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BOOKBINDINGVITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND DIAGRAMS

EDITED BY

PAUL K HASLUOKBUITOR OF "WORK" ASD " nCILDIXQ WORLD,"AUTHOU OF "HASDVBOOKS FOB HANDICRAFTS," BTC. KTa

CASSELL AND COMPANY, LIMITEDLONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK, TORONTO AND MELBOURNE

MCMVIIALL RIGHTS RESERVED


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First Edition November 1902.BepriiUed 1903, 1907.


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LOS ANGELES ^? 'WSTATE NORMAL SCHOOL "^ ^ ^

PREFACE.This Handbook contains, in a form convenient foreveryday use, a comprehensive digest of the infor-mation on Bookbinding, scattered over nearly twentythousand columns of Workone of the weekly journalsit is my fortune to editand supplies concise in-formation on the details of the subjects of vi'hich ittreats.

In preparing for publication in book form the massof relevant matter contained in the volumes ofWork, much had to be arranged anew, altered, andlargelj'' rewritten. The contributions of many are soblended that the writings of individuals cannot be dis-tinguished for acknowledgment. A large part of thecontents was written by the Foreman Bookbinderin a London firm, and the substance of a series ofarticles written by Mr. Wm. Norman Brown has alsobeen incorporated.

Readers who may desire additional informationrespecting special details of the matters dealt within this Handbook, or instructions on kindred subjects,should address a question to Work, so that it maybe answered in the columns of that journal.

P. N. HASLUCK.Ija Belle Sauvage, Loudon.


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CONTENTS.CHAP. PAGE

I.Bookbinders' Appliances . . . : . 9II.Folding' Printed Book Sheets .... 33

III.Beating and Sewinj^ 38IV.Rounding, Backing, and Cover Cutting . . 48v.Cutting Book Edges 55VI.Covering Books..;.... 58

VII.Cloth-bound Books, Pamphlets, etc. . . 66VIII.Account Books, Ledgers, etc. .. ... 72IX.Colouring, Sprinkling, and Marbling Book

Edges 79

X.Marbling Book Papers 92XI.Gilding Book Edges 101XII.Sprinkling and Tree Marbling Book Covers . 110XIII.Lettering, Gilding, and Finishing Book Covers 115

Indez......... 156


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.via.


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Bookbinding.1 Ki.


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BOOKBINDING.CHAPTER I.

BOOKBINDEES' APPLIANCES.Bookbinding is a term that is popularly applied toany process for making a book by fastening togetherprinted or unprinted sheets of paper, and provid-ing them in this compact form with a suitablecovering. The term, used in this sense, coverssuch widely different productions as a cheap cloth-or paper-covered novel and a costly volume boundin leather. These two books are representative pro-du3ts of the two great divisions of the bookbindingindustry as carried on at the present day. Eachdivision may, indeed, almost be called a distinctindustry ; for, though the means employed Eind theresults obtained in both cases bear on the surfacea certain resemblance to each other, the manner inwhich the work is carried out, and the result aimedat, are in both cases fundamentally different.A bound book is, technically, a book bound inleather. It is more solid in appearance, is bettersewn, the leaves lie more compactly together, andthe book opens more readily than a cloth-boardedbook. Even a person without any technical know-ledge is struck with the difference between aleather-bound volume and a cloth-boarded book.While the former will last for years and resist hardusage, the latter serves a temporary purpose only,and rough usage soon reduces it to a collection ofloose leaves, scarcely held together by a few tangledthreads. also to the division of


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10 /yOOKBlAD.'NCbooks are half-bound books, of which the back ma^be of leather, or of cloth or other material used inplac3 of leather, and the sides of cloth or paper.Other minor but not unimportant differences thatdistinguish bound books fi'om cloth-boarded bookswill be explained in due course.The tools used in bookbinding first will bedescribed. A cloth-boarded book can be producedwith the same tools (though less in number) thatare emploj^ed for a leather-bound volume, but thelatter cannot be produced with the appliances usedfor the former.

Before beginning the study of this subject, theamateur is advised to obtain two old leather-bound

Fig. 1.Beating- Hammer.books. Take one of these books to pieces carefully,bit by bit ; and whilst doing so note every contriv-ance used for holding the book together, and fre-quently compare the partially dissected book withthe other volume, which should be kept intact. Thevalue of this object lesson will be realised whenmaking the first attempt at binding a book.A book may be bound by the amateur with theaid of comparatively few and simple tools. It hasnot, therefore, been thought necessary to describehere the many more or less expensive machines andappliances at present used in bookbinding. Leatherbinding is largely done by hand, the material em-


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Bookbinders' Appliances. Itployed, the manner in which the work is done, andthe limited demand for leather compared with clothbooks, precluding the use of machinery to any con-riiderable extent. On the other hand, the bindingof cloth-boarded books is considerably helped, and,in some cases, almost wholly done, by machinery ;because cloth books must be produced rapidly, andin large numbers (often tens of thousands, all of onesize and pattern), and at a comparatively low cost.

The following are some of the tools that will berequired for leather binding:

Fig. 2.Standing Press.The folder or folding-stick is a piece of flat bone,

about 6 in. long and rather more than 1 in. wide,with rounded ends. The folder, as its name implies,is used for folding into page size the printed sheetsreceived from the printer.

The beating hammer and stone are adjuncts ofan old-fashioned bookbinder's shop, and have beenreplaced by the rolling machine. The amateur,however, unless he can get his work rolled for him,must use tiie beating hammer, and he should en-deavour to obtain one that has been specially made


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12 BoOR'JUNPJNG.for the purpose. The beating hammer Aveighs from10 lb. to 12 lb., is more or less bell-shaped, and has ashort handle (see Fig. 1, p. 10). A stone or iron slabwill also be required. The slab must be level andperfectly smooth, and it should be firmly bedded.When not in use the surface of the slab should bekept covered. It will be found convenient to bed theslab in a box of sand, and to provide the box witha cover.

The standing press is used to compress booksduring the process of binding, and there are several

Fig-, 3.Simple fress.

different forms of it. The typical standing press(Fig. 2, p. 11) consists of vertical pillars, a long stoutscrew, a platen, and the bed. A letter-copyingpress represents, roughly and on a small scale, abookbinder's standing press, but in the bookbinder'spress the power is applied by a long iron bar thatis inserted in holes drilled in a ball of iron thatforms the bottom of the screw. The folded sectionsof the book are piled upon the bed of the press,and the platen is screwed down as tightly aspossible by the combined strength of two or moremen. A stout copying press, however, can be used


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Bookbinders' Appliances. 13for bookbinding on a small scale, smooth slabs ofiron or hard wood called pressing boards, not lessthaji the size of the book, being placed betweeneach three or four sections. Or, if a copying pressor similar contrivance is not available, heavyweights may be laid on the folded sheets, and thepressure continued for twenty-four hours, or longerif necessary. A small press, like that shown by

Fig. 4.Sewing Press.Fig. 3, sometimes may be bought second-hand, andwould be a valuable acquisition. The pressingboards should be of some hard wood, generallybeech, planed perfectly smooth on both surfaces,and rectangular in shape. Iron plates sometimesare used.

The sewing press is not a press in the modernsense of the term, as it is not used for purposes ofcompression ; it is a contrivance by which the bands


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14 Bookbinding.or cords upon which a book is sewn ai-e kept attension and in their proper places, while the sectionsor sheets of a book are sewn to them. The usualform of the sewing press is shown by Fig. 4, p. 13,and its use will be described later. In Fig. 4 areshown the keys employed to hold down the cords.A home-made sewing press is illustj-ated by Fig.5. The bottom board A may be made of 1-in. stuff,1 ft. 9 in. long by 1 ft. broad, with uprights C, 10 in.high by \\ in. by | in. The top piece B, shownseparately in Fig. 6, should be of ]-in. oak, 2 ft.3 in. long, 1 in. square, with corners rounded, and

Fig. 6 Fig. 8Figs. 5 to 8.Details of Home-made Sewing Press.

2j in. wide at the ends. The cross-pieces E under-neath measure 1^ in. by | in. The uprights can beeither hinged or fixed with iron plates screwed onfrom outside. The key (Fig. 7) is of |-in. ash, cutto the shape shown, 2^ in. long, \\ in. wide, and\ in. wide in the middle, and with a saw-cut for thestring. Three keys are wanted. The cutting andbacking boards (sections of which are shown at aand B in Fig. 8) can be 1 ft. 3 in. long by 3i in. ^\dde.Another sewing press is shown by Fig. 9. It issimply a flat bottom with two screwed uprights,and cross-bar with nuts below for the purpose ofkeeping the bands or strings tight while the book is


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Bookbinders' Appliances. 15being sewn. The slit immediately below the cross-bar and between the uprights allows of strings goingthrough and being fastened on the bottom with atack or anything handy. A wooden screw uprightis preferable, and the ends need not be glued intothe bottom, but fitted so that they can be taken outfor convenience, and the whole stowed away insmall compass. Differing only in detail is the sew-ing press illustrated by Fig. 10, p. 16.

