Waterbirds of the Middle Mahakam Wetlands of East Kalimantan, Indonesia: Observations and Notes from 1988 – 2011

Christian Gönner, Susanne Schwarz, Budiono, Danielle Kreb and Agoes Soeyitno

December 2012

Abstract

Between 1988 and 2009, a total of 57 waterbirds species, as well as 12 bird-of-prey and 6 kingfisher species regularly utilizing wetlands were recorded in the Middle Mahakam Wetlands of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. This includes 1 darter (Anhingidae), 1 cormorant (Phalacrocoracidae), 12 heron/egret/bittern (Ardeidae), 2 stork (Ciconiidae), 1 ibis (Threskiornithidae), 3 duck (Anatidae), 6 crake/rail (Rallidae), 1 jacana (Jacanidae), 26 wader (4 Charadriidae, 18 Scolopacidae, 1 Phalaropidae, 1 Glareolidae, 2 Recurvirostridae), 4 tern (Sternidae), as well as 12 raptor (10 Accipitridae, 2 Falconidae) and 6 kingfisher species (Alcedidae). According to IUCN, one species (White-shouldered Ibis) is critically endangered (CR), one (Storm's Stork) endangered (EN) and four (Chinese Egret, Lesser Adjutant, Wallace's Hawk-Eagle, Blue-banded Kingfisher) vulnerable (VU).

The Middle Mahakam Wetlands are one of Borneo’s most important wetland areas. They are part of a highly dynamic landscape that has historically changed its appearance many times. Today, the birds of these unique wetlands are endangered by a plethora of threats comprising large scale land conversion, vegetation fires, hunting and life-capture of waterbirds, illegal logging and pollution. Despite the great efforts of local NGOs, conservation measures are still limited and insufficient.

Content

Introduction 1

The Middle Mahakam Wetlands 2

Conservation Status 6

Habitat Types 6

Methods 8

Results 10

Selected Species Accounts 12

Threats to Waterbirds and their Habitats 39

Conclusions 46

Recommendations for Conservation 49

Acknowledgements

References

Annex

Map 1: Borneo and the Middle Mahakam Wetlands

Map 2: Danau Jempang

1

Introduction

The Middle Mahakam Wetlands (MMW) of East Kalimantan are one of the

largest wetland areas of Borneo (MacKinnon et al. 1996). They cover more

than 500,000 ha of shallow peatlakes, seasonally flooded plains, vast swamps,

as well as large freshwater and peat swamp forests partially adjacent to

heavily disturbed lowland rainforest (logging, coal mining, oilpalm and wood

plantations). Due to large seasonal and annual variations of rainfall, as well as

caused by events, such as El Niño and associated vegetation fires, the MMW

are a dynamic, permanently changing landscape.

Until the 1980s, the Mahakam Lakes have been almost unstudied. Starting

with the Indonesian-German GTZ-TAD project1, hydrological and ichthyologic

studies were conducted (e.g. Zuppke 1979, Rosenthal and Baum 1980,

Ansyahari et al. 1984, Christensen 1988), followed by a number of zoological

studies, focusing on crocodiles (Cox 1993; Budiono 2001), hydrology and

fishes (Suryadiputra et al. 2000), Irrawaddy dolphin (Kreb and Budiono 2005,

Kreb and Susanti 2007, Kreb et al. 2010), general waterbirds (Gönner 2000a,

Budiono et al. 2006, 2007a, 2007b), Wandering Whistling-duck (Fredriksson et

al. 2006, Soeyitno 2008), Lesser Adjutant (Kasyanto and Yusni 2002, Budiono

et al. 2002, 2007a,b; Budiono and Kreb 2009), White-shouldered Ibis (Sözer

and van der Heijden 1997, Sözer and Nijman 2005), pheasants (Sözer et al.

undat.), as well as a socio-economic report (Yayasan Konservasi RASI 2006).

The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) has intensively studied

the peatlands and vegetation fires in the northern part of the MMW

(Chokkalingam 2004, Chokkalingam et al. 2005, Hope et al. 2005).

The biodiversity of the MMW2 is impressive with 63 recorded mammal

species, including Proboscis Monkeys (Nasalis larvatus), Irrawaddy Dolphin

(Orcaella brevirostris) and wild Banteng (Bos javanicus), 276 bird species, 24

reptile, 6 amphibian and 114 fish species (Suryadiputra et al. 2000, Gönner

2010). 2 crocodile species (Siamese Crocodile - Crocodylus siamensis and False

Gavial - Tomistoma schlegeli) are found in the marshes (Cox 1993, Budiono

2001), as well as 7 turtle and terrapin species, which were intensively

collected and traded during the drought of 1997/98 (Jepson et al. 1998,

Gönner 2002).

61 out of the 276 recorded bird species recorded in the MMW (= 22.1%) fall

under the IUCN categories CR, EN, VU or NT (Gönner 2010). This includes

White-shouldered Ibis (CR), Storm's Stork and Bornean Peacock-Pheasant

1 TAD stands for Transmigration Area Development, later re-named to Technical Area Development – a project implemented by the German Technical Cooperation GTZ. 2 These figures also comprise swamp forests and degraded lowland forests adjacent to the wetlands.

2

(EN), Chinese Egret, Lesser Adjutant, Wallace's Hawk-Eagle, Large Green-

Pigeon, Blue-banded Kingfisher and Blue-headed Pitta (all VU).

This report summarizes records of waterbird observations from the MMW

over a period of more than 20 years (1988-2010), partially building on an

earlier publication (Gönner 2000a). Besides underlining the great ecological

importance of the MMW, the report discusses threats and conservation

issues.

The Middle Mahakam Wetlands

The Middle Mahakam Wetlands (Danau Jempang: 116°12' E, 0°25' S) cover

more than 500,000 ha. 32 shallow peat lakes with a surface range between

1.2 and 15,000 ha are situated in the MMW (Suryadiputra et al. 2000). The

three largest lakes are Danau Jempang (15,000 ha on average), Danau

Melintang (11,000 ha) and Danau Semayang (13,000). The area of the lakes’

water surface changes depending on rainfall in the upper catchment area of

the Mahakam River and its tributaries. During the rainy season (November –

June) it may cover more than 60,000 ha, while many lakes shrink during the

dry season (July – October) by 8-96% or even dry out completely in extremely

dry years (e.g. 1982/83, 1991, 1994, 1997/98, 2002, 2006). The lakes’

maximum depth is about 6-7 m with annual fluctuations of more than 6 m

(Christensen 1988, Suryadiputra et al. 2000), while surrounding peatlands get

flooded during the rainy season up to a depth of 3 m (Chokkalingam et al.

2005).

The largest river is the Mahakam (920 km long, 1-4 km wide), which is fed by a

number of tributaries (Kedang Pahu R., Kedang Kepala R., Kedang Rantau R.,

Belayan R., Enggelam R., Baroh R., Ohong R., Bongan R., Perian R.).

Vast peat swamp forests to the north of Danau Melintang and Danau

Semayang feed these two lakes (especially Danau Melintang) with blackwater

rich in humic acid. The surrounding peatlands are largely ombrogenous,

acidic, and nutrient poor, with the peripheral areas subject to riverine

inundation. Peat depth averages 8 m and is greater than 15 m in some areas

(Chokkalingam et al. 2005).

The Metau forest, west of Danau Jempang, comprises approximately 4,100 ha

of tropical lowland (dipterocarp) and peat/freshwater swamp forest. In 1995,

the forest still comprised some 13,500 ha. It was heavily encroached from its

edges due to conversion to oil palm plantations, coal mining and upland

farming. The forest drains partially into Kedang Pahu River, and partially into

Sungai Baroh (and, thus, into Danau Jempang).

3

The two larger northern lakes, Danau Melintang and Danau Semayang, drain

into the Mahakam River, while the situation is more complicated in the case

of Danau Jempang. Depending on the water level, the main connection3

between Danau Jempang and the river between Muara Muntai and Jantur

either becomes the lake’s main inlet (high level of river water) or the main

outlet (low level). Especially along this connection, sedimentation (originating

from the upstream parts of Mahakam) is high and adds to the occasional

isolation of Danau Jempang from the remaining hydrological system, resulting

in low oxygen levels and clogging with floating weeds (mainly water hyacinth).

The temporary isolation, as well as the shallower water of Danau Jempang

might be the cause for distinctly different biodiversity compared to the rest of

the MMW.4

In the southern part of the MMW the peat swamp and alluvial forests are

adjacent to heavily disturbed lowland rainforest (e.g. along Ohong River),

which substantially adds to the overall biodiversity of the area.5

The regional climate is characterized by a dry season from July to October and

a wet season from November to June (MacKinnon et al. 1996). The MMW

receives an average annual rainfall of 2,100-2,400 mm, though annual

differences are significant. The maximum temperature ranges between 30-

34°C, the minimum temperature between 22-24°C. The average relative

humidity fluctuates between 72% and 90% 85% (Ansyahari et al. 1984,

Gönner 2002, PPLH UNMUL quoted in Soeyitno 2008).

The vegetation of the lakes includes more than 86 aquatic plant species and

genera. It is dominated by floating weeds (mainly Salvinia spp., water hyacinth

- Eichhornia crassipes, Mimosa pigra and Polygonum barbatum), which at

certain times may cover more than 90% of the lake’s surface (Rosenthal and

Baum 1980, Suryadiputra et al. 2000).

3 There are two more connections: Baroh River between Muara Pahu (near the confluent of Kedang Pahu River and Mahakam River) and Muara Baroh, and a connection between Penyinggehan and Danau Jempang. 4 E.g. Irrawaddy dolphins have not been reported for Danau Jempang since many years, while migratory waders and terns are far more numerous. 5 The main causes of forest loss and degradation are logging (mainly during 1970s and 1980s), tree plantations combined with transmigration settlements (1980s, 1990s), oil palm plantations (after 1995) and open pit coal mining (after 1995).

