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Jo ur n a l o f ~ t a l P sy ch o lo g y: Co p yr i gh t 1 9 9 8 b y t h e Am er ican P sych ol og ic , l Au o c ia f im ~ i n c.

Human Percept icm nd Pe[fefrmmce 009 6-1 523 /9~ .00

1998, Vol. 24, No. 4, 1087-1104

Th e Process ing of Temporal and No ntem poral Inform at ion

in the Rem em ber ing o f Event Durat ions and Mu sica l Structure

M a r i l y n

G .

B o l t z

H a v e f f o r d C o l l e g e

Within the field of cognitive psychology, one issue of theoretical debate concerns the

relationship between an event's temporal (e.g., rhythm, rate, total duration) and nontemporal

(e.g., sequence o f pitch intervals) information. Some argue these are jointly encoded into the

cognitive system, whereas others claim they are encoded in an independent fashion. This issue

was investigated in 2 experime nts that systematically manip ulated participants' attention to the

temporal and pitch properties of melodies and then examined participants ' subsequent

remembering o f these structural dimensions. The results indicate that the nature o f encoding is

suon gly dependent on the sU'ucmre of environmental events and the degree o f learning

experience. This relationship in turn has im plications for theories of both music cognition and

time estimation behavior.

O n e o f t h e m o s t g e n e r a l g o a l s i n c o g n i t i v e p s y c h o l o g y i s

t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f h o w e v e n t s f r o m t h e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n -

m e n t a r e e n c o d e d i n t o t h e c o g n i t i v e s y s t e m . I n i n v e s t i g a -

t ions o f th i s i s sue , i t has t rad i t iona l ly bee n a s sum ed tha t the

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a n e v e n t ' s t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l

i n f o r m a t i o n i s a n i m p o r t a n t o n e . T e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n

r e f e r s t o t h e r a t e , r h y t h m i c i t y , a n d t e m p o r a l o r d e r i n g o f

i t e m s a s t h e y u n f o l d o v e r a g i v e n t i m e s p a n , w h e r e a s

n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e f e r s t o t h e i t e m s t h e m s e l v e s .

T h e s e i t e m s a r e t y p i c a l l y a s s u m e d t o h a v e s p a t ia l p r o p e r t i e s

a s e x e m p l i f i e d b y d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t s i n t h e v i s u a l e n v i r o n m e n t

(e . g . , ca rs , peop le ) o r p i t ch re la t ions wi th in the aud i to ry

m o da l i ty (e . g . , no te s o f a m e lody , word s o f a conv ersa t ion) . 1

T h e p r i m a r y i s s u e o f c o n c e r n i n v o l v e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n . F r o m a

s t ruc tura l pe rspec t ive , i t i s c l ea r tha t the de f in i t ion o f any

g i v e n e v e n t n e c e s s a r i ly r e q u i r e s b o t h t y p e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n :

A l l e v e n t s a r e d y n a m i c i n n a t u r e a n d u n f o l d o v e r a g i v e n

t i m e s p a n , b u t i n o r d e r f o r a t i m e s p a n t o e x i s t, i t m u s t b e

m a r k e d b y n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n . M u s i c , f o r e x a m p l e ,

d i s p l a y s n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e f o r m o f p i t c h

r e l a t i o n s t h a t n o t o n l y m a r k t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d o f a

m e l o d y b u t a l s o u n f o l d w i t h a g i v e n r a t e a n d r h y t h m i c i t y

ov er the to ta l t im e span . On a s t ruc tu ra l bas is , then , an

e v e n t ' s t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a r e i n e x t ri c a -

b l y e n t w i n e d . H o w e v e r , f r o m a c o g n i t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e

p ic tu re i s l e s s c lea r . I s i t the case tha t t em pora l and

This research was supported by a Faculty Research Grant from

Haverford College and was presented at the Sixth Workshop on

Rhythm Perception and Production in Ohlstadt, Germany, Septem-

ber 1996.

I wish to thank E rika Wilde, Jessica D unne, and Joanne Spector

for the collection of data, as well as Carol Fowler, James Bartlett,

and two anonymous reviewers for their comments on an earfier

version o f this article.

Correspondence concerning this article should b e addressed to

Marilyn G. Boltz, Department o f Psychology, Haverford College,

370 Lancaster Avenue, Haverford, Pennsylvania 19041. Electronic

mail may b e sent to mboltz@haverford.edu.

n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a r e j o i n t l y e n c o d e d i n t o t h e c o g n i -

t i v e s y s t e m s u c h t h a t a t t e n d i n g t o o n e d i m e n s i o n r e s u l ts i n

the inc iden ta l l ea rn ing o f the o the r? I f so , then th i s re su l t s in

a p a r s i m o n i o u s s y s t e m b e c a u s e i t m e a n s t h a t b o t h d i m e n -

s i o n s c a n b e e q u a l l y w e l l l e a r n e d a n d l a t e r r e m e m b e r e d

r e g a r d l es s o f w h e t h e r a n i n d i v i d u al i n i t ia l l y a t te n d e d t o o n e

o r t h e o t h e r d i m e n s i o n a l o n e o r t o b o t h d i m e n s i o n s i n

t a n d e m . A l t e r n a ti v e l y , o t h e r s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h i s t y p e o f

e n c o d i n g i s n o t p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e i t w o u l d e x c e e d t h e o v e r a l l

re sources o f the cogni t ive sys tem . Ins tead , i t i s c l a im ed tha t

t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n m u s t e a c h b e s e l e c -

t i v e l y a t t e n d e d t o i n d e p e n d e n t l y f o r l e a r n i n g t o o c c u r .

A l t h o u g h e a c h t y p e o f p r o c e s s i n g w o u l d r e s u l t i n a m e m o -

r ia l represen ta t ion tha t re f l ec t s bo th the t em pora l and

n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n o f a n e v e n t , t h e l a t t e r t y p e o f

p r o c e s s i n g w o u l d r e q u i r e m o r e a t t en t i o n a l e f fo r t . A r g u m e n t s

f o r b o t h t y p e s o f p r o c e s s i n g h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d i n t h e

cogni t ive l i t e ra tu re and a re o f pa r t i cu la r in te re s t to a t l ea s t

t w o a r e a s o f r e s e a r c h - - n a m e l y , t h o s e o f m u s i c c o g n i ti o n a n d

t im e es t im a t ion behav ior .

M u s i c C o g n i t i o n

I n t h e o ri e s f m u s i c a l b eh a v i o r , h e d e b a t e h a s f o c u s e d

p r i m a r i l y n t h e p r o c e s s i n g f p i t c h n f o r m a t i o n e l a t i ve o

the t e m p o r a l d i m e n s i o n o f r h y t h m . I t i s w e t l - a o c e p t e d th a t

b o t h p l a y i m p o r t a n t r o l e s i n th e p e r c e p t i o n a n d r e m e m b e r i n g

o f m e l o d i e s , b u t a g a in , o n e f i n d s d i s a g r e e m e n t o n h o w e a c h

i s e n c o d e d i n t o t h e c o g n i t i v e s y s t e m . A c c o r d i n g t o o n e

Within the visual modality, the spatial dimension of events is

rather self-evident in that people and other objects move over

varying distances from one point to anoth er. Similarly, it s

generally w ell accepted that pitch relations form an analogous type

of structure within the auditory environment (Julesz & Hirsh, 1972;

Kubovy, 1 981 ; Marks, 1978 ). Pitch relations are categorized as

high o r low, can span different distances o ver successive intervals,

and for m a particular conto ur over a total time span (i.e. , the pattern

of ups and down s in pi tch).

1087

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1088 BOLTZ

per spec t i ve , p i t ch and rhy t hm are p rocessed i ndependen t l y

s u c h t h a t t h e i n fl u e n c e o f o n e d i m e n s i o n d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n

t he charac t e r is t ics o f t he o t her d i mens i on (Pa l mer & Krum -

hans l , 1987) . Fo r exampl e , cer t a i n t ypes o f rhy t hms may

fac i l i t a t e a t t end i ng and r emember i ng r egard l ess o f t he

accompany i ng p i t ch pa t t e rn . Ev i dence fo r t h i s t ype o f

r e l a t ionsh i p occu r s p r i mar i l y wh en i nd i v i dua l s a r e aske d t o

j udg e t he s i m i l a r it y o f d i f f e r en t me l od i es (Mona han &

Car t e re t te , 1985) o r t he perce i ved compl e t eness o f mel od i c

phrases (Pa l mer & Krumhans l , 1987) . In con t r as t , o t her s

h a v e a r g u e d t h a t p it c h a n d r h y t h m e x e r t a n i n te r a c t i v e

i n f l uence on behav i o r, i n wh i ch t he e f f ec t o f one d i men s i on

i s dependen t on t he o t her d i mens i on (Bo l t z & Jones , 1986;

Jones & B o l t z , 1989). Fo r exam pl e , a g iven rhy t hm ma y

fac i l i ta t e t he percep t i on and m em ory o f som e p i t ch pa t te rns

bu t no t o t her s . Th i s t ype o f r e l a t i onsh i p was i n f ac t found

when i nd i v i dua l s were asked t o r eca l l mel od i es (Bo l t z ,

1991; Bol tz & Jones, 1986) or detect deviant p i tch in tervals

i n a m el ody r ecogn i t i on task (Bo l t z , 1993 ; Jones , Bo l t z , &

Ki dd , 1982) . In sum, t hen , t he i ndependence- i n t e rac t i ve

debat e has no t been r eso l ved , a l t hough t he p rocess i ng o f

p i tc h a n d r h y t h m d o e s s e e m t o d e p e n d o n t a s k d e m a n d s .

T i m e E s t i m a t io n B e h a v i o r

A s e c o n d a r e a o f r e l e v a n c e i s t h a t o f t i m e e s t i m a t i o n

behav i o r , where t he assumed t heo re t i ca l r e l a t i onsh i p be-

t w e e n t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l in f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n m o r e

ex t ens i ve l y deve l oped . In t h i s l i t e ra t u re , the p r i m ary i s sue o f

i n t e r es t i s t he de t e rmi na t i on o f how t he t o t a l du ra t i ons o f

e n v i r o n m e n t a l e v e n t s a r e e n c o d e d a n d r e t r i e v e d f r o m

mem ory . Al t hou gh severa l d i f f e r en t t heo re t ica l model s ha ve

been o f f e red , mos t r e l y on t he no t i on o f a t t en t i ona l r esou rce

a l l oca t i on as t he u nder l y i ng med i a t i ona l m echan i sm a t p l ay .

Z a k a y ( 1 9 8 9 ) d e v e l o p e d o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e

mo del s no t on l y by i nco rpo ra t i ng t he i deas o f o t her t heo r i s t s

bu t by i n t eg ra t i ng t hese i deas wi t h cer t a i n memory -based

heur i s t ics t ha t have bee n sugges t ed t o i n f l uence t ime es t i ma-

t ion behav ior (e.g ., Bloc k, 1985; Ornstein , 1969).

T h e p r i m a r y a s s u m p t i o n o f t h i s a p p r o a c h i s t h a t w h e n

i nd i v i dua l s a r e per fo rmi ng any g i ven ac t i v i t y , such as

l i s t en i ng t o a mel ody o r do i ng a se t o f mat h p rob l ems ,

a t t en t i on is sp l it be t ween t he ev en t ' s t em pora l ( i . e ., t o t a l t ime

span) and non t empora l ( e .g ., no t es o r numb er s ) i n fo rmat i on .

E a c h d i m e n s i o n is a s s u m e d t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e o t h e r

such t ha t t empora l i n fo rmat i on i s encoded v i a a cogn i t i ve

t i mer and non t empora l i n fo rmat i on i s encoded t h rough i t s

o w n s e p a ra t e m e c h a n i s m . B o t h c o m p e t e f o r a l i m i te d p o o l o f

r esou rces , such t ha t i ncreased a t t en t i on d i rec t ed t oward one

d i me ns i on wi l l decrease per fo rma nce on t he o t her.

Th i s r e l a t i onsh i p in t u rn l eads t o t he a ssump t i on t ha t t ime

es t i mat i on behav i o r wi l l vary acco rd i ng t o t he way t ha t

du ra t i on j udgm en t s a r e assessed . In p rospec t i ve s i t ua ti ons ,

r esearch par t i c i pan t s a r e i n fo rmed i n advance t ha t a t i me

j u d g m e n t w i l l b e r e q u i re d , a n d s o t h e s e e s t i m a t e s a r e

assum ed t o r e f l ec t exper i enced du ra t i on . Gi ven t ha t par t ic i -

pan t s a r e consc i ous l y mon i t o r i ng t i me ' s passage , more

a t t en t i ona l r esou rces w i l l be a l l oca t ed t oward t he cogn i t i ve

t i mer . Th i s shou l d r esu l t i n h i gh l y accu ra t e and r e l i ab l e

es t i mat es o f a t ask ' s t o t a l du ra t i on bu t i n r e l a t i ve l y poor

per fo rma nce on t he t ask i nvo l v i ng non t empora l i n fo rmat i on .

However , as t ask compl ex i t y i ncreases , because o f e i t her

g rea t e r d i f f i cu l ty (e .g ., mo re soph i s t ica t ed ma t h p rob l ems) o r

t he per fo rmance o f t wo concur ren t t asks ( e .g . , do i ng mat h

whi l e wa t ch i ng t e l ev is i on ) , mo re r esou rces w i l l be a l l oca t ed

t oward t he p rocess i ng o f non t empora l i n fo rmat i on . The

r e s u l t i s t h a t t i m e j u d g m e n t s w i l l b e c o m e n o t o n l y m o r e

var i ab l e and i naccu ra t e bu t a l so sho r t e r because l ess tempo -

ra l i n fo rmat i on i s be i ng encod ed i n t o t he cogn i t i ve sys t em.

How ever , a d i f f e r en t pa t t e rn o f r esu l t s i s p red i c ted t o oc cu r

i n r e t ro spec t i ve des i gns . These a r e assumed t o r e f l ec t

r eme mb ered du ra t i on because par t i c i pan ts a r e no t t o l d t ha t a

t i m e j u d g m e n t w i l l b e r e q u i r e d u n t il a f t e r a n e v e n t h a s

t r ansp i r ed . Here , a t t en t i ona l r esou rces wi l l be d i r ec t ed

p r i mar i l y towa rd t he p rocess i ng o f non t empora l i n fo rmat i on

because t here i s no a pparen t r eason fo r encod i ng du ra t i ona l

i n fo rmat i on i n t o memory . Rel a t i ve t o t he s i t ua t i on wi t h

p rospec t i ve des i gns , t hen , r eme mb ered du ra t i on j udgm en t s

shou l d be l ess accu ra t e and more var i ab l e . In add i t i on ,

i ncreases i n t ask compl ex i t y a r e p red i c t ed no t on l y t o

decrease t he accu racy and r e l i ab i l i ty o f t hese es t i mat es bu t

a l so t o y i e l d an overes t i mat i on b i as t ha t i s due t o an

ava i l ab i l i t y heu r i s t i c . Th i s concep t i s one tha t has been

bor rowed f rom Orns t e i n (1969) and B l ock (1985) , who

asser t ed t ha t r emembered du ra t i on i s i n f e r r ed f rom t he

a m o u n t o f n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n s t o r e d i n m e m o r y .

Gi ven t ha t peop l e do no t encode even t du ra t i on under

re t ro spec t i ve c i r cumst ances , t hey p resumab l y r e l y on t he

on l y sou rce o f i n fo rmat i on t ha t i s ava i l ab l e - -namel y , t he

number o f chunks (Omst e i n , 1969) o r changes (B l ock ,

1985) w i t h i n the a r r ay o f non t emp ora l i n fo rmat i on .

Th i s overa l l app roach t o t i me es t i mat i on behav i o r has

rece i ved empi r i ca l suppor t . Compar i sons o f t he accu racy

and var i ab i l i t y o f es t i mat es across t he t w o t ypes o f des i gns

revea l t ha t per fo rmance i s i n f ac t be t t e r under p rospec t i ve

cond i t i ons t han under r e t ro spec t i ve cond i t i ons (Brown ,

1985; Brown & Stubbs, 1992; Mi l ler , Hicks, & Wil let te ,

1978) . In addi t ion, there i s evidence that increases in task

com pl ex i t y exer t a d i f f e r en t i a l e f f ec t on exper i enced ver sus

remembered du ra t i on . Fo r exampl e , Hi cks , Mi l l e r , and

Ki nsbourn e (1976) found t ha t whe n par t ic i pan t s were asked

t o so r t a deck o f cards i n t o t wo (by co l o r ) ver sus fou r (by

sui t ) categor ies , the lat ter y ielded s igni f icant ly shor ter

es t i mat es t han t he fo rme r under t he p rospec t i ve parad i gm. In

con t r as t , compl ex i t y m an i pu l a t i ons wi t h i n r e t ro spec ti ve de-

s i gns o f t en revea l overes t i m at i on b i ases t ha t a r e p resum ab l y

due to the avai labi l i ty heur i s t ic . McC lain (1983) , fo r ex-

ampl e , var i ed bo t h t he d i f f i cu l t y and num ber o f wo rds

p resen t ed t o par t ic i pan t s i n a sem an t i c p rocess ing t ask an d

found t ha t more words l ed t o l onger r e tro spec t i ve j udgm en t s .

Al t hough t hese t ypes o f s t ud i es suppor t t he under l y i ng

assumpt i ons o f t he r esou rce a l l oca t i on model , t here a r e o t her

emp i r i ca l f ind i ngs t ha t a r e m ore p rob l emat i c . In par t i cu la r ,

t he model assumes t ha t peop l e shou l d be i ncapab l e o f

r eme mbe r i ng even t du ra t i on un l ess du ra t i on was se l ec t i ve l y

a t t ended t o du r i ng t he encod i ng phase . That i s , du ra t i on

shou l d be w el l r eme mb ered i n p rospec t i ve s i tua t i ons bu t no t

i n r e t ro spec t i ve ones . Th i s , however , i s no t t he case . In

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REMEMBERED DURATION 10 89

severa l r ecen t s t ud i es , i t was found t ha t when l i s t ener s

were r e pea t ed l y exposed t o a se t o f mel od i es (Bo l t z , 1992 ,

1995) o r sounds f rom t he na t u ra l env i ronm en t (Bo l tz , 1992 ,

1994) and were l a t e r unexpec t ed l y asked t o r ecogn i ze o r

reprodu e t he i r t o t a l du ra t i ons , per fo rmance was i n f ac t

h i gh l y accu ra t e and r e l i ab l e . In o t her words , p rov i ded t ha t

t here has b een su f f i c i en t l earn i ng exper i ence , even t du ra t i on

can be e ncod ed i n t o the cogn i t i ve sys t em und er r e tro spec t i ve

si tuat ions.

In sum , t hen , t he l it e r a t u res on m us i c cogn i t i on and t i me

es t i mat i on behav i o r y i e l d con f l i c t ing ev i dence on t he p rocess -

i n g o f t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f or m a t i o n . S o m e s t ud i e s

s u g g e s t t h e t w o d i m e n s i o n s a r e p r o c e s s e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f

one ano t her , and o t her s sug ges t t hey a re j o i n t l y encod ed i n t o

me mory . On e poss i b i l i ty is t ha t bo t h t ypes o f p rocess i ng can

occur an d t ha t t h i s in t u rn depends on cer t a i n f ac t o r s wi t h i n

t he su r round i ng con t ex t . Two such f ac t o r s a r e sugges t ed

here a nd i nvo l ve t he s t ruc t u re o f t he even t and t he i nd i v i du -

a l ' s deg ree o f l earn i ng exper i ence . Bo t h hav e been i nco rpo -

ra t ed i n t o a model ca l l ed t he

s t ru c tu ra l re m e m b e r in g

a p p ro a c h

w h i c h w a s d e v e l o p e d p r i m a r i l y to a d d r e s s t i m e

es t i mat i on behav i o r bu t a l so has i mp l i ca t i ons fo r mus i c

cogn i t i on .