The lying press (Fig. 11, p. 16) (more commonlycalled the laying press) may also be termed the back-

Fig. 9.Sewing Press.ing press and the cuttmg press, as both the opera-tions of backing a book and of cutting the edges areperformed at it. For cutting, is kept uppermost theside that has on the left cheek the two guide rodsbetween which the plough works, as shown at Fig.12, p. 17. For backing, the press is turned over,a.nd the plain sides of the cheeks are placed upper-most. This press is worked by a short unattachediron press pin.A lying press of slightly different construction isillustrated by Fig. 13, p. 18, which shows a plough,


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i6 Bookbinding.A, in position also. The construction of this parti-cular plough will be dealt with later. This press con-sists of six essential partstwo boards, two screws,

Fisf. 10.Sewinff Press. Fi"-. 11.Lvins: Press.and two dx*illed and tapiDed handles. To make it,first procure a piece of board 18 in. long, 6 in.broad, and \\ in. thick ; then get another one ofthe same length and thickness, but only h\ in.broad. Plane these perfectly true and fasten


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BooKBiNPERs' Appliances. 17together temporarily, with two faces together andone long edge of each piece flush with that of theother, and bore a hole right through for the screw,which must now be made. The screw may be ofwood, similar to the screw of a carpenter's vice ; butan iron one answers the purpose quite as well.Threaded pieces of iron wire (f in. or x\ in.), about8 in. long, have one end each screwed into a plateof iron 1 in. or 2 in. across, either round or square,

Fig. 12.Lying Press.and about s in. thick (see Fig. 14, p. 18) ; the end ofthe screw is burred over to hold more firmly. Theiron or brass handles are tapped sufficiently large toallow them to be screwed on with comparativeease ; a lever on each one enables sufficient powerto be obtained to press the books well together.Having fitted together the parts of the screw, takeoff the handles, and pass the screw through theback board, and fasten it in place by passing smallscrews through the holes in the plate. These screwswill keep the large screw from slipping backwards


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i8 Bookbinding,


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Bookbinders' Appliances. 19and forwards, and also from turning round whilethe press is in use. Now put on the front and screwthe boards together with the handles. Turn thepress over so as to have the edges that are leveluppermost, and then with a broad-set saw cutnotches about i in. deep at intervals of about 2 in.apart I'ight across the two boards, as shown at thebottom of Fig. 13. The lying press itself is com-plete, but for convenience is attached to a supportwhich serves as a guide to keep the books perfectlylevel while arranging them for binding. To makethe support, procure a piece of board about | in.thick and 14 in. by 12. in., and a piece of 1-in. board14 in. by 8 in., and screw them together at rightangles by their longer edges. The press is sup-ported on the larger piece, the 14-in. by 8-in. piecestanding upright on edge. On top of the back boardof the press is laid a piece of wood 5 in. by 14 in.by \\ in., and this is screwed to the upright back ofthe support to form a continuation of the backboard of the press.

It has been remarked that a press must have agood support if required to work with convenience.So many things are done with this appliancepress-ing, cutting, backing, screwing-out, screwing-in,etc.that as it is not very heavy it is always shift-ing on the table or bench, and thus causing trouble.To remedy all these mconveniences, one method isto make a combined press and box. In a box from2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. long, 2 ft. wide, and 2 ft. deep,fix two pieces of beech wood (5 in. by 4 in.) A and B(Fig. 15, p. 20) of the same length as the inside mea-surement of box. The wood must be planed straightand squared up ; bore holes for the screws c, sayl\ in. diameter. Inside the box, on ends, nail twobars of wood B (as shown by dotted lines in Fig.15), 5 in. from top, so that the front and backpieces of the press, when placed on them, will comelevel with the top of the box. Obtain iron screws


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20 Bookbinding.and nuts to fit, say 1 in. or li in. diajneter, of theshape shown at c, and on the nuts have tails withtwo holes for screw-nails to fasten into the pressbar. cutting a hole in the wood so that the nut maybe inserted flat.

The plough is the implement by which ordinarilythe edges of well-bound books are cut. The ploughconsists of a couple of wooden cheeks, which can bebrought together or drawn apart by rotating thehandle and screw. To the bottom of the right cheek


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Bookbinders' Appliances. ziis fixed a plough knife, which is a blade of well-tem-pered steel secured to the under surface of the right-hand cheek of the plough by a screwed bolt and nut.Fig. 12 shows the plough as it lies ready for use in thecutting press. The book is carefully screwed up inthe press, and the edges of the book are cut bysliding the plough forwards and backwards. Theguiding groove on the plough is on the left-handside of the press. On the right-hand side of theplough is a handle that turns the screw by whichthe knife is pushed laterally across the edges ofthe book every time the plough is thrust forward.Plough knifes are shown at A and B, Fig. 12, p. 17.

Fig. 16 Fig. 17Figs. 16 and 17.Details of Home-made PloughHome-made ploughs are serviceable tools, and

can be constructed from simple material, such as achisel, some pieces of wood, and a few screws.Knock off the handle from an ordinary ^-in. chiselhaving a " shoulder " near the haft, and replace itwith a cork ; cut to the shape of Fig. 16 a piece ofthin wood (say J in. thick) 2\ in. in breadth, itslength depending on the length of the chisel. Placethe chisel on the wood so that the cutting end over-hangs about If in. ; at the other end mark wherethe shoulder of the chisel touches the wood, and cutacross just above the mark so that the shoulder fallsover the edge and allows the chisel to lie flat onthe wood. Cut another piece of wood thicker thanthe last (of full ^-in. stuff) to the shape of Fig. 17.


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23 Bookbinding.This will be, say, 2i in. in breadth, 1^ in. along itsparallel sides, and 2^ in. in extreme length. Cut agroove down the middle as wide as the widest partof the chisel and as deep generally as the chisel isthick, but a little deeper than this towards the end

Fig. 18.Elevation of Home-made Ploug-h. Fig. 19.Planof Home-made Plough.

B. Put the second piece of wood, groove down-wards, on the first one so that the square end B ofFig. 17 rests upon the portion marked A of Fig. 16,allowing the pointed end to overhang. Screw thetwo pieces together fi'om underneath, taking care


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Bookbinders' Appliances. ^3to countersink the screAv-heads. In the tunnel thusformed insert the chisel with its bevelled edge upwards,as it must always be when in use, and see that ithas a rather loose fit. If it is all right, the cuttingedge will project about | in. at one end, and theshoulder will just fall over the edge at the otherend. In a piece of wood c (Fig. 18), measuring,say, 2 in. by ^ in. by ^ in., make a groove of thesame width as before, but a trifle deeper than thegroove is at B (Fig. 17). Screw this last piece tothe foundation A (Fig. 18) so that the groove en-

Fig. 20.Wedges and Chisel of Home-made Plong'h.closes the chisel just below the shoulder when thechisel is lying in the position above described.Insert a little wedge above the chisel beneath a(Fig. 19) so that the blade is prevented from movingup and down ; also put in wedges at D and E, andone above the chisel at f (see Fig. 20). The wholewill then be perfectly rigid, and the chisel will befirmly fixed in position, though, by taking out thewedges, it can be withdrawn readily for the purposeof sharpening it. Being thus easily removable, itis as useful as ever for other purposes than cuttingbook edges.

The body of the plough is now complete. It is,


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24 Bookbinding.of course, iniondod to be pushed to and fro uponthe right cheek of the press ; but the tool, as itstands, will not cut straiglit through so as to leavea nice flat surface, but will rise until it has madea " hog's-back." To prevent this, provide a bar ofwood H (Figs. 18 and 19), which should be fixed atone end to the top G of the plough, and should restat the other end on a guide-rail J fixed to the topface of the left cheek of the press. The bar shouldbe rigid, say of ^-in. stuff about 8 in. long, and befixed to the plough with two screws. The top sur-fa.ce of the rail must be level with the top face of B(see Fig. 18) ; the easiest way to effect this will beto make the rail J of the same stuff as Fig. 17, andlet it stand at each end on feet L (Fig. 18), made ofthe same stuff as Fig. 16. The bar will then liequite horizontal across the press. Notice, too, thatthe rail J should be set back 1 iu. or more from theinner edge of the left cheek, otherwise it will inter-fere with the " backing " operations.

In working, grasp the body of the plough withthe right hand, and with the left keep the end K(Figs. 18 and 19) of the bar always touching therail. When it is desired to work the plough out-wards, set the detached end of bar k a little out-wards so that the bar shall be at a slight angle, asshown in Fig. 19. Keep it at that angle, and movethe plough from the near end of the book to thefarther end, pressing the chisel edge quite lightlyagainst the book. The first finger of the left hand,as it presses against the side of the rail, will regu-late to a great extent the depth of the cut. If thewoodwork has been properly executed, it will bepossible to work the plough both backwards and for-wards by simply alternating the left end of the bar ;but if there is any unevenness in the woodwork, thechisel edge will not travel both ways in identicallythe same line, but will make two separate cuts. Insuch a case the plough must be worked one way


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Bookbinders' AjtliaiVces. 25onlyifc will not matter which. The edge of thechisel, as used in this case, should act with a draw-ing cut like that of a knife, and not with a thrustingcut like that of a chisel as ordinarily used. Be care-ful, therefore, not to incline the bar more than isshown in the illustration.

