship of the breath was
somewhat similar to Sundberg (1987),
Wormhoudt (1981), Sable (1982) and
others. In another source, however,
Coffin used a different central term (see
appoggio
below). Rossell (1983) also used
the term pressure
and always discussed
the breath in relation to the vo cal folds,
without discussion of the breathing
musculature, indicating laryngeal
integration found in previous
pedagogues, perhaps to a greater
degree. The folds act as a valve against
the breath. Thus, when the term
pressure
was used, laryngeal factors were closely
allied with breathing.
A ppoggio
W hile Miller used the terms support,
control, and managem ent in two sources
(1977; 1986), in both sources he clearly
advocated the term
appoggio an
integrated concept from Italian
pedagogy. Emp hasis in
appoggio is upon
overall body balance, including
laryngeal/ pharyngeal factors. Nature is
less disturbed in appoggio
than in other
techniques, according to researchers.
Coffin (1987) borrowed much of his
discussion from G arcia and F. Lamperti,
and in the end was also an advocate of
appoggio; like M iller, he did not separate
breath from the rest of the singing act.
No C entral Term
The terms
support control and
management
all appeared in Bunch
(1982 ), but without apparent preference.
Balance w as important, although
laryngeal factors are not discussed in the
section about breathing; automatic
control was also important. Bunch also
comm ented upon problems of studying
breathing pedagogy.
A dvocating a New T erm: Breath Energy
Doscher (1988) discussed the
problems of wrongful tension which
support presents more than other
pedagogues. She advocated the term
breath energy
and careful consideration
of terminology as related to freedom
and balance.
A nti-Control and A nti-Terminology
Wh itlock (197 5) stated that breathing
cannot be separated from singing itself
(like other pedagogues), but breathing
often receives too much emphasis.
There is brief mention of the abdomen,
and of the problem w ith the idea of
support from the diaphragm as
mentioned by Doscher (1988).
However, the most fascinating
discussion concerned terminology.
W hitlock addressed the problem of
terminology, but indicated that the
solution w as
less
analysis. Breath
control is: a confusing imagery and n ot
fact. The early Bel Canto teachers
taught that tone controls the breath,
and not the breath the tone (p.101).
Terminology is: ... the greatest
deterrant (sic) to good singing know n
to man. It is the vocal 'Tower of Babe l,'
causing endless confusion
(p.
105).
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omparison
Greater V ariance in Contem porary
Terminology
There is much greater variance in
breath management terminology in the
recent period versus 1900-1910. Twenty-
one of 35 sources (60% ) at the turn of the
century preferred the most-used term
breath control
while 7 of 23 sources (30%)
preferred
breath control
nd
breath
support
used concurrently as central
terms. Thus, there is much less
agreeme nt upon a central term or terms
to describe breath management and its
pedagog y in singing, despite the
increase in anatomical and
physiological description in
contemporary sources and increased
scientific research since the turn of the
century (although not with large
samples) wh ich has preceded, and in
some cases, guided recent w ritings.
In both periods, terminology reflects
a range of concepts from muscular
control, to automatic control, to
empirical teaching and anti-control.
More sources in the recent period
favored automatic over local control.
While only one source from each period
was a nti-control, each emphatic in
arguing against control. No matter what
term wa s preferred, similar concepts
were found in both periods, i.e., the
larynx as a valve, retention, and
automatic control.
Other Central T erms
While there is greater variance in
central terms during the recen t period,
three primary terms appear in 1900-1910
that do not appear in the contemporary
period: a)
vocalized breath
(b)
inspiration-
expiration and (c)
respiration. Only one
term appears in the modern period
which w as not found at the turn of the
century: Breath energy.
A greenien t and Disagreement B etween
Periods
While there has been a change of
primary term, many underlying
concepts have remained the same. These
include: (a) deep breath, (b) silent and
effortless breath, (c) physical exercise to
increase breathing efficiency, (d) central
importance of the breath and breathing
pedagogy to singing, (e) steady breath
flow, (1) avoidance of clavicular
breathing, (g) exercises for training the
breath, and (h) expanded or lifted chest.