T h e S t ru c t ur a l R e m e m b e r i n g A p p r o a c h

T h e s t ru c t u ra l r e m e m b e r i n g a p p r o a c h s t e m s f r o m a m o r e

genera l t heo ry o f a t t end i ng ( Jones & Bo l t z , 1989) t ha t has

b e e n e x t e n d e d t o a d d r e s s t h e r e m e m b e r i n g o f t e m p o r a l a n d

non t emp ora l i n fo rmat i on wi t h i n env i ronmen t a l even t s (Bo l t z ,

1992, 1995) . In cont rast to o ther f rameworks, the s t ructural

r e m e m b e r i n g a p p r o a c h p l a c e s th e p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s o n t h e

r o le o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n d e t e r m i n i n g b o t h t h e n a t u r e a n d

t he success o f a t t end i ng and r emember i ng ac t i v i t i es . I n

par t i cu l a r , t he s t ruc t u ra l r emember i ng app roach assumes

t h a t t h e d e g r e e o f c o h e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t e m p o r a l a n d

non t empora l i n fo rmat i on o f a g i ven even t wi l l i n f l uence

encod i ng and t he ab i l i t y t o subsequen t l y r ecap i t u l a t e t he

e v e n t ' s s t r u c tu r e f r o m m e m o r y .

I f o n e w e r e t o s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a n a l y z e t h e s t r u ct u re o f

d i f f e r en t env i ronm en t a l even t s , one wou l d f i nd t ha t i n man y

c a s e s , t h e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l in f o r -

mar i on d i r ec t l y co i nc i de . In par t i cu la r , i t can b e s how n t ha t

an even t ' s rhy t hmi c s t ruc t u re i s compat i b l e wi t h and r e i n -

fo rces t he h i e rarch i ca l a r r angemen t o f i t s spa t i a l i n fo rma-

t i on . Al t hou gh ma ny suc h even t s can be i den t i f i ed i n t he

na t u ra l env i ronmen t , one o f t he bes t i l l u s t r a t i ons can be

foun d i n W es t ern mus i c . Non t empo ra l , o r me l od i c , s t ruc t u re

i s b a s e d o n t h e u n d e r l y i n g k e y o f a m e l o d y , w h i c h o f t e n c a n

be der i ved f rom t he s t r a t eg i c p l acemen t o f t on i c t r i ad

me mbe rs ( i .e ., t he t on i c , t he med i an t , and t he dom i nan t ) . The

t o n ic n o t o n l y i s u s e d t o e n d a m e l o d y b u t , a l o n g w i t h t h e

m e d i a n t a n d t h e d o m i n a n t , o f t e n s e r v e s t o m a r k p h r a s e

end i ng po i n t s wi t h i n a mel ody ' s t o t a l t i me span (Ber ry ,

1976; Con e, 1968; Kram er , 1982). Me lodic phrases repre-

sen t t hemes and var i a t i ons ; if , befo re sh i f t i ng t o new t hemes

and var i a t i ons , one marks t he end i ngs o f t hese mel od i c

p h r a s e s w i t h t o n i c t r i a d m e m b e r s , m o m e n t a r y p o i n t s o f

r eso l u t i on a re p rov i ded wi t h i n a t une as w el l as a r eaf f irma-

t i o n o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g t o n a l it y s c h e m e . F o r e x a m p l e , c o n -

s i d er t h e o p e n in g b ar s o f T h e S t a r S p a n g le d B a n n e r ,

wh i ch a re sh own i n F i gu re 1 . Th i s m el od y i s wr i t ten i n t he

k e y o f B m a j o r, a n d t h e p h r a s e e n d i n g s , w h i c h c o i n c i d e w i th

t h e w o r d s

see l ight hai led and g leam ing

t herefo re co r r e -

spond t o t he t on i c , domi nan t , t on i c , and t on i c , r espec t i ve l y .

No t i ce t ha t t hese ph rase en d i ngs a l so con t r i bu t e t o an overa l l

h i e r a rch i ca l a r r angemen t i n t ha t pa i rs o f mel od i c ph rases a r e

nes t ed wi t h i n h i gher o rder ph rases o f a l onger t i me span

(i .e. , 12 beats).

Al t hough t he non t empora l i n fo rmat i on ( i . e . , t he a r r ay o f

p i t ch r e l a t ions ) o f t h i s t ype o f me l ody i s i t se l f qu i t e l awfu l ,

i t s overa l l coherence emerges f rom t he pa t t e rn o f t empora l

i n fo rma t i on wi t h i n t he t une ' s t o t a l t i me span . Al l mel od i es

con t a i n a r egu l ar l y r ecu r r i ng bea t o r pu l se t ha t t ends t o

rema i n r e l a t i ve l y cons t an t t h roughou t . In mu s i ca l t e rms , t h i s

i s r e n d e re d b y t h e u n d e r l y i n g m e t e r o f t h e t u n e . T h e m e l o d y

i n F i gu re 1 , fo r exampl e , i s based on a ¾ me t er in wh i ch t he

4 i nd i ca t es t ha t a quar t e r no t e (4 ) i s t he r e f e ren t bea t and

t herefo re rece i ves one b ea t o f t i me, and t he 3 i nd i ca t es there

are t h ree bea t s per measu re . Agai ns t t h i s background bea t ,

t e m p o r a l p a t te r n i n g i s i n t ro d u c e d t h r o u g h r h y t h m . R h y t h m

refer s to du ra t i ona l changes f rom t he r e f e ren t bea t i n wh i ch

l onger va l ues , a r is i ng f rom e i t her pauses o r p ro l onged no t e

I 2 ~ b ~ ,

12 haa tn 19 h~ t

6 baa ta 6 h ~ . r . 6 bea ts 6

b e t s

I I I I I

0 say c~m you

s e e

by the dawn s early light; What so proud ly

w e

hai led at the twili~ht s last gl~m ir~ .

Figure 1 . An

example of a musical composit ion, Th e Star Spangled Banner by Francis Scott

Key, that displays a highly coherent arrangement of temporal-nontemporal information. Within the

melody's total l ime sp an, sequences of notes are nested within four melodic phrases (p) m arked by

tonic triad mem bers (the tonic, dominant, tonic, and tonic, respectively). These p hrase ending points

are attentionally hj~hlighted by temporal accents (~), and both regularly recur in time to outline

higher order phrases.

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1090 BOLTZ

dura t i ons , c r ea t e t empora l accen t s t ha t cap t u re a l i s t ener ' s

a t t en ti on . Wha t i s i mpor t an t i s where t hese accen t s occur . In

m o s t W e s t e rn m u s i c , t e m p o r a l a c c e n t s t e n d n o t o n l y t o r e c u r

af t e r a p red i c tab l e num ber o f bea t s bu t a l so t o co i nc i de w i t h

mel od i c ph rase end i ngs . In F i gu re 1 , fo r examp l e , no t i ce tha t

t empora l accen t s , a r i s i ng f rom t he r e l a t i ve l y l onger ha l f

no t es ( J ) , r egu l ar l y r ecu r a f t e r every s i x bea t s and co r r e -

spond w i t h ph rase bounda r i es . S t ruc t u ra l l y , t hen , t he overa l l

pa t t e rn o f t empora l bea t s fo rm s i t s own h i e rarch i ca l a r r ange-

m e n t w h o s e n e s t in g s d i r e c tl y c o i n c i d e w i th t h o s e f o r m e d b y

non t empora l i n fo rmat i on t o y i e l d a j o i n t accen t s t ruc t u re .

W i t h i n th i s s t ruc t u ra l a r ray , t he t wo d i mens i ons co def i ne one

ano t her : The h i e rarch i ca l nes t i ng o f t em pora l per i od i c i ti es i s

def i ned by d i f f e r en t l eve l s o f p i t ch change , and t he n es t i ng o f

p i t ch change s i s de f i ned re l a t i ve t o cer t a i n t empora l per i od -

ici t ies (Bol tz, 1991; Bo l tz Jones, 1986; Le rdah l

Jackendoff , 1983) .

A l t h o u g h t h i s e x a m p l e o f h i g h c o h e r e n c e m a y s e e m

i dea l i zed and spec i f i c t o mus i c , i t genera l i zes t o a wi de

var i e t y o f na t u ra l even t s . Conver sa t i ona l i n t e r ac t i on , fo r

exam pl e , d i sp l ays p ro l onged pauses t ha t r e in fo rce g ramm at i -

ca l ph rase s t ruc t u re (Go l dman-Ei s l e r , 1972 ; Gxos j ean ,

Gros j ean , Lan e , 1979) as wel l as i n t ona t i ona l accen t s t ha t

co i nc i de wi t h h i gh -con t en t words (Mar t i n , 1972 ; Sh i e l ds ,

Mc Hug h , Ma r t in , 1974) . S i mi l a r l y , t he boundar i es o f

cons t i t uen t ac t i on un i t s a r e o f t en marked by r educ t i ons i n

am pl i t ude and overa l l ra t e o f mov em en t (S t e t son , 1905 ; N .

Todd, 1985).

From a cogn i t i ve per spec t i ve , h i gh l y coheren t even t s

f ac i l i ta t e encod i ng an d r emem ber i ng i n a num ber o f d i f f e r-

en t ways . F i r s t , and mos t i mpor t an t , g i ven t ha t t he even t ' s

t empora l a nd non t em pora l i n fo rma t i on s truc t u ra l ly co i nc i de ,

b o t h c a n b e e n c o d e d i n t o m e m o r y w i t h n o e x t r a e f f o r t - -

a t t end i ng t o one shou l d l ead t o t he i nc i den t a l learn i ng o f t he

o t her . Hence , even t hough par t i c i pan t s may have i n i t i a l l y

a t t ended to one d i m ens i on a l one , the o t her d i mens i on shou l d

be equ al l y wel l l ea rned and l a t e r reme mbered . In add i t i on , i n

con t r as t t o t he p red i c t i ons o f t he r esou rce a l l oca t i on t heo ry ,

a t t end i ng t o bo t h d i men s i ons a t once shou l d no t p roduce any

decrem en t in per fo rmance . Th i s encod i ng p rocess shou l d be

fac i l i ta t ed by t he ev en t ' s s t ruc t u re because t he r egu l ar l y

recu r ren t pa t te rn o f rhy t hm i c accen t s no t on l y a l l ows one t o

eas i l y a t t end t o and t r ack t he even t as i t un fo l ds bu t a l so

h i gh l i gh t s t he even t ' s overa l l o rgan i za t i on fo r l earn i ng .

S i mi l a r ly , j u s t as a ccen t s can be used t o g u i de a t t end i ng , they

a l so o f f e r cogn i t i ve r e f e ren t s fo r r econs t ruc t ing t he e ven t ' s

s t ruc tu re f rom m em ory . Th i s t hen l eads t o t he p red i c t i on t ha t

bo t h t he even t ' s t em pora l i n fo rmat i on and i ts non t em pora l

i n f o r m a t io n w i ll b e r e m e m b e r e d w i t h a h i g h d e g r e e o f

accu racy . Gi ven t ha t bo t h s t ruc t u ra l d i mens i ons j o i n t l y

charac t e r i ze t he even t , r emember i ng an even t ' s t i me span

means r e t r i ev i ng bo t h t he t empora l and non t empora l i n fo r -

ma t i on wi t h i n t h i s span .

Al t hou gh ma ny na t u ra l even t s a r e h i gh l y coheren t , o t her s

are no t . I n t he case o f mus i c , i ncoherence may ar i se when

t he a r r angemen t o f e i t her t empora l o r mel od i c s t ruc t u re

a l one i s r e l a t i ve l y unpred i c t ab l e i n na t u re o r , a l t e rna t i ve ly ,

when t he a r r ay o f t empora l accen t s con f l i c t s wi t h t he

o rgan i za t i on o f mel od i c r e l a t i ons . These t ypes o f even t s ,

because o f t he i r apparen t l ack o f o rgan i za t i on , no t on l y w i l l

be d i f f icu l t t o a t t en t i ona l ly t r ack bu t wi l l r equ i r e add i t i ona l

e f fo r t t o encode bo t h t em pora l and non t empo ra l in fo rmat i on .

Gi ven t ha t t he t wo d i m ens i ons a r e s t ruc t u ra l l y i ncompat i b l e ,

a t t end i ng t o bo t h a t o nce w i l l l ead t o i n t e r f e rence e f f ec t s t ha t

i mpai r bo t h l earn i ng and r em emb er i ng . In s t ead , part i c ipan t s

mu s t se l ec t i ve l y a t t end to eac h d i me ns i on a l one and i ndepen-

den t l y o f t he o t her d i mens i on i n o rder t o success fu l l y encode

t hese even t s i n to mem ory .

The deg ree o f s t ruc t u ra l coherence t ha t i s bo t h p roduced

and perce i ved w i t h i n an even t is , t o some ex t en t , de t e rmi ned

by t he i nd i v i dua l ' s deg ree o f l earn i ng exper i ence , At ear l y

s t ages o f l earn i ng , even t s t ha t r esu l t f rom t he m o t o r behav i o r

o f an i nd i v i dua l a r e o f t en r e l a t ive l y i ncoheren t . Fo r exam pl e ,

t he mus i c o f a nov i ce p i an i s t o r t he speech o f a fo re i gner

l earn i ng a new l ang uage o f t en d i sp l ays a d i s soc i a t i ve rhy t hm

i n wh i ch pauses f a i l t o co i nc i de wi t h g rammat i ca l ph rase

boundar i es . G i ve n t ha t the t empo ra l pa t t e rn ing o f behav i o r

does n o t co i nc i de wi t h t he un der l y i ng h i e rarch ica l a r r ange-

m e n t o f n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o rm a t i o n , th e t w o d i m e n s i o n s h a v e

become r e l a t i ve l y i ndependen t o f one ano t her . Wi t h add i -

t i ona l p rac ti ce , however , t he t wo wi l l even t ua l l y d i sp l ay a

j o i n t accen t s t ruc t u re . S i mi l a r l y , a s t ruc t u ra l l y coheren t

even t m ay no t appear t o be so wh en i t i s in i t i a ll y encoun-

t e r ed . Because t here has n o t been su f f i c ien t oppor t un i t y to

d i scern t he l awfu l re l a t ionsh i p be t ween t empora l a nd non t em -

pora l i n fo rmat i on , t he overa l l s truc t u re o f t he even t m ay be

perce i ved as r e l a t i ve l y i ncoheren t .

In sum , the app roach be i ng p resen t ed here i s one sugges t -

i ng t ha t t he encod i ng an d r emem ber i ng o f na t u ra l even t s a r e

s t rong l y depend en t on bo t h l earn i ng and t he s t ruc tu re o f t he

even t i t se l f. I n t he case o f h i gh l y coh eren t even t s , t here i s no

n e e d t o d i v i d e a t t e nd i n g b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l

i n fo rmat i on , as t he r esou rce a l l oca t i on t heo ry has c l a i med .

Because t he t wo d i mens i ons a r e j o i n t l y encoded i n t o memory ,

a t t end i ng t o t empora l o r non t empora l i n fo rmat i on a l one

shou l d r esu l t i n t he i nc i den t a l l earn ing o f t he o t her d i me n-

s i on . Bo t h d i m ens i ons , t hen , wi l l be r ep resen t ed i n me mo ry

wi t h t he sam e am oun t o f p rocess i ng e f fo r t r equ i r ed t o i npu t

one d i mens i on a l one . Th i s f ac i l i t a t i ng e f f ec t shou l d be

par t i cu l a r l y enhanced wi t h g rea t e r l earn i ng exper i ence ,

because t he l awfu l o rgan i za t i on o f t he even t wi l l be more

apparen t . F rom a behav i o ra l s t andpo i n t , t h i s mean s t ha t even

t hough par t i c ipan t s ma y be p r i mar i l y focused on an ev en t ' s

non t empora l i n fo rmat i on du r i ng t he encod i ng phase , t he

re t r ieva l o f t h i s i n fo rma t i on shou l d r e f l ec t the o vera l l r a t e

and rhy t hmi c i t y o f i t ems as wel l as t he even t ' s t o t a l t i me

span . Incoheren t even t s , on t he o t her hand , d i sp l ay t empo ra l

and n on t em pora l i n fo rma t i on t ha t a r e s t ruc t u ra l l y d i s soc i-

a t ed . Al t hough bo t h d i mens i ons can be made ava i l ab l e i n

memory , t h i s ava i l ab i l i t y wi l l r equ i r e more e f fo r t because

e a c h d i m e n s i o n n e e d s t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t ly a t te n d e d t o i n

o rder fo r enc od i ng t o occur . I f par t i c i pan ts a r e r equ i r ed t o

d i v i de t he i r a t t end i ng be t ween bo t h d i mens i ons a t once ,

i n t e r f e rence e f f ec t s wi l l a r i se t ha t l ead t o t r ade-o f f s i n

per fo rma nce such t ha t increased a t t end i ng t o one d i men s i on

w i l l d e c r e a s e p e r f o r m a n c e o n t h e o t h e r d i m e n s i o n .

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REMEMBERED OURATION 10 91

These i deas have d i r ec t i mp l i ca t i ons fo r t hose i s sues

p r e v i o u s ly d i s c u s s e d i n t h e a r e a s o f m u s i c c o g n i t i o n a n d

t i me es t i mat i on behav i o r . In mus i ca l behav i o r , p i t ch and

rhy t hm wou l d be expe c t ed t o exer t an i n t e r ac t ive in f l uence

o n o n e a n o t h e r i f m e l o d i e s d i s p l a y a h i g h d e g r e e o f

coherence and t he l i s t ener -per fo rmer has had su f f i c i en t

l earn i ng exper i ence- - -o t herwi se , an i ndependen t r e l a t i on -

sh i p shou l d emerge . W i t h r espec t to t i me es t i ma t i on behav-

i o r, t he cons t ruc t s o f l earn i ng and eve n t s t ruc t u re m ay he l p

t o exp l a i n wh y t he r esou rce a l l oca t i on model (Z akay , 1989)

assum es t ha t peop l e a r e r e l a t i ve l y i ncapab l e o f r emem ber i ng

e v e n t d u r a t io n s w i t h a n y d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y . M u c h o f t h is

r esearch has assessed r e t ro spec t i ve t i me j udgmen t s a f t e r a

s i ng l e l earn i ng t r i a l i n wh i ch t he i nheren t s t ruc t u re o f t he

even t was no t ye t apparen t . I n o rder t o encode bo t h t he

e v e n t s t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n to m e m o r y ,

t he par t i c i pan t mus t t herefo re a t t end t o each d i mens i on

i ndependen t l y . Henc e , i n r e t ro spec t i ve c i r cumst ances , where

par t i c ipan t s a r e p resum ab l y no t a t t end i ng t o even t du ra t i on

a l one , r emem bered du ra t i on j udgm en t s w i l l be qu i t e poor , as

i n f ac t has been r epo r t ed i n t he p rev i ous l i t e ra t u re . How ever ,

a ve ry d i f f e r en t se t o f r esu l ts shou l d em erge i f par t i c i pan t s

are asked t o r emember t he du ra t i ons o f r e l a t i ve l y coheren t

even t s a f t e r a su f f i c i en t l earn i ng per i od . Here , g i ve n t ha t

bo t h s t ruc t u ra l d i mens i ons can be j o i n t l y encoded i n t o t he

c o g n i t iv e s y s t e m , d u r a t i o n m e m o r y s h o u l d b e q u i te a c c u r a te

regard l ess o f whet her a t t end i ng was p r i mar i l y d i r ec t ed

t oward t empora l ( i . e . , p rospec t i ve des i gns ) o r non t empora l

( i .e . , r e tro spec t i ve des i gns ) i n fo rm at i on du r i ng t he enc od i ng

phase .