It is of the greatest importance that the chiseledge should be kept very sharp and in good shapeby means of grindstone and oilstone. It is alsoimportant that the book edges be screwed up tightin the press. If the press used is an amateur con-trivance of 1-in. stuff worked with screw bolts, asshown by Figs. 18 and 19, fix a little platform forthe plough to run along upon the top of the rightpress cheek, and support the rail on brackets M

Tig. 21Fig. 21.Plough. Fig. 22.Sliding Block for Plough.

fixed to the outer side of the left cheek. A cuttingboard of some sort (not shown) must be placedagainst the left side of the book.The plough shown by Fig. 21 is for use with thelying press shown by Fig. 13, p. 18. It has a screw Amade by threading from one end to the other a pieceof iron wire about No. 4 b.w.g., 8 in. long. Fix awashsr at F with a bit of solder, leaving enough ofthe wire projecting beyond it to pass through thehole in the fiat bar and for a thumb-bolt E to screwon. The wing-nut can be made of brass, with arounded neck and flat wings. Drill and tap it toscrew tightly on to the wire, and leave it beforefixing it on while the bar b is made. Procure8 in. of \-m. by ^ in. fiat iron, and bend about |-in.up at one end, as shown in the sketch. File it up


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26 Bookbinding.perfectly true and smooth all over, and then drilla hole at f for the screw to pass through easily,and drill and countersink two holes at the other endfor the heads of two \\-va.. screws to drop in.(Fig. 21) is the sliding block, and D is an end viewof the runner block. It is important that the slidingblock (Fig. 22, p. 25) be accurate. Get a block ofbrass 1 in. by 1 in. by \\ in., carefully square it up,and then round the top corners a little, as illus-trated. Cut an oblong hole \ in. by \ in. at B forthe bar B (Fig. 21) to pass through. If two holes(not quite \ in. in diameter) are drilled through sideby side, it will be easy, with a small chisel and file,to cut the hole to the desired shape. See that it fitsthe bar wellnot looselyand then drill and tapa hole at a the same size as the screw already made.If the block is slid along the bar till it is againstthe bit that is turned up, the proper position forthe hole will at once be found by passing a needlethrough the hole already in the bar and marking acorresponding circle on the block c. If any doubtexists about getting these holes through accurately,mark the block on both sides, and drill also fromboth sides till the holes meet in the middle. Nextcut the slot C yV i^- deep and | in. wide, dovetailedto fit the bar b. Bevel a bit of good steel, \ in.broad and tV iii- thick, to fit in the block tightly,and, while it is in, drill and tap a hole through it,and also into the block, so that a small screw maybe inserted to keep it from slipping out when itis in use. Make a small scre^v for the purpose juststated, and then proceed to finish the knife (Fig. 23).Be careful, when the screw is put into its place,that it does not project above the surface of theknife, or it will tear the edges of the book as itpa,sses to and fro when in use. The knife is nowrounded at the end, as seen in Fig. 23, and thenbevelled off to the shape shown. Fig. 23 representsit as it would appear if looked at from underneath.


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Bookbinders' jippliances. 27When it has been nicely tempered, it may be fixedin its place in the block. A piece of flat iron, 2i in.long and about \ in. broad, forms a support forthe end of the long screw. This is shown at G(Fig. 21). Near the top drill a hole in which thescrew A revolves, and make two holes for the screwswhich fix it in its place, and the various parts ofthe cutter ai-e ready to be put together. Slide theblock c on to the bar B and the long screw A, andfix the wing-nut on the end by screwing it ontightly, and then secure it by passing a small screwthrough, the neck into the screw A. Now fix the

Fi-. 23Fig. 24

pig. 23.Plough Knife. Fig. 24.Plougn.bar on a piece of 2-in. by 1^-in. wood about 8 in.long and screw on the guide-plate G. It will beadvisable to fix on two pieces of metal, as in Fig.13 (p. 18), to keep the cutter from twisting. Thistool will cut through any book as perfectly as onecosting a hundred times as much.

Still another kind of plough, resembling one pre-viously described, however, is illustrated by Fig.24. To make it, obtain two pieces of seasonedbeech for the sides A, about 8 in. long by 4 in. deep,and \\ in. or 1^ in. thick ; also obtain a |-in. ironscrew and nut with tail, to insert in the side


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28 Bookbinding.opposite to the hanclle. By using a wooden screw,a liole could be tapped in the side piece, and thetrouble of inserting the iron nut would be saved.Two guides c, say 10 inches long and 1 in. square,are fixed in the handle side, say 1^ in. from thebottom : they slide through square holes. A notchis made to receive the cutting knife, as shown at E,so that when put on with two screw nails the knifeis flat with the wood, as will be seen. To ensuremovement in both directions, a hole is boredthrough the screw spindle for the pin and washer.The side now is all of one piece, and will moveout or in as required. It remains to put a slip ofwood or iron on the other side, so that it may holdon to the press bar B while working the ploughbackwards and forwards to cut the edge held in thepress. This hardwood slip is shown at D. x (Fig.24) is the iron which carries the knife, the shape ofwhich is indicated by Y.The guillotine is another kind of cutting machinefor trimming the edges of books. The name of themachine sufficiently explains for the present puiposeits construction and the manner of using it. It isexpensive, and is used for cloth books.The tub is the stand on which the lying press issupported. The sides of the tub are often boardedup for some distance from the floor, to contain theshavings cut from the book edges. A large, openrectangular packing case makes a good tub.A pair of large stout shears (similar to those em-ployed by tinsmiths), one handle of which is held inthe press, the other being worked by the binder,is desii'able when much cutting up of millboards forbook covers has to be done, though a sharp knife,like that used by shoemakers, will answer the pur-pose. It is, of coui'se, obvious that a smooth, hardbed for cutting on must be provided, and, if aknife is used, a steel straightedge or T-square isrequired as a guide for the knife. A grindstone


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Bookbinders' Appliances. 29and oilstone are very economical additions, for allcutting tools must be kejjt sharp.

The holing machine is used for perforating thecovers of books. These holes are intended for thereception of the ends of the bands or cords by whichthe book is attached to its covers ; but a bradawlor a bodkin or a small punch will answer the pur-pose of a holing machine. A tenon saw is requiredfor making the " kerfs," which are grooves or cutsmade across the back of a book to hold the bandsor cords upon which the sheets of the book aresewn. These cuts are made when the book isscrewed up tightly in the lying press.

Backing boards are of very hard wood, as theyhave to resist considerable strain, and are made inpairs, of the usual book sizes. The purpose for whichbacking boards are used, and the shape of the boards(the bevels being somewhat exaggerated for the sakeof clearness), will be seen on reference to Figs. 35and 36, pp. 49 and 51. Cutting boards, as theirname implies, are placed on each side of the bookwhen its edges are cut, and they are not so thickas backing boai'ds. Though both backing boardsand cutting boards can be made by an amateur, heis advised to purchase a pair of backing boards toserve as a pattern for those he maj^ afterwardsmake.

Sundry small tools include one or two pairs ofscissors, a sharp-pointed knife for squaring platesthat is, single-leaf illustrationslarge sewing

I needles, a small wooden tub for thick paste and anearthenwai-e vessel for thin paste, a large glue-potfor thin glue and a smaller pot for thick glue, withbrushes for applying both paste and glue, sprinklepot (any large stoneware vessel or gallipot will do),a sprinkle-brush, Avhich must be a well-made brushwith a stout wrought-iron ferrule (not a bit of com-mon hoop ii'on, but a ferrule made by a smith), anagate burnisher, that known as a dog's tooth being


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3 Bookbinding.ihe most useful, a backing hammer, a small roundmarble slab and paring knife, one or two bentpointed folding-sticks, and a pair of iron compasses.Many of these tools, or such as may very well besubstituted for them, ai'e already possessed by themajority of amateur Avorkers. Other tools may beconstructed, or may be purchased second-hand ofprinters' brokers. An ingenious amateur will con-trive many mechanical aids for facilitating his workas soon as he understands the purpose to be ac-complished. An expensive plant, therefore, is notabsolutely necessary to enable anyone to begin

Fig. 25.Strawboard Cutter.bookbinding. It is, however, obvious that propertools and machines lessen labour and save time.

It is possible that particulars of a machine forcutting strawboard, cardboard, etc., may be useful.The appliance shown by Fig. 25 consists of a woodor iron table A resting on a framework and four legs.On the table are gauges, which can be so adjustedthat the operator can cut the boards to any size re-quired. Close to the edge of the table is a clampto hold the boards in position while being cut. Thisclamp is worked by the foot, a treadle being pro-vided at the bottom of the legs, near the floor. Theboards are cut between two knives, one, B, beingscrewed flush to the edge of the table, and theother, c, being movable and screwed to the lever.