4

Legend

DJ Danau Jempang

DM Danau Melintang

DP Danau Perian

DS Danau Semayang

DSi Danau Siran

J Jantur

KB Kota Bangun

ME Muara Enggelam

MF Metau Forest

MM Muara Muntai

MP Muara Pahu

SB Sungai Baroh

SE Sungai Enggelam

SO Sungai Ohong

TI Tanjung Isuy

TJ Tanjung Jone

Map 1: Borneo and the Middle Mahakam Wetlands

KK

20 km N

DJ

DM

DS

DSi

KB

MM MP

MO

SO TI

MF SB

DP

SE

5

Legend DJe Danau Jempang – eastern part

DJn Danau Jempang – northern part

DJs Danau Jempang – southern part

DJw Danau Jempang – western part

J Jantur

MB Muara Baroh

MO Muara Ohong

PB Pulau Berawan

PL Pulau Lanting

PR Pulau Repeh

PS Pulau Sega

TI Tanjung Isuy

TJ Tanjung Jone

Map 2: Danau Jempang

TI

PR

TJ

PL

PS PB

J

MB

MO

Danau Jempang

10 km N

DJn

DJs

DJe

DJw

6

Conservation Status

According to Scott (1989), the MMW has been proposed as conservation area

in 1981. MacKinnon et al. (1996) list the area as proposed for cagar alam

(strict reserve, IUCN Category I). However, until the end of 2012 no official

protection status was given to the MMW.

Northeast of Danau Semayang lies the Muara Kaman reserve (62,500 ha cagar

alam), which is supposed to protect a vast swamp area. This reserve was

heavily degraded by subsequent forest fires (the latest in April 1998), illegal

logging and agricultural encroachment. Close to Muara Muntai a 450 ha

fishery conservation area (Batu Bumbun) had been set up as early as 1927

(Rosenthal and Baum 1980); several other Mahakam lakes important for

spawning (eg. Batangan Muntai, Ngayan Tuha and LoaKang) are also officially

protected as strict fishery reserve areas, although the protection regime is not

fully enforced (Suryadiputra 2000).

Habitat Types

The classification of habitat types mainly follows van Balen and Prentice

(1997) for reasons of convenience and comparison. The same classification

was also used by Gönner (2000a).

Open water bodies

This habitat is mainly found on the larger lakes DJ, DM, DS and DSi. Depending

on the season and year, the lakes may be (at least partly) covered by floating

vegetation, remain open, or are dried out completely.

Mudflats

During the extreme dry seasons of 1993, 1997, 2002 and 2006 the lakes fell

dry, and vast mudflats emerged6. These mudflats existed between early July

and October. They were soon covered by vegetation (Polygonum barbatum,

Mimosa pigra, various grasses).

Open swamps

Immersed sedge and grassland

On DJ, especially around J and - at least during low water levels - between TJ

and MO vast areas exist of this swamp type. Depending on the season,

6 Danau Jempang was most probably also dry in the El Niño years of 1991 and 1994, when we were not present in the area.

7

immersed sedge and grassland also occurs in the southern parts of DM and

DS.

Immersed sedge and grassland with Mimosa shrubs

On DJ, mainly this habitat is mainly found around PR, PS and PB, as well as

along water ways between the lakes during low water conditions and in the

lower part of SO.

Aquatic vegetation

In March/April 1996, between June and August 1998, in March/April 1999, as

well as in October 2006 all lakes were covered by thick carpets of water

hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and floating grasses. The black water lake DM

was covered with floating grass, Polygonum barbatum and Salvinia spec. and -

less frequent than in DJ and DS - Eichhornia crassipes. In such conditions, boat

passages through the lakes are virtually impossible.

Freshwater/peat swamp forest

This category includes the vast peat swamp forests north of DM and DS, as

well as the Metau forest, west of DJ, and freshwater swamp forests

surrounding the larger lakes.

Riparian forest

Forest along rivers and tributaries.

8

Methods

Definition of Waterbirds

In the definition of “waterbirds” we follow the list of the Asian Waterbird

Census of Wetlands International7. In addition, we also include several

“wetland-dependent” species, such as birds of prey and kingfishers found in

the open swamps and water bodies of the MMW, following the broader

definition of the Ramsar Convention according to which waterbirds or

waterfowl are “birds ecologically dependent on wetlands”.8

Observation methods

Most observations were done from rather unstable, flat ces motorboats using

binoculars. Occasionally, especially during low water conditions, spotting

scopes with an amplification factor of 15-45 were used.

We collected waterbird data within the framework of the following studies:

Transect counts of all waterbirds, Danau Jempang (Christian Gönner - CG):

Between July 1993 and January 2008, CG conducted 66 transect counts of

waterbirds on Danau Jempang between Tanjung Isuy and Muara Muntai

representing all seasons9. In addition, between May 1988 and January 2008,

CG made unsystematic observations during 288 days covering a period of 56

months in total.

RASI study on bird diversity and conservation status of Lesser Adjutant

(Leptoptilos javanicus): Budiono and the RASI team collected waterbird data

during 4 surveys between April 2005 and June 2007 (RASI 2007) covering the

area between Muara Kaman and Melak, including the 3 large lakes and

neighbouring swamps in April/ May and September 2005, September 2006

and June 2007 at different water levels, totalling 39 days. Data on live-

captured birds were collected in June 2007, in April 2008, and in May/August

2009. In April/May and June/July 2010, the biodiversity of Metau forest was

studied intensively (RASI 2010).

Monitoring of Wandering Whistling-duck (Dendrocygna arcuata): Monthly

counts were conducted on Danau Jempang, Danau Semayang and Danau

7 The waterbird species of South-east Asia can be found at: www.birdwatch.ph/downloads/awcform.pdf 8 In the case of some migratory birds of prey (e.g. Peregrine Falcon, Black Kite) this practice might be controversial. However, as all these species showed clear dependence on food from the wetlands we included them in the report. 9 The transect counts are heavily influenced by the water level and hence the lake's size. In most years the lakes were the deepest from December until May and the shallowest from July until October.

9

Melintang between June 2005 and October 2006. In addition, traders were

visited in all major villages and captive birds were counted (Fredriksson et al.

2006). Interviews with hunters were carried out by Soeyitno between January

and September 2007 (Soeyitno 2008).

Additional data from a Wetlands International expedition to Danau Perian, as

well as counts by the NGO LORIES on all three larger lakes were also included

in the analysis (Wetlands International Indonesia Programme 2000; Kasyanto

and Yusni, 2002).

Statistical Tests

In order to detect possible effects of the extreme drought and fires of

1997/98, monthly maxima of selected species counted along the Danau

Jempang transect were compared prior and after the event by using a two-

sided Whitney-Mann U-Test (significance level for p < 0.05). For a few

additional species also the monthly maxima of day sums prior and after the

drought and fires were analysed. Data prior to the event were collected

between July 1993 and March 1997; those after the drought and fires were

counted between June 1998 and January 2008.

Results

A total of 57 waterbird species, 12 bird-of-prey species and 6 kingfisher

species were found in the MMW, including 1 darter (Anhingidae), 1 cormorant

(Phalacrocoracidae), 12 heron (Ardeidae), 2 stork (Ciconiidae), 1 ibis

(Threskiornithidae), 5 duck (Anatidae), 6 crake/rail (Rallidae), 1 jacana

(Jacanidae), 26 wader (4 Charadriidae, 18 Scolopacidae, 1 Phalaropidae, 1

Glareolidae, 2 Recurvirostridae), 4 tern (Sternidae), 12 bird-of-prey (10

Accipitridae, 2 Faconidae) and 6 kingfisher species (Alcedidae).10

4 species are nearly threatened (NT – Oriental Darter, Grey-headed Fish-Eagle,

Lesser Fish-Eagle, Black-tailed Godwit), 3 vulnerable (VU – Chinese Egret,

Lesser Adjutant, Wallace’s Hawk-Eagle), 1 endangered (EN – Storm’s Stork)

and 1 critically endangered (CR – White-shouldered Ibis).

Compared to 46 waterbird species recorded in the Sungai Negara wetlands of

South Kalimantan (van Balen and Prentice 1997), 21 waterbird species

recorded in Tanjung Puting National Park in Central Kalimantan (Jalan and

Galdikas 1987, Nash and Nash 1988) and 24 waterbird species found at Danau

10 A commented species list prepared by Gönner (2010, unpublished) includes a total of 276 bird recorded for the entire Middle Mahakam area (including swamp forests and the surrounding highly fragmented and disturbed lowland dipterocarp forests and degraded lands).

10

Sentarum (van Balen and Dennis 2000), the higher number of the MMW is

mainly due to visiting waders and the longer observation period.

The appearance of waders during the autumn migration largely depends on

the water level of the Mahakam lakes. Significant numbers (mainly of Wood

sandpipers Tringa glareola) were only observed in extremely dry years (1993,

1997 and 2004), when the lakes had virtually disappeared. Vast mudflats and

grasslands provided excellent feeding habitats for plovers, sandpipers and

stints. The shallow lakes also attracted large numbers of Whiskered terns

(Chlidonias hybridus) and Little terns (Sterna albifrons) as well as herons

(mainly Javan pond herons Ardeola speciosa, Great egrets Ardea alba and

Purple herons Ardea purpurea), which fed on dying fish. Whiskered terns,

both, of northern (C. h. hybridus) and austral (C. h. javanicus) origin visited the

MMW in large numbers for feeding during migration time, and (in smaller

numbers) for wintering. Little terns and White-headed stilts (Himantopus

leucocephalus) use the dry lake shores in August/September for opportunistic

breeding (e.g. in 2006). In the case of the White-headed Stilt this is the first

breeding record for Borneo (Mann 2008).