In a r ecen t se t o f exper i men t s (Bo l t z , 1992) , som e suppor t

fo r t hese i deas was observed . In con t r as t t o p rev i ous

re t ro spec t i ve du ra t i on s t ud i es , i n t h i s se t o f exper i men t s a

n e w t e c h n i q u e w a s d e v e l o p e d t h a t e n a b le d t h e c o l l e c t io n o f

mul t i p l e t i me j udgmen t s f rom an i nd i v i dua l par t i c i pan t

(Bol tz, 1992) . Wi th th is procedure, par t icipants were f i rs t

asked t o per fo rm a ser i es o f percep t ua l r a t ing t asks on a se t

o f m us i ca l pa t t e rns t ha t var i ed i n t he i r s t ruc t u ra l coherence .

These sounds con t a i ned a s i ng l e p i t ch va l ue t ha t ( a ) r egu -

l a r l y r ecu r r ed i n t i me and was t hereby coheren t , ( b ) was

con t i nuous i n du ra t i on , o r ( c ) was i r r egu l ar l y t i med t o y i e l d

an i ncoheren t pa t t e rn . Af t e r per fo rmi ng t he se t o f r a t i ng

t asks fo r a va ry i ng num ber o f tr i a ls , par t ic i pan t s were t he n

unexpec t ed l y asked t o e i t her r ecogn i ze o r r eca l l t he t o t a l

du ra t i ons o f t hose sounds heard ear l i e r . Resu l t s i nd i ca t ed

t ha t par ti c i pan t s we re ab l e t o l earn and r emem ber t he

charac t e r i s ti c du ra t i ons o f even t s bu t t ha t per fo rmance w as

s t rong l y i n f luenced by bo t h l earn i ng and t he even t s s t ruc-

t u re . Overa l l , t he du ra t i ons o f coheren t and con t i nuous

e v e n t s w e r e w e l l r e m e m b e r e d , w i t h a h i g h d e g r e e o f

accu ra cy and l ow var i ab i li t y , and per fo rman ce s i gn i f i can t ly

i mprov ed w i t h g rea t e r learn i ng exper i ence . In o t her words ,

e v e n t d u r a t i o n w a s e n c o d e d i n t o m e m o r y e v e n t h o u g h

par t i c i pan t s were no t expec t i ng any so r t o f upcomi ng

m em ory t es t. I n con t r as t , peop l e w ere r e l a t i ve l y i ncapab l e o f

r emember i ng t he du ra t i ons o f i ncoheren t even t s - - - a f i nd i ng

t ha t i s cons i s t en t wi t h t he r esou rce a l l oca t i on model under

re t ro spec t ive c i r cum st ances .

R a t i o n a l e o f t h e P r e s e n t E x p e r i m e n t s

The pu rpose o f t he p resen t se t o f exper i men t s was t o

e x t e n d t h i s re s e a r c h b y e x a m i n i n g t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f t e m p o -

ra l and non t emp ora l i n fo rmat i on in a m ore r i go rous f ash i on .

Al t hou gh a p rev i ous s t udy (Bo l t z , 1992) i nd i ca t ed t ha t even t

du ra t i ons can be r emembered i n r e t ro spec t i ve c i r cum-

s t ances , i t d i d no t a l l ow a de t e rmi na t i on o f whet her t he

e n c o d i n g o f t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n v ar ie s a s

a func t i on o f even t s t ruc t u re . One way t o i nves t i ga t e t h i s

i s sue i s t o sys t em at i ca l l y d i r ec t par t ic i pan t s a t t end i ng t o

d i f f e r en t aspec t s o f an even t s s t ruc t u re and t hen exa mi ne t he

co r respond i ng i n f l uence on du ra t i on j udgm en t s . Th i s s t ra t -

egy i s u sed i n Exper i m en t 1 , wh i ch r e l i es on a des i gn t ha t i s

very s i mi l a r t o t ha t o f a p rev i ous s t udy (Bo l t z , 1992) .

Par t i c ipan t s were p rese n t ed wi t h a se t o f m el od i es du r i ng an

i n i t ia l l ea rn i ng phase i n w h i ch t unes v ary i ng i n t he i r overa l l

coherenc e were r a t ed on severa l percep t ua l d i mens i ons . The

ma i n man i pu l a t i on i nvo l ved t he t ype o f i n s t ruc t ions admi n -

i s t e r ed t o par t i c i pan t s du r i ng t he encod i ng phase and t he

t ype o f memory t ask t hey expec t ed t o l a t e r r ece i ve . In

par t icu l a r , t here we re fou r be t we en- sub j ec t s cond i t i ons . One

was a con t ro l cond i t i on ( i . e . , no a t t end i ng ) i n wh i ch

par t i c i pan t s were no t expec t i ng any memory t ask a t a l l .

However , i n t he t h ree r emai n i ng cond i t i ons , par t i c i pan t s

were a sked t o a t tend t o ( and r emem ber ) e i t her t he mel od i es

t empora l ( i. e ., t o t a l du ra ti on ) i n fo rm at i on o r non t em pora l

( i .e . , a r r ay o f p i t ch i n t e rva l s ) i n fo rma t i on a l one o r i n t and em.

Af t er per fo rm i ng t he se t o f r a t ing t asks , a l l par t ic i pan t s were

t h e n r e q u i r e d t o p e r f o r m o n l y o n e m e m o r y t a s k - - n a m e l y ,

r ep roduci ng t he mel od i e s t o t a l du ra t i ons .

The man i pu l a t i ons o f t h i s exper i men t a l l ow one t o

d i r ec t l y com pare p red i c t i ons f rom t he s t ruc t u ra l r emem ber -

i ng app roach wi t h t hose f rom t he r esou rce a l l oca t i on mo del

o f t i m e e s t im a t i o n b e h a vi o r. W h e r e a s t h e f o r m e r a s s u m e s

t ha t a d i f f e r en t ia l pa t t e rn o f r esu l t s w i l l occu r fo r c oheren t

ver sus i ncoheren t mel od i es , t he l a t t e r assumes t ha t var i a -

t i ons i n se l ec t i ve a t tend i ng wi l l exer t t he sam e i n f l uence on

a l l even t s . Accord i ng t o t he s t ruc t u ra l r emember i ng ap -

p roach , t he t empora l and non t em pora l i n fo rmat i on o f h i gh l y

c o h e r e n t e v e n ts a r e j o i n t ly e n c o d e d i n t o m e m o r y w i t h n o

ex t r a e f fo r t , and a t t end i ng t o one d i men s i on wi l l r esu l t i n t he

i nc i den t a l l earn i ng o f t he o t her d i mens i on . I f t h i s i s t rue ,

t hen par t i c i pan t s shou l d show h i gh l y accu ra t e and r e l i ab l e

du ra t i on j udgm en t s r egard l ess o f wh et her t hey a t t end t o

dura t i on o r p i t ch a l one du r i ng t he encod i ng phase . In

add i t i on , a t t end i ng t o bo t h d i mens i ons a t once shou l d no t

p roduce a decremen t i n per fo rmance . Las t , t he con t ro l

cond i t i on , i n wh i ch no exp l i c i t a t t end i ng i n s t ruc t i ons a r e

g i ven , i s r ep resen t a t i ve o f t he met hodo l og i ca l p rocedure

used i n pas t s t ud i es o f r e tro spec t i ve ( r emem bered ) du ra t i on

j udgm en t s . The f a c t t ha t par t i c ipan t s a r e f r ee t o a t t end t o any

d i mens i on ( s ) t hey choose a l l ows one t o assess how per fo r -

m a n c e i n t h is c o n d i t i o n c o m p a r e s t o p e r f o r m a n c e i n c o n d i -

t i o n s w h e r e t h e f o c u s o f a t t e n d i n g i s m o r e - r i g o r o u s l y

con t ro l l ed . In par t i cu l a r , i f t he t empora l and non t empora l

i n f o r m a t io n o f c o h e r e n t e v e n t s a r e i n f a c t j o i n t l y e n c o d e d

i n t o memory , t hen per fo rmance i n t h i s con t ro l cond i t i on

shou l d be co mpa rab l e t o t ha t in t he r em ai n i ng cond i t ions .

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1 0 9 2 B O L T Z

I n c o h e r e n t e v e n t s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e p r e d i c t e d t o

y i e l d r e s u l t s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t i o n th e o r y .

G i v e n t h a t t h e s e e v e n t s d i s p l a y te m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l

i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t a r e s t r u c t u r a l l y d i ss o c i a t e d , e a c h d i m e n s i o n

m u s t b e s e l e c t i v e l y a t t e n d e d t o in o r d e r f o r e n c o d i n g t o

o c c u r . T h i s i n t u r n s h o u l d l e a d t o t r a d e - o f fs i n p e r f o r m a n c e

a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e a t t e n ti o n a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h t i m e

j u d g m e n t s s h o u l d b e q u i t e a c c u r a t e i n t h e p r o s p e c t i v e

c o n d i t i o n , i n w h i c h p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e e x p e c t i n g a d u r a t i o n

m e m o r y t a s k , t h e s a m e w i l l n o t b e t ru e i n t h e r e m a i n i n g

c o n d i t i o n s . I n t h e p i t c h - a l o n e a n d n o - a t t e n d i n g c o n d i t i o n s ,

p a r t i c i p a n t s d o n o t k n o w a t i m e j u d g m e n t w i l l la t e r b e

r e q u i r e d a n d s o t h e r e i s n o a p p a r e n t r e a s o n t o s e l e c t i v e l y

a t t e n d t o d u r a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g e n c o d i n g . D u r a t i o n

m e m o r y p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e n , s h o u l d b e h i g h l y i n a c c u r a te a n d

u n r e l i a b l e . I n a d d i t i o n , p e r f o r m a n c e s h o u l d d e c l i n e e v e n

m o r e w h e n p a r t i c i p a n t s a re a s k e d t o d i v i d e t h e i r a tt e n t io n

b e t w e e n b o t h p i t c h a n d d u r a t i o n . G i v e n t h a t t h e t e m p o r a l

a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s e m e l o d i e s a r e s t r u c tu r -

a l l y i n c o m p a t i b l e , t h i s t y p e o f d u a l a t t e n d i n g a c t i v i t y s h o u l d

r e s u l t i n i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s t h a t d i s r u p t t h e l e a r n i n g a n d

r e m e m b e r i n g o f b o t h d i m e n s i o n s .

E x p e r i m e n t

M e t h o d

D e s i g n a n d P a r t ic i p a n ts

The des ign was a 2 × 2 x 4 mixe d fac to r ia l . A l l pa r t i c ipan t s

l i s t ened to a se t o f fo lk tunes tha t va r ied in th e i r degree o f s t ruc tu ra l

coherence (coheren t o r incoheren t ) . The two be tween-sub jec t s

va r iab les were melody se t (A o r B) and the pa r t i cu la r s t ruc tu ra l

d imens ion o f melod ies to which pa r t i c ipan t s were ins t ruc ted to

a t t end (p i t ch a lone , dura t ion a lone , bo th p i t ch and dura t ion , o r no

attending).

F o r t y - e i g h t s tu d e n ts f r o m a n i n t r o d u c to r y p s y c h o l o g y c o u r s e a t

Havef fo rd Col lege pa r t i c ipa ted in the exper im ent fo r course c red i t .

E a c h h a d n o r m a l h e a t i n g b u t n o f o r m a l t r a i n i n g i n m u s i c . S i x

s t u d e n t s w e r e r a n d o m l y a s s i g n e d t o e a c h o f t h e e i g h t b e t w e e n -

sub jec t s cond i t ions .

S t i mu l us Ma t er i a l s

A se t o f fo lk tunes f rom o the r coun t r ie s was se lec ted f rom a

m u s i c c o m p o s i t i o n b o o k .z In o rder to ensure tha t these melod ies

were u nfami l ia r to pa r t i c ipan t s , a p re l imin ary ra t ing s tudy was

c o n d u c t e d w i t h a n i n d e p e n d e n t g r o u p o f 1 0 e x p e r i e n c e d m u s ic i a n s ;

any tune tha t was judged even s l igh t ly fami l i a r to l i s t eners was

e l i m i n a t e d f r o m t h e e x p e r i m e n t . T h e f o u r m e l o d i e s s e l e c t e d a s

exper imenta l s t imul i a re dep ic ted in F igure 2 . A l though these

m e l o d i e s r e p r es e n t d i v e r s e k e y s ( C , G , a n d F m a j o r ) a n d o v e r a l l

p i t ch con tours ( the ups and down s o f p i t ch change) , a l l con ta in 24

n o t e s a n d e n d o n t h e l e a d i n g - to n e f o ll o w e d b y t h e t o n ic .

W i t h i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l c o m p o s i t i o n s , e a c h o f t h e f o u r m e l o d i e s

d i sp layed a h ie ra rch ica l a r rangement o f me lod ic s t ruc tu re tha t

c o i n c i d e d w i th i t s i n h e r e n t rh y t h m . A s c a n b e s e e n i n t h e t o p h a l f o f

F i g u r e 2 , m e l o d i c p h r a s e e n d i n g s ( p ) w e r e m a r k e d b y a t o n i c t r i a d

m e m b e r ( i . e ., t o n i c, d o m i n a n t , o r m e d i a n t ) t o p r o v i d e m o m e n t a r y

p o i n t s o f r e s o l u ti o n a n d a r e ~ t i o n o f t h e m e l o d y ' s u n d e r l y i n g

tona l i ty scheme (Ber ry , 1976 ; Cone , 1968; K ramer , 1982). The se

phrase end ing po in t s occur red a f te r every s ix th no te in two o f the

m e l o d i e s ( T h e R a b b i t a n d t h e H a r e a n d I n M y D r e a m s ) a n d

a f t e r e v e r y e i g h t h n o te i n t h e r e m a i n i n g t w o m e l o d i e s ( L i t h u a n i a n

N a t i o n a l H y m n a n d F o n d R e g r e t s ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o d i s p l a y i n g

t h i s l a w f u l a r r a n g e m e n t o f m e l o d i c s t r u c t u r e , e a c h m e l o d y a l s o

d i s p l a y e d it s o w n u n i q u e r h y t h m o f s h o r t a n d l o n g n o t e s t h a t t h e n

r e p e a t e d t h ro u g h o u t t h e m e l o d y ' s t o t a l t im e s p a n . I n F i g u r e 2 , f o r

e x a m p l e , n o t i c e t h a t T h e R a b b i t a n d t h e T u r t l e i s b a s e d o n t h e

recur ren t pa t t e rn o f .b .bJ.b.bJ .. Mo re impor tan t , t empo ra l a ccen ts

a r i s ing f rom pro lo nged do t ted ha l f no tes ( J . ) a lways co inc ide wi th

p h r a s e e n d i n g p o i n t s t o y i e l d h i g h l y c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s w i t h j o i n t

accen t s t ruc tu res : Tempora l accen ts occur red on every s ix th no te

fo r those tunes d i sp lay in g s ix -no te phrases and on ev ery e igh th no te

fo r those melo d ies d i sp lay ing e igh t -no te phrases .

I n c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s w e r e o b t a i n e d b y a s s i g n i n g e a c h o f t h e f o u r

r h y t h m s i n t h e a c c e n t - c o m p a t i b le c o n d it i o n t o a d i f fe r e n t m e l o d y

s u c h t h a t t e m p o r a l a c c e n t s n o l o n g e r c o i n c i d e d w i t h p h r a s e e n d i n g

p o i n t s . T h e s e a r e s h o w n i n t h e b o t t o m h a l f o f F i g u r e 2 . F o r

e x a m p l e , n o t i c e t h a t t h e r h y t h m s a s s o c i a t ed w i t h

The

R a b b i t a n d

t h e T u r t l e a n d L i t h u a n i a n N a t i o n a l H y m n w e r e e x c h a n g e d w i t h

e a c h o t h e r s u c h t h a t t e m p o r a l a c c e n ts o c c u r r e d o n e v e r y e i g h t h n o t e

fo r a tune based on s ix -n o te phrases and o n every s ix th no te fo r a

m e l o d y b a s e d o n e i g h t - n o t e p h r as e s . A s i m i l a r e x c h a n g e o f r h y t h m s

w a s a p p l i e d to t h e m e l o d i e s o f

In

M y D r e a m s a n d F o n d

R e g r e t s .

A c r o s s a l l r h y t h m i c c o n d i t i o n s , t h e p l a c e m e n t o f t e m p o r a l

accen ts on every s ix th no te a lw ays y ie ld ed tunes based o n a 3A

mete r , and those accen ts occur r ing on every e igh th no te l ed to

melo d ies based on a % mete r . In add i t ion , tona l dura t ion (on- t ime)

and in te r tone in te rva l (o f f - t ime) were he ld cons tan t such tha t the

va lue o f an e igh th no te ( .b) a lways cor respo nded to 150 ms on and

75 m s o f f ; the va lue o f a quar te r no te (~) , to 300 m s on and 150 ms

of f ; and the va lue o f a do t ted ha l f no te (J .) , to 900 m s on and 450 ms

of f . A l l me lod ies d i sp laye d a to ta l dura t ion o f 10 .35 s .

F o r t h e i n i t ia l l ea r n i n g p h a s e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t , m e l o d i e s w e r e

sor ted in to two d i f fe ren t se t s (A and B) , each con ta in ing four

melod ies . The fou r melod ies wi th in a se t were then p resen ted as a

b loc k o f t r i a l s fo r each o f the four pe rcep tua l r a t ing t a sks . Melo d ies

wi th in a se t were random ly o rdered , and th i s r andom iza t ion va r ied

across the d i f fe ren t t a sks . G iven tha t the four ra t ing t a sks were

r e p e a t e d a s e c o n d t i m e , t h e re w e r e a t o t a l o f 3 2 l e a r n i n g t r i a l s - -

mean ing tha t pa r t i c ipan t s hea rd each o f the i r four tunes on e igh t

d i f fe ren t occas ions .

W i t h i n e a c h m e l o d y s e t ( A a n d B ) , t w o o f t h e f o u r m e l o d i e s

d i sp lay ed a h igh ly coheren t accen t s t ruc tu re and the rem ain ing two

melo d ies showed a re la t ive ly incoheren t accen t s t ruc tu re . The two

s e t s d i f f e r e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r i n t e r m s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r m e l o d y

a s s i g n e d t o a g i v e n r h y t h m i c c o n d i t i o n . I n S e t A , t h e t w o

a c c e n t - c o m p a t i b le m e l o d i e s w e r e T h e R a b b i t a n d t h e H a r e a n d

L i t h u a n i a n N a t i o n a l H y m n , a n d th e tw o a c c e n t - i n c o m p a t i b le

m e l o d i e s w e r e F o n d R e g r e t s a n d I n M y D r e a m s . I n S e t B ,

t h o s e t u n e s t h a t w e r e p r e v i o u s l y a c c e n t c o m p a t i b l e w e r e n o w

a c c e n t i n c o m p a t i b l e a n d v i c e v e r s a. T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t m e a n t t h a t

e a c h o f t h e f o u r m e l o d i e s w i t h in a g i v e n s e t d i s p l a y e d it s o w n

unique rhy thm.