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Bookbinders' Appliances. 31The edges of the knives are bevelled like scissorblades ; in fact, the machine is simply a large pairof scissors. A balance weight at the end of themovable arm carries the knife and keeps it in posi-tion. Both knives should be made of steel, and intempering them avoid getting them too hard, orthey vrill be liable to chip. Fig. 26 represents thegauge A on top of the table. This gauge is simplyan Lshaped piece of metal ; the shorter branchof the L is bent to lie close to the edge of the table.A slot almost the entire length of the gauge is cut inthe latter. A thumbscrew screws into the edge ofthe table and fastens the gauge in i30sition. The

Fig. 26.Gang'e of Strawboard Cutter.other portion of the gauge lies flat on the table. Theclamp is a light casting shaped like Fig. 27, p. 32.It is fitted to the table close up to the knife B(Fig. 25). A short rod is fixed at one end of theclamp and a longer rod at the other end, ending ina stirrup for the foot. These rods are fitted withsprings which raise the clamp and hold it up untilthe foot is placed in the stirrup. A little pressureon the stiiTup brings down the clamp and holdsthe board while it is being cut. Th'3 stiiTup shouldreach almost to the floor for convenience of work-ing. The side of the table and the front of thegauge must be a perfect right angle, otherwisedifficulty will be experienced in cutting the boardsstraight. Strips of iron, not quite | in. thick andperfectly straight on the inner edges, are screwed


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32 Bookbinding.to the top of the table as shown. The strawboai-clis pLaced against these strips and the gauge when

Fig. 27.Clamp of Strawboard Cutter.cutting, the clamp is applied, and the knife broughtdown forcibly. Such a machine is in general useamongst bookbinders, paper-box makers, etc.

Bookbinders use large quantities of glue in theirwork, and doubtless much time would be saved byemploying some such preparation as " Glooithlex," anelastic glue, guaranteed by the makers to be strongand reliable. As bought, it has the smell and appear-ance of consistent glue-jelly, and the only preparationneeded is to melt it by heating it on a water bath, andthen add boiling water according to requirements.


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33

CHAPTER II.FOLDING PRINTED BOOK SHEETS.

The first operation in bookbinding is folding theprinted sheets, and it requires great care if the book:is to have a good appearance when bound. It isusual for printers to leave more margin to the out-sides of the sheet, so that when the sheets havebeen folded the margin will be broader at the fore-edge and tail than at the head and back. The headand back are always at the fold, the tail and fore-edge being towards the outside of the sheet. Ifthe paper presents any little difference in size, the,two latter edges being cut first in the process ofbinding, the difference will then be taken off, andthe margin will be the same all round.

The plan adopted is to fold to the pages of print,and not to the edge of the paper, for the least varia-tion in the size of the sheet would result in aspoiled book.

Papers are made in various sizes, and are knownby the following terms : Imperial (30 in. by 22 in.),royal (25 in. by 20 in.), demy (22-|- in. by IV^ in.),crown (20 in. by 15 in.), foolscap (17 in. by 13^ in.),and pott (15 in. by 12^ in.) ; and the sizes of booksare denominated according to the number of leavesinto which the sheet is folded. The ordinary sizesare folio, 4to, 8vo, 12mo, 16mo, 24mo, and 32mo.A sheet, when folded, has twice as many pages asleaves, for the obvious reason that it is printed onboth sides. In speaking of the size of The Quiver,for example, it is said to be royal octavo (8vo), be-cause the sheet has been folded to one-eighth itsoriginal size, and has sixteen pages. The octavo is

o


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34 Bookbinding.Ihe most general size of a book, and the type matteris so imposed that, when the sheet is folded, thesixteen pages will follow consecutively.

In the early days of printing only a few pagescould be printed at one operation. Now, however,the number of pages that can be printed on onesheet of paper is only limited by the size of theprinting machine. But, as a matter of convenience,the sheets the binder has to deal with usually con-sist of 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, or 128 pages, the number ofpages that are folded into one sheet depending onthe price afc which the book is to be sold. In thebest work, the sheets do not contain more thansixteen pagesthat is, eight pages on each sideof a sheet of paper ; and each sixteen pages iscalled a section or sheet. At the bottom of one ofthe pages (the first numerically) of each sheet isprinted a letter or figure, known as the signature ;this is the guide when folding, and, as the lettersor figures follow each other consecutively, the plac-ing of the sheets in their proper order when sewingthem is thus ensured. Thus, when the sheets in awork each consist of sixteen pages, the signatureswill be found at the foot of pp. 1, 17, 33, 49, etc.The manner of folding is as follows : A printed sheet(say, pp. 1 to 16) is laid on a table in front of theoperator, that side of the sheet containing p. 1 (thesignature side) lying in contact with the table.Page 2 backs p. 1, and p. 2 should be the cornerpage close to the operator's left-hand (see Fig. 28).The comer page at the foldei-'s right-hand is p. 3.The object to be obtained is to fold the sheet overin such a way as to place the figure 3 exactly on thetop of the figure 2. If this is properly done, theprinted lines on p. 3 will lie exactly on the printedlines on p. 2. line for line, and when the book isbound the white margins round the print on eachpage will all be of the same relative widths, thefront and the bottom margins being always wider


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Folding Printed Book Sheets. 35than the top and the inside margins. The resultof the first fold is shown by Fig. 29. The secondfold brings pp. 5 and 12 over on to pp. 4 and 13 ;the result of this fold is shown by Fig. 30. Thethird fold brings p. 9 on to p. 8, the folded sheet istui-ned over, and the result seen by Fig. 31. Thefirst page is p. 1, containing the signature, in thiscase the letter A, and the last page of the sheet isp. 16. All folding operations follow this generalplan of doubling over the sheet for each fold ; tothis rule there are, of course, a few exceptions, butthese are easily recognised. Before beginning tofold, the folder should ascertain how many pages

I


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36 Bookbinding.folded independently of each other in the manneralready described, and when the inset is insertedp. 9 follows p. 8, and p. 25 follows p. 24. This isthe general rule applicable to all insets of thischaracter. Exceptions to this rule may, of course,occur, but these exceptions would probably becaused by the limited plant of the printer who pro-duced the book. A sheet may consist of severalinsets, but the signatures would follow the rulealready stated. The worker must be always on thelook-out for things of this kind. Figures as wellas letters are used as signature marks ; whereletters are used, the first sheet of the book (exclud-ing the title and contents) sometimes begins with cinstead of A, and the letters J and v ai-e not used inall cases. The folder is held in the right hand, andis used for smoothing the folds, etc. Creasing andpuckering of the folds must be guarded againstthese mishaps readily occur if the folder is notprojoerly used.

In order the better to describe the further stagesof binding, let it be supposed that the operator isdealing with one book consisting of nineteen sec-tions, each section, except the title sheet, whichconta,ins eight pages only, consisting of sixteenpages. This will give a total of 288 pages of textand eight pages of introductoiy matter, consisting oftitle page, px*eface, and contents. The signaturesof the sheets, omitting the letter J, will run fromB to T, and the title sheet will not contain a signa-ture. The sheets must be placed in their properorder, and the folded edges, which will be theheads and the backs of the sections, brought levelby knocking them up on the table. The embryobook may now be placed in the press between acouple of boards, and subjected to pressure in orderthat the sheets may lie closely together.

In large establishments, folding is done bymachinery, without which it would be impossible


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Folding Printed Book Sheets. 37for the enormous quantities of work to be turnedout There are a great many machines in themarket, and it would be difficult to say which isbest. Nearly all bookbinders' engineers manufac-ture folding machines, and some are manufacturedwith special features to suit certain requirements.Cundall's is a very good machine, which does itswork well without any special attention, and willdo two, three, or four folds. It has a nice tidydelivery, and is easily set from one size to another.Its speed is close on 1,700 per hour, so that, witha very ordinary feeder, it will fold 1,500 sheets perhour. The Salmon machine acts much on the sameprinciple. The name of Martini is well known inEngland in connection with the Maxtini-Henryrifle, but on the Continent his name is still morefamous for the invention of the single and duplexfolding machine ; and a wonderful machine it is,folding sheets of paper by means of a series ofcross metal knives, folding true to register, anddelivering in a trough already knocked up. Bindersin this country were slow in adopting this class ofmachine. With the tape machine there always isa large number of re-folds at the end of the day'swork, and there is the risk of a tape breaking at anav/kward moment. Both of these evils are entirelyobviated by the Martini folders, for there is not aninch of moving tape used to carry the sheet fromfold to fold. Two girls feed the machine ; theystand each with a pile of sheets below her hand,at the ends of the machine, feeding them one byone to the points or gauges. The sheet is carriedimmediately to the centre of the table, first fromone side, then from the other, the knife going upand down away from where the girls are standing,causing the sheet to disappear. Such a machinecan get through an enormous quantity of work.


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38

CHAPTER III.BEATING AND SEAVINQ.