However, in the contemporar
yperiod,
there is less agreement with the idea that
one should breathe through the nose
versus the mouth; breathing through the
nose was m ore universal at the turn of
the century.
New Concepts in the Contemporary Period
Four new conce pts are important to
contemporary pedagogues, and perhaps
reflect the increase in scientific study
since the turn of the century. These
concepts are: (a) importance of posture
and body alignme nt to breathing; (b)
integration of laryngeal /pharyngeal
factors with breathing, found in sources
such as James (1903), but having more
emphasis in the contemporary period;
(c) importance of physiological
understanding, and (d) clarification of
the physiology of the diaphragm.
Muscles and M uscle Groups
There is less emphasis on local
control, or control by one muscle or
muscle group, in the contemporary
period, perhaps owing to advance s in
physiological research. Instead of one,
two, or three muscle groups as found at
the turn of century, two to four muscle
groups are indicated as being important.
There is less emphasis on the diaphragm
as the sole center of control. While two
pedagogues (Lunn, 1900; Myer, 1903)
believed in laryngeal valve control, only
one (Rossell, 1983) presented this idea in
the contemporary period.
Balance
There is greater consciousness in the
contemporary period of the
interrelationship of m uscles and
muscular forces; more sources discussed
the concept of balance or its synonyms,
equilibrium and opp osition of forces.
More m uscles are involved in equilib-
rium in the recent period, although a
few sources from 1900-1910 spoke of the
process perhaps more eloquently, using
terms such as buoyancy equipoise
(Russell, 1904b), v italization zone (Mill,
1908), or the law of poise (Hulbert, 1903).
Eff ort: Freedom and Rigidity
The line between freedom and
rigidity is finer in the contemporary
period, as might be expected with less
tendency towa rd local effort and greater
tendency toward muscular balance.
While some (Russell, 1904a) referred to
correct tension, a balance between
flexibility and rigidity (Broekhoven,
1908), flexible firmness (Myer, 1903),
or just enoug h tension (Russell, 1907 ),
contemporary pedagogues expanded
this view, adding the factor of posture,
as previously indicated. For example,
Sable (1982) referred to vitality and
tonicity, which are not tension, and
McKinney (1982) and Alderson (1979)
referred to balanced tension. On the
other hand, exactly which muscles
should have just enough tension and
which should be more relaxed was a
matter of debate in both periods.
Eff ort Eff iciency and Capacity
In the contemporary period,
capacity was perhaps seen as slightly
less important than efficient use of air.
Release as part of efficiency is a new
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theme (Sa ble, 1982), but retention is
still viewed as impo rtant by some, as it
was at the turn of the century. Focus of
air, important to early pedagogues, is
less important today; this may be
related to a better understanding of
physiology, although air focus could
have been a real sensation to the turn-
of-the-century singer and thus
significant in certain pedagogues.
Nature
Turn-of-the-century pedagogues
were m ore divided as to the role of
nature in breath management. They
disagreed as to whether nature should
be trained versus obeyed. This division
in hardly seen in the contemporary
period. Rather, there is more emphasis
upon nature and training being hand-in-
hand: Nature m ust be trained, but in the
process must not be violated
(Sable,1982; Miller, 1977; Fields, 1977).
There were many definitions of nature
1900-1910; nature in the contemporary
period is more physiological, although
points of physiology may be viewed
somewhat differently. Even so, some
(Bunch, 1982; Sundberg, 1987) still
indicate that much about breathing
physiology remains a mystery.
utomatic Control
More contemporary pedagogues
ascribed to the idea of automatic control
than pedagogues at the turn of the
century, although the discussions from
both periods (Myer, 1903; Fields, 1977;
Bunch, 1982) regarding automatic
control have some similarities. Modern
pedagogues (Sable, 1982; Stanton, 1983;
Doscher, 1988; Sun dberg, 1987) discuss
the role of the individual singer in
automatic control more than peda-
gogues from the turn of the century.