A p p a r a t u s

All melod ies were consU 'uc ted and genera ted wi th the Mid i lab

sof tware sys tem (R . Todd , Bo l tz , & Jones , 1989) . Dur ing each

exper imenta l sess ion , the melod ies were p resen ted on- l ine wi th a

Y a m a h a T X 8 1 Z F M t o n e g e n e r a to r c o n t ro l l e d b y a n I B M A T

2 T h e o r i g i n a l v er s i o n s o f t h e s e f o l k t u n e s w e r e s e l e c te d f r o m

Folk Songs of M any People

(Vol . I ) ed i t ed by F lo rence Hudson

Bots ford (1921).

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REMEMBERED DURATION

A c c e n t C o m p a t i b l e

Melodies

The Rabbitand he Turtie by G. EL Con/cling 6 note phrases

Japan

1093

F P P P

h MyD ~ by C. I'L B. - 6 note phrases L.i~,A~A

p F

L i t h u a n i a n a t i o n a l Hymn by W. Gr~fith- 8 notephrases

t"

L~rlm,mi~

p p p

Fond Regrets by E. Markham 8 notephrases The Azores

p

A c c e n t I n c o m p a t i b l e M e l o d i e s

The Rabbitand the Turtle by G . EL Conlding 6 notephrases Japan

, D . , . , . . . . . , , I I r - ~ l

. . . . I i , I

.

t . . ~ . .. . .. . ,

I J l I I I l J i I I I l I I i 1 I I I I I I I J J L ~ ~ ] . . . .

g 4 [ " ~ I I I i I | m F . m i l l I I i v ~ i I l i ~ - I " ] . . I I

_ . . . . _ v X 4;

p p p .u- p

In My Dreams by C. H. B. - 6 note phrases Lithuania

p

LithuanianNationalHymn by W. Griffith 8 notephrases Lithuania

i i ~ i i ~ I I I I I I I I I I P l l w I m I I ~ l _ a I .... ~ I ' I I

I ~ ~ I I ~ I I i I I i i i i i i i i i I i i 7 1 r ~ i i ~ i ~ i i i i

if~ilmL l.i I ....[ i ~al i w l~l ll i- i w i II I I ~ l I Ii I I II I I 11 111 4_ i

p p

Fond Regrets by

E . M m ~ k h a m

-

8

notephrases The Azores

i ~ ' I I l t ' l I I L I I , I c 3 . 4 . I . ~ i i l , ~ d _ , n I ~ i i - - i l I

P a . I J ' . . I I " I J ~ | . . | s m i g r l I I ~ | - - , I w | l v 1 | 1

w e p p

p

Figure 2 . The

set +of melodies used in Experiments 1 and 2. The upper panel depicts miles

displaying a highly coherent stracture in which temporal accents ~) regularly recur and always

coincide with melodic phrase endings (p). Incoherent melodies, shown in the lower panel, display a

recurrent pattern of temporal accents but ones that fail to coincide with phrase ending points. (These

folk tunes were selected from

Fo lk S o n g s o f M a n y Pe o p le

Vol. 1, edited by Florence Hudson

Botsford, 1921, New York: Woman's Press. In the public domain.)

computer with a Roland MPU-401 Midi interface unit. Sequences

of tones were amplified by a Kenwood KR-4010 receiver and

played over Koss-Pro 4AAA Plus headphones at a comfortable

listening level (approximately 60 dB SPL). The timbre of al l

melodies was that of a grand piano.

r o c edu r e

Recorded instructions informed participants of pattern presenta-

tion details and task requirements. For the initial learning phase,

participants were told the experiment involved a study of percep-

teal judgments and that they would be asked to rate a set of four

melodies on four different dimensions. In addition, different groups

of participants were instructed to attend to different aspects of the

melodies because they would later receive a memory test on these

dimensions. In particular, participants in the

pitch-a lone

condition

were told to at tend to the pitch properties of al l tunes, whereas

participants in the durat ion-alone condition were asked to attend to

their total durations. In the

b o th

condition, parficilnmts were

instructed to attend to both the pitch properties and the total

duration of all tunes, and participants in the

no-at tending

condition

were given no information at all about an upcoming memory task.

All participants then received the set of learning rials, i n which a

separate trial block was presented for each rating task and the

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1 0 9 4 S O L T Z

instructions fo r each task we re administered befo re the presentation

of fou r tr ia l s. On each t r ia l , a 1-s warning tone (C7, or C in the

seventh oc tave) preceded the presenta t ion of a melody by 2 s . The

na me o f t h is me l ody w a s a l wa ys i nd i c a te d i n t he r e s pons e book l e t

that had been distributed to all participants. Tw o seconds after the

me lody ' s of fse t, th is sam e tune was presented again . Dur ing a 5-s

response per iod w hich fo l lowed, par tic ipants were then ask ed to

provide a ra t ing on a 10-point sca le by c i rc l ing an appropria te va lue

in the i r response bookle t . Fo r ra t ings o f fami l iar i ty (1 =

very

familiar),

par tic ipants were asked to de cide whe ther the tune

seemed a t a l l fami l iar and to be one they had heard in the pas t .

Ratin gs of predictability directed attention tow ard the pitch and

t iming qual it ies of each m elody; par tic ipants were a sked to judge

whether these seem ed very regular , such tha t i t was easy to t rack

the me lody and ant ic ipa te i ts fu ture course (1 =

very predictable),

or unpredictable in nature, su ch that i t was ve ry difficult to follow

the tune ' s ongoing and fu ture course . The th i rd task involved

pleasantness ratings and required participants to decid e wh ether

each melody was p leas ing to l i s ten to or avers ive in i t s sound

qualities (1 =

very pleasing).

Last , the ease-of - learning ra t ings

requi red part ic ipants to decide whether each m elody wo uld be easy

o r mor e d i ~ c u l t t o l e a rn a nd r e me m be r ( 1 = very easy). All

participants perfo rme d these tasks in the sam e order as outlined

above an d were then asked to m ake th is se t of ra tings a second t ime

with a separate re spon se booklet . A prev ious study (Boltz, 1992)

had sh own tha t th is degree o f learning exper ience w as suf f ic ient fo r

producing re la t ive ly accura te levels of dura t ion m emory.

Follo win g this initial phase, all participants wer e then given a

recal l task for melo dy dura t ion only . A han dout w as d is t ributed tha t

indica ted the name o f the par ticular melo dy tha t was to be reca l led

on each t r ia l. Dur ing a g iven t r ial , a 1-s warning tone (C7 ) was

played , and after i ts offset, participants we re asked to me ntal ly

imagine the dura t ion of the melody unt i l i t reaches i t s or ig ina l

endin g poin t. Participants were to indicate this ending point by a

press on a handheld push but ton which was automat ica l ly recorded

by the computer. Par tic ipants were ask ed to reca l l the dura t ion of

each o f the fou r melodies f rom the in i tia l learning phase on tw o

different block s of tr ials, and trials we re random ized both within

and between blocks .

Participants we re tested in grou ps of 3--4 individuals, and the

duration o f an entire experimental session was approx ima tely 45

min.

T a b l e 1

Mean Ratings of Familiarity, Pleasantness, Predictability,

and Ease of Learning for Melodies in Experiment I as a

Function of Event Coherence and the Attended-to

Dimension of the Melody s Structure

At t e nde d - to Ea s e o f

dim ensio n Familiarity Pleasantness Predictabili ty learning

No attending

Coh erent 8.64 5.42 2.54 3.37

Inco here nt 8.51 5.19 8.18 8.05

Durat ion a lone

Coheren t 8 .79 5 .23 2 .52 3 .24

Inco here nt 8.33 5.47 8.01 7.91

Pi tch a lone

Co heren t 8.07 5.17 2.73 3.41

Incoheren t 8 .61 5 .31 8 .12 7 .89

B o t h

Co heren t 8.57 5.33 2.68 3.29

Incoheren t 8 .42 5 .28 7 .97 7 .83

Note.

Lower va lues indica te a h igher degree of each perceptual

dimension.

m e l o d i e s ' d e g r e e o f s t r u c t u r a l c o h e r e n c e , F ( 1 , 4 0 ) = 6 8 . 8 9 ,

MSE = 2 . 0 1 , p < . 0 0 1 . A c r o s s a l l o f t h e a t t e n d e d - t o

d i m e n s i o n s , h i g h l y c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s w e r e j u d g e d s i g ni fi -

c a n t l y m o r e r e g u l a r t h a n w e r e l e s s c o h e r e n t t u n e s . L a s t , t h e

e a s e - o f - l e a r n i n g r a t i n g s s h o w e d a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n o f re s u l ts .

A m a i n e f f e c t f o r s t ru c t u r a l c o h e r e n c e , F ( 1 , 4 0 ) = 4 2 . 1 7 ,

MSE = 3 . 2 7 , p < . 0 0 1 , r e v e a l e d t h a t c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s w e r e

a l s o j u d g e d t o b e e a s i e r t o le a r n a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y r e m e m b e r

t h a n w e r e t h o s e t u n e s t h a t c o n t a i n e d c o n f l i c t i n g a c c e n t

s t r uc t u r e s .

I n s u m , t h e s e d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m e l o d i e s ' f a m i l i a r i t y

a n d p l e a s a n t n e s s w e r e c o m p a r a b l e a c r o s s t h e d i f f e r e n t

e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . M e l o d i e s w i t h i n t h e d i f f e r e n t a c -

c e n t c o n d i t i o n s, h o w e v e r , w e r e j u d g e d t o v a r y i n t h e ir

d e g r e e o f i n t e rn a l p r e d i c t ab i l it y a n d e a s e o f l e a r n in g , w h i c h

t h e r e b y v a l i d a t es t h e m a i n m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h is e x p e r i m e n t .

Results

Absolute Errors Scores

D a t a f r o m t h e r a t i n g a n d d u r a t i o n r e c a l l t a s k s w e r e

a n a l y z e d s e p a r a t el y t h r o u g h a s e r ie s o f a n a l y s e s o f v a r ia n c e

( A N O V A s ) . E a c h i s d i s c u s s e d i n t u rn .

Rating Data

T a b l e 1 d e p i c t s t h e m e a n r a t i n g s o f f a m i l i a r it y , p l e a s a n t -

n e s s , p r e d i c ta b i l i ty , a n d e a s e o f l e a r n i n g a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

m e l o d i e s ' d e g r e e o f s t r u c t u r a l c o h e r e n c e a n d a t t e n d e d - t o

d i m e n s i o n . M e a n s h a v e b e e n c o l l a p s e d o v e r m e l o d y s e t

b e c a u s e t h i s v a r i a b l e e x e r t e d n e g l i g i b l e e f fe c t s ( F < 1 ).

F o r r a t i n g s o f f a m i l ia r it y , t h e o v e r a l l A N O V A r e v e a l e d n o

s i g n i f i c a n t e f fe c t s a n d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s e t s o f m e l o d i e s

w e r e n o t r e c o g n i z a b l e b y p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h e r e w e r e a l s o

n o n s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u lt s f o r t h e p l e a s a n t n e s s r a t i n g s , a n d a s c a n

b e s e e n i n t h e s e c o n d c o l u m n o f T a b le 1 , t h e s e m e a n s a l l

c l u s te r e d a r o u n d t h e m i d - r a n g e o f t h e s c a le . T h e s e t o f

p r e d i c t a b i l i t y r a t in g s , h o w e v e r , v a r i e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

I n o r d e r t o a s s e s s r e p r o d u c t i o n a c c u r a c y , a l l d u r a t i o n

j u d g m e n t s ( s h o w n i n t h e s e c o n d c o l u m n o f T a b l e 2 ) w e re

t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a b s o l u t e e r r o r s c o r e s . T h e s e s c o r e s a r e

c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e m o s t s e n s i t iv e m e a s u r e o f j u d g e d

d u r a t io n a c c u r a c y ( M i c h o n , 1 9 7 2 ) b e c a u s e t h e y c a l c u la t e t h e

e x t e n t t o w h i c h p a r t i c i p a n t s ' r e s p o n s e s d e v i a t e f r o m a n

e v e n t ' s a c t u a l d u r a t io n i r re s p e c t iv e o f t h e d e v i a t i o n ' s s i g n

( i. e ., o v e r - o r u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n ) . A b s o l u t e e r r o r i s d e t e r m i n e d

b y f i r s t s u b t r a c t i n g a p a r t i c i p a n t ' s r e p r o d u c e d d u r a t i o n f r o m

a m e l o d y ' s a c t u a l d u r a t i o n , d i v i d i n g t h i s a b s o l u t e d i f f e r e n c e

b y t h e m e l o d y ' s a c t u a l d u r a t i o n , a n d t h e n m u l t i p l y i n g b y

1 0 0 . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e d e p i c t e d i n t h e f i rs t c o l u m n o f T a b l e 2

a s a f u n c t i o n o f s tr u c t u r a l c o h e r e n c e a n d t h e a t t e n d e d - t o

d i m e n s i o n . O n c e a g a i n , s c o re s w e r e c o l l a p s e d o v e r m e l o d y

s e t b e c a u s e t h i s v a r i a b l e e x e r t e d n o s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n

p e r f o r m a n c e .

T h e o v e r a l l A N O V A r e v e a l e d t w o s i g n if i c a n t e f fe c t s.

F i r s t, a m a i n e f f e c t f o r s t r u c t u r a l c o h e r e n c e i n d i c a t e d t h a t

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REMEMBERED DURATION 1 09 5

T a b l e 2

M e a n P e r f o r m a n c e i n th e D u r a t i o n R e p r o d u c t io n T a s k o f E x p e r i m e n t I a s a F u n c t i o n

o f E v e n t C o h e r e n c e a n d t h e A t t e n d e d t o D i m e n s i o n o f M e l o d y S t r u c tu r e

Mean percentage Reproduced durations

absolute error (in seconds) Ratio scores

Attended-to

dimension M S D M S D M S D

No attending

Cohere nt 12.78 3.87 11.472 0.401 1.11 0.06

Incoheren t 20.18 24.12 12.139 2.082 1.17 0.28

Duration alone

Cohere nt 6.92 2.23 11.066 0.231 1.07 0.09

Incoherent 9.66 9.07 11.350 0.939 1.10 0.20

Pitch alone

Coherent 8.59

4 11 11 239

0.425 1.09 0.06

Incoherent 29.03 22.84 13.355 1.950 1.29 0.31

B o t h

Coheren t 7.00 3 .09 11.075 0.320 1.07 0.07

Incoherent 34.54 26.75 6.975 3.105 0.67 0.51

w h e n t e m p o r a l a c c e n t s c o i n c i d e d w i t h m e l o d i c p h r a s e

e n d i n g s , d u r a t io n w a s m o r e a c c u r a t e l y r e c a l le d t h a n w h e n

t e m p o r a l - m e l o d i c a c c e n t s t r u c t u r e s c o n f l i c t e d w i t h o n e

anothe r , F (1 , 40) = 78 . 15 , M S E = 26 . 69 , p < . 001 . Th i s

e f f e c t w a s a r e l i a b l e o n e t h a t a p p l i e d t o 4 2 o f t h e 4 8

par t i c ipan t s in the expe r im ent .

S econ d , re su l t s a l so ind ica ted tha t the a t t ended - to d im en-

s i o n o f a m e l o d y ' s s t r u c t u r e e x e r t e d a d i f f e r e n t ia l e f f e c t o n

c o n d i t i o n s o f v a r y i n g c o h e r e n c e , F ( 3 , 4 0 ) = 1 1 .1 9 , M S E =

2 6 . 6 9 , p < . 01 . F i r st c o n s i d e r t h e c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s o f T a b l e

2 . N o t i c e t h a t t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t o t a l d u r a ti o n w a s l e a s t

a c c u r a t e i n t h e n o - a t t e n d i n g c o n d i t i o n ( M = 1 3 e r r o r ) , i n

w h i c h p a r t i c ip a n t s h a d n o k n o w l e d g e o f a n y s o r t o f u p c o m -

i n g m e m o r y t e s t . I n c o n t r a s t , p e r f o r m a n c e w a s m a r k e d l y

e n h a n c e d i n t h e t h r e e r e m a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n s , i n w h i c h

p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e a w a r e t h e y w o u l d l a t e r b e t e s t e d o n t h e

m elod ies ' s t ruc tu re . More im por tan t , the re were no s ign i f i -

c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g t h e s e l a t te r t h r e e c o n d i t io n s . T h o s e

p a r t ic i p a n t s w h o a t t e n d e d s o l e l y t o a m e l o d y ' s t e m p o r a l o r

n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l l e a r n i n g s t a g e

p e r f o r m e d a t t h e s a m e l e v e l a s p a r t ic i p a n ts w h o a t t e n d e d t o

bo th s t ruc tura l d im ens ions . Th i s ove ra l l pa t t e rn o f re su l t s

w a s c o n f i r m e d b y a s e t o f T u k e y p o s t h o c c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h

p s e t a t 0 5

A v e r y d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n o f r e s u l ts a p p e a r e d w i t h t h e

r e m e m b e r i n g o f i n c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s . H e r e , t h e c l a s s i c a l

p r o s p e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n , in w h i c h p a r t i c ip a n t s w e r e i n f o r m e d

o f t h e u p c o m i n g t i m e e s t i m a t i o n t a sk , y i e l d e d t h e h i g h e s t

l e v e l o f p e r f o r m a n c e , w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 1 0 e r r or . R e l a t i v e

to e r ro r in th i s condi t ion , abso lu te e r ro r s ign i f i can t ly in -

c r e a s e d w h e n p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e n o t a w a r e o f a n y s o r t o f

s u b s e q u e n t m e m o r y t a s k . L a s t , t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f e r r o r i n

d u r a t i o n m e m o r y f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d w h e n p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e

e i t h e r a t t e n d i n g t o n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a l o n e o r w e r e

d i v i d i n g t h e i r a t t e n t i o n b e t w e e n b o t h s t r u ct u r a l d i m e n s i o n s .

P a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e p i t c h - a l o n e c o n d i t i o n s h o w e d a 9

inc rease in e r ro r re la t ive to pa r t i c ipan t s in the no-a t t end ing

condi t ion , and an add i t iona l 6 inc rease re la t ive to pa r t i c i -

pan t s in the bo th cond i t ion . Aga in , the se ove ra l l d i f fe rences

w e r e s u p p o r t e d b y a s e t o f T u k e y p o s t h o c c o m p a r i s o n s

(p - - . 05) .

T h i s i n t e r a c ti o n w a s a h i g h l y r o b u s t o n e t h a t a p p l i e d t o a l l

f o u r m e l o d i e s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t . B y l o o k i n g a t t h e s t a n d a r d

d e v i a t i o n o f t h e a b s o l u t e e r r o r s c o r e s i n T a b l e 2 o n e c a n a l s o

see tha t these e f fec t s were re f l ec ted in the va r iab i l i ty o f

pa r t i c ipan t s ' re spon ses ac ros s the d i f fe ren t condi t ions .

atio Scores

A s e c o n d a n a l y s is w a s c o n d u c t e d i n o r d e r t o a s s e ss t h e

d i r e c t io n a l i t y o f p a r t i c ip a n t s ' t i m e j u d g m e n t s . R e c a l l t h a t t h e

a b s o l u t e e r r o r s c o r e s m e a s u r e r e p r o d u c t i o n a c c u r a c y b y

i g n o r i n g t h e s i g n e d d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a p a r t i c i p a n t' s r e -

s p o n s e a n d t h e a c t u a l d u r a t i o n o f a m e l o d y . H o w e v e r , it m a y

b e t h a t t h e m a n i p u l a t io n s o f t e m p o r a l a c c e n t s t r u c t u re i n t h i s

e x p e r i m e n t e x e r t e d a s y s t e m a ti c i n f l u e n c e o n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f

t e m p o r a l j u d g m e n t s s u c h t h a t s o m e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e m o r e

a p t t h a n o t h e r s t o y i e l d o v e r - o r u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n s o f d u r a t i o n

reca l l . Hen ce , fo r eac h pa r t i c ipan t , a s e t o f ra t io s cores

( R D / A D ) w a s c a l c u l a t e d th a t e v a l u a t e d r e p r o d u c e d d u r a t i o n

( R D ) r e l a t i v e to t h e m e l o d y ' s a c t u al d u r a t i o n ( A D ) . R e l a t i v e

to a ra t io o f 1 ( represen t ing no b ia s ) , ra t ios l e s s than 1

ind ica te re la t ive underes t im a t ions whereas ra t ios g rea te r

t h a n 1 i n d ic a t e r e l a t iv e o v e r e s t i m a t io n s . T h e s e m e a n r a t i o

s c o r e s a r e d e p i c t e d i n t h e t h i r d c o l u m n o f T a b l e 2 .