It has already been suggested (see p. 11) that beat-ing is now confined almost wholly to small offices,although in special cases it may be adopted evenwhen a rolling machine is generally used. Beatingis, however, the cheapest process for the amateur.The object of beating is to make the leaves of abook lie close together, so that the volume whenbound may be as solid as though it were one singleblock. Mere pressing alone will not do this. Inbeating, the bookbinder stands before the beatingslab, holding in his left hand a bundle of as manysections of the book as he deems advisable tooperate upon at once, say, from five up to ten orfifteen, according to the thickness of the paper.The bundle of sheets is beaten for some time withthe hammer, which has already been described. Theproper use of the beating hammer requires somuch manual dexterity that it is advisable to prac-tise beating with a few folded sheets of blankpaper. The handle is gi'asped with the right hand,with the big knuckles downward and the wristcurved. The wrist and hand are then slightlytwisted so as to give the face of the hammer anupward turn that almost permits the operator tosee the face of the hammer. Then, by a downwardturn, the hammer is allowed to descend on the work.The blow must be given with very little more forcethan is furnished by the weight of the hammer.The hammer must not by any chance fall edgewiseon the sheets ; if it does, many leaves will be cutthi-ough, and the work spoilt. The bundle of sheets


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Beating and Seiv/ng. 39must be constantly shifted and evenly struck allover, and a sheet of stiff, smooth paper, placed atthe top and bottom of the bundle, will keep thesheets clean. The solidity of a bound book dependson the amount of beating or rolling it receives.

If it is necessary to bind very recently printedsheets, they must not be beaten or rolled ; norshould this be done if the ink is so wet as to smear,or the ink will set off, as it is technically termed ;that is, the printing on each page will be partlytransferred to the facing page, and both pages willbe somewhat illegible. The sheets of a new workshould, before they are folded, be hung on lines ina dry, well-ventilated room till the ink is thoroughlydry. Test the sheets by placing a piece of whitepaper on a printed page ; rub the paper hard witha folder or the finger nail, and if there is then nosign of setting off, the sheets may safely be beatenor rolled.Many bookbinders who possess a rolling machinewill probably loll an amateur's work at a very smallcost. There are also houses that do rolling for thetrade. Beating, however, will answer very well.Indeed, very old books should on no account berolled ; the paper on which they are printed beinguneven in thickness, and the actual printing havingbeen done under varying degrees of pressure, care-ful beating must take the place of rolling, or thework will be spoilt. After the sheets of a bookhave been beaten a few at a time, all the sheets ofthe volume should be beaten together and thenplaced once more for a short time in the standingpress.

Cutting with a saw several kerfs or channelsacross the back of the book is the next operation,and this is to allow of sewing. In order to do this,the book (either one or many) is screwed up in thelying press, either between pressing boards or back-ing boards, which are placed slightly below the


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40 BoOKBlNDIMs.level of the bark to allow the cut to be made. If aIjing press is not available, an ordinary carpenter'sbench will answer the purpose. The back of thebook is, according to its size, now divided into acertain number of spaces, mostly equal ; but owingto a common optical illusion, in order that all thespaces shall appear to be of the same size, thebottom space must be about \ in. larger than theothers. At the points of division lines are drawnacross the back of the book, and these lines markthe bands or cords on which the book is to be sewn,through, for ornamental purposes, books are oftenmarked up for, say, five bands and only sewn onthree, the dummy bands being fastened on when thebook receives its cover. In flexible work the backis not sawn in except for the kettle stitch or catch-ing stitch, the bands or cords being outside the sheet,the thread being sewn around them. In the otherkind, the back is sawn across at the pla.ces marked,the cut for the kettle stitch being very shallow,only deep enough, in fact, to take a chain stitch ofsingle thread. Octavos ai'e generally sawn for fivebands ; larger or smaller books have more or fewerbands, according to size, because in the largerbooks the number of leaves in a section are few,and the thread has less s,ubstance to hold on tothan in the smaller books.The twine or string used for the bands variesin size according to the size; of the book ; it isnamed after it, and is sold by that name. In thecase of large books, where the cord is thick, a planthat has been successfully adopted is to use twopieces of thin cord instead of one thick piece. Thismethod has much to recommend it.

The cuts, which are made with a tenon saw,should be perfectly level, should not be deeper onone side than on the other, and should be justlarge enough to receive and hide the cord If thesaw has a thin blade, it should be inclined just a


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Beating and Sewing. 41little alternately to the right and to the left, so asto widen the bottom of the kerf. Fig. 32 shows thesaw kerfs.

Sewing books is very simple, but somewhat

MEAD isyi^iiM

TAIL

llllllllllll

CATCHINGSTITC

) BANDS

Fig. 32.Saw Kerfs m Back of Book.


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42 Bookbinding.dilUculb to describe clearly. The amateur shouldendeavour to obtain some practical instruction inthe art. The sewing press and keys are illustratedby Figs. 4 to 10, pp. 13 to 16 ; the other requisitesare cord for the bands, thread, needles, and a coupleof folding-sticks. The cross-bar of the press hav-ing been screwed up to the proper height, the re-quired number of loops of string are fastened roundit. To each of the loops a length of cord is attachedby a bow knot that can readily be untied, and theother end of the cord then is wound round a key,which is pushed lengthwise through a long slot inthe front of the bed of the sewing press, and thenturned crosswise to it below, so as to remain in thatposition. The bands are adjusted to correspondAvith the saw kerfs in the back of the book, and thecross-bar of the sewing press is screwed up by turn-ing the wooden nuts on each screw until the bandsare taut. The press is placed on the edge of abench of suitable height, and the sewer sits beforeit in such a position that the left arm rests on thebed of the press (see Fig. 33). Bookbinders' thread,which must be of good quality, is supplied by thedealers in bookbinders' materials, as are also theneedles. If only one book is to be sewn it will befound convenient to raise it from the bed of thepress by placing another book under it. It is, ofcourse, a saving of time in the preparation of thework to sew at one sitting as many books as thepress will hold. The first and the last sections ofa book should be overcast, this being generally donewith fine cotton. The sewer lifts the first sectionof the book from the pile of sawn sheets on thebench. This, which will be the title sheet (con-sisting of the title page and contents), is placedface downward on the bed of the press so thatthe several cords enter their respective saw chan-nels. The head of the book is at the sewer's righthand. The needle is passed into the saw cut for


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Beating and Sewing. 43the kettle stitch at the tail of the book, then passedalong the middle of the section and out at the nearside of the first cord. The needle next enters onthe farther side of the cord, passes along the middleof the section to the centre cord, and out on thenear side. The needle again enters on the fartherside of this cord, passes along the middle of thesection to the third or top band, and is brought outon the near side. The needle is then inserted on

5^'Fio-. 33.Sewinj? Book.

the farther side of this cord, passes along themiddle of the section, and comes out at the side ofthe kerf made for the top kettle stitch. The threadnow runs along the centre of the section from kettlestitch to kettle stitch, except where the cords occur,where it passes round the outside of them. It isobvious that by this process the sheet is securelyattached to the bands or cords. The thread is nowdrawn tight and smooth, about 1 in. of the endbeing left protrudiag from the lower kettle stitch.The second sheet of the book (which will be signa-


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44 Bookbinding.turc B if the first section had a signature, otherwiseit will be signature a) is laid face downward uponthe first sheet. The needle is inserted at the topkettle stitch, and the sewing is done in the sameAvay as with the first sheet, except that the needletravels towards instead of from the sewer. Havingbrought the needle out of the opening for the lowerkettle stitch and pulled the thread tightly alongthe section, the slack of the thread is firmly knottedto the end thread left hanging from the kettle stitch,the knot being made twice for greater security. Theremainder of the sheets will be sewn " tw^o on,"except the last two sheets, which are sewn on likethe first two sheets. In sewing two on, the sheet cis laid on the two sheets already sewn, and thethread, which has not been detached from A and B,is passed from the tail kettle stitch of c to the firstband along the centre of the section. A folder isthen put in the middle of the section to mark theplace. Section D is then laid on c and is sewnfrom the farther side of the first band to the nearside of the third one ; then section c, the middle ofwhich is easily found by the folder, is sewn alongfrom the third band to the head kettle stitch, twosections being thus secured by a single passage ofthe needle from tail to head, or xic^ versa. Thesetwo sheets are secured at the head or the tail, bymaking a kettle stitch. This is effected by passingthe needle under the section a-lready sewn, upthrough the loop thus formed by the thread, andthen upwards until the knot is drawn tight, takingcare that the stitch is kept in the saw mark cut forit, and that it does not tear the back of the section.When the needleful of thread is finished, it mustnot be fastened off on the book, but the secondneedleful must be knotted to the first so that thebook is sewn with one length of thread.

Fig. 34 may help to explain a method of sewing"two on." A, B, and c represent the first three


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Beating and Sewing. 45sheets ; 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 the saw-marks and theposition of the bands. The small letters, if takenin alphabetical order, will show the outs and insof the needle. Thus in at a, A, out at h, in at c,

10


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46 Bookbinding.out at I, c ; in at m, b ; out at n, B ; in at o, c ;out at p, c : and fasten. The diagram has little ofthe appearance of a book on the bench, its pur-pose being to show intricate matter plainly andsimply.