Breeding was proved or is highly suspected (*) for several species, including

Oriental Darter, Javan Pond-Heron, Black Bittern*, Cinnamon Bittern*, Yellow

Bittern*, Purple Heron, Intermediate and Great Egret, Lesser Adjutant, White-

headed Stilt, and Little Tern. Roosting places of Great Egret and Purple Heron

were visited predominantly from July to October. Large numbers of Javan

Pond-Heron roosted at several places (mainly in Mimosa habitats) throughout

the year.

While prior to 2001 several hundred Wandering whistling-ducks (Dendrocygna

arcuata) were counted at roosting places in the MMW (mainly between July

and October), these numbers dramatically increased in 2003 and 2004 with

day sums reaching more than ten thousand birds. This might be due to a

massive invasion of this species possibly as a response to the appearance of

suitable habitat (for discussion see below) or habitat destruction elsewhere

(e.g. Central Kalimantan). Breeding was reported by local fishermen, but

remains to be confirmed.

At least six species of crakes and rails are resident in the MMW, including

rather large populations of Black-backed Swamphen (Porphyrio indicus),

Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) and White-browed Crake (Porzana

cinerea). The Buff-banded Rail (Gallirallus philippensis) has been recorded

here for the first time on Borneo (Mann 2008).

11

Selected Species Accounts

Following van Balen and Prentice (1997) and Gönner (2000), special accounts

are made for all waterbirds, birds-of-prey and kingfishers observed in the

MMW.

Threat Categories: Critically endangered (CR), endangered (EN), vulnerable

(VU) or near-threatened status (NT), according to BirdLife International

(BirdLife International 2010).

Wandering Whistling-Duck - Dendrocygna arcuata. 109 observations plus

monthly surveys by Fredriksson et al. in 2005/06; all year, probably breeding.

Largest numbers prior to the 1997/98 drought:

670 on 13 Aug 1997 (TJ-MO), 960 on 17 Aug 1997

(TJ-MO), 750 on 13 Sep 1996 (DS) and 700 on 16

Nov 1993 (DJe). Roosting places were reported by

local fishermen for DS, DM, DJ and two smaller

lakes near Kota Bangun (Danau Siamuking and

Danau Kadukng). Roosting flocks of more than 500

birds were confirmed for DS and DJ; the other

sites have not been visited. Breeding was reported

by local fishermen but remains to be confirmed.

The numbers dramatically increased after 2000

with record numbers between 2003 and 2006 on all three larger lakes; e.g.:

approximately 10-12,000 birds on DJ in Sep 2003 and between Sep and Oct

2004, approximately 8,000 birds on DS in Sep 2005, 8,700 birds on DJ in Oct

2005.

The Lesser Whistling-Duck (Dendrocygna javanica) has not yet been

confirmed for the MMW.

Wandering whistling-ducks DJ, Sep 2004 (CG)

12

Monthly maxima of Wandering Whistling Duck between 1993 and 2006

Data from CG (for 1993-2004) and Fredriksson et al. 2006 (for 2005/06)

Garganey - Anas querquedula. 4 observations; occasional winter visitor. 20

birds were seen on 13 Feb 1996 near MO, 2 birds (male in breeding plumage)

were observed on 14 Oct 1996 at PS, a flock of 25 birds were seen on 29 Nov

1997 between TI and J, and 4 birds on 13 March 1999 between MM and J.

Sunda Teal – Anas gibberifrons. 1 observation, rare visitor. 3 birds were seen

at PR on 22 Oct 2005; photos were taken.

White-shouldered Ibis - Pseudoibis davisoni CR. Most observations of this

species were made on the gravel shores of Mahakam River above Long Iram

(Sözer 1997; Gönner 1996, 1997, unpublished) or along Nyawatan River

(Gönner, May 1988, unpublished). However, a few earlier records exist for the

MMW, including 1 in 1983 and 13 in 1989 (Silvius and Verheugt 1989).

Storm's Stork - Ciconia stormi EN. 8 observations; status unclear. A first year

bird was seen on 27 Aug 1993 on mud flats near PR. One Storm's Stork passed

a ladang field near Lempunah (14 km south of TI) on 31 Mar 1996, one circled

above Lempunah on 15 Jul 1997, and another one was seen sitting in a tree

next to a logging road in secondary dipterocarp forest near Muara Nayan (14

km south of TI) on 21 Apr 1999. 1-2 birds were seen on 18/19 Oct 1999 at SE

(Kasyanto and Yusni 2002). 1 bird was observed on S. Boloan on 09 Jun 2006

and another one on S. Kedang Kepala on 08 May 2011.

0

3000

6000

9000

12000

15000

Okt

ob

er 9

3

Okt

ob

er 9

4

Okt

ob

er 9

5

Okt

ob

er 9

6

Okt

ob

er 9

7

Okt

ob

er 9

8

Okt

ob

er 9

9

Okt

ob

er 0

0

Okt

ob

er 0

1

Okt

ob

er 0

2

Okt

ob

er 0

3

Okt

ob

er 0

4

Okt

ob

er 0

5

Okt

ob

er 0

6

NumberWandering Whistling-duck

Fires

13

Lesser Adjutant - Leptoptilos javanicus VU. 111 observations; all year,

breeding in swamp forests. Largest numbers: 170 birds circling over MB on 21

Aug 1996, 50 at DSi on 14 Sep 1996, 31 flying over KB on 15 Sep 1996.

Breeding in large numbers was reported by local fishermen for a swamp

forests near KK, at DSi, at Teluk Bonah, as well as at Metau (sw DJ, 300 birds).

Breeding is suspected to be in June/July. Several of these potential breeding

grounds burnt down during the forest fires of early 1998. However, the

number of observed birds did not decline after the fires and each year dozens

of juvenile birds were caught by local residents from their nests. A study by

Yayasan RASI (Budiono et al. 2007a) states that between 2000 and 2007 at

least 527 birds had been caught from the wild.

Day sums of Lesser Adjutant (78 observation days)

Cinnamon Bittern - Ixobrychus cinnamomeus. 53 observations; January until

September, breeding suspected. Largest numbers: 19 on 21 Mar 1998 (TI-J),

23 on 28 Mar 1998 (TI-J). These birds showed a worn out plumage and

occurred together with relatively large numbers of Yellow Bittern and Black

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Lesser Adjutant

Fires

14

Bittern. In late January/early February 1998 a single bird flew regularly to the

same spot of swamp vegetation at TI, where it might have been breeding.

Birds from February-April 1999 showed breeding plumage. On 14 Feb 1999 a

juvenile was observed near J.

Yellow Bittern - Ixobrychus sinensis. 64 observations; all year, breeding

suspected. Largest numbers: 25 on 21 Mar 1998 (TI-J), 10 on 28 Mar 1998 (TI-

J). Like the cinnamon bitterns these birds showed a worn out plumage. Some

individuals were birds in their first year. First year birds were regularly

observed from late November on, probably arriving from a northern

destination. Heavily streaked young birds were seen in swamp reeds near DS

on 16 Mar 1999, near J on 25 Apr 1999, at J-MM on 24 Mar 2005, and 4 young

birds at TI-TJ on 4 Apr 2005, all indicating local breeding in February/March as

suspected for the Cinnamon Bittern.

Black Bittern - Dupetor flavicollis. 125 observations; all year, breeding likely.

Largest numbers on DJ (other places in brackets): 34 on 21 Feb 1999, 70 on 28

Mar 1998, 35 on 4 Apr 2005, 14 on 21 Jun 1998 (DS, DM), 25 on 2 Jul 1993, 29

on 2 Aug 2003. Fresh plumage (glossy black with bright yellow neck stripe)

was shown by males in July and August, while birds observed in March looked

greyish (on 5 Mar 1997, 28 Mar 1998 and in March 1999); some birds in

February 1999 showed a black but not glossy plumage with an only dull yellow

neck. Birds with rufous plumage, suspected to be juveniles, occurred from the

middle of September (18 Sep 1997, 16 Sep 1998). The large number seen on

28 Mar 1998 were most probably migrants from an austral origin. However, it

cannot be excluded that Black bitterns observed in February/March might

also be on their way back to their northern breeding grounds. The great

variety in plumage conditions from greyish-black to entirely black, and from

worn-out to clean appearance rather indicates mixed origins. Nominate

flavicollis is known to winter in Borneo, Malaya and Indonesia (Hancock and

Kushlan 1984), but confirmation is now required that Austral gouldi visits

Kalimantan in substantial numbers, and its status needs to be determined.

Black-crowned Night-Heron - Nycticorax nycticorax. 5 observations; status

unclear, probably a visitor, mainly between September and November. Only 2

birds in breeding plumage were seen at a different time (4 Apr 2005). Captive

birds were found by Budiono et al. (2007a) in June 2007.

Striated Heron - Butorides striatus. 13 observations of individual birds,

scattered over the year. Many along SO and Mahakam River. The species is far

more common in the lower parts of the Mahakam.

15

Javan Pond-Heron - Ardeola speciosa. 284 noted observations, not always

counted; all year, breeding in August and September in large numbers.

Maxima on DJ: > 4,000 on 10 Jul 1997, c. 10,000 on

7 Aug 1996, 2,520 on 21 Aug 1997, c. 5,000 on 18

Sep 2001, > 2,000 on 27 Sep 2004. Roosting places

with several hundred birds are found all year

around MO, PR and PS. Counts during the rainy

season are extremely difficult due to the flooded

vegetation, while birds can be easily counted on the

mud flats of the dry season. Hence, number

estimates are probably far too low.