R e s u l t s f r o m a n o v e r a l l A N O V A r e v e a l e d a s i g n if i c an t

i n t e r a ct i o n b e t w e e n s t ru c t u ra l c o h e r e n c e a n d t h e a t t e n d e d - t o

d i m e n s i o n , F ( 3 , 4 0 ) = 2 7 . 1 2 ,

M S E

= 0 . 1 2 , p < . 0 01 . A s c a n

b e s e e n i n T a b l e 2 , r a ti o s f o r t h e h i g h l y c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s

d id no t va ry ac ros s the d i f fe ren t ins t ruc t iona l g roups , and

a l t h o u g h t h e y s u g g e s t e d a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d o v e r e s t i m a t i o n ,

a s e t o f T u k e y p o s t h o c c o m p a r i s o n s i n d i c a t e d th a t t h e y d i d

not s ign i f i can t ly dev ia te f rom a v a lue o f 1 . In e f fec t , b ia s w as

a b s e n t i n t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s. I n c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s , o n t h e o t h e r

hand , y ie lded sys tem a t ic ove r - and underes t im a t ions a s a

func t ion o f the a t t en t iona l m anipu la t ions . R e la t ive to pa r t i c i -

p a n t s i n t h e p r o s p e c t i v e ( d u r a t io n a l o n e ) c o n d i t i o n , w h i c h

prod uce d no s ign i f i can t b ia s , pa r t ic ipan t s in the no-a t t end ing

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1096 BOLTZ

condi t ion ove res t im a ted even t dura t ions (p < . 05). In add i -

t ion , the m agni tude o f th i s b ia s inc reased (p < . 05) wh en

p a r t ic i p a n ts f o c u s e d o n t h e n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e i r

s e t o f m e lod ies ( i .e . , p i t ch-a lon e condi t ion) . Th i s b ia s was a

re la t ive ly cons i s ten t one tha t app l ied to 75 of pa r t i c ipan t s

in the fo rm er condi t ion and 83 in the l a t te r . Conv erse ly ,

underes t im a t ions a rose when pa r t i c ipan t s were a t t end ing to

b o t h t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g t h e

in i t ia l l ea rn ing phase (p < . 05) . Th i s too was a robus t

f ind ing tha t occu r red fo r 75 o f the pa r t i c ipan t s in th i s

condi t ion .

Las t , i t is in form a t ive to no te tha t the va r iab i l i ty o f

re sponses was a l so s ign i f i can t ly g rea te r in the accen t -

i n c o m p a t i b l e c o n d i t i o n t h a n i n t h e a c c e n t - c o m p a t i b l e

condi t ion .

iscussion

T h e r e s u l t s o f E x p e r i m e n t 1 i n d ic a t e t h a t a l t h o u g h v a r i a -

t ions in s e lec t ive a t t end ing can in f luence dura t ion m em ory ,

t h e s e e f f e c ts a r e a l so d e p e n d e n t o n t h e c o h e r e n c e o f e v e n t

s t ruc ture . The incoheren t m e lod ies o f th i s s tudy , which

d i s p l a y e d t e m p o r a l a c c e n t s t h a t f a i l e d t o c o i n c i d e w i t h

m e l o d i c p h r a s e e n d i n g s , y i e l d e d a p a t t e r n o f t i m e j u d g m e n t s

t h a t w a s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e r e s o u r c e a l l o c a -

t ion theory (Zakay , 1989) . Overa l l , these judgm ents su gges t

t h a t t h e t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s e

e v e n t s m u s t b e s e l e c t iv e l y a t te n d e d t o f o r e n c o d i n g t o o c c u r .

H e r e , t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y w a s

obse rved in the p rospec t ive s i tua t ion in which pa r t i c ipan t s

k n e w t h a t a d u r a t i o n r e c a l l t a s k w a s f o r t h c o m i n g . T h i s

the re f ore enab le d pa r t i c ipan t s to d i rec t a t t end ing so le ly

t o w a r d t h i s d i m e n s i o n a n d t o e n g a g e i n c o n s c i o u s t i m e -

k e e p i n g s t ra t e g ie s t o a i d m e m o r y p e r f o r m a n c e ( e ,g . , t ap p i n g

t o o r c o u n t i n g t h e n u m b e r o f b e a t s w i t h i n m e l o d i e s ) .

H o w e v e r , w h e n a t t e n d i n g w a s d i r e c t e d e l s e w h e r e o r w a s

s h a r e d w i t h t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n ,

p e r f o r m a n c e m a r k e d l y d e c l i n e d . I n t h e n o - a t t e n d i n g c o n d i -

t i o n , i n w h i c h p a r t i c i p an t s w e r e n o t a w a r e o f a n u p c o m i n g

m e m o r y t a s k , p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e f r e e t o d i r e c t a t t e n d i n g

t o w a r d p i t c h o r t i m i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o r b o t h . A l t h o u g h

d u r a t i o n a c c u r a c y d e c l i n e d h e r e r e l a t i v e t o t h a t i n t h e

p r o s p e c t i v e c o n d i ti o n , p e r f o r m a n c e w a s n o n e t h e l e s s b e t t e r

than when pa r t i c ipan t s were ins t ruc ted to a t t end to and

rem em ber the a r ray o f p i t ch in te rva l s . Th i s sugges t s tha t a t

l eas t som e pa r t i c ipan t s in the no-a t t end ing cond i t ion e lec ted

to a t t end to dura t ion in form a t ion a lone dur ing the in i t i a l

l ea rn ing phase , which re su l t ed in l e s s e r ro r than in the

p i t ch-a lone condi t ion , in which a t t en t ion was d i rec ted

e x c l u s i v e l y t o w a r d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t io n , F i n a l ly , t h e

l o w e s t l e v e l o f p e r f o r m a n c e o c c u r r e d w h e n p a r t i c i p a n t s

w e r e a t t em p t i n g t o l e a r n b o t h p i t c h a n d d u r a t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n

d u r i n g t h e e n c o d i n g p h a s e . T h e f a c t t h a t p a r t ic i p a n t s w e r e

c o n f r o n t e d w i t h c o n f l i c t i n g a r r a y s o f i n f o r m a t i o n l e d t o

i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s su c h t h a t d u r a t i o n c o u l d n o t b e e n c o d e d

w i t h t h e s a m e f a c i l i t y a s w h e n i t w a s t h e s o l e d i m e n s i o n

a t t ended to . In sum , then , th i s ove ra l l pa t t e rn o f re su l t s

converges wi th the re su l t s o f o the r s tud ies tha t a s ses sed

d u r a t i o n ju d g m e n t s i n p r o s p e c t i v e v e r s u s r e t r o s p e c t i v e c i r-

cum s tances (e . g . , Brown, 1985; Brown & S tubbs , 1992;

Zakay, 1989, 1993).

T h e n o v e l f i n d in g s o f t h i s s t u d y e m e r g e d w i t h r e g a r d t o

t h e d u r a t i o n m e m o r y o f h i g h l y c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s . I n

con t ra s t to the p red ic t ions o f the re source a l loca t ion m ode l ,

t h e d u r a t i o n s o f t h e s e m e l o d i e s w e r e w e l l r e m e m b e r e d

rega rd le s s o f wh ich s t ruc tura l d im en s ion was s e lec t ive ly

a t t ended to . The re su l t s o f the no-a t t end ing con di t ion a re

pa r t i cu la r ly in te re s t ing because even though pa r t i c ipan t s

c o u l d c h o o s e t o a t t e n d t o t e m p o r a l o r n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a -

t i o n a l o n e o r i n t a n d e m , t h e d e g r e e o f e r r o r i n d u r a t i o n

m e m o r y w a s n o n e t h e l e s s q u i t e l o w . H o w e v e r , r e s u l ts a l s o

s h o w e d t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e i m p r o v e d w h e n p a r t ic i p a n ts w e r e

a w a r e t h a t t h e y w o u l d l a t e r b e t e s t e d o n t h e m e l o d i e s '

s t r u c t u r e a n d c o u l d t h e r e f o r e e n g a g e i n m e m o r y - a i d i n g

s t ra teg ie s . M oreove r , a t tend ing to a m e lod y ' s dura t ion l ed to

t h e s a m e l e v e l o f a c c u r a c y a s a t t e n d in g t o t h e a r r a y o f p i t c h

i n te r v a ls , a n d p e r f o r m a n c e d i d n o t d e c l i n e w h e n a t t en d i n g

w a s s h a r e d b e t w e e n t h e p r o c e s si n g o f t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m -

pora l in form a t ion . As a s e t , these re su l t s ind ica te tha t the two

s t ru c t u ra l d i m e n s i o n s w e r e j o i n t l y e n c o d e d . E v e n w h e n

p a r t i c i p a n t s f o c u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y o n n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a -

t ion , dura t ion in form a t ion was l ea rn ed inc iden ta l ly wi th the

s a m e d e g r e e o f e f f i c a c y a s i n t e n t i o n a l le a r n in g . T h i s m a k e s

s e n s e g i v e n t h a t t h e t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n

of these even t s a re inex t r i cab ly en twined and s t ruc tura l ly

re in forc e one ano the r .

T h e s e c o n d n o t a b l e f i n d i n g o f E x p e r i m e n t 1 i n v o l v e s

ce r ta in sys tem a t ic b ia ses tha t em erged a s a func t ion of the

exper im enta l m anipu la t ions . In gene ra l , the ra t io s cores fo r

h i g h l y c o h e r e n t e v e n t s i n d i c a te d t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i ty o f a n

o v e r e s t i m a t i o n w a s e q u a l t o t h a t o f a n u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n .

A c r o s s a ll f o u r c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e e x p e r im e n t , 5 4 o f t h e

p a r t ic i p a n ts o v e r e s t i m a t e d c o h e r e n t d u r a t i o n s, w h e r e a s 4 6

undere s t im a ted these t im e spans . B ias was a l so absen t whe n

par t i c ipan t s reca l l ed incoheren t dura t ions under p rospec t ive

c i rcum s tances . However , s ign i f i can t ove res t im a t ions were

o b s e r v e d w h e n p a r t i c i p a n ts w e r e p r i m a r i l y a t t e n d i n g t o t h e

n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n o f i n c o h e r e n t e v e n t s d u r i n g t h e

lea rn ing phase . F or exam ple , ove res t im a t ions appea red in

the no-a t t end ing cond i t ion fo r those pa r t i c ipan t s who app ar -

en t ly e lec ted to a t tend to p i t ch in form a t ion , and ove res t im a-

t i o n s f u r t h e r i n c r e a s ed i n t h e p i t c h - a lo n e c o n d i t i o n , w h e r e

p a r t ic i p a n ts w e r e f o c u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y o n t h e m e l o d i e s ' p i t c h

re la t ions . Th i s b ia s has been repor ted in p rev ious s tud ies

(Bol tz , 1995; McCla in , 1983; Zakay , 1993) and i s cons i s ten t

wi th the use o f an ava i l ab i l i ty heur i s t i c . Given tha t even t

d u r a t i o n h a s n o t b e e n e n c o d e d i n t o m e m o r y , p a r t i c i p a n t s

r e l y o n t h o s e c h a r a c te r i st i c s o f n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t

a re ava i l ab le , such a s the num ber o f chunks (O rns te in , 1969)

or changes (B lock , 1985) , to in fe r dura t ion e s t im a tes .

I n c o h e r e n t e v e n t s w i l l s e e m p a r t ic u l a r ly l o n g b e c a u s e t h e i r

o v e r a l l l a ck o f a n u n d e r l y i n g o r g a n i z a t io n a l s c h e m e c r e a t e s

an a r ray o f s eem in gly d i s jo in ted i t em s . S im i la r ly , an ava i l -

ab i l i ty heur i s t i c m ay a l so be re spons ib le fo r the underes t im a-

t ion b ia s tha t em erged when pa r t i c ipan t s were s im ul ta -

n e o u s l y a t t e n d i n g t o b o t h t h e t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l

i n f o r m a t i o n o f i n c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s . A s n o t e d b y Z a k a y

( 1 9 8 9 ), d i v i d e d a t t e n d in g n o t o n l y d i s r u p ts a n y c o n s c i o u s

8/9/2019 Boltz Structure1998

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/boltz-structure1998 11/18

REMEMBERED DURATION 1 09 7

t i m e - k e e p i n g s t r a t eg i e s t h a t m a y b e i n v o k e d b u t a l s o r e su l t s

i n l e s s n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n s b e i n g e n c o d e d i n t o

m em ory . In e i the r case , the re su l t i s shor te r e s t im a tes o f

j u d g e d d u r a t i o n .

E x p e r i m e n t 2

T h e p u r p o s e o f E x p e r i m e n t 2 w a s t o m o r e t h o r o u g h l y

e x a m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l

i n f o r m a t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n o f v a r i a t io n s i n s e l e c t iv e a t t en d i n g

and ev en t s t ruc tu re . In pa r ti cu la r , two add i t iona l i s sues were

r a i s e d c o n c e r n i n g t h o s e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n r e m e m b e r i n g .

T h e f i rs t c o n c e r n s w h e t h e r o t h e r t y p e s o f t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a -

t i o n , b e y o n d a n e v e n t s t o t a l d u r a t i o n , c a n b e l e a r n e d

i n c i d e n t a ll y a n d l a t e r r e t r i e v e d f r o m m e m o r y . W i t h r e s p e c t

t o m u s i c , o n e o b v i o u s c a n d i d a t e is a m e l o d y s rh y t h m . A t

l e a s t i n h i g h l y c o h e r e n t t u n e s , t h e p a t t e r n o f t e m p o r a l

a c c e n t u a t io n i s a s s u m e d t o g u i d e a t t en d i n g t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g

o r g a n i z a t io n o f m e l o d i c r e l a t i o n s h ip s a n d t o p r o v i d e c o g n i -

t ive re fe ren t s fo r recap i tu la t ing the m e lo dy s to ta l t im e span .

I f th i s so r t o f re t r i eva l p roces s does in fac t occur , then

p a r t ic i p a n t s s h o u l d b e a b l e t o r e m e m b e r a m e l o d y s p i t c h

re la t ions , to ta l dura t ion , and rhy thm ic pa t t e rn ing rega rd le s s

o f w h i c h s t ru c t u r al d i m e n s i o n w a s s e l e c t iv e l y a t te n d e d t o

d u r i n g t h e e n c o d i n g p h a s e . A l l t h r e e t y p e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n

s h o u l d b e i n e x t r i c a b l y e n t w i n e d i n a m e l o d y s r e p r e se n t a -

t i o n a n d r e t r i e v e d a s s u c h d u r i n g r e m e m b e r i n g . I n c o h e r e n t

even t s , however , d i sp lay a ve ry d i f fe ren t type o f s t ruc tu ra l

a r r a n g e m e n t . G i v e n t h a t t e m p o r a l a c c e n ts b e a r n o m e a n i n g -

fu l re la t ionsh ip to m e lod ic s t ruc tu re , they canno t be re l i ab ly

used to recap i tu la te an eve n t s dura t ion . Hen ce , the re i s no

r e a s o n t o e x p e c t a m e l o d y s r h y t h m t o b e r e t r i e v e d f r o m

m e m o r y u n l e s s i t w a s s e l e c t iv e l y a t te n d e d t o d u r i n g e n c o d -

i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , b e c a u s e r h y t h m i s s t r u c t u ra l ly i n c o m p a t -

i b l e w i t h t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g m e l o d i c l i n e , p e r f o r m a n c e

s h o u l d d e c l i n e w h e n a t t e n d i n g i s d i v i d e d b e t w e e n t h e

p r o c e s s i n g o f b o t h t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n .

I n s u m , t h e n , o n e g o a l o f E x p e r i m e n t 2 w a s t o d e t e r m i n e

w h e t h e r r h y t h m i s a v a i l a b l e i n m e m o r y u n d e r d i f f e r e n t

condi t ions o f even t s t ruc tu re and s e lec t ive a t t end ing .

A s e c o n d a n d r e l a t e d i s s u e c o n c e r n s w h e t h e r t h e r e i s a

s y s t e m a t ic r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e a b i l i ty t o r e m e m b e r a n

e v e n t s t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o

Zak ay s (1989) re sou rce a l loca t ion theory , the re i s a t rade -

o f f : A t t e n d i n g t o t e m p o r a l o r n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a l o n e

w i l l d e c r e a s e p e r f o r m a n c e o n t h e o t h e r d i m e n s i o n . T h i s

f ind ing has in fac t been repor ted in the p rev ious l i t e ra tu re .

B r o w n a n d S t u b b s ( 1 9 9 2 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , r e q u i r e d p a r t i c i -

pan t s to l i s t en to a s e t o f m e lod ies whi le s im ul taneous ly

p e r f o r m i n g a p r o o f r e a d i n g t a sk . R e s u l t s s h o w e d t h a t i n a

p r o s p e c t i v e p a r ad i g m , t i m e j u d g m e n t s o f m e l o d i e s w e r e

q u i t e a c c u r a t e b u t p r o o f r e a d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e w a s p o o r .

C o n v e r s e l y , t h e o p p o s i t e p a t t e r n o f r e s u l t s o c c u r r e d i n a

r e t r o s p e c t i v e p a r a d ig m : A l t h o u g h p r o o f r e a d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e

w a s h i g h , t i m e j u d g m e n t s w e r e i n a c c u r a te .

n t h i s l a t t e r s tudy , i t is im p or tan t to no te tha t the two ta sks

o f m u s i c l i s t e n in g a n d p r o o f r e a d i n g w e r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f o n e

anothe r ( i . e . , had no in t r ins ic in te r re la t ion) and the re fore

r e q u i r e d s e p a r a t e p r o c e s s i n g r e s o u r ce s . I n m a n y w a y s , t h i s

s i tua t ion i s ana logous to the s t ruc ture o f incoheren t m e lo-

d ie s , in which t em pora l and m e lod ic re la t ions a re a l so

independ ent . Henc e , i f pa r t i c ipan t s a re a sked to a t t end to a

m e l o d y s r h y t h m , t o t a l d u ra t i o n , o r t h e s e q u e n c e o f p i t c h

r e l at i o n s, a s i m i l a r t r a d e - o f f in p e r f o r m a n c e s h o u l d b e

e x p e c t e d - - a l t h o u g h m e m o r y s h o u ld b e b e t t e r o n t h e d i m e n -

s i o n t h a t w a s s e l e c t iv e l y a t t en d e d t o , p e r f o r m a n c e o n t h e

o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s s h o u l d b e q u i t e l o w . H o w e v e r , f r o m t h e

p e r s p e c t iv e o f s t r u c tu r a l r e m e m b e r i n g t h e o r y , th i s o v e r a l l

p a t t e rn o f r e s u l ts s h o u l d n o t a p p e a r w i t h t h e r e m e m b e r i n g o f

h i g h l y c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s . G i v e n t h a t t h e t e m p o r a l a n d

n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s e e v e n t s d i r e c t l y c o i n c i d e ,

t h e r e m e m b e r i n g o f p i t c h , o f r h y t h m , a n d o f t o t a l d u r a ti o n

s h o u l d a l l b e q u i t e h i g h a n d c o m p a r a b l e r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e

d im ens ion to which pa r t i c ipan t s were ins t ruc ted to a t t end .