The method of sewing just described is thatwhich is used for non flexible workthat is, forbooks in which the back of the cover is not gluedto the backs of the sheets. In non-flexible work,when the book is opened the back of the coverforms an arch, leaving a space between it and theback of the book, but in flexible work the back ofthe book adheres to the cover. For flexible workthe back is mai'ked up, but is not sawn in, the cordor band being laid on the back of the book and notembedded in the sheets. The marks for the kettlestitches are sawn slightly, as in the case of non-flexible work. In sewing, the needle is passed inat the right-hand kettle-stitch hole ; the left handinside the section takes the needle and thrusts itout of the left side of the mark for the first band,and with the right-hand the needle is taken andthrust in on the right-hand side of the same band, sothat the band or cord is encircled with the thread.The same operation is repeated at each band, andthe needle finally brought out at the left-handkettle-stitch hole. The other sheets are sewn inthe same manner.

It is hardly necessary to point out that in flexiblework the cord on which the books are sewn will,if no corrective measures are adopted, be seenthrough the leather covering. When it is desirablethat the cords should not be seen, the spaces be-tween the cords are levelled up with paper so thatthe back presents a smooth apjoearance. Thelevelling up is much easier when the sewing is donewith strong tape instead of cord.When several books of the same size are to bebound, they are usually sewn in the one stack. The


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Beating and Sewing. 47cords, which are kept sufficiently long for the pur-pose, are then drawn out between the volumes andcut off so as to leave about \\ in. of cord projectingat each side of the back, a three-band book havingthus half a dozen ends. A few experiments in sew-ing will very soon demonstrate the fact that thekettle stitches pull the head and tail of the booktogether, and the thread swells out the middle.Care must be taken, therefore, that the kettlestitches are not pulled together too tightly, and theswelling must be counteracted by frequently beat-ing down the back with a heavy folding-stick.Attention must also be paid to the thickness of thethread used in sewing ; when the sections are thin,the thread must be thin.

Overcasting is used when a number of singleleaves have to be bound into a book, the plan beingas follows : Having ascertained that the pages followeach other in proper order, the book is knocked upcarefully at the head and the back and placed inthe lying press between two boards, the back pro-jecting about \ in. above the pressing boards. Theback is roughed with a saw and sawn in, after whichthin glue is brushed over the back, and the book isleft to dry. When dry, the book is pulled apartin sections, each section consisting of eight or six-teen pages, according to the size and other charac-teristics of the work. Each section is then over-sewn along the back, the thread being fastened offat each endthat is, at the head or foot of the page.This is known as overcasting ; after this the sectionsare hammered lightly to embed the thread. Thisoperation must be performed carefully, or the threadwill be cut. Then these sections are sewn in theordinaiy way, like other books. The first and thelast two sheets of a book generally are overcast tolessen the possibility of their being tora away, bythe weight of the covers, from the other sheets.


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48

CHAPTER IV.EOUNDING, BACKING, AND COVER CUTTING.

At the beginning and end of almost any book is a leafof plain or lolain and coloured paper popularly knownas fly-leaves, but by the bookbinders called endpapers. These end papers generally consist of acouple of stout leaves of coloured paper, one ofwhich is pasted down to the cover of the book, andthe other is a loose or fly-leaf ; there may also beanother fly-leaf of white paper. End papers aremade by pasting sheets of white and coloured papertogether. The coloured paper, which is speciallymade for this purpose, may be purchased with otherbookbinding materials. The colour of the endpaper is governed by the binding and by the colourof the edges of the book. The ends of the bands onwhich the book is sewn should be untwisted toseparate the fibres by the aid of a bodkin and dullknife ; an end paper is then affixed to each side ofthe book by pasting the back for a short way in.When the end papers are dry, the books should beknocked up perfectly square at the head and backby striking them on the cheek of the lying press,the backs being lightly but completely gluedover. The glue should not be too thick, and thebrush should be worked well in between the sec-tions. The glue should then be allowed to set.

In the process of rounding the binder takes abook on which the glue has set, but is still plastic,and gently tapping each side of the back alternatelywith the backing hammer, aided by a drawing move-ment of the fingers of his left hand, which holdsthe book, upon the upper end paper, and a pressure


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Rounding, Backing, and Cover Cutting. 49of his left thumb against the centre of the foreedge, the binder deftly gives a slight regular curva-ture to the back. It is upon this curvature of theback that the beauty of a well-bound book depends.For example, it is the convexity of the back thatcauses the agreeable concavity of the fore edge, andadds much to the effect of the finishing or gildedornamentation of the volume.

Backing is the next operation, and is intendedto render the rounding of the back more regular,and generally to consolidate it. The book, with abacking board on each side, is placed in the lying

Fig. 35.Method of Backing Book.press, the highest part of the thick edge of theboard being within a short distance of the foldededge of the ejad paper, just enough space being leftto form the joint or groove in which the board ofthe cover works. The size of this groove dependson the thickness of the cover board, which is, ofcourse, governed by the size of the book. The book,with its boards, is carefully lowered into the press,level with the upper surface of the cheeks, andscrewed up tightly. The book is then struck alongthe back in order to spread it, and afterwards care-fully hammered up and down each side with the


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5 Bookbinding.pene or face of the hammer (see Fig. 35) until theback has become solid, smooth, and well curved ;it must also overhang the backing boards so as toform a well-defined groove on each side for thereception of the cover boards. At this stage of theoperations the book should present in section theappearance shown in Fig. 36, where, however, forclearness, the grooves are somewhat exaggerated.

Cutting the boards or side covers of the book isthe next step. The early bookbinders used woodfor the side covers of their books, and the namehas survived, though the material has changed.These wooden covers were often elaborately carved,and many specimens are still in existence. Deer'shide, silk, velvet, and, later on, leather, were after-wards used to cover up the wood. The materialemployed for ordinary leather binding at the presentday is millboard.

The better qualities of millboard are made ofsound old rope or cordage, and the boards aremanufactured of different thicknesses, and are verytough. The darker the colour of the boards thebetter is the quality. Cheap millboards are adul-terated with clay, which gives substance and weightto the boards, but does not impart tenacity. Mill-boards improve by keeping, and should not be usedfresh from the mill. They are made in a variety ofsizes and thicknesses, much in the way that printingpapers are. What is termed " tip " is the thinnestvariety, and is scarcely thicker than stout brownpaper. This kind is useful for flexible bindings.The largest and stoutest millboards are principallyemployed by the portmanteau makers.

Strawboards are largely used for cheap work.As their name implies, they are made of straw, arevery smooth and compact, but are so extremelybrittle as to be useless for any purpose but clothbinding, cheap Bibles, and other common work. Theamateur should not use them. The covers can be


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Rounding^ hacking, and Cover Cutting. 51set out with the compasses, and marked off with abodkin on a sheet of millboard of suitable thickness,and cut up into boards of the proper size, eitherwith the millboard shears or with a sharp knife andstraightedge.

For the better class of leather work, the requiredthickness of millboards is frequently made up bypasting two boards together, the inside board beingthinner than the outer one. These made boardswarp a little inwards, and this ensures a shapelycover that clings closely to the book. Single-boardcovers are, with the same purpose of slightly warp-ing them, lined with paper. Lining should neverbe omitted. Unless the boards can be cut withshears or knife true and square at the edges, the

Fig. 36.Book and Backing Boards in Lying Press.boards should be cut with the plough. The amateurwill probably find it cheaper at first, at any rate,to get his covers cut for him, and he shouldkeep a pair of covers by him as a pattern. Thecovers of a book must be a little larger than thebook itself after its edges are cut, and the squares,as these projecting portions of the cover are called,must be ascertained and allowed for by measuringwith the compasses.

In lacing on or drawing in, a cut cover is placedin the correct position on each side of the book,and the positions of the bands are marked on itwith the bodkin. Two holes slightly inclinedtowards each other for each band are made at themarked places, one from the outside, near the edgeof the boards, and another from the inside, some-


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5 2 Bookbinding.what farther in. These holes can be made with abodkin, piercer, or awl, with or without the aid of ahammer, or with the holing machine (see p. 29).The bands, which have been previously untwistedand fluffed out, then are pasted slightly, twirled upto a point, passed through the holes in the boards(those nearest the edge being taken first), anddrawn tight. The protruding ends are then cut offtolerably close to the board and knocked down flatwith the hammer and left to dry and set. The bandslaced through the millboard are knocked down withthe backing hammer on an iron plate (termed theknocking-down iron). The book is tapped along thesides of the back with the backing hammer in orderto restore the proper curvature if it has been im-paired at all during lacing in.In the process of scratching up or raking, thebooks, with their backs protruding, are placed be-tween pressing boards and stacked up in the stand-ing press, which is screwed down tightly. Afterlightly pasting the back of each book, a " scratcherup " (Fig. 37) is drawn several times with some forcedown the back, care being taken, however, not tocatch or break the kettle stitches or the stitchesover the bands. The backs are pasted again andthen scx'atched diagonally from left to right, andthen from right to left, being pasted after eachscratching, and the paste is well rubbed into thegrooves made by the scratches. It is then rubbedoS, and the backs are smoothed with an old cuttingboard, and wiped clean with a wisp of paper shav-ings. A light coat of glue is given to each back,and the batch of books is left in the press for sometime, preferably all night. This operation givesstrength and firmness to the backs of the books.