Nests with 2-3 light blue eggs (Hancock and Kushlan

1984 mention "dark greenish-blue" eggs, while Kutter (1984) also reports light

greenish blue eggs found at Lake Bangkau by Grabowsky, cf. Grabowsky 1885)

were found in old Mimosa pigra vegetation, 1-2 m above the water in early

September 1996.

Breeding plumage was worn from (April) May until August (September). In

contrast to most literature (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993, King et al. 1975,

Hancock and Kushlan 1984) birds in breeding plumage showed two white

elongated head plumes and pinkish-red legs (only in July). A photograph in

Davison and Chew (1996) on page 19 shows also a Javan Pond Heron in this

plumage (without mentioning these details in the text), as well as the pictures

in Lekagul and Round (1991, page 49), while Myers (2011) mentions the head

plumes.

Day sums of Javan Pond Heron (98 observation days)

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Javan Pond Heron

Fires

16

Eastern Cattle Egret - Bubulcus coromandus. 204 observations; all year, most

probably non-breeding visitor. Maximum numbers on

DJ: 274 on 16 Jan 1998, 654 on 16 Feb 1998, 244 on 14

Dec 1997, 280 on 03 Aug 2003, 243 on 18 Sep 2003. In

general, the species became more abundant after the

1997/98 drought and fires. Like the Little Egret, this

species appeared in much larger numbers in autumn

2004: 27 Sep: 1515, 16 Oct: 1028, 6 Nov: 1368, 9 Nov:

1616

Mainly in non-breeding plumage. Only a few birds

showed breeding plumage in March and April. Eastern

cattle egrets were regularly found close to water

buffalos near TI and TJ.

Day sums of Eastern Cattle Egret (130 observation days)

Phenology of Eastern Cattle Egret along the TI-MM transect

dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Eastern Cattle Egret

Fires

9.11.2004

27.09.2004

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

Number Eastern Cattle Egret

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

17

9.10.1996

23.08.1997

22.09.1996

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Number Purple Heron

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Purple Heron - Ardea purpurea. 243 observations; all year, breeding. The

largest numbers were observed from July to October with roosting flocks of

30-100 birds on PR and near MO. Breeding

plumage is shown from April to July,

juveniles were found from late June/early

July (earliest record 22 Jun 1998, more

regularly after the second week of July).

Observations with more than 20 birds per

trip were far more common prior to the fires

and drought event of 1997/98 compared to

the time afterwards.

Day sums of Purple Heron (160 observation days)

Phenology of Purple Heron along the TI-MM transect

dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Purple Heron

Fires

18

Intermediate Egret - Mesophoyx intermedia. 26 observations; probably

breeding visitor between July and January. Maximum numbers: at least 52

near PS between 31 Jul and 25 Aug 1993 (out of 170

E.spec.), 40 on 2 Sep 1997, 45 on 9 Sep 1997, 20 on 29 Nov

1997. Two birds in early July (7 Jul 1997) showed breeding

plumage. Juveniles were kept as pets in February 1999 in

PL. Only few records of small numbers after the fires.

Great Egret - Ardea alba. 176 observations (+ 109

observations of white egrets, probably predominantly A.

alba); all year, breeding. Largest roosting flocks from

August until October with up to 1000 birds on DJ (e.g. 360

on 13 Aug 1997, 347 on 7 Sep 1996, 498 on 29 Sep 1996,

383 on 5 Oct 1996, 348 on 9 Oct 1996 – all near PS, c.

1000 on 28 Sep 2004 TJ-J); 370 at DS on 19 Jan 2008;

occasionally also in April (450 on 7 Apr 1996, PS). Breeding plumage was

shown from (April) May to August (September), but birds in non-breeding

plumage were found all year. Juveniles were caught out of their nests during

the drought of 1998 and still kept as pets in early 1999. Contrary to the Purple

Heron, the Great Egret did not show significant differences in observation

numbers before and after the fires.

Day sums of Great Egret (112 observation days)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Great Egret

Fires

19

Phenology of Great Egret along the TI-MM transect

dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means

Chinese Egret - Egretta eulophotes VU. One observation with two birds in

captivity in a village on the Mahakam (29 Jun 1988); rare visitor. Both birds

were in breeding plumage with yellow bills, black legs and elongated white

head plumes. As the village was close to DJ it seems likely that the birds were

caught in the MMW. The closest place of regular observations of this species

is the Mahakam delta, approximately 200 km to the East.

29.09.1996

28.09.2004

07.04.1996

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Number Great Egret

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

20

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Little Egret

Fires

28.09.2004 16.10.2004

27.09.2004

9.11.2004

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Number Little Egret

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Little Egret - Egretta garzetta. 193 observations; all year, breeding status

uncertain. All birds belonged to the nominate form

E.g.garzetta, while observations from Danau Sentarum only

list E.g. nigripes (Dennis et al. 1996). Maximum numbers

from DJ in usual years: 100 on 9 Sep 1997, 160 on 16 Jan

1998, 102 on 25 Feb 2000, 110 on 24 Mar 2005, 189 on 25

Oct 2005. An exceptional invasion happened in the autumn

of 2004 between September and November when the water

level of DJ was very low: 27 Sep: 825; 28 Sep: 635; 16 Oct:

580; 20 Oct: 650; 09 Nov: 334. Prior to the 1997/98 drought and fires, Little

egrets were mainly found along the Mahakam and small connecting rivers to

DJ, while the species was found throughout the swamps of DJ after the event.

Breeding plumage was shown from mid March until July (one bird in

September). Single juveniles were seen in November 1993 and 1997.

Day sums of Little Egret (111 observation days)

Phenology of Little Egret along the TI-MM transect

dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means

21

Little Black Cormorant – Phalacrocorax sulcirostris. 2

observations; rare migrant. On 18 September 2003, CG

observed 2 birds perching on poles in the western part of DS.

The birds were observed within 30m for c. 3 min under good

light conditions; confirmed by photos. On 19 September 2004,

a single bird was seen perched on a pole in the northern part of

DM for c. 6 min; also confirmed by photos. Both observations

were jointly published by Nijman et al. (2005).

Oriental Darter - Anhinga melanogaster

NT. 44 observations; all year, breeding in

peat swamp forests. A maximum of 58

birds were counted along S. Kedang

Rantau on 16 Sep 2006 (RASI), while 46

birds were observed between SO and TJ

on 20 Jan 2008 (CG). Juveniles were

observed in August and September

(1996, 1997, and 2003). A colony of

breeding darters was reported by local

fishermen from a swamp forest lake near ME in 1998 with egg-laying in July.

Peregrine Falcon - Falco peregrinus. 10 observations; occasional winter

visitor. Individual birds (generally F.p.calidus) were seen between 17 Oct

(2004) and 7 Apr (1996). A very dark bird (probably F.p.ernesti) hunted

Javanese Pond-Herons on 4 Aug 1997 near J, and a Y1 bird sat on the shore of

DJ on 16 Feb 1998. Photos were taken.

Black-tighed Falconet - Microhierax fringillarius. 26 observations; breeding.

Often in riparian forests, such as SO, or swamp forest surrounding lakes.

Osprey - Pandion haliaetus. 12 observations; occasional visitor during

northern winter. Single birds were seen throughout the MMW between 26

Sep (2001, 2004) and 4 Apr (2005).

Black-winged Kite - Elanus caeruleus. 40 observations; all year, probably

breeding. A couple was regularly seen near TI (from 1988-97 on the shore of

DJ, afterwards in vast open areas cleared for oil palm cultivation). The other

birds were observed throughout the MMA.

22

Black Kite – Milvus migrans. 1 observation. On 20 Sep 2003 a

single bird was soaring together with Brahminy kites off TI.

Photos were taken.

Brahminy Kite - Haliastur indus. 288 observations; all year,

breeding. Largest numbers: 69 on 9 Sep 1997 (TI-MM), 56 on 27

Sep 2004 (TI-TJ) and 40 on 29 Nov 1997 (TI-MM). The largest

numbers were found in autumn during low water level when a lot of fish is

dying and easy to catch (e.g. 1997, 2004). A roosting place near TJ was

regularly visited by 10-20 birds. Juveniles were observed from early July

onwards.

Day sums of Brahminy Kite (126 observation days)

Phenology of Brahminy Kite along the TI-MM transect

dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Brahminy Kite

Fires

9.09.1997

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Number Brahminy Kite

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

23

White-bellied Sea-Eagle - Haliaeetus leucogaster. 65 observations; all year,

probably breeding in small numbers. Juvenile birds were observed from early

August onwards (earliest 4 Aug 1993). Adults were regularly seen throughout

the area individually or in pairs.

Grey-headed Fish-Eagle - Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus NT. 42 observations; all

year, probably breeding in small numbers. An immature bird was seen on 30

Nov 1997. This species was commonly found in swamp forest along SO with

up to 3 birds.

Lesser Fish-Eagle - Ichthyophaga humilis NT. 11 observations; June to

October, status uncertain. Lesser Fish-Eagles were only found along smaller

jungle streams such as SO and SB.

Changeable Hawk-Eagle - Nisaetus limnaeetus. 70 observations; all year,

resident. 76% dark phase, often attacked by Haliastur indus. Found

throughout the swamps and in open areas.

24

Wallace’s Hawk-Eagle - Nisaetus nanus VU.

2 observations; status unclear. single birds

were observed on 7 Sep 2005 at Sungai

Belayan, 16 Sep 2006 at Sungai Kedang

Rantau and on 10 Jun 2007 at SO; photos

were taken.

Crested Serpent-Eagle - Spilornis cheela. 5

observations from swamp forests. Although

this species is certainly not dependent on

wetlands it is listed here for the sake of

comprehensiveness (also listed in reports

about other wetland areas on Borneo; see

comparison below).