T h i s s h o u l d b e p a r t i c u la r l y t r u e w h e n p a r t i c i p a n ts k n o w t h a t

s o m e s o r t o f m e m o r y t a s k w i ll b e f o r t h c o m i n g , w h i c h s h o u l d

e n c o u r a g e t h e u s e o f m e m o r y - a i d i n g s t r a te g i e s.

T h e s e i s su e s w e r e i n v e s t i g a t ed b y r e l y i n g o n e s s e n t ia l l y

the s am e des ign a s in Exper im ent 1 . On ce aga in , pa r ti c ipan t s

w e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a s e t o f c o h e r e n t a n d i n c o h e r e n t

m e lod ies and a sked to s e lec t ive ly a t t end to d i f fe ren t s t ruc -

t u r a l d i m e n s io n s w h i l e p e r f o r m i n g a s e r i e s o f p e r c e p t u a l

ra t ing t a sks . However , two m odi f i ca t ions were in t roduced .

O n e i n v o l v e d t h e t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e

a s k e d t o a t t e n d t o f o r a s u b s e q u e n t m e m o r y t a s k . I n a d d i t io n

to a g roup ins t ruc ted to a t t end to to ta l dura t ion , a s econd

g r o u p w a s a s k e d t o f o c u s o n t h e p a r t ic u l a r r h y t h m o f e a c h

m elody . As be fore , a d iv ided a t t en t ion condi t ion was in -

c l u d e d , b u t h e r e p a r t ic i p a n ts w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d

l a t e r b e t e s t e d o n p i t c h a n d r h y t h m . T h e t w o r e m a i n i n g

c o n d i t i o n s w e r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e o f t h e p r e v i o u s s t u d y :

P a r t i c ipan t s were e i the r a sked to a t t end to p i t ch in form a t io n

a l o n e o r w e r e g i v e n n o i n f o r m a t i o n a t a ll a b o u t a s u b s e q u e n t

m e m o r y t a s k . A f t e r p e r f o r m i n g t h e s e t o f r a ti n g t a s k s d u r i n g

the in i t i a l l ea rn ing phase , a l l pa r t i c ipan t s wer e then a sk ed to

p e r f o r m t h r e e t y p e s o f m e m o r y t a s k s : r e p r o d u c i n g t h e

m e l o d i e s t o t a l d u r a t i o n s , r e p r o d u c i n g t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r

r h y t h m s , a n d r e c o g n i z i n g t h e i r s e q u e n c e s o f n o t e s .

Method

Only those m ethodological differences from Experiment 1 are

described.

Participants and esign

The design was a 2 × 2 × 5 mixed factorial. All participants

listened to the same set of folk tunes from Experiment 1, which

varied in their degree of structural coherence (coherent or incoher-

ent). The two between-subjects variables were m elody set (A or B )

and the attended-to dimension o f a m elody s structure (duration

alone, rhythm alone, pitch alone, both pitch and rhythm, or no

attending).

Eighty studen ts, all nonmusicians, participated in the experiment

for course credit. Eight were randomly assigned to each of the 10

between-subjects conditions.

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1 0 9 8 B O L T Z

S t i m u l u s M a t e r i a l s

F o r t h e p i t c h r e c o g n i ti o n t a sk , t w o n e w d i s t r ac t o r m e l o d i e s w e r e

c r e a t e d f o r e a c h o f t h e f o u r m e l o d i e s w i t h in a g i v e n s e t ( A a n d B ) .

These a re shown in Tab le 3 . Each d i s t rac to r a lways p rese rved a

m e l o d y ' s t o n a l it y a n d r h y t h m b u t d i s p l a y e d a s e r ie s o f n e w n o t e s

w i t h i n o n e m e l o d i c p h r a s e . I n t h e t w o m e l o d i e s c o n t a in i n g s i x - n o t e

m e l o d i c p h r a s e s ( T h e R a b b i t a n d t h e T u r t l e a n d I n M y

D r e a m s ) , o n e s e t o f d e v i a t i o n s w a s i m p o s e d o n n o t e s w i t h i n th e

second melo d ic phrase ( i .e . , No tes 7 th rough 12) and a second was

imposed on no tes wi th in the th i rd melod ic phrase ( i .e . , No tes 13

th rough 18). S imi la r ly , me lo d ies con ta in ing e igh t -no te melod ic

p h r a s e s ( L i t h u a n i a n N a t i o n a l H y m n a n d F o n d R e g r e t ) w e re

c h a n g e d s u c h t h a t d e v i a t i o n s o c c u r r e d e i t h e r w i t h i n t h e s e c o n d

melod ic phrase ( i .e . , No tes 9 th rough 16) o r wi th in the th i rd

melo d ic phrase ( i .e . , No tes 17 th rough 23) . To the ex ten t tha t i t was

p o s s i b l e , t h e s e t o f d e v i a t e d n o t e s w i t h i n a p h r a s e p r e s e r v e d t h e

m e l o d y ' s o r i g in a l c o n t o u r ( o r p a t t e rn o f u p s a n d d o w n s i n p i t ch )

and in te rva l r e la t ionsh ips : In mo s t cases , no tes were s im ply

t r a n s p o se d u p o r d o w n i n p i t c h b y o n e o r t w o s c a l e st e p s . T h e r e

were th ree exce p t ions to these genera l ru les . In two ins tances , the

magni tude o f a p i t ch change was e i the r 0 o r 3 sca le s t eps , and in

one ins tance , a con tour change was reverse d in d i rec tion . These

e x c e p t i o n s, h o w e v e r , w e r e n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o r e n d e r t h e n e w

m e l o d i c p h r a s e s a s p l a u s i b l e o n e s t h a t c o u l d o c c u r w i t h i n a g i v e n

m e l o d y .

I n e a c h m e l o d y s e t ( A o r B ) , m e l o d i e s f o r t he p i t c h r e c o g n i ti o n

task were randomly a r ranged in to a se r ie s o f 16 t r i a l s such tha t

t h e r e w e r e a n e q u a l n u m b e r o f s a m e - d i f f e r e n t t r ia l s : E a c h o f t h e

four tunes was p resen ted twice in i t s o r ig ina l fo rmat and once in

e a c h o f i t s d e v i a t e d f o r m a t s .

P r o c e d u r e

F o r t h e s e t o f p e r c e p t u a l ra t i ng t a s k s , p a r t i c ip a n t s w e r e r a n d o m l y

ass igned to one o f the f ive a t t end ing cond i t ions . Pa r t i c ipan t s in the

no-a t t end ing , p i t ch -a lone , and dura t ion-a lone cond i t ions rece ived

the same se t o f ins truc t ions as in Exper imen t 1 . In the rhy thm -a lone

c o n d i t io n , p a r t ic i p a n t s w e r e t o l d th e y w o u l d l a t e r b e a s k e d t o

r e m e m b e r e a c h m e l o d y ' s rh y t h m a n d p a t t e r n o f s h o r t, m e d i u m , a n d

long no tes . In the bo th cond i t ion , pa r t i c ipan t s were to ld they would

b e a s k e d t o r e m e m b e r t h e p a r t i c u l a r r h y t h m a n d s e q u e n c e o f n o t e s

f o r e a c h o f t h e f o u r m e l o d i e s t h e y w o u l d b e h e a r i n g . A f t e r

comple t ing the in i t i a l l ea rn ing phase , a l l pa r t i c ipan t s were g iven

t h e d u r a t i o n r e c a l l t a s k u n d e r t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e a s b e f o r e .

F o l l o w i n g t h i s , p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e t h e n a s k e d t o p e r f o r m t w o

a d d i t io n a l ta s k s t h a t w e r e o r d e r e d i n s u c h a w a y a s t o m i n i m i z e a n y

po ten t ia l ca r ryov er e f fec t s . In the f i r s t , pa r t i c ipan t s were as ked to

reca l l the recur ren t rhy thm fo r each tune . In pa r t i cu la r , they were

t o l d t h a t e a c h o f f o u r m e l o d i e s t h e y h a d h e a r d e a r l i e r co n t a i n e d a

to ta l o f 24 no tes and tha t in

t w

o f t h e s e m e l o d i e s , no t e s w e r e

a r r a n g e d i n t o f o u r g r o u p s o f s i x n o t e s , w h e r e a s i n t h e r e m a i n i n g

melod ies , no tes were a r ranged in to th ree g roups o f e igh t no tes .

P a r t ic i p a n t s w e r e a l s o i n f o r m e d t h a t a l l g r o u p i n g s w i t h i n a g i v e n

m e l o d y d i s p l a y e d a r e p e t i ti v e p a tt e r n o f s h o r t , m e d i u m , a n d l o n g

no tes tha t they shou ld t ry to reca l l w i th the l e t t e r s S , M, and L ,

respec t ive ly . Pa r t i c ipan t s were g iven 5 m in to com ple te th i s t a sk on

a p r o v i d e d s h e e t t h a t c o n ta i n e d t h e n a m e o f e a c h m e l o d y t h e y w e r e

to reca l l .

I n t h e t h i rd a n d f i na l m e m o r y t a s k o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t , p a rt i c ip a n t s

w e r e a s k e d t o r e c o g n i z e e ac h m e l o d y ' s s e q u e n c e o f n o t e s. O n e a c h

t r i a l , a 1 - s warn ing tone p re ceded a m elody by 2 s . Dur ing the 7 - s

response pe r io d tha t fo l lowe d , pa r t i c ipan t s were ins t ruc ted to c i rc le

s a m e o n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s h e e t i f t h e tu n e c o n t a i n e d e x a c t l y t h e

same sequence o f no tes as dur ing the ea r l i e r r a ting t a sk . Con-

v e r s el y , t h e y w e r e t o l d t o c i rc l e d i f f e r e n t i f s o m e n o te s a p p e a r e d

t o h a v e b e e n c h a n g e d . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r s a m e - d i f f e r e n t u d g m e n t ,

pa r t i c ipan t s were asked to ind ica te the ce r ta in ty o f the i r r e sponse

on a 7 -po in t r a t ing sca le (7 =

very sure .

R e s u l t s

T h e d a t a f r o m t h e p e r c e p t u a l r a t i n g t a s k s a r e n o t p r e -

s e n t e d b e c a u s e , o v e r a l l , t h e y r e v e a l e d t h e s a m e p a t t e r n o f

r e s u l ts a s i n E x p e r i m e n t 1 . F i n d i n g s f r o m t h e t h r ee m e m o r y

t a s k s a r e e a c h d i s c u s s e d i n t u r n . I n a l l c a s e s , r e s u l t s w e r e

c o l l a p s e d o v e r m e l o d y s e t ( A o r B ) b e c a u s e t h i s v a r i a b l e

e x e r t e d a n e g l i g i b l e e ff e c t o n p e r f o r m a n c e .

D u r a t i o n R e p r o d u c t i o n

Absolute errors scores .

C o l u m n 1 o f T a b l e 4 d i s p l a y s

t h e a b s o l u t e e r r o r s c o r e s f r o m t h e d u r a t i o n r e p r o d u c t i o n

T a b l e 3

The Se t o f Devia ted No tes fo r Melod ies in the P i tch Recogn it ion Task o f Exper imen t 2

S o n g a n d

dev ia t ion se t Notes

T h e R a b b i t a n d t h e

T u r t l e

Devia t ion Se t 1

Devia t ion Se t 2

I n M y D r e a m s

D e v i a t i o n S e t 1

Devia t ion Se t 2

L i t h u a n i a n N a t i o n a l

Hymn

D e v i a t i o n S e t 1

D e v i a t i o n S e t 2

F o n d R e g r e ts

D e v i a t i o n S e t 1

D e v i a t i o n S e t 2

F_,4 F4 A4 C5 B4 (34 I )4 F4 A4 B4 G4 E4 A4 C5 A4 (34 (34

F 4 A 4 C 5 D 5 C 5 ( 34

B 4 D 5 C 5 F 4 F 4

C 4 F 4 G 4 A 4 F 4 C 4 G 4 A # 4 D 5 E 5 C 5 A 4 D 5 A # 4 ( 34 E 4 I: :4

A # 4 D 5 F 5 G 5 E 5 C 5

F 5 D 5 A # 4 G 4 A 4

G 4 I ) 4 (3 4 A 4 B 4 A 4 G 4 D 4 A 4 B 4 C 5 F #5 E 5 F # 5 G 5

F # 4 ( 34 A 4 D 5 C 5 D 5 E 5

C4 D4 E4 F4 D4 {24 B3 {33 D4 E4 F4 A4 F4 E4 134

E 4 F 4 (3 4 B 4 A 4 F 4 E A

E4 (34 E4 134 A3 B3 C4

(34

A 4 C 5 A # 4 I ) 4 C 4 E 4 F 4

C 5

D5 F# 5 D5 C5 F ,4 D4 F_ ,4 F#4 G4

B 4

E 5 C 5 A 4 F # 4 F A D 4 E A

G 4 A 4 G 4 F 4 A 4 G 4 A 4 B 4 C 5

G 4

B 4 A 4 G 4 B 4 A 4 134 D 5

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REMEMBERED DURATION

T a b l e 4

Mean Performance in the Duration Reproduction Rhythm Recall and Pitch Recognition Tasks of Experiment 2

as a Function of Structural Coherence and the Attended-to Dimension of Melody Structure

1 0 9 9

Me an absolute error

in duration reproduction

Me an rat io of reproduced

to actual duration

Mean er ror in

rhythm recal l

Mean hi t ra te

in pitch recognition

Attended-to dimension M SD M SD M SD M SD

Coherent m elodies

No attending 15 4.28 1.09 0.11 20 6.84 85 6.15

Duration alone 10 3.01 1.04 0.05 10 6.01 85 5.87

Pitch alone 9 3.58 1.07 0.09 13 5.89 98 2.00

Rhy thm alone 8 2.97 1.05 0.07 8 4.15 87 5.18

Both pitch and rhythm 11 4.12 1.03 0.08 10 5.37 96 2.75

Incoherent m elodies

No attending 24 29.17 1.22 0.40 45 22.86 58 21.00

Duration alone 13 6.77 1.10 0.18 24 8.21 63 28.12

Pitch alone 37 28.33 1.35 0.34 49 23.03 84 12.75

Rhy thm alone 10 7.24 1.09 0.22 15 7.64 60 24.09

Both pitch and rhythm 40 37.91 0.74 0.49 64 30.17 51 32.33

t a s k , w h i c h , a g a i n , r e p r e s e n t th e m e a n p e r c e n t a g e d e v i a t i o n

b e t w e e n a m e l o d y ' s a c t u a l a n d r e p r o d u c e d d u r a t i o n s . A s

i n d ic a t ed b y a n o v e r a l l A N O V A , t h e p a t te r n o f p e r f o r m a n c e

w a s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t i n E x p e r i m e n t 1 . A m a i n e f f e c t f o r

s t r uc t u r a l coh e r enc e , F ( 1 , 70 ) = 62 .17 , MSE = 19.93, p <

. 0 01 , i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e d u r a t i o n s o f c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s w e r e

r e c a l l e d w i th l e s s e r r o r ( M = 1 1 ) th a n w e r e t h o s e o f

i n c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s (M = 2 5 ) . T h i s e f f e c t w a s a r e l a t i v e l y

r o b u s t o n e t h a t a p p l i e d t o 7 1 o f t h e 8 0 p a r t i c ip a n t s i n t h e

exper i ment . I n add i t i on , t he r e was a l so a s i gn i f i can t i n t e r ac -

t i o n b e t w e e n s t r u c t u ra l c o h e r e n c e a n d t h e a t t e n d e d - t o d i m e n -

s i on , F ( 4 , 70 ) = 22 .36 ,

MSE

= 25 .44 , p < .004 . I n t he case

o f c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s , p e r f o r m a n c e r e m a i n e d c o m p a r a b l y

h i g h r e g a r d l e s s o f w h i c h s t r u c tu r a l d i m e n s i o n w a s a t t e n d e d

t o . O n c e a g a i n , t h e r e w a s n o d e c r e m e n t w h e n a t t e n t i o n w a s

d i v i d e d b e t w e e n p i t c h a n d rh y t h m . T h e d u r a t i o n e s t im a t e s o f

i n c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s h o w e d a v e r y

d i f f e re n t p a t t e r n o f r e s u lt s . H e r e , e r r o r w a s q u i t e l o w

( M = 1 3 ) w h e n p a r t i c ip a n t s w e r e e x p e c t i n g to b e te s t e d

f o r e v e n t d u r a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , e r r o r w a s c o m p a r a b l y l o w

w h e n p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e a t t e n d i n g t o r h y t h m d u r i n g e n c o d -

i n g , w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t r h y t h m w a s s u c c e s s f u l l y u s e d a s a

r e t r i e v a l s c h e m e f o r a m e l o d y ' s t o t a l d u r a t io n . R e l a t i v e t o

t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , a s e t o f T u k e y p o s t h o c c o m p a r i s o n s

i nd i ca t ed t ha t dur a t i on e s t i ma t es wer e s i gn i f i can t l y l e s s

a c c u r a te w h e n p a r t ic i p a n ts w e r e n o t a w a r e o f a n y u p c o m i n g

m e m o r y ta s k ( p < . 0 5 ) a n d e v e n l e ss a c c u r a te w h e n a t t e n d -

i n g w a s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d p i t c h i n f o r m a t i o n a l o n e o r w a s

d i v i d e d b e t w e e n p i tc h a n d r h y t h m ( p < . 0 1 ).

T h e s e e f f e c t s o n d u r a t i o n m e m o r y w e r e a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n

t h e v a r i a b i l i ty o f j u d g m e n t s . A s c a n b e s e e n i n T a b l e 4 , t h e

p a t t e r n o f s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s c o r e s d i r e c t l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o

t h e p a t t e r n o f a c c u r a c y s c o r e s .

Ratio scores.

T o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s ' r e p r o -

d u c t i o n s r e v e a l e d a n y s y s t e m a t i c p a t t e r n o f b i as , a s e t o f

r a t i o s c o r e s w a s o b t a i n e d f o r e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t w h i c h e v a l u -

a t e d r e p r o d u c e d d u r a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o a m e l o d y ' s a c t u a l

d u r a t io n . T h e s e s c o r e s a r e s h o w n i n c o l u m n 2 o f T a b l e 4 .

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f i n d i n g w a s a s i g n i f ic a n t i n t e ra c t i o n

b e t w e e n s t r u c t u ra l c o h e r e n c e a n d t h e a t t e n d e d - t o d i m e n s i o n ,

F ( 4 , 70) = 19 .01 , MSE = 0 .09 , p < .01 . Ac r os s a l l

c o n d i t i o n s o f a t t en t i o n a l d e m a n d , a s e t o f T u k e y p o s t h o c

c o m p a r i s o n s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r a t i o s c o r e s f o r c o h e r e n t

m e l o d i e s d i d n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e v i a t e f r o m a v a l u e o f

1 - - i n d i c a t i n g t h a t b i a s w a s a b s e n t i n t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s .