Lining up gives stability and smoothness to theback of a book, and it consists of gluing severalthicknesses of paper on to it. For the first fewthicknegises, good, smooth brown paper will do, but


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Rounding^ Backing, and Coiner Cutting. 53stout cartridge paper is best for the last layer, asit offers a smoother surface to which to paste theleather. The back of the book and the hold-onback of the cover are both lined, as may be seenon examining a leather-bound volume. Flexiblework is not lined, the leather being glued directlyto the book.Headbands are purchased by the foot or yard atany bookbinders' material warehouse, at pricesvai-ying according to the depth and quality of theband. These headbands are specially woven, andare cut up in pieces the width of the thickness of

UNAFi^. 37.Scratching-up tooL

the book, allowing for the curve of the back, andare glued on top and bottom, the woven patterncoming level or flush with the edges. A referenceto any well-bound book will at once explain theoperation. Headbands are sometimes worked byhand, silk and gold and silver thread being used.The foundation may be of any substantial material.The best way to learn to make a headband will beto take an old one to pieces.

In all whole binding, and in good half moroccoor half calf, it is usual to affix raised artificial bandsto the back of the book. In the early days of book-


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54 BOOKFIXDINC.binding, saw kerfs were not made on the back ofbooks, and the cords on which the sheets were sewnformed prominent ridges across the back after thebook was covered with leather. The actual bandsare never left protruding now, except in the so-called elastic work, but as raised bands take off themonotony of a plain flat back and afford scope tothe finisher, artificial bands are affixed to the backsof well-bound books, the number of bands depend-ing on the size of the book. For octavos, five isa usual number. The bottom band is farther fromthe tail than the top one is from the head, a,nd thisallows for the extra fillet in finishing, which isworked twice at the tail and only once at the head.Bands are usually made of narrow strips of solidstout leather carefully cut, all of one width andthickness. The space between the bands should beset off on the back with compasses, and the bandssecurely glued on. When this has been done thebook is ready for covering.


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55

CHAPTER V.CUTTING BOOK EDGES.

Cutting the edges is performed with the plough atthe lying press. The operation is termed cutting inboards. The plough knife should be carefully groundand whetted, or good work cannot be done. Thehead or top of the book is cut first, the back beingtowards the operator. A cutting board is placedbehind the book, and a straight runner along themillboard and level with its edge ; the book is thenplaced level in the press, which is screwed uptightly. When the head has been cut, the tail orbottom of the book is treated in a similar manner.

These operations are simple enough, but cuttingthe fore edge or front of the book presents moredifficulty, as it is necessary that the curved backshould first be rendered flat. This is an operationthat requires considerable care, and if the amateurcannot obtain a little personal instruction on thispoint he is likely to spoil many books. The opera-tor holds the book in his left hand, permitting theboards to fall back flat, and passes a piece of stringonce or several times round the book. He thenpushes a couple of pieces of thin bevelled irontermed trindles (see Fig. 38, p. 57) between thebook and the boards at the head and at the tail.Taking the book between the palms of his hands,the operator now beats the back of the bookquite flat on the cheek of the press, the cordand trindles helping to keep the back flat.Having made the book flat, and having markedthe front edge of the book back and front, theoperator places a cutting board level with the


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56 Bookbinding.mark at the back of the book, and another cuttingboard, or a long, straight runner, a little below theline on the front (or right hand), and, striking outthe trindles, lowers the book into the cutting press,tlie millboards hanging down. The distance belowthe mark at which the runner is placed must beequivalent to the desired square for the board atthe fore edge. When the volume is in the press, ifit has been kept level, the runner must be levelwith the right-hand cheek, and the other cuttingboard must stand up for the distance of the size ofthe square above the left-hand cheek. When thebook is correctly fixed, the press is screwed uptightly, and the front edge of the book is cut withthe plough as before. When the book is taken outof the press the back will resume its convex shape,and the fore edge should present a regular con-cavity.As the cutting of the edges of the book is a veryimportant operation, the following points must beremembered. The edges must be squai^e with theprinted lines on the page, and should not betrimmed more than is necessary. The margins ofwhite paper on a page must bear a certain propor-tion to each other. The printer, when preparingthe pages for printing, settled the margins for thejoage, and fixed also the proportions. The bindercannot improve on this arrangement, but he canspoil it altogether by bad cutting. The white paperat the top of a page, measured from the type (ex-cluding the headline) to the edge of the paper, andthe white paper at the front of a page, measuredfrom the type to the edge of the paper, should beof equal width ; the white paj)er at the bottom ofthe page, measured from the type to the edge of thepaper, should be about one-fourth more than thefront or the top margin. Thus, if the front marginand the top margin are each 1 in., the bottom mar-gin should be \\ in. ; the back margin in such a case


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Cutting Book Edges. 57would be I in., and as this margin cannot betrimmed, the width of it compared with the othermargins shows at once whether the book has beenprbperly cut. It will be readily understood nowthat good and accurate folding is of the greatestimportance, because the cutting of the edges of abook magnifies any errors committed in folding.The trained eye, however, is a better guide for mar-gins than the measuring tape. The book covers

Figr. 38.Book tied up for Cutting.must be absolutely square to the paper, as the paperis to the print; the covers must not overhang thebook too much, and the amount of overhang mustbe in the same proportion (the difference, of course,is only enough to be just perceptible) as the marginis to the printed page.

Books bound in cloth or in other cheap styleshave their edges cut on the guillotine, as the useof the plough is too expensive for cheap repetitionwork.


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58

CHAPTER VI.COVERING BOOKS.

Books may be covered eithe** with leather or withcloth ; leather may be used either to cover theentire book, which is termed whole binding, or astrip of leather may be applied to the back only,and small pieces of leather affixed to the corners,which is termed half binding. For whole bindingthe leather should be cut of sufficient size to coverthe book and to allow about an inch all round toturn over. For half binding a strip of leather ofthe desired width and rather longer than the bookshould be cut for the back, and four small piecesfor the corners. The edges of the leather then mustbe very carefully pared or skived, so that no un-sightly ridges can be seen. When the leather ispasted on the covers of the book the paring is doneby laying the leather (flesh side uppermost) flat on amarble slab or smooth piece of board, and takingoff a slanting shaving with the paring knife, whichshould be very sharp.

Suppose that an octavo volume is to be boundin whole morocco. The leather cover, properlypared round the edges, and rather farther in atthose places that will come at the head and tail ofthe back, is carefully and completely coated all overon the flesh side with thick paste, and placed onthe work bench with the pasted side upward, andone of the narrow edges towards the operator. Thebook to be covered is taken up and the boards areadjusted so that the squares are correct at the headand tail. Those portions of the string bands thathave not been laced into the boards are lightly


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Covering Books. 59touched with thick paste ; some binders also makea practice of brushing over the back with thin glue.The book is laid down on its side in the properplace on the pasted cover, with the back from theoperator. The lower flap of the leather is drawnover the upper millboard and turned in at the foreedge ; and when this is done the book is turned overand the other side of the leather also turned in atthe fore edge. The book is then rested on its foreedge and the leather worked tight at the back withthe fingers of both hands, as shown at Fig. 39. Inthis operation the leather is not only drawn closeand tight to the back crosswise by pushing it down-

Fig. 39.Tightening Leather on Back of Book.ward on the millboards at each side of the book,but it is also drawn tight longitudinally towards thehead and tail. The book next is laid on its side.Each band should be raised alternately, and theleather drawn tightly over its surface and rubbeddown with the palm of the hand or the folder tillquite level. The leather has now to be turned inat the head and the tail. For this purpose the bookis stood on one end and the flap of leather A (Fig.40, p. 60) turned over the end of the bands and alsoover the loose fold of the paper which lines the back.The other end of the book is treated similarly. Itnow remains to turn in the corners. For this pur-pose the leather is cut off diagonally to within


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6o Bookbinding.rather less than ^ in. of the corner. This is bentback from the book, a cutting-board placed under it,and the diagonal edges are carefully pared andafterwards pasted. The leather is accuratelydoubled in level with the board at the head or tail,as the case may be, and the part A (Fig. 41) pressedtight to the other surface of the leather as shown.Both the folder and the thumbnail can aid in bring-ing the leather close and level. The flap of leatherB is turned over and rubbed so that it adheres tothe board. The leather above the headband at

Fig. 40.Turning in Leather at Head and Tail of Book.both the head and tail of the book is now pulled upa little if necessary, rubbed quite smooth withthe points of a folder, then turned down over theheadband and rubbed with the folder until it main-tains its place. This double fold of leather a.bovethe headband is termed the cap of the headband,and Fig. 42 shows a section through both headbandand cap. During the operation of covering, so thatthorough contact may be ensured, the leather on theback should be well pressed and rubbed down withthe hand and the folding-stick. The edge of the


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Covering Books. 6ifolder also should be rubbed carefully on each sideof the bands to force the leather in at these anglesand make them clean and sharp. The book is thentied up and left, generally for a night, till the

k (?L.