Buff-banded Rail - Gallirallus philippensis. 2 observations; status unclear,

probably vagrant. On 9 Nov 2004 CG and S. Schwarz discovered a single bird

immersed grass next to the connecting channel between J

and MM (published in Robson 2005). The bird was seen for

about 2 minutes from a distance of 10 m. It was confirmed

as the Sulawesian “chandleri” form of Gallirallus philippensis

philippensis (Taylor 1998). According to Mann (2008) this

was the first record of the species for Borneo. On 7 Sep

2006, 2 birds were seen almost at the same place by CG and

G. Limberg.

White-browed Crake - Porzana cinerea. 85

noted observations; all year, common

resident throughout the swamps. C alls

were frequently heard.

Ruddy-breasted Crake - Porzana fusca. 3

observations in swamp vegetation: 21 Jun

1988 (DJs), 28 Jul 1996 (TI-MO) and 19 Aug 1997 (TI-M).

25

White-breasted Waterhen - Amaurornis phoenicurus.

69 observations; all year, not uncommon resident.

Found throughout the swamps as well as on wet

ladang fields and small ponds.

Common Moorhen - Gallinula chloropus. 138

observations; all year, breeding. Largest numbers:

115 on 2 Oct 1993 (J), 58 on 19 Aug 1997 (TJ) and >80

on 23 Aug 1997 (TI-TJ). After the 1997/98 El Niño only

observations were made with a maximum of 30 birds on 27 Jul 2003. Juveniles

were found from July (e.g. 28 Jul 1997) until September (e.g. 16 Sep 1998),

but also on 28 Mar 1998 and 25 Apr 1999. Common Moorhens often mixed

with Black-backed Swamphen usually close to Eichhornia vegetation.

Despite intensive search no Dusky Moorhen (Gallinula tenebrosa frontata)

was found. The Dusky Moorhen is known from Borneo apparently from a

single breeding record on Lake Bangkau (in the Negara swamps) in April 1883

(?), reported by Grabowsky who describes both species as common

(Grabowsky 1885). Eggs of Gallinula orientalis Horsf. and Gallinula frontata

Wall. were collected by Grabowsky and examined by Kutter (Kutter 1884).

There are no specimens. The absence of recent records, despite deliberate

searches (e.g. Holmes and Burton 1987, van Balen and Prentice 1997),

suggests it is no longer extant on Borneo. According to Taylor (1996) the

Dusky Moorhen is less tolerant to water hyazinth (Eichhornia sp.) than the

Common Moorhen (for discussion, also see Mann 2008).

Day sums of Common Moorhen (97 observation days)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Common Moorhen

Fires

26

Black-backed Swamphen - Porphyrio indicus. 121 observations; all year,

breeding. Largest numbers: 190 on 13 Feb 1999 (PS), 103 on 14 Feb 1999 (PB),

152 on 25 Apr 1999 (J-MM), 100 on 27 Aug 1996 (J-MM), 250-500 from 29 Sep

- 16 Oct 1996 (J-MM) and 150 on 20 Nov 1996 (J-MM). The largest flocks were

found in floating vegetation near J between August and October. Juveniles

were observed between February and March (1998, 1999), but also between

July and September (1998, 2003). Similarly to the Common Moorhen,

breeding seems to depend on the water level and may occur in different

months.

Day sums of Black-backed Swamphen (80 observation days)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Black-backed Swamphen

Fires

27

White-headed Stilt - Himantopus leucocephalus. 4 observations between TJ

and J in October 2004 and October 2005. Maximum 50 birds on 16 Oct 2004.

Breeding in 2005, confirmed by a local boat driver who found 20 nests near

TH in Sep 2005. 2 adults defending 1 juvenile were observed by CG on 25 Oct

2005 between J and MM. This appears to be the first breeding record for

Borneo (cf. Mann 2008).

Interestingly between 2003 and 2005 a number of Javanese species were

recorded for the first time in the MMW, including Little Black Cormorant,

White-headed Stilt and Sunda Teal. This might be due to increasing habitat

loss in Java.

Black-winged Stilt - Himantopus himantopus. 1 observation of

2 adult birds between TJ and TH on 17 Oct 2004. Both birds

showed pure white heads without any black on the neck.

Photos were taken. This appears to be the first record of this

species for Kalimantan (Mann 2008). However, the separation

of this species from the previous one is still under discussion

(ibid.).

Grey Plover - Pluvialis squatarola. 3 observations: 1 on 8 Oct

1993 (PS), 1 on 9 Oct 1996 (DJs) and 4 still in 80% breeding plumage on 2 Sep

1997 (PB).

Pacific Golden Plover - Pluvialis fulva. 18 observations between early

September (2 Sep 1997 still in breeding plumage) and early November (latest

9 Nov 2004) with largest numbers of more than 300 birds TJ-MO on 18 Sep

1997 and 195 TJ-TH on 9 Nov 2004. Only one record from spring migration: 2

moulting into breeding plumage on 9 Apr 1998 (J-MM).

28

Little Ringed Plover - Charadrius dubius. 32 observations between 17 Aug

1997 (32 TJ-MO) and 9 Nov 2004 (10 TJ-TH) with a maximum of 100 birds at

PS on 19 Oct 1993. Most Little Ringed Plovers were Y1 birds.

Lesser Sand-Plover - Charadrius mongolus. 4 observations, of which 10 birds

were only identified as Charadrius mongolus/leschenaultii (PS 18 Sep 1993).

All others were confirmed as Lesser Sand-Plovers. The Greater Sand-Plover C.

leschenaulti was not positively identified. All observations are from

September and October.

Comb-crested Jacana - Irediparra gallinacea. 10 observations; status unclear.

One observation in Apr 2000 (Wetlands International

Indonesia Programme, Danau Tempatung), all others

between 11 Jun (DJ, 2006) and 15 Oct (DS, 1999) with

a maximum of 4 birds on 2 Aug 2003 (TI-TH). All birds

were observed in floating vegetation (water hyazinth,

water lily, Azolla).

Swinhoe's Snipe/Pintail Snipe - Gallinago

megala/stenura. 4 observations. 3 birds were seen

under good observation conditions in Polygonum

vegetation near TJ on 30 Sep 1997. In flight the feet trailed beyond the tail,

and the white trailing edge of the secondaries was missing. Hence, G.gallinago

can be excluded. According to Forstmeier (1998) there is still too little

information to distinguish G.megala and G.stenura clearly in the field. A

similar bird was seen between TI and TJ on 17 Oct 2004.

Common Snipe - Gallinago gallinago. One confirmed bird near TJ on 4 Oct

1997, 2 unconfirmed (Gallinago sp.) observations (12/13 Oct 1993).

Black-tailed Godwit - Limosa limosa NT. 6 observations. Earliest 4 birds near

TJ on 19 Aug 1997, latest 12 birds TJ-TH on 6 Nov 2004; largest number 17

birds TJ-TH on 17 Oct 2004.

Bar-tailed Godwit - Limosa lapponica. 1 bird at PS on 8 Oct 1993.

Whimbrel - Numenius phaeopus. 2 birds were observed near TI on 18 Sep

1997.

Far-Eastern Curlew - Numenius madagascariensis. One bird was seen at PS on

11 Sep 1993.

29

Common Redshank - Tringa totanus. 11 observations between 4 Sep 1993 (2

PS) and 20 Oct 2004 (2 TJ-TH) with a maximum of 10 at PS on 18 Sep 1993.

Common Greenshank - Tringa nebularia. 20 observations between 13 Aug

1997 (4 at TJ) and 11 Dec 1997 (1 TI-MO) with a maximum of 30 birds TJ-MO

on 30 Oct 2004.

Wood Sandpiper - Tringa glareola. 93 observations between 25 Jul 1993 (1

PR) and 28 Mar 1998 (6 TI-J) with most observations (82%) between August

and October. Largest numbers: 2,000-2,500 on 8 Sep 1997 (near TJ), 5,000-

8,000 on 24 Sep 2001 (J-TH) and c. 10,000 on 9 Nov 2004 (TJ-TH). The large

flocks were observed in the immersed grass areas of DJ.

Day sums of Wood Sandpiper (63 observation days)

Green Sandpiper - Tringa ochropus. 16 observations between 28 Jul 1997 (1

PR) and 19 Oct 1993 (PS). Two spring records: 1 J-MM on 20 Mar 1996 and 3

on 15 Feb 1997 (DJs), confirmed by dark underwings and call. Usually

individual.

Marsh Sandpiper - Tringa stagnatilis. 10 observations between 13 Aug 1997

(2 TJ) and 9 Nov 2004 (2 TJ-TH). Usually 1-3 birds.

Terek Sandpiper - Tringa cinereus. 2 observations. 3 at PS on 8 Oct 1993 and 3

near TJ on 12 Oct 1993.

Common Sandpiper - Actitis hypoleucos. 93 observations from late July

(earliest 28 Jul 1997) until early April (latest 9 Apr 1998). Largest numbers: 17

at PL/PS on 16 Sep 1993, 11 between MM and MP along the Mahakam on 15

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

Number

Year

Wood Sandpiper

Fires

30

Mar 1997 and 11 between TI and J on 18 Sep 2001. A single flock with 25 birds

was seen further up the Mahakam (between Long Bagun and Long Pahangai)

on 20 Feb 1996.

Great Knot - Calidris tenuirostris. A single bird was seen at PS on 17 Oct 1993.

Red-necked Stint - Calidris ruficollis. 13 observations between 13 Aug 1997 (2

near TJ almost in breeding plumage) and 22 Oct 2005 (1 PR). Largest number:

75 birds at PS on 8 Oct 1993.