I n c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s , h o w e v e r , y i e l d e d a d i f f e re n t i a l p a t t e r n

o f o v e r - a n d u n d e r e s t im a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h b i a s d i d n o t a p p e a r

w h e n p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e a t t e n d i n g t o e i t h e r r h y t h m o r t o t a l

d u r a t io n , s i g n if i c an t o v e r e s t i m a t i o n s o c c u r r e d w h e n p a r t i c i-

p a n t s w e r e a t t e n d in g t o a m e l o d y ' s n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o rm a t i o n

d u r i n g t h e e n c o d i n g p h a s e . T h i s w a s m o s t a p p a r e n t w h e n

p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e f o c u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y o n p i t c h i n f o r m a t i o n

( M = 3 5 ) , b u t o v e r e s t i m a t i o n s a l s o a p p e a r e d in t h e n o -

a t t e n d i n g c o n d i t i o n , w h e r e r e p r o d u c e d d u r a t i o n s w e r e 2 2

l o n g e r t h a n th e m e l o d i e s ' a c tu a l d u r a ti o n s ( p < . 0 1) . T h i s i n

t u r n sugges t s t ha t some pa r t i c i pan t s i n t h i s l a t t e r cond i t i on

o p t e d t o a t t e n d t o t h e m e l o d i e s ' p i t c h r e l a ti o n s . C o n v e r s e l y ,

t h e d i v i d e d - a t t e n t i o n c o n d i t i o n ( b o t h p i t c h a n d r h y t h m )

p r o d u c e d s i g n i fi c a n t t m d e r e s t i m a t i o n s o n th e o r d e r o f 2 6 .

Rhythm Recall

I n t h e s c o r i n g o f t h e r h y t h m r e c a l l d a ta , t h e p a t t e rn o f

s h o r t, m e d i u m , a n d l o n g n o t e s t h a t r e p e t i ti v e l y r e c u r re d

a c r o ss a l l m e l o d i c p h ra s e s o f a g i v e n t u n e w a s c o m p a r e d

w i t h a p a r t i c i p a n t ' s r e p r o d u c e d p r o t o c o l . A n y d u r a t i o n a l

v a l u e t h a t i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y o c c u r r e d a t a g i v e n s e r i a l p o s i t io n

w a s c o u n t e d a s a n e r r o r. F o r e a c h p a r t i c ip a n t , t h e n u m b e r o f

e r r o r s f o r a g i v e n m e l o d y w a s d i v i d e d b y 2 4 ( t h e t o t a l

n u m b e r o f n o t e d u r a ti o n s t h a t c o u l d b e m i s r e m e m b e r e d ) t o

y i e l d a p e r c e n t a g e e r r o r s c o r e . T h e s e m e a n v a l u e s a r e

d e p i c t e d i n t h e t h i r d c o l u m n o f T a b l e 4 .

I n g e n e r a l , t h e o v e r a l l p a t te r n o f r e s u l ts w a s s i m i l a r t o t h a t

o f t h e d u r a t i o n a c c u r a c y ( a b s o l u t e e r r o r ) d a ta . A s i n d i c a t e d

b y a m a i n e f f e c t f o r s t ru c t u r a l c o h e r e n c e , F ( 1 , 7 0 ) = 3 3 . 4 6 ,

MSE = 2 2 . 0 2 , p < . 0 0 5, t h e d e g r e e o f e r r o r in r h y t h m r e c a l l

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1 1 0 0 BOLTZ

w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r f o r c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s t h a n f o r

i n c o h e r e n t o n e s , a n e f f e c t t h a t a p p l i e d t o 7 2 o f t h e 8 0

par t i c ipan ts . In add i t ion , the cohe renc e o f m e lo d ic s t ruc tu re

exe r ted a d i f fe ren t i a l in f luence on d i f fe r en t a t t end ing con di -

t ions , F (4 , 70) = 29 . 11 ,

MSE

= 31.07, p < .01. W ith

c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s , a t te n d i n g t o a m e l o d y ' s p i t c h r e l a ti o n s o r

to ta l dura t ion re su l t ed in the s am e low leve l o f e r ro r a s d id

a t t en d i n g t o r h y t h m i t s e l f d u r i n g t h e e n c o d i n g p h a s e . M o r e

i m p o r t a n t, p e r f o r m a n c e d i d n o t d e c l i n e w h e n a t t e n d in g w a s

d i v i d e d b e t w e e n t h e p i t c h a n d r h y t h m i c s t r u c t u r e o f a t u n e .

F ina l ly , a l though e r ro r was s ign i f i can t ly h ighe r in the

no-a t t end ing condi t ion (p < . 05) , the re la t ive ly h igh l eve l o f

p e r f o r m a n c e h e r e i n d ic a t e s th a t r h y t h m c a n b e e n c o d e d i n to

m e m o r y r e g a r d l e ss o f t h e s t ru c t u ra l d i m e n s i o n ( s) t o w h i c h

par t i c ipan t s choose to a t t end . In con t ra s t , incoheren t m e lo-

d ie s once aga in d i sp layed a d i f fe ren t pa t t e rn o f re su l t s . E r ror

i n r h y t h m r e c a l l w a s l o w e s t w h e n p a r t ic i p a n ts a t t e n d e d t o a

m e l o d y ' s r h y t h m i c a n d d u r a t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t i t i n -

c reased in the p i tch-a lone condi t ion (p < . 01) and inc reased

e v e n m o r e w h e n a t t en t i o n w a s d i v i d e d i n th e b o t h c o n d i t i o n

(p < . 01). As b e fore , th is ove ra l l pa t t e rn o f re su l t s gene ra l -

i z e s t o t h e r e l i a b il i t y o f m e m o r y p e r f o r m a n c e .

Pitch Recognition

T h e l a s t c o l u m n o f T a b l e 4 p r e s e n t s t h e m e a n p e r c e n t a g e

accuracy ( i . e . , h i t ra te ) in the s am e-d i f fe ren t p i t ch recogni -

t ion t a sk a long wi th the va r iab i l i ty o f these re sponses .

O v e r a l l , th e p i t c h r e l a t i o n s o f c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s w e r e b e t t e r

r e m e m b e r e d t h a n w e r e t h o s e o f i n c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s , F ( 1 ,

70) = 43 . 47 ,

MSE =

17 . 87 , p < . 001 , and th i s was t rue fo r

75 of the 80 pa r t i c ipan t s . F ur the rm ore , the in te rac t ion

b e t w e e n s t ru c t u r al c o h e r e n c e a n d t h e a t t e n d e d -t o d i m e n s i o n ,

F(4 , 70) = 18.74, MSE = 3 1 . 0 2 , p < . 0 1, r e v e a l e d a p a tt e r n

o f r e s u l ts a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t f o r t h e o t h e r m e m o r y t a s k s. I n

coheren t m e lod ies , a l though p i t ch was s ign i f i can t ly be t t e r

r e m e m b e r e d w h e n i t w a s s e l e c t i v e l y a t t e n d e d t o ( p < . 0 5) ,

p e r f o r m a n c e w a s s t il l h i g h ( M = 8 6 ) w h e n a tt e n d i n g w a s

d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e t e m p o r a l d i m e n s i o n s o f r h y t h m a n d

d u r a t io n . A s b e f o r e , t h e re w a s n o d e c r e m e n t w h e n a t t en d i n g

w a s s h a r e d w i t h r h y t h m i n t h e b o t h c o n d i t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e

p i t c h r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n i n c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s w e r e n o t w e l l

r e m e m b e r e d u n l e s s t h e y w e r e a t t e n d e d t o d u r i n g e n c o d i n g .

R e l a t i v e t o t hi s c o n d i t i o n , t h e r e w a s a m a r k e d d e c l i n e w h e n

par t i c ipan t s e i the r wer e f ree to d i rec t the i r s e lec t ive a t tend-

i n g ( n o a t t e n d i n g ) o r f o c u s e d o n a m e l o d y ' s t e m p o r a l

i n f o r m a t i o n ( p < . 0 1 ) . T h e l e v e l o f a c c u r a c y f u r t h e r d e -

c r e a s e d w h e n a t t e n ti o n w a s d i v i d e d b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l a n d

n o n t e m p o r a l in f o r m a t i o n ( p < . 0 5) .

Correlational Analys es

A f i n a l se t o f a n a l y s e s w a s c o n d u c t e d i n o r d e r t o e x a m i n e

t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h p a r t i c i p a n t s ' a c c u r a c y s c o r e s o n t h e

d u r a t i o n r e p r o d u c t i o n , r h y t h m r e c a l l , a n d p i t c h r e c o g n i t i o n

ta sks were in te reor re la ted . These in te rcor re la t ions a re de -

p i c t e d i n T a b l e 5 a n d v a r i e d w i t h b o t h s t r u c tu r a l c o h e r e n c e

a n d t h e a t t e n d e d - t o d i m e n s i o n o f a m e l o d y ' s s t r u c tu r e . F o r

c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s , h i g h p o s i t i v e v a l u e s o c c u r r e d i n a l l

Tab le 5

Intercorrelations (rhos) Between Participants Accuracy

Scores on the Duration Reproduction, Rhythm Recall,

and Pitch Recognition Tasks of Experiment 2 as a Function

of Structural Coherence and the Attended-to Dimension

of Melody Structure

Duration Duration Rhythm

Attended-to dimension and rhythm and pitch and pitch

Coherent m elodies

No attending .76 .78 .80

Duration alone .92 .80 .80

Pitch alone .86 .84 .89

Rhythm alone .89 .82 .83

Both pitch and rhythm .84 .80 .91

Incoherent m elodies

No attending .30 .24 .26

Duration alone .87 .34 .30

Pitch alone .33 .27 .24

Rhythm alone .89 .23 .28

Both pitch and rhythm .28 .31 .25

condi t ions (p < . 01) , whic h ind ica te s tha t inc reased pe r for -

m a n c e o n o n e t a s k w a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s e d p e r f o r -

m a n c e o n t h e o t h e r t a s k s r e g a r d l e s s o f w h i c h s t r u c t u r a l

d i m e n s i o n w a s a t t e n d e d t o d u r i n g t h e e n c o d i n g p h a s e .

C o n v e r s e l y , m o s t o f t h e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r i n c o h e r e n t

m e l o d i e s w e r e l o w , w h i c h s u g g e s ts t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e o n o n e

t a s k w a s i n d e p e n d e n t o f p e r f o r m a n c e o n a n o t he r . O n l y t w o

in te rcor re la t ions were s ign i f i can t , and these occur red in the

d u r a t i o n r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d r h y t h m r e c a l l t a s k s , i n w h i c h

a t t e n d i n g t o o n e d i m e n s i o n o f t e m p o r a l s t r u c t u r e l e d t o a

b e t t e r r e m e m b e r i n g o f th e s e c o n d d i m e n s i o n ( p < . 0 1) .

iscussion

T h e s e o v e r a l l r es u l ts r e i n f o r c e t h e i d e a t h a t o n e ' s e n c o d -

ing s t ra tegy i s dependent on even t s t ruc tu re . The dura t ion

r e p r o d u c t i o n d a t a d i r e c t ly c o n v e r g e d w i t h t h o s e o f E x p e r i -

m e n t 1 a n d r e v e a l e d t h e s a m e p a t t e rn o f a c c u r a c y a n d b i a s

a c r o s s t h e d i f f e r e n t e x p e r im e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s. M o r e i m p o r -

t a n t , h o w e v e r , t h e d a t a f r o m t h e r h y t h m r e c a l l a n d p i t c h

r e c o g n i t i o n t as k s p r o v i d e f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t t e m p o r a l a n d

n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a r e j o i n t l y e n c o d e d i n t o t h e c o g n i -

t i v e s y s t e m w h e n e v e n t s t r u c t u r e i s h i g h l y c o h e r e n t b u t

i n d e p e n d e n t l y e n c o d e d w h e n e v e n t s a r e l e s s c o h e r e n t.

F or the incoheren t m e lod ies , re su l t s ac ros s a l l th ree

m em ory t a sks ind ica ted tha t p i t ch , rhy thm , and to ta l dura -

t i o n c o u l d e a c h b e w e l l r e m e m b e r e d w h e n t h e s e s t ru c t u ra l

d i m e n s i o n s w e r e s o l e l y a t t e n d e d t o d u r i n g t h e e n c o d i n g

p h a s e . H o w e v e r , w h e n a t t e n t i o n w a s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a

m e l o d y ' s t e m p o r a l c h a r a ct e r is t ic s , m e m o r y f o r t h e a r r a y o f

p i t ch in te rva l s m arked ly dec l ined . The reve rse re la t ionsh ip

w a s o b s e r v e d w h e n p a r t ic i p a n ts a t t e n d e d t o p i tc h a n d w e r e

la te r t e s ted fo r the m e lod ies ' rhy thm s and to ta l dura t ions .

L a s t , th e l o w e s t p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l s o c c u r r e d w h e n a t t en d i n g

w a s d i v i d e d b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a -

t i o n . T h e s e t y p e s o f t r a d e - o f f s i n p e r f o r m a n c e i n d i c a t e t h a t

a l t h o u g h b o t h s t r u c t u r a l d i m e n s i o n s c a n b e e n c o d e d i n t o

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REMF MBERED DURATION 1101

m e m o r y , e a c h m u s t b e a t t e n d e d t o i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e

other.

In con t ra s t , va r ia t ions in s e lec t ive a t t end ing exe r ted no

i n f l u e n c e o n c o h e r e n t m e l o d ie s . I n e a c h o f t h e t h r e e m e m o r y

t a sk s , a c c u r a c y a n d r e l i a b i li t y r e m a i n e d h i g h r e g a r d le s s o f

w h i c h s t r u ct u r a l d i m e n s i o n w a s s e l e c ti v e l y a tt e n d e d t o , a n d

p e r f o r m a n c e d i d n o t d e c l i n e w h e n a t t e n t i o n w a s d i v i d e d

b e t w e e n t h e p i t c h a n d t h e r h y t h m i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m e l o -

d ie s . In add i t ion , the s e t o f cor re la t iona l ana lyses ind ica ted

t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e o n o n e t a s k w a s s t r o n g l y d e p e n d e n t o n

p e r f o r m a n c e o n o t h e r t a sk s s u c h t h a t a n i n c r e a s e d r e m e m b e r -

i n g o f o n e d i m e n s i o n w a s a s s o c i a t ed w i t h a n i n c r e a s e d

r e m e m b e r i n g o f t h e o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s . T h i s i n t u rn s u g g e s t e d

t h a t t h e t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s e

t y p e s o f e v e n t s w e r e j o i n t l y e n c o d e d i n t o m e m o r y w i t h n o

addi t iona l p roces s ing e f fo r t .

In sum , then , th i s ove ra l l pa t t e rn o f re su l t s ind ica te s tha t

e v e n t s t r u c t u r e i s a p r i m a r y d e t e r m i n a n t o f t h e w a y t h a t

e v e n t s a r e e n c o d e d i n a n d l a t e r r e t r i e v e d f r o m m e m o r y .

T h e s e e f f e c t s a r e q u i te r o b u s t o n e s t h a t g e n e r a l iz e d n o t o n l y

a c r o s s t h e d i f f e r e n t m e m o r y t a s k s a n d t o t h e m a j o r i t y o f

p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t b u t a l s o t o t h e p a t t e r n o f

accuracy and va r iab i l i ty . I t shou ld a l so be no ted tha t the

p a r t ic i p a n ts i n b o t h E x p e r i m e n t s 1 a n d 2 w e r e a l l n o n m u s i -

c i a n s w h o h a d n o f o r m a l t r a i n in g i n m u s i c a l s t ru c t u re . T h e

d r a w b a c k o f t h is f a c t i s t h a t it m a n d a t e d t h e u s e o f a p i t c h

r e c o g n i t i o n t a sk i n l i e u o f a p i t c h r e c a l l t a s k ( r e q u i r in g m u s i c

n o t a t i o n o r m u s i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e a b i l i t i e s ) , w h i c h t h e r e b y

m a d e t h e m o d e o f r e t ri e v a l s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t

u s e d i n t h e r e m e m b e r i n g o f b o t h r h y t h m a n d d u r a t io n .

None the le s s , the recogni t ion o f p i t ch re la t ions i s a va l id

i n d e x o f r e m e m b e r i n g , a n d g i v e n t h a t t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e s e

n o u m u s i c i a n s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y v a r i e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s, t h i s u s e o f n o n m u s i c i a n s f u r -

t h e r e n s u r e s t h e o v e r a l l r e l i a b i l i t y a n d g e n e r a l i t y o f t h e

resul ts .

G e n e r a l D i s c u s si o n

F r o m a m o r e g l o b a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e r e s u l ts o b s e r v e d i n

t h e p r e s e n t s e t o f e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e

a r e a s o f b o t h m u s i c c o g n i t i o n a n d t i m e e s t i m a t io n b e h a v i o r .

W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e l a tt e r, t h e r e s u l ts b o t h m o d i f y a n d e x t e n d

c u r r e n t t h e o r e ti c a l p e r sp e c t i v e s o n t h e r e m e m b e r i n g o f e v e n t

dura t ions . Wi th in th e pas t l i t e ra tu re , i t has t rad i t iona l ly been

a s s u m e d t h a t t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s

c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e r e l a t i v e a l l o c a t io n o f a t t e n t i o n a l r e s o u rc e s

(Brow n, 1985; Hick s e t a l ., 1976; Tho m as Cantor , 1978;

Z a k a y , 1 9 8 9 ). A l t h o u g h d u r a t i o n j u d g m e n t s s h o u l d b e q u i t e

accura te in p rospec t ive s i tua t ions where pa r t i c ipan t s a re

c o n s c i o u s l y m o n i t o r i n g t i m e ' s p a s s a g e , d u r a ti o n m e m o r y i s

a s s u m e d t o b e h i g h l y i n a c c u r a t e i n r e t r o s p e c t i v e c i r c u m -

s t a n ce s i n w h i c h p a r t i c i p a n ts d o n o t k n o w a t i m e ju d g m e n t i s

f o r t h c o m i n g . B e c a u s e t h e r e i s n o a p p a r e n t r e a s o n t o a t t e n d

t o e v e n t d u r a t i o n , a t t e n t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s a r e p r e s u m a b l y

d i r e c t ed t o w a r d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a l o n e . T h i s p a r t i c u -

l a r s t ru c t u r al d i m e n s i o n s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e w e l l r e m e m -

b e r e d , a n d g i v e n t h a t d u r a t i o n h a s n o t b e e n e n c o d e d i n t o

m em ory , i t p rov ides a bas i s fo r pa r t i c ipan t s to in fe r an

even t ' s to ta l dura t ion ( i .e . , v ia the ava i l ab i l i ty heur i s t i c ) . In

gene ra l , the m ore chunks (Orns te in , 1969) o r changes

( B l o c k , 1 9 8 5 ) w i t h i n t h e a r r a y o f n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n ,

t h e l o n g e r t h e e v e n t w i l l s e e m . L a s t , c o n d it i o n s o f d i v i d e d

a t t e n d in g a r e a s s u m e d t o d i s r u p t th e r e m e m b e r i n g o f b o t h

t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t o r e s u l t i n

re la t ive underes t im a t ions o f jud ged dura t ion . In these cases ,

insuf f i c ien t re sources a re p resum ably ava i l ab le fo r p roces s -

ing bo th d im ens ions a t once , and th i s insuf f i c iency l eads to

l e s s t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n b e i n g e n c o d e d

i n t o m e m o r y .