FijiFig-. 41 Fig. 42

41.Turning in Corners of Leather. Fig. 42.Sectionthrough Headband and Cap.

paste has set. Tying up is effected by first tightlytying a loop of packthread lengthways round thebook at the joints ; that is, at that part of the book

Fig. 43.Book tied up in Boards.where the boards are hinged to the back. Astronger piece of twine then is wound several timesround the book, so that it passes on each side ofeach band, as shown at Fig. 43. A pair of backingor cutting boards should be tied at the fore end of


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62 Bookbinding.the book as shown, to prevent the string markingthe leather.

Covering with calf, goat-skin, roan, or any otherleather, is conducted in the same manner. The calfcover must be soaked in water, carefully wrung out,and all the creases made by the wringing smoothedout before the skin is pasted. If the book is to becovered with white vellum or forril, the millboardsand back should be covered with clean white paper,or the colour of the vellum will be degraded by thecolour of the boards underneath. Half-bound books

c


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Covering Books. 63salmon colour. If there is but one lettering piece,it is usually fixed in the space between the first andsecond band from the head, as at A in Fig. 44. Ifa second piece is required to bear the number ofthe volume, it can be placed either at B or at c.Sometimes, when there are no raised bands, asquare lettering piece is placed towards the headof the book, and below it a small round or oval pieceof a different colour, as shown in Fig. 45. This is anold-fashioned method which at one time was very

Fi?. 45Fig. 45.Book with Oval Lettering Piece. Fig. 46.Bookwith Lettering Piece at the Head.poi^ular. For crown octavos a lettering piece to-wards the head is frequently adopted, as shown inFig. 46, and, instead of filleting, the lower partof the back is tooled ornamentally. The backs of thebooks should be marked off for filleting before thelettering pieces are afiixed. This is done by set-ting off the places of the fillet with a pair of com-passes, and then creasing or making a slight channelat those places with the sharp edge of a thin folding-stick, taking care that the marks shall be perfectlystraight and square across the back, as the finisherwill be guided by them in applying his. fillet, roll, orpallet across the back.


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64 BooA'/;/Nr>/A'G.Putting on sides and jiasting down end papers

are two processes properly belonging to forwarding,though the practice of different binders varies.Some perform these operations before the booksare sent to the finishing shop ; others have thefinishing executed before they affix the sides andpaste down the end papers ; and some defer burn-ishing the edges until after the finishing of the book.These variations in practice are matters of conven-ience.

The sides of the half-bound volume may be eitherof marbled paper or of cloth. If the book hasmarbled end papers and edges, the sides should, ofcourse, match them. Cloth sides are more durablethan paper, and are much used for books that arelikely to undergo hard service. Whether the clothsides should match the leather back or contrastwith it is a matter of taste. In cutting the clothor paper the sides are cut perfectly straight alongthe back, and obliquely off for the corners, as atFig. 47, the latter portions being so cut as to leavethe leather corners showing beyond the sides all ofexactly the same size. It is advisable to do all thecutting with a sharp-pointed knife and pair ofcutting boards instead of scissors. Cloth sides areaffixed with thin glue, and marbled paper sides withthin paste. The sides should be carefully rubbeddown to exclude air bubbles, and turned over, andthe edges made flat and square by rubbing withthe folding-stick. Before pasting down the endpapers, the least possible shaving should be cutoff at the head, tail, and fore edge of the leaf ; other-wise, as the leaf will certainly stretch a little whenit is pasted and rubbed down, the pasted-down endpaper might show slightly on the square of theboard, which would be an imperfection in goodbinding. The end papers are then covered withthin paste, and are carefully rubbed down to get ridof any blisters or gir bubbleg. The end of the


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Covering Books. 65folder may be used to press home the paper at thejoints ; if the end paper does not stick to the edgeof the board line, a hollow space, known technicallyas a " pencil case," will be left, and this is con-sidered very objectionable. The books, with theboards or covers open, should be set up on their

Fig-. 47.Side of Cover of Half-bound Book.heads or tails on a bench until dry, when they shouldbe placed between pressing boards in the standingpress and considerable pressure applied. The booksthen are ready for the finisher. Gilt-edge booksmust be protected by covering their edges withpaper.


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66

CHAPTER VII.CT.OTH-BOUND BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, ETC.

What in professional bookbinding is termed clothboarding is, as has already been stated, differentaltogether from leather binding, but in cases wherecloth is merely substituted for leather, the earliersteps of forwarding are the same as for half-boundbooks. The edges may be left white, or sprinkled,or gilt ; it is merely a question of cost. The clothcover is cai'efully cut out to size, glued over, thebook laid on it, and the cloth drawn on, just as withleather coverings, pains being taken to secure ad-hesion everywhere and not to leave blisters. Thecorners are cut off and turned in as describedfor the morocco cover. The principal thing to beattended to in cloth work is the state of the glueand the manner of its application. The glue shouldbe very thin and very well frothed, so that it may beapplied to the cloth in such a state as to be readilyand equally distributed over the surface, with nolumps and no thick or thin streaks. Cloth workis not head-banded, but a fold of the cover at thehead and tail is turned in over the fold of the paperlining the back. Sometimes leather lettering piecesare placed on the back of cloth books, but this israrely done, and generally all lettering, filleting, andother gilding is performed directly on the cloth.

Cloth boarding is the binding adopted for cheapnew books, and those who practice it are known aspublishers' binders. Many of the processes arenearly identical wdth those used in leather binding,but the work generally is fragile, and has littledurability, being executed very quickly and cheaply.


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Cloth-bouno Books, Pamphlets, etc. 67Much of the work is done by machines, the foldingbeing performed at the rate of from 1,000 to 3,000sheets per hour, according to the character of thework. Gathering is also done with great rapidityby a machine like a revolving table, at whichgatherers sit, and as the table revolves eachgatherer takes a sheet from the pile as it passes.In gathering by hand, the piles of folded sheetsin the order of signatures are laid out on a longtable, and the gatherer passes along the table,taking a sheet from each pile until a book is madeup. After collating (that is, examining each com-pleted book to see that the sheets have been placedin their proper order), the books are slightly rolledto compress the folds. Cloth books are sewn inseveral different ways. If sewn on cord, the kerfsare cut with rapidly revolving circular saws, whichmake all the kerfs simultaneously. But it is moreusual now to sew this kind of work on tapes whichdo not require any saw kerfs. The sewing is per-formed by women at the sewing press as beforedescribed. Books are also sewn by a specially con-trived sewing machine in which a wire thread isemployed. Such sewing can be used for ephemeralpublications, for which, and for pamphlets andperiodicals, it is admirably adapted, but it is notrecommended for leather work.The edges of the books next are cut with theguillotine machine. The backs then receive a coatof glue, and when this is sufficiently dry, the booksare rounded and backed, and then lined on thebacks with a double thickness of paper.

In preparing the cloth covers or cases the mill-boards, the cloth, and the stiffeners are cut to theproper size, large quantities being done at one time.The stiffeners are slips of stoutish paper of thelength and breadth of the back of the book. Thecloth is glued all over, the millboard laid on it, andthe stiffeners are placed between them in proper


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68 Bookbinding.position, so as to Icavo a slight space l)etwcen itsedges and those of the millboard, so that the casewill fit well at the joints. The cloth is now rubbedwell down on the millboards and stiffener, turnedover at all the edges, and the corners are cut offand turned in also. These cases are finished at oneoperation at the arming press. The lettei'ing andany ornament either for the back or sides of thecase, whether gilt or blind, is attached to the platenof the press, which is heated by gas, and can bebrought down forcibly by working the handle, some-what after the manner of a hand printing-press (seeFig. 101, p. 135).

In the forwarding shop the back of the book isglued to the back of the case, and the end papersare pasted down to the boards. The books are thenput in the press for a time, and when dry are readyfor the bookseller's shop.Books that are illustrated with plates independ-ently of the text usually contain for the guidanceof the binder directions for the placing of theseplates, and it is of course a simple matter to followthe instructions. It must, however, first be ascer-tained that the margin is perfectly square andstraight, and any error should be rectified by cut-ting with a sharp knife and straightedge. In thecase of an upright picture (that is, when the inscrip-tion reads across the bottom of the page) there isdiversity of practice in placing it in the book, somecontending that it should occupy either the right-hand or the left-hand page, as the case may be, soas to face the descriptive text. Many publishers,however, insist that in all separately printed platesthe picture when the book is open should be on theleft-hand page ; and this contention is, for artisticand other reasons, undoubtedly correct. In thecase of longway pictures (that is, when the inscrip-tion reads along the side of the page), there is nodiversity of opinion as to which is the correct posi-


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Cloth-bound Books, Pamphlets, etc. 69tion of the picture. It should always be on the left-hand page, the inscription should always read fromthe bottom to the top of the page, and shou

book binding with n 00 has l

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