Temminck's Stint - Calidris temminckii. One bird was seen between TJ and MO

on 30 Sep 1997. The small stint showed a uniform brownish breast,

unstructured (not scaly appearing) upperparts, and yellow legs. It had no

distinct eye-line. In contrast to the rather abundant Long-toed Stints, which

resembled miniature Wood Sandpipers, this bird rather looked like a

miniature Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos). No call was heard, and the

bird's tail edges were not seen. This appears to be only the second record for

Kalimantan, the first being a specimen from Pagatan, on the SE coast,

collected in February 1847 (Smythies 1957). The also yellow-legged Long-toed

Stint can be excluded due to much duller and uniform breast and upperparts

(lacking any rufous tinge) and the much less distinct eye-line. The Least

Sandpiper (Calidris minutilla) which was not yet observed on Borneo should

have a more distinct white throat and also a more prominent eye-line.

Long-toed Stint - Calidris subminuta. 14 observations between 17 Aug 1997

and 20 Oct 2004. Largest number: 300-400 birds between TJ and MO on 5 Sep

1997. Long-toed Stints were often mixed with Wood Sandpipers in grass

vegetation around the mud flats of the dry DJ. As the stints were often hidden

by vegetation their total number may have exceeded 500 in early September

1997.

Curlew Sandpiper - Calidris ferruginea. 4 observations between 13 Aug and 8

Sep 1997. All birds were moulting with a still high percentage of breeding

plumage. The largest number was observed with 23 birds between TJ and MO

on 17 Aug 1997.

Oriental Pratincole - Glareola maldivarum. 3 observations from

October/November 2004 between TJ and TH on dry mudflats with a maximum

of 375 birds on 9 Nov 2004.

31

Red-necked Phalarope - Phalaropus lobatus. 11 observations between 24 Sep

2001 (6 TJ-J) and 9 Nov 2004 (1 TJ-TH) with a maximum of 19 birds near PR on

22 Oct 2005. All Phalaropes were found swimming in floating vegetation,

where they picked insects from grass blades.

Little Tern - Sternula albifrons. 184 observations between 9 Jun 1988 (1 DJs)

and 9 Nov 2004 (2 near J). Two individuals were seen in non-breeding

plumage: 1 at Muara Kaman on 3 Mar 1996 and 1 at DS on 28 Apr 1996. The

largest day sums were: 200 at DS (12 Jul 1996),

303 TI-J (20 Aug 1997), 572 TJ-J (20 Aug 1997),

686 TJ-J (21 Aug 1997), 338 TJ-J (9 Sep 1997), and

200 18-26 Sep 2001. On 12 Jul 1996 display was

shown by about 200 birds at DS. Nests with 2-5

eggs were found near PS in early September

1993. The nests were made on the dry lake shore

in thorny vegetation with a few loose sticks.

Juveniles were seen in 1993 from 2 Oct, in 1996

from 14 Sep, in 1997 from 13 Aug 1997, in 2001

from 26 Sep 2001 and in 2004 from 28 Sep 2004. Breeding depends much on

the water level of the Mahakam lakes. At DJ breeding success was good in the

relatively dry years 1993, 1997, 2001 and 2004 (with more than 100 juveniles

near TJ on 9 Sep 1997) but failed in 1996, 1998 and (probably) 2003, when no

dry lake shores were available (there was probably some breeding in other

parts of the MMW since food carrying adults and a few juveniles were

observed in the middle of September 1996).

32

Day sums of Little Tern (90 observation days)

Phenology of Little Tern along the TI-MM transect

dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means

Great Crested-Tern - Thalasseus bergii. Two birds in perfect breeding plumage

were seen on 13 Feb 1997 on DJ.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Little Tern

Fires

20.08.1997

21.08.1997

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

NumberLittle Tern

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

33

Whiskered Tern - Chlidonias hybridus. 484

observations; all year, migrants from

northern and austral origin; breeding

suspected. Largest day sums: 2,900 on 19

Jan 2008, 2,175 on 21 Jun 1998 (DS + DJ),

3,758 on 13 Aug 1997, 3,660 on 28 Sep

2004 (all DJ, mainly between TJ and J).

On 26/27 Jul 2003 several birds were seen

carrying fish near J which could indicate

breeding.

Migratory juveniles arrive from early September (earliest 1 Sep 1998) and are

still often attended by adult birds. 45 juveniles of probably austral origin (not

yet in the first winter plumage!) were observed near PB on 13 Feb 1998.

There is a clear pattern of two overlapping migrant populations. Northern

birds partly winter in the MMW and mault into breeding plumage from the

middle of February until April/May, when they leave for their breeding

grounds. They come back, followed by juveniles (15-20% of the total numbers)

in early September. Southern birds arrive moulting or in new non-breeding

plumage in mid February (arrival of about 1,000 birds on 13 Feb 1999 and

about 800 birds on 5 Mar 1997 in new non-breeding plumage) and start

moulting into breeding plumage in August. 95 birds in new breeding plumage

migrated in high altitude south-eastwards on 18 Sep 1993, 110 birds migrated

in a similar way on 29 Sep 1996. During October several flocks of migrating

austral birds in perfect breeding plumage stopped over in the MMW. The

latest record of an Austral bird in breeding plumage was 22 Nov 1996 and on

19 Jan 2008. Holmes and Burton 1987 recorded abundant birds in breeding

plumage as late as 20-24 Nov in the Negara swamps in 1978, presumably

javanicus.

Southern birds in their second year make up to 25% of the population in July

and August. Single non-breeding birds (probably third year birds) stay all year

in the MMW.

34

Day sums of Whiskered Tern (187 observation days)

Phenology of Whiskered Tern along the TI-MM transect

dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Whiskered Tern

Fires

13.08.1997 28.09.2004

25.10.200519.01.2008

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Number Whiskered Tern

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

35

White-winged Tern - Chlidonias leucopterus.

58 observations between 23 Aug 1997

(second summer plumage) and 1 May 1999 (1

ad. in perfect breeding plumage near KB). The

largest numbers are: 10 (non-breeding

plumage, 1 juvenile) at MO on 27 Sep 1996,

46 on 9 Nov 2004 between TJ and TH, and 20

on 22-25 Oct 2005 at PR. Juveniles arrive in

late September.

Common Kingfisher - Alcedo atthis. 11 observations of single birds between

12 Sep 1998 (SO) and 28 Mar 1998 (TI-J) throughout the MMW.

Blue-eared Kingfisher - Alcedo meninting. 53 observations; all year, resident.

Most birds were seen along SO (e.g. 6 on 23 Jan 1998, 8 on 28 Jul 1996, 10 on

8 Aug 1993, 5 on 24 Oct 2005). A juvenile was observed at SO on 8 Aug 1993.

Blue-banded Kingfisher - Alcedo euryzona. 2 observations. A female was seen

at DJ on 27 Jun 1988; another bird on 26 Sep 2004 on SO.

Sacred Kingfisher - Todirhamphus sanctus. 8 observations of single birds.

Austral visitor at DJ, SO and Mahakam from July to September (earliest record

19 Jul 1997, latest record 29 Sep 1996). Most of the birds were seen flying

over open water or sitting on posts near fishing villages. In contrast the

Collared Kingfisher (T. chloris) was never observed in the MMW.

Black-capped Kingfisher - Halcyon pileata. Only one record from SO on 23 Jan

1998.

Stork-billed Kingfisher - Pelargopsis capensis. 274 observations; all year,

resident. During the dry season (with low water in DJ) up to 40 birds were

counted along the lake

transect. Between 20 and 30

birds are r egularly found

along the lower 10 km of SO

and at SB, and up to 19 birds

were counted along SO (26

Sep 2004).

36

Day sums of Stork-billed Kingfisher (152 observation days)

Phenology of Stork-billed Kingfisher along the TI-MM transect

dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number

Year

Stork-billed Kingfisher

Fires

9.09.199718.09.2003

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Number Stork-billed Kingfisher

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

37

Threats to Waterbirds and their Habitats

Droughts and Fires

The prolonged droughts during El Niño years, such as 1982/83 and 1997/98,

created suitable conditions for vegetation fires. While during non- El Niño

periods, only 17-24% of the peatlands were burnt annually, approximately

45% of the peatland area north of Mahakam River have burnt during the El

Niño fires of 1982/83, and even 72-85% have burnt during the 1997/98 El

Niño with 54% of it constituting mature forest that had not burnt before

(Lennertz and Panzer 1983, Siegert et al. 2001, Chokkalingam 2004).

The droughts were accompanied by strong winds which helped fires ignite

and spread (Schindele et al. 1989, Gönner pers. observ. 1997/98), although

the proximate fire causes were probably all of anthropogenic origin (Gönner

1999, 2000b).

Prolonged droughts were recorded in the MMW as early as 1877-78 and

1914, with accompanying widespread fires in 1914 (Bock 1881, Brookfield et

al. 1995, cited in Chokkalingam et al. 2005). In fact, Hope et al. (2005) found

strong evidence that fires occurred throughout the history of the MMW

peatlands, especially during the last 3000 years with increasing frequency

during the last millennium. Fires are earlier and more frequent in sites

accessible from waterways, and floodplains have been widely burnt down to

water table or below, forming extensive lakes.

According to Chokkalingam et al. (2006) fire is deliberately used by villagers to

change the vegetation into more suitable fishing grounds, including new

water pools and shallow lakes11, to keep waterways for boat traffic open, and

to provide flushes of nutrients that stimulate algal growth and maintain high

levels of fish populations, as reported for the Sungai Negara wetlands in South

Kalimantan (MacKinnon et al. 1996, cited in Chokkalingam et al. 2005). The

1997/98 fires in the northern peat swamp forests of the MMW were probably

also caused by villagers in the course of collecting turtles and harvesting tree

bark in the peat swamp forests. Fire was used to improve access into the

forest, for camping, and to concentrate the turtles in damp areas and catch

them easily by burning off the surrounding vegetation (Jepson 1998,

Chokkalingam et al. 2005). Many of these newly opened-up areas have been

11 New pools are created when peat collapses or is lost with heavy burning under dense herb or shrub patches, and under tree roots and downed logs. Fire also helps expand and keep these pools clear of encroaching vegetative regrowth. As well, fires serve to keep the swamps themselves more open and accessible, making it easier to locate the pools and access the fish in them, by burning off the surrounding vegetation (Chokkalingam et al. 2006)

38

repeatedly burnt since 1998 for maintaining and enlarging open floodplains

suitable for fishing purposes.12

Fires in the surrounding lowland rainforest south of the Mahakam were

largely caused by land clearing activities for oil palm plantations (Gönner

1999).