Diff erences in Descriptors Dt scribm,c.
N oncentral Terms
In both periods, different descriptors
of muscles and muscular balance, effort,
nature, and automatic control were used
to describe the same central term.
Further, for both periods, concepts of
terms which are not central, or of
writings which have no central term,
were often in agreement w ith concepts
of the central term or terms. The
exception is those who are anti-control
or anti-terminology, who were not in
agreement w ith the majority in either
period and were qu ite outspoken.
Discussion
If one examines Reid (1983) for
definitions of
breath control and breath
support
one finds that Reid is opposed
to both. Breath control is "an attempt to
limit breath expenditure through some
system of con sciously controlled
breathing. . . . Both exp erimentally and
experientially, it is evident that no
controlled technique of breathing
reduces the amount of breath
expenditure or improves function.
when the laryngeal muscles coordinate
effectively, little or no exce ss breath w ill
escapein effect, the properly
functioning mechanism itself controls
and regulates the breath"
(p.
39).
Breath
support s
also a fallacy for Reid: "The
utilitarian value of breath support as a
pedagogic prac tice is highly suspect. It is
not based upon a valid functional
principle, it leads to a self-conscious
awareness of the body, confuses ends
with means, and overlooks the fact that
in an ideal technique all of the musc ular
systems involved are in equilibrium,
which means that they are self
supporting" (Reid, 1983, p. 43). Reid
seems to be in agreem ent with the
dissenters (Taylor, 1908; W hitlock, 1975),
despite all the scientific study between
the Italian masters and the present day.
Reid's agreement is that control and
support, as he defines them, are not
possible, and that breathing must be
taught laryngeally and pharyngeally, or
"from the top down " rather than "from
the bottom up." This is an argument for
muscular efficiency, but a different
efficiency than is taught in many
support/ control pedagogies alone. If the
laryngeal muscles are balanced and
suspended, then less air is required to
vibrate the vocal folds, which vibrate
less thickly and whose muscles work in
absolute harmony and balance with
those of respiration. Even Sundberg
(1987) indicates that one is able to
phonate whether the abdom irials are in
or out. From this perspective, Taylor
and W hitlock are reasonable in not
advocating control support. In fact,
Reid also posited that the terms breath
management, breath pressure,
nd
breath
consciousness
all have something to do
with "volitional control" and therefore
are also less than desirable terms
because they do not consider
total
balance.
The results suggest that
standardization of terminology
probably is not possible. This problem
may be compounded when one
considers that much pedagogy is oral
tradition, and is complex due to the
intertwining of various breath
managem ent schools during the course
of the century.
Pedagogical Con siderations
If support, control, management, and
pressure are less than desirable terms
but they have been used for nearly a
century, what should be used? Reid
seems drawn to the dissenting Taylor
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(1908) and W hitlock (1975), but he is also
drawn to Lam perti (1905), Miller (1977;
1986), and Coffin (1987):
A ppoggiare la voce: Taken at face
value, this early pedagogic directive
appears to be nonsense , s ince vocal
tone, l ike that produced by all other
instruments, is merely a series of
complex sound wa ves tha t cannot be
leaned upon. The st ruc ture of the
vocal mechanism, how ever , suggests
a possible explanation for the coinage
of such a ph rase. The larynx, a
respi ra tory organ w hich i s a lso a par t
of the digestive tract , can be m oved
up and dow n to permit swal lowing
and ingest ion. When used as a voca l
organ, th is m obi l it
y
permits it to
function efficiently as a primary
resonator . Four pa i red suspensory
musc les participate in stabil izing
these movements, and when he ld in
ba lanced tension, they coordina te to
provide the resistance necessary to
energy economy. When the
suspensory muscles a re mainta ined
in equilibrium, the singer is able to
lean on the voice and sing wi thout
fatigue (Reid, 1983, p. 13).