T h i s p a t t e r n o f p r e d i c t e d r e s ul t s w a s i n f a c t o b s e r v e d w i t h

t h e s e t o f i n c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s u s e d h e r e . A l t h o u g h t h e s e

f ind ings a re cons i s ten t wi th the no t ion of re source a l loca -

t i o n , a t a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l l e v e l t h e y c a n b e a t t ri b u t e d to

the s t ruc ture o f the even t s them se lves . Given the s t ruc tura l

i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n ,

a n y a t t e m p t s t o a t t e n d t o b o t h d i m e n s i o n s a t o n c e w i l l r e s u l t

i n i n t e r f e r e n c e ef f e c ts . H e n c e , e a c h d i m e n s i o n m u s t b e

i n d e p e n d e n t l y a t t e n d e d t o i n o r d e r t o b e s u c c e s s f u l l y

r e m e m b e r e d .

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f i n d i n g t o e m e r g e f r o m t h e p r e s e n t

da ta , however , i s tha t these p roces ses do no t app ly to a l l

s i tua t ions . One con t r ibu t ion of the s t ruc tura l rem em ber ing

a p p r o a c h i s t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t t h e t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m -

p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n o f m a n y e n v i r o n m e n t a l e v e n t s d i r e c t l y

co inc ide and the reby fac i l i t a t e cogni t ive p roces s ing . Th i s

j o i n t a r r a y o f i n f o r m a t i o n a l l o w s b o t h s t ru c t u ra l d i m e n s i o n s

t o b e e n c o d e d i n t o m e m o r y w i t h t h e s a m e a m o u n t o f e f f o r t

r e q u i r e d t o i n p u t o n e d i m e n s i o n , w h i c h i n t u r n y i e l d s a

cogni t ive sys tem tha t i s bo th pa rs im onious and e f f i c ien t .

O v e r a l l, i t e n s u r e s g r e a t e r r e m e m b e r i n g b e c a u s e e v e n t h o u g h

a n i n d i v i d u a l m a y n o t n e c e s s a r il y a t t en d t o a g i v e n d i m e n -

s i o n a t t h e t i m e o f e n c o d i n g , t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l b e l e a r n e d

n o n e t h e l e s s a n d r e p r e s e n t e d i n m e m o r y .

O n e c o n d i t i o n t h a t w a s o f p a r t i c u l a r in t e r e s t in t h e p r e s e n t

se t o f s tud ies was the no-a t t end ing condi t ion , in which

p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e n o t i n f o r m e d o f a n y s o r t o f u p c o m i n g

m e m o r y t as k . T h i s c o n d i t i o n i n f a c t i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e

w a y t h a t r e t r o s p e c ti v e d u r a ti o n ju d g m e n t s a r e t y p i c a l l y

as ses sed in the t im e es t im a t ion l i t e ra tu re . Al though pa r t i c i -

p a n t s i n t h i s t y p e o f c o n d i t i o n h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n

a s s u m e d t o f o c u s o n l y o n n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g

the in i t i a l encoding phase , th i s i s no t neces sa r i ly t rue - - -

pa r t i c ipan t s a re f ree to a t t end to any d im ens ion(s ) they

choose . Th i s in tu rn i s im por tan t because d i f fe ren t pa t t e rns

o f r e s u l ts a r e o b s e r v e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e s o f e v e n t s t h a t

a r e u s e d i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n t e x t . W h e n p a r t ic i p a n t s a r e

p r e s e n t e d w i t h r e l a t i v e l y c o h e r e n t e v e n t s , m e m o r y f o r

t e m p o r a l a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l b e q u i t e a c c u -

ra te rega rd le s s o f the d im ens ion to which pa r t i c ipan t s e lec t

t o a t t e n d, a n d a s f o u n d h e r e , n o t r a d e - o f fs in p e r f o r m a n c e

s h o u l d b e o b s e r v e d . H o w e v e r , i f p a r ti c i p an t s a r e p r e s e n t e d

w i t h r e l a t i v e l y i n c o h e r e n t e v e n t s , t h e n d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f

p e r f o r m a n c e m a y b e o b s e r v e d f o r d i f f e r e n t p a r t ic i p a n ts .

T h o s e p a r t i c i p an t s w h o e l e c t t o a t te n d t o t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a -

t i o n w i l l y i e l d f a i r l y a c c u r a t e e s ti m a t e s o f j u d g e d d u r a t i o n

b u t p o o r r e m e m b e r i n g o f n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n . C o n -

ve rse ly , i f pa r t ic ipan t s e le c t to a t t end to no n tem pora l in for -

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1102 SOL' rZ

m a r i o n d u r i n g e n c o d i n g , t h e n t h i s d i m e n s i o n s h o u l d b e w e l l

r e m e m b e r e d b u t t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d n o t . I n e i th e r

c a s e , t h e p r e s e n t r es u l t s i n d ic a t e t h a t m e m o r y p e r f o r m a n c e

i n a n o - a t t e n d i n g c o n d i t i o n w i l l n o t b e c o m p a r a b l e t o

pe r form ance in condi t ions in which pa r t i c ipan t s a re in -

s t ruc ted to in ten t iona l ly l ea rn one d im e ns ion o r the o the r . At

a m ore g loba l l eve l , these re su l t s have two im pl ica t ions .

F i rs t , i n t e r m s o f f u t u r e r e se a r c h , a n e x p e r i m e n t e r s h o u l d n o t

neces sa r i ly a s sum e tha t a l l pa r t i c ipan t s a re a t t end ing to

n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a l o n e i n r e t r o s p e c t iv e r e s e a rc h

des igns . In o rde r to ach ieve th i s m e thodolog ica l goa l ,

pa r t i c ipan t s need to be exp l ic i t ly ins t ruc ted to a t t end to the

e v e n t ' s n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t io n . T h i s w i l l n o t o n l y p r o v i d e

a m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e c o u n t e r p a r t t o p r o s p e c t i v e d e s i g n s ( i n

which pa r t i c ipan t s a re ins t ruc ted to a t t end to even t dura t ion)

bu t sho u ld a l so reduc e the ove ra l l va r iab i l i ty o f pa r t ic ipan t s '

e s t im a tes . S econd , the d i f fe ren t i a l pa t t e rns o f re su l t s tha t

e m e r g e f o r c o h e r e n t a n d i n c o h e r e n t e v e n t s m a y h e l p t o

e x p l a i n t h e c o n f l i c t in g n a t u r e o f t h e r e m e m b e r e d d u r a t i o n

l it e r at u r e. W h e n c o h e r e n t e v e n t s a r e u s e d a s e x p e r i m e n t a l

s t imuli (e .g. , Boltz , 1992, 199 4, 199 5), resul ts revea l that , in

con t ra s t to those s tud ies suppor t ing the re source a l loca t ion

t h e o r y , e v e n t d u r a t i o n c a n b e a c c u r a t e l y r e m e m b e r e d i n

re t rospec t iv e s i tua tions .

I n a d d i t i o n t o d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t e v e n t d u r a t i o n c a n b e

i n c i d e n ta l l y e n c o d e d i n t o m e m o r y u n d e r r e t r o s p e c t i v e ci r -

c u m s t a n c e s , t h e s t ru c t u r al r e m e m b e r i n g a p p r o a c h m a k e s a

s e c o n d c o n t r i b u t i o n , w h i c h i s t o o f f e r o n e e x p l a n a t o r y

a c c o u n t o f t h e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n r e m e m b e r i n g . I n

cont ra s t to o the r theore t i ca l f ram eworks , the s t ruc tura l

r e m e m b e r i n g a p p r o a c h p l a c e s a g r e a t e r em p h a s i s o n t h e r o l e

o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d a s s u m e s t h a t t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r a l

r e l a ti o n s a r e u s e d t o g u i d e b o t h a t t e n d i n g a n d r e m e m b e r i n g .

W i t h i n c o h e r e n t e v e n t s , t h e a r r a y o f r e g u l a r l y r e c u r r e n t

accen t s e s tab l i shes an e f f i c ien t course fo r a t t en t iona l t rack-

i n g t h a t d i r e c ts o n e t o w a r d t h e e v e n t ' s u n d e r l y i n g o r g a n i z a -

t ion o f nes ted re la t ions . S im i la r ly , jus t a s t em p ora l accen t s

c a n b e u s e d t o g u i d e a t t e n d i n g , t h e y c a n a l s o b e u s e d a s

re fe ren t i a l landm arks in recap i tu la t ing the even t ' s to ta l t im e

span . Th i s recap i tu la t ion inc ludes bo th the even t ' s t em pora l

a n d n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n b e c a u s e t h e t w o a r e i n e x t ri c a -

b l y e n t w i n e d a n d j o i n t l y c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e e v e n t i t s e l f . I n

E x p e r i m e n t 2 , s o m e s u p p o r t f o r t h e s e i d e a s w a s o b s e r v e d .

Rhythm not on ly was inc iden ta l ly l ea rned ( i . e . , in the

p i t c h - a lo n e c o n d i t i o n ) w i t h t h e s a m e l e v e l o f e f f i c a c y f o u n d

in in ten t iona l l ea rn ing , bu t i t a l so fac i l i ta t ed pe r fo rm a nce in

t h e p i t c h r e c o g n i t i o n t a sk . I n c o h e r e n t e v e n t s, h o w e v e r , d i d

n o t p r o d u c e t h e s e t y p e s o f e f f e c t s o n r e m e m b e r i n g b e c a u s e

in incoheren t tunes , rhy thm was s t ruc tura l ly d i s soc ia ted

f rom the pa t t e rn o f p i t ch re la t ions . Tem pora l accen t s , then ,

n o l o n g e r g u i d e d a t t e n d in g t o w a r d t h e n e s t e d o r g a n i z a ti o n o f

n o n t e m p o r a l r e l a t i o n s , n o r d i d t h e y s e r v e a s a n e f f e c t i v e

r e t r ie v a l s c h e m e f o r p i t c h i n f o r m a t io n . H o w e v e r , a s f o u n d i n

E x p e r i m e n t 2 , r h y t h m c a n a i d d u r a t i o n m e m o r y w h e n t h i s

l a t t e r d im ens ion i s so le ly a t t ended to . Assum ing tha t the

p a t t e rn o f t e m p o r a l a c c e n t u a t io n i s a l a w f u l l y r e c u r r e n t o n e ,

i t p r o v i d e s a n e f f e c t i v e t i m e - k e e p i n g s t r a t e g y i n p r o s p e c t i v e

s i tuat ions .

I n s u m , t h e a p p r o a c h b e i n g o f f e r e d h e r e i s o n e t h a t h a s

i n c o r p o r a t e d m a n y o f t h o s e i d ea s i n h e r e n t i n o t h e r m o d e l s o f

t im e es t im a t ion behav ior . At the s am e t im e , howev er , i t has

a l s o e x t e n d e d t h e s e i d e a s b y a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e r o l e o f

e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t r u c tu r e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e w a y t h a t e v e n t

d u r a t i o n i s e n c o d e d a n d l a t e r r e t r i e v e d f r o m m e m o r y .

T o g e t h e r, t h e s e i d e a s a b o u t t i m e e s t i m a t io n b e h a v i o r a n d t h e

r o l e o f t h e e n v i ro n m e n t f o r m a c o m m o n f r a m e w o r k t h a t c a n

a d d r e s s b o t h t h e a c c u r a c y a n d b i a s o f d u r a t io n j u d g m e n t s

u n d e r p r o s p e c t i v e a n d r e t r o s p e c t iv e c i r c u m s t a n c e s.

A l t h o u g h t h e v a r i a b le o f l e a r n i n g w a s n o t m a n i p u l a t e d i n

t h e p r e s e n t s e t o f e x p e r i m e n t s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o a c k n o w l -

e d g e i t s r o l e i n t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f e v e n t i n f o r m a t io n . I n t h e

t w o e x p e r i m e n t s d e s c r i b e d h e r e , p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e g i v e n

suf f i c ien t l ea rn ing expe r ience ( i . e . , e igh t exposures to each

m e l o d y ) t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e y w o u l d h a v e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o

d i sce rn the under ly ing re la t ions wi th in even t s and the i r

p a t t e rn s o f o r g a n i za t i o n . T h i s p r o v i s i o n o f l e a r n i n g e x p e r i -

ence i s c r i t i ca l because a t ea r ly s t ages o f l ea rn ing (one o r

t w o t r ia l s) , t h e o v e r a l l o r g a n i z a ti o n o f a c o h e r e n t e v e n t m a y

not be rea d i ly appa ren t so tha t , in e f fec t , i t appea rs incoher -

en t ly s t ruc tu red . Cogni t ive ly , th i s m eans tha t t em pora l and

n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e p r o c e s s e d i n a n i n d e p e n -

d e n t f a s h i o n . T h i s p r e d i c t i o n i s o n e t h a t n e e ~ t o b e

em p i r ica l ly t e sted , and i t cou ld eas i ly be c lone by e s sen t i a l ly

rep l i ca t ing the p resen t s e t o f stud ies and add ing a m anipu la -

t ion o f l ea rn ing t r i a l s. In gene ra l , thoug h , i t i s a s sum ed th a t

l e a r n i n g c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e d e g r e e o f e v e n t c o h e r e n c e a n d

t h a t b o t h a r e c o d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h e t y p e o f e n c o d i n g t h a t

occu r s

One i s sue tha t i s wor thwhi le to cons ide r i s whe the r th i s

o v e r a l l c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k g e n e r a l i ze s t o o t h e r t y p e s o f

na tura l i s t i c even t s . One m igh t a rgue tha t m us ic i s in m any

ways un iqu e because the l awfu l re la t ionsh ip be twe en nontem -

pora l ( i .e . , p i t ch) and t em pora l ( i . e ., rhy thm ic ) in form a t ion i s

i n t e n t io n a l l y c o m p o s e d a s s u c h f o r a e s th e t i c p u r p o s e s. T h i s

m a y b e t r u e , b u t i t h a s a l s o b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e

s t r u c tu r e o f m u s i c i s r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f s p e e c h

(Jackendoff , 1989; J ack end off Le rdah l , 1982; Mar t in ,

1 9 7 2 , 1 9 8 6 ) a n d o f v a r io u s t y p e s o f m o t o r b e h a v i o r s u c h a s

loco m o t ion (Car l soo , 1972; P ie rson , 1976) . Hen ce , one

w o u l d e x p e c t t h e e n c o d i n g o f t h e s e e v e n t s ' t e m p o r a l a n d

n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n t o p r o d u c e a p a t t e r n o f r e s u l t s

s im i la r to the one obse rved he re . In add i t ion , a l though a

r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n in g o f i n f o r m a t i o n m a y n o t b e a p p a r e n t i n

o t h e r d o m a i n s , a l l e v e n t s c o n t a in n o n t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n

t h a t u n f o l d s w i t h a g i v e n r a t e . I f th i s d i m e n s i o n c a n a l s o b e

i n c i d e n t al l y e n c o d e d i n t o m e m o r y w i t h s u f f i c ie n t le a r n i n g

e x p e r i e n c e , t h e n t h o s e u n d e r l y i n g p r o c e s s e s d e s c r i b e d h e r e

m a y i n f a c t h a v e r a m i f i c at i o n s f o r a w i d e r a n g e o f n a t u r a l

even t s . Th i s i s sue i s one tha t needs to be addre s sed in fu tu re

resea rch .

A l t h o u g h t h e p r e s e n t f i n d in g s h a v e b e e n d i s c u ss e d p r i m a r -

i ly in t e rm s of the i r im pl ica t ions fo r t im e es t im a t ion

b e h a v i o r , t h e y a l s o h a v e r e l e v a n c e f o r t h e a r e a o f m u s i c

c o g n i t i o n . T o s o m e e x t e n t , t h e y o f e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e

i n d e p e n d e n c e - i n t e r a c t i v e d e b a t e a n d t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r

t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a m e l o d y ' s r h y t h m o n p e r c e p t i o n a n d

m e m o r y i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f i ts a c c o m p a n y i n g p i t c h p a t t er n .

As show n he re , the answer to th i s ques t ion , in pa r t, depends

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REMEMBERED DURATION 11 03

o n t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e t w o d i m e n s i o n s a r e s t r u c t u r a l l y

c o m p a t i b l e o r i n c o m p a t i b l e a s w e l l a s o n a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s

d e g r e e o f m u s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . I n E x p e r i m e n t s 1 a n d 2 ,

i n c o h e r e n t m e l o d i e s d i s p l a y e d a la w f u l r h y t h m , b u t b e c a u s e

t h e i r te m p o r a l a c c e n t s f a i l e d t o c o i n c i d e w i t h m e l o d i c p h r a s e

r e l a t i o n s , b o t h r e q u i r e d i n d e p e n d e n t p r o c e s s i n g r e s o u r c e s .

T h u s , i f o n e i s l i s t en i n g t o t h e m u s i c o f a n o v i c e p i a n i st , o n l y

t h e d i m e n s i o n t h a t w a s s e l e c t i v e l y a t t e n d e d t o s h o u l d b e

e n c o d e d i n t o m e m o r y . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f a c c e n t s c o i n c i d e

w i t h m e l o d i c p h r a s e b o u n d a r i e s , t h e n a l i s te n e r s h o u l d p i c k

u p b o t h d i m e n s i o n s r e g a r d l e s s o f w h i c h o n e w a s i n i ti a l ly

a t t e n d e d t o . T h i s m a y h e l p t o e x p l a i n w h y o n e c a n o f t e n

s e e m t o r e m e m b e r th e r h y t h m o f m a n y w e U - l e a m e d f o l k

t u n e s ( e. g ., F r e r e J a c q u e s o r H a p p y B i r t h d a y ) e v e n

t h o u g h s e l e c t i v e a t t e n t i o n w a s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d i r e c t e d

t o w a r d t h i s d i m e n s i o n a t th e t i m e o f l e a r n in g . O n e w o u l d

a l s o e x p e c t a m e l o d y ' s ra t e o r t e m p o t o b e i n c i d e n t a l l y

l e a r n e d , a n d t h e r e i s s o m e e v i d e n c e t h a t th i s i s s o . H a l p e r n

( 1 9 8 8 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , a s k e d p a r t i c i p a n t s to b o t h p r o d u c e a n d

r e c o g n i z e t h e t e m p o o f s e v e r a l w e l l - k n o w n f o l k t u n e s a n d

f o u n d t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e t o b e q u i t e a c c u r a t e . T h i s i s s u e i n

t u r n l e a d s t o a r e l a t e d q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r o n e s t r u c t u r a l

d i m e n s i o n i s m o r e e a s i l y e n c o d e d i n t o t h e c o g n i t i v e s y s t e m

t h a n t h e o t h e r . T h a t i s , d o e s t h e i n c i d e n ta l l e a r n i n g o f r h y t h m

o c c u r a f t e r a f e w e r n u m b e r o f tr i al s t h a n t h e i n c i d e n t a l

l e a r n i n g o f p i t c h ( o r v i c e v e r s a ) ? A l t h o u g h t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y

c a n n o t a n s w e r t h i s q u e s t i o n b e c a u s e o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e

t y p e s o f m e m o r y t a s k s u s e d ( r e c a l l v s . r e c o g n i t i o n ) , t h i s

i s s u e c o u l d b e i n v e s t i g a t e d b y e s s e n t i a l l y r e p l i c a t i n g t h e

p r e s e n t e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n w i t h m u s i c i a n s a n d c r e a t i n g

m o r e c o m p a r a b l e m e m o r y t a s k s . T h e r e s u l ts , i n t u r n , c o u l d

h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t e a c h i n g s t u d e n t s o f m u s i c b o t h t o p l a y

a n e w i n s t r u m e n t a n d t o i m p r o v e t h e i r l is t e n in g a b i li ti e s .

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