While forest regrowth was relatively rapid following the 1982/83 fires, the

closed-canopy forests decreased drastically following the 1997/98 fires from

63% to 4% of the landscape, while scrubby vegetation increased from 11% to

33% and sedge-grasslands from 11% to 30% (Chokkalingam et al. 2005; also

see the satellite images below).

MMW before 1997/98 fires MMW after 1997/98 fires

However, fire might destroy some habitats, like peat swamp forest, but it also

creates new forms of habitats, especially open swamps with immersed sedge

and grassland, as well as grassland with Mimosa shrubs. Those habitats were

immediately used by a wide range of bird species for foraging and possibly

breeding.

While some species seem to have benefitted immediately after the drought

and fires (e.g. Black-backed Swamphen – see day sum chart), others reacted

more slowly over time as the overall appearance of the landscape, especially

on Danau Jempang, changed. Immersed grasslands became far more frequent

throughout most of the year compared to the decade prior to the 1997/98

events. These grasslands were full of locusts and other insects, as well as of

Mollusca. They probably also provided new spawning habitat for many fish

species as the terns were often seen fishing there.

12 Most likely, the existing landscape of the MMA with its floodplains and shallow peat lakes was formed in this way. Similar feedback loops have been reported by Chokkalingam et al. (2006) for southern Sumatra and by Cochrane et al. (1999) for forests in the Amazon.

39

A significant increase in monthly maxima of day sums was observed for

Eastern Cattle Egret, Wandering Whistling-duck, Common Moorhen and

Wood Sandpiper, all species using the newly abundant habitat. 13

Species n before n after Mean rank before Mean rank after p

Ardea purpurea 17 20 23.8 14.9 0.01**

Ardea alba 18 19 20.6 17.5 0.37

Egretta garzetta 15 19 14.2 20.0 0.09

Bubulcus coromandus 14 19 12.1 20.1 0.01**

Ardeola speciosa 12 18 14.0 16.5 0.43

Leptoptilos javanicus 18 16 16.0 19.2 0.34

Dendrocygna arcuata 9 28 9.4 22.1 0.00***

Gallinula chloropus 12 18 11.3 18.3 0.03*

Porphyrio indicus 12 17 15.0 15.0 1.0

Haliastur indus 10 21 12.7 17.6 0.16

Tringa glareola 10 9 6.7 13.7 0.01**

Chlidonias hybridus 16 21 16.4 21.0 0.21

Sterna albifrons 11 12 12.6 11.5 0.71

Pelargopsis capensis 18 20 20.4 18.7 0.65

Exceptionally high numbers of all increasing species were observed in autumn

2004. This invasion-like occurrence may have distorted the statistics a bit,

although data were used from a full decade after the 1997/98 event. In

autumn 2004, the extent of the immersed grasslands was very high, especially

on Danau Jempang, providing ideal feeding habitat for egrets and Wandering

whistling-ducks. However, it remains unclear where these birds came from.

Most likely they visited Danau Jempang in such large numbers due to large-

scale habitat losses and hunting elsewhere, such as in the Sungai Negara

swamps of South Kalimantan or the wetlands of Central Kalimantan (see

below).

The only waterbird species that showed a significant decline in the monthly

maxima of day sums is the Purple Heron which may have suffered from the

13 The comparison of transect counts confirms the significant increase of eastern Cattle Egret and Wandering Whistling-duck. Transect data for the other two species were not sufficient for statistical analysis.

Comparison of monthly maxima of day sums prior to the drought and fires of 1997/98 and after

40

Hunter with poisoned Wandering whistling-ducks, DJ, Oct 2004 whistling-ducks

loss of breeding habitat in swamp forests, similar to the White-shouldered Ibis

(see Sözer and Nijman 2005). After their breeding grounds became more

accessible, Purple herons were also frequently collected from their nests (see

below), which may have contributed to their overall decrease.14

Hunting and live-capturing of species

Although commercial bird capturing occurred in the MMA

for quite some while (e.g. Jepson et al. 1998, Gönner

2002), the scale dramatically increased after 2001 when

the live-capturing of Wandering Whistling-ducks

(Dendrocygna arcuata) reached a level of more than 1,000

birds per month. Monitoring surveys conducted in the

MMA between 2005 and 2007 revealed that at least

15,719 birds were caught in 2005, 12,260 in 2006 and

4,034 from Jan – Sep 2007 (Soeyitno 2008). The birds were

caught at night by mist nets (attracted by decoy birds and

tape recorders), or from motor boats by using strong

spotlights and nets. On rare occasions also poison was used

(pesticides mixed with rice) to paralyze the ducks.15

In the MMW, the commercial capturing of Wandering

Whistling-ducks was organized and conducted by Banjarese

people16 who formerly captured the species in the Sungai

Negara swamps of South Kalimantan. When the population

there declined in 2000/01, the hunters switched to the MMW where now

large bird flocks appeared (possibly due to the pressure in Sungai Negara).

According to Soeyitno, 3 groups of bird capturers comprising some 50 people

operated between 2001 and 2004, while a new group joined them in 2005-06.

By 2007 only two groups remained active, possibly due to decreasing catches.

14 Interestingly, the Lesser Adjutant, the most commonly collected bird (see below), did not decline on Danau Jempang. This may be due to the overall low numbers at DJ, as its major distribution area is further away from the open water bodies (e.g. Metau forest, DSi, Ketang Kepala River). So the more dramatic changes were not necessarily detected on DJ. 15 The poisoning was observed by CG on DJ in Oct 2004. In contrast to the capturing by nets which is conducted by Banjarese people, the poisoning method was used by Bugis fishermen. Other species like Javan Pond-heron were occasionally poisoned by fish soaked in potassium cyanide. Potassium cyanide was available to Bugis fishermen from relatives who used the chemical for cleaning gold. 16 These people originate from Banjarmasin, the capital of South Kalimantan. Banjarese fishermen arrived in the MMW a couple of decades. Together with the Kutai (and to a smaller extend also the Bugis) they are the largest fishing community of the MMW. Family relations between the MMW and Banjarmasin were the basis of organizing the commercial capturing of Wandering Whistling-ducks and other species, such as freshwater turtles and tortoises in 1997/98.

41

Captivated Lesser adjutants

Besides the Wandering Whistling-duck, at least 13 other waterbird species

were caught as by-catch, including large numbers of Black-backed Swamphen

(Porphyrio indicus) which was locally sold in Tanjung Isuy in 2003/04.

An even older tradition is the live-capturing of Lesser adjutants and herons. In

June 2007, a survey conducted by Yayasan Konservasi RASI (Budiono et al.

2007a) counted a total of 207 individual birds of 16 species that were

captivated from the wild. The most numerous were purple herons (57),

wandering whistling ducks (one location only – 43), lesser adjutants (39),

black-crowned night herons (16) and

white-breasted water hen (14).

According to interviews conducted by

Yayasan Konservasi RASI (Budiono et

al. 2007a), between 2000 and 2007 at

least 527 lesser adjutants and 281

purple herons were caught from the

wild. Only 7% lesser adjutants were

alive until present and most birds had

been captivated for one year now with

exceptions of birds that have been held

captive for 15 and 20 years now. 80%

were deliberately caught or purchased.

Most Lesser adjutants were caught as

adults by means of fishing hooks (90% of total adjutants caught) or as

juveniles from their nests (10%). The main location of capture is Metau Forest

(93% of all adjutants), which at high water is temporarily flooded, where they

are caught with underwater fishing hooks and usually killed if the bird is

wounded or nearly dead and directly sold for meat or as pet if they are not

badly wounded for c. Rp. 50.000 per individual. Here, they are also caught

from their nest in the kahoi tree (Shorea balangeran) and raised as pet until

they become adult. The reason of the respondents that currently own a Lesser

Adjutant is to keep them as pet (50%), hold them as pet until someone wants

to buy it (41%), and 9% keeps them for own consumption at some stage.

Purple herons were for 100% caught as juveniles from their nests in the

swamp forest surrounding the lakes.

In April 2008 and between July and September 2009 RASI visited 17 villages to

check again for the number of captivated birds and a total of 43 captivated

lesser adjutants were encountered and registered. One year later between

July and September 2009, a total of 30 birds were encountered in 11 villages,

which were subsequently all registered and ringed in coordination with the

Nature Conservancy Agency of East Kalimantan (BKSDA). During earlier

discussions with the BKSDA it was decided that the birds would be ringed only

42

and only directly released if the owners approved of this. The 30 birds

belonged to 23 owners of which 13 involved the same owners that have hold

the same birds since 2007 and 10 new owners. The owners were offered the

possibility that the birds would be taken and released or ringed. No owner

chose to have the bird taken away. The owners were informed that these

birds could potentially be confiscated in a next round depending on the policy

of BKSDA but those that wear the ring would not be fined. However, during

our next field visits for other projects, we found out that soon after the

ringing, many owners decided to release the bird or kill and eat it as they were

afraid for more patrols by the BKSDA and to obtain a fine. Monitoring is

continued by the BKSDA but mostly confined to the area near Muara Kaman,

where there is a BKSDA field post.

Habitat loss due to land conversion and illegal logging

Conversion of forest areas for plantations has started in the MMW in the

1980s (tree plantations, e.g. Acacia mangium, Paraserianthes falcataria),

often in combination with transmigration settlements and conversion to

agricultural land. After 1995, large scale forest conversion for the preparation

of oil palm plantations started in an area south of the MMW. This included

the extensive use of fire for land clearing (Gönner 1999, 2000b). Although

most of the forest conversion happened in secondary lowland dipterocarp

rainforest, the loss of forest cover together with intensive logging activities in

the catchment areas of the Mahakam contribute to siltation and habitat

changes, as well as to the danger of vegetation fire.

In the second half of the 1990s, open pit coal mining also reached the MMW.

Although mainly secondary lowland rainforest was cleared, run-off of acidic

water from the mining area negatively affects the wetland habitats of the

MMW. In addition, large coal vessels, especially on the relatively narrow

Kedang Pahu River heavily disturb fish populations, as well as the Irrawaddy

dolphin.17

Conversion for oil palm plantations, open pit coal mining and upland

agriculture reduced the size of the Metau forest, west of Danau Jempang from

some 13,500 ha in 1995 to only 4,100 ha in 2010 (RASI 2011).

Illegal logging in swamp forests and lowland forests adjacent to the MMW

increased after the political decentralization was initiated in 1999 and went

into effect in 2001 (Siswanto and Wardojo 2005) and directly impact the

hydrology of the area, as well as the habitats.

Pollution by pesticides and mercury

17 Accidents of coal vessels locally polluted the Mahakam water.

43

Run-off from oil palm plantations and intensive agricultural fields

neighbouring lakes, rivers and canals brings pesticides and fertilizer into the

wetlands. Occasionally, pesticides are also used for hunting birds (see above)

or for fishing (Gönner 2002; Kreb et al. 2010). Pollution of river water with

mercury is caused by illegal gold mining activities in the upper Mahakam and

Kedang Pahu area.

Overfishing

Overfishing of the Mahakam lakes has been reported by several authors, at

least since the 1980s (e.g. Christensen 1988, Yayasan Konservasi RASI 2006).

Salmani (1987) in Moersid and Christensen (1987) stated that there was an

increasing trend for fish production in the MMW from 19,379 tons/year in

1982 to 24,498/t/y in 1986. This was also supported by Lukman's findings,

according to whom the total fish captured from nature in MMW rose to

27,592 t/y in 1997. This increase is suspected to be due to the increasing

number of fishermen (both from within MMW and outside), an increase in the

types and numbers of fishing equipment, and possibly also to an increase in

the lakes' productivity as a result of eutrophication processes. At present at

least 21 types of fishing equipment are used in MMW including traditional

methods (traps, thrownets, etc.) and modern ones (seine and gillnets with

small mesh sizes, poison, electric fishing, wingtraps). On Lake Jempang and

Ohong River cyanide and pesticides are occasionally used for fish poisoning.

On Ohong River, local fishermen also use electro-fishing.18

Neophytes

The impact of neophytes, such as water hyazinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is

somehow unclear. While the floating carpets suppress other aquatic plant

species, they are frequently used as

habitat by rails, swamphen and pond-

herons. Taylor (1996, quoted by Mann

2008) suspects that the Dusky Moorhen

(Gallinago tenebrosa) which has not yet

been recorded in the MMW might be less

tolerant to Eichhornia crassipes than the

Common Moorhen (G. chloropus).

18 At least since 1999 (CG, pers. observation).

44

Hydrological changes

Unpredictable and potentially dramatic changes in the hydrology are caused

by dredging activities (planned and executed ones), dam building, river

control, mining, logging and plantation activities.

Sedimentation

The scale of sedimentation is still unclear. The analysis of sediment in DM and

DS (Hope et al. 2005) revealed an alternating pattern of sediment and peat

deposits over a long period of time. Sedimentation might lock off especially DJ

(with no real passage) from time to time leading to decreasing levels of

oxygen and possibly increased vegetation growth. However, it is not clear to

what extent sedimentation impacts birdlife in a more direct way.

Conclusions

Despite the enormous devastation during the 1982/83 and 1997/98 forest

fires, especially in the northern part and extensive land conversion in the

southern areas, the MMW still is one of Kalimantan's most important wetland

areas.

The comparison of the waterbird species numbers of the MMW, Sungai

Negara in South-Kalimantan (van Balen and Prentice 1997), Tanjung Puting

National Park in Central Kalimantan (Jalan and Galdikas 1987; Nash and Nash

1988) and Danau Sentarum in West Kalimantan (van Balen 1996, van Balen

and Dennis 2000) stresses the MMW's importance as a crucial Bornean

breeding and migration site:

Number of

Wetland birds* Birds of prey** Kingfishers**

Middle Mahakam 57 12 6

Sungai Negara 46 9 6

Tanjung Puting 21 6 5

Danau Sentarum 24 10 4

*As defined by Wetlands International, ** species utilizing wetlands

One reason behind the high species numbers might be the extraordinary

landscape dynamics of the MMW. The permanent changes of water levels,

45

vegetation cover and water bodies create opportunities and constraints for

people and nature. Local fishermen deliberately convert swamp forests to

open swamps by using fire for creating additional fishing grounds and

collecting other natural resources (Jepson et al. 1998, Chokkalingam 2004),

while waterbirds spontaneously react to seasonal droughts with low water

levels (e.g. opportunistically breeding Little Tern, or Black-necked Stilt) or

newly immersed grasslands (e.g. Wandering Whistling-duck, Little Egret,

Eastern Cattle Egret, Whiskered Tern). On the other hand, dense carpets of

water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) hamper transportation and may prevent

some species, such as the Dusky Moorhen, while they provide habitat for

other rails and many fishes. Exceptionally high water levels during the

migration season are unfortunate for arctic waders. The same birds, however,

might have stayed in the area for weeks the year before during an equally

unusual drought, when fishermen began planting rice in the almost dried-out

lakes.

As the analysis of lake sediment shows (Hope et al. 2005), dynamic landscape

changes happened over a very long period. Perhaps, earlier forest fires were

the result of slash-and-burn rice cultivation in swamp forests. As traces of fires

were found as early as 3,000 years ago, this fact would fit to the settlement

history of Borneo with Austronesian settlers arriving from South China via the

Philippines.19 Those settlers had no iron of metal to log the rainforest, and like

elsewhere in Southeast Asia, they probably used open swamps for cultivating

rice. This rather speculative idea would also fit to the location of the later

Hindu kingdom of Kutai (4th century) on the shores of the middle Mahakam,

which must have been in great demand of rice. Even today, rice is frequently

planted into the MMW swamps during longer periods of low water or

droughts (e.g. 1993, 1997/98).

Therefore, it is highly likely that the landscape of the MMW has been

influenced and to shaped by anthropogenic factors over the last 3,000 years.

Throughout this long period of co-existence the major environmental

functions of the MMW were maintained, although local habitat changes from

swamp forest to open swamps and back to grasslands and new (swamp)

forest had probably been dramatic. The changes the MMW are facing

nowadays, however, are of a completely different scale. Several ten thousand

hectare of forest have been converted to oil palm plantations and even more

land has been opened for coal extraction in the vicinity of the MMW.

Together with the dramatic impacts of the 1998 fires in the peat swamp

forests of the northern MMW, the order of magnitude of the landscape

changes has probably been unprecedented.

19 The first settlers seem to have reached Northern Borneo at the end of the third/beginning of second millennium BC, i.e. approximately 4,000-4,500 years ago (Bellwood 1995).

46

The Google Earth image below shows the massive landscape changes of the

southern MMW around Danau Jempang, especially near its western shore

(also compare to the Landsat images above; e.g. for the dramatically shrunk

Metau forest west of DJ).

Google Earth, 2012

The massive recent destruction of wetland habitats and especially of peat

swamp forests is unprecedented. While dynamic landscape changes of former

times always happened with sufficient temporal and spatial buffers, those

buffers are systematically destroyed today. Forests surrounding the wetlands

which had served as seed suppliers after historical fires have been irreversibly

converted to other land use forms. Hence, the overall resilience of the larger

wetland system has been dramatically reduced over the last thirty to forty

years.20

Besides the loss of biodiversity, these large-scale conversions also have

enormous social and economic impacts. Some of the social impacts of land

conversion for oil palm plantations have been described elsewhere (Gönner

1999, 2000b, 2002), but the macroeconomic losses due to lost environmental

services might be equally disturbing. In case the regulatory hydrological

functions of the MMW are further disturbed, settlements and cities further

downstream the Mahakam, such as the provincial capital Samarinda will

increasingly suffer from extreme events like flooding or intrusion of salt water

during extended periods of low water level (e.g. in 1997/98).

20 Massive logging started in the area as early as the 1970s.

47

Urgent Steps for Conservation

Besides the general needs for an integrated sustainable land use planning for

the entire MMW, there are a few urgent steps to be taken to avoid further

depletion of resources and biodiversity:

Designation of the Metau forest (5,300 ha in size) as protected forest

and breeding area of the Lesser Adjutant at district level;

Rehabilitation of the heavily disturbed riparian forest as an important

habitat for a large number of bird species and primates;

National funding of regular patrols of BKSDA rangers and strict law

enforcement, including fines for owners of newly captured animals

and the use of poison for catching ducks and fish;

Introduction of organic farming methods for crop cultivation around

and in (during dry season) the lakes.

The relatively high population density and the large dependency of the local

population on natural resources will not allow introducing a very strict

conservation regime for the MMW, such as a national park. However,

designating the MMW as a UNESCO biosphere reserve and listing it as a

Ramsar site would provide new options of harmonizing sustainable resource

use and conservation.21

21 The MMW qualifies as a Ramsar site. The criteria were positively checked in 2002 (Gönner, unpublished).

48

Acknowledgement

Our studies were partly funded by scholarships of