Thus, i t would seem tha t f rom the
sources invest iga ted, appoggio (Lamperti,
1905; Miller, 1977,1986; Coffin, 1987)
deserves considera t ion as a peda gogica l
term which considers all factors.
Others ( i.e., Sundberg, 1987; Sable,
1982) mention the laryngeal/ pharyngeal
re la t ionship to brea thing, an em phasis
which has increased since 1900-1910.
Lunn (1900 ) and Myer (1903), in the
double-valve theor
y
, advocate local
control ; while Reid (1983) indicates that
this may n ot be totally impossible, i t has
not received favor. Ra ther, Miller 's
descr ipt ion of appoggio
takes into
account both the brea thing muscles and
their balance, and the
la ryngeal /pharyngeal fac tors from
which they cannot be divorced. Doscher
(1988) also supports this concept in
advocat ing the term
breath energy .
One w ho t e a c he s
nppoggio
would be
equipped to deal wi th s tudents who
have been taught from varied
perspectives, whether
empir ica l laryngeal balance or
control / support . Mo re than autom at ic
control , appoggio
i s an understanding of
processes, but one which br ings them
into total relationship, increasing
efficiency, and re alizing that a posit ive
change in brea th mana gement can
positively affect position of the
la rynx/ pharynx, as supported by
Swank 1984) .
A ppoggio
offers
mode ra t ion be twe e n t hose who
advocate to ta l empir ic ism a nd those
who t ra in s tudents in m ore loca l ized
concep ts. Further , appoggio is in
agreement with Hisey (1970) , who
advocated the use of both scientific and
empirical approaches. Finally, one can
teach using concepts of a i r speed of the
brea th wi thout d isturbing the ba lance of
appoggio (Miller, 1986).
Learning Style Inventory
Teachers m ight consider
administering a learning style inventory
If the student is more receptive to a
concre te learning approach, i t might be
necessary to dem onst ra te spec i f ic
brea thing muscles and se nsa t ions, but
care should be taken to in tegra te these
sensa t ions wi th la ryngeal / pharyngeal
function as soon as poss ible . S tated
another way: To achieve appoggio,
it
might be necessary to teach e i ther from
a c ont rol / support or non-control
perspect ive, depending upon w hether
an aspec t of managem ent appears to be
underba lance d or overba lanced, so tha t
the out -of-ba lance area m ay gradual ly
come into ba lance . One m ight teach the
speed of the brea th , both inha l ing and
exhal ing, which can be m anaged
without dis turbing tota l balance.
Studio Inventory
The teache r should learn the
terminology to which the s tudent has
been exposed. Some predetermined
open-ende d quest ions might be used:
Describe how you brea the for
singing.
2 Do you fee l the breath as you sing?
If so, where do you feel it?
3 Are you uncom fortable a t any time
during brea thing for s inging? During
inhalation? During exhalation?
During long phrases? Wh en you sta r t
or end a phrase?
4
Do you th ink about the brea th
during singing, or does i t seem to
come to you na tura l ly? Expla in what
you might be thinking or sensing.
Teachers m ay add quest ions based
upon the i r own need s. Such quest ions
might be crucial for beginning or
t ransfer s tudents , in order to de termine
approach es to brea thing problems.
Posit ive change might be easier to effect
i f one incorpora tes some of the s tudent 's
te rminology ra ther than one w hich has
been imposed by the teacher .
REFEREN ES
Aikin, W.A. (1910).
The
V o ic e A n
Introduction to Practical Phonology.
N e w
York: Longmans, Green.
Alderson, R.
(1979). Com plete Handbook of
V oice Training.
West Nyack, NY : Parker.
Appelman, D.R. (1967). T he Science of V ocal
Pedagogy: Theory and application.
Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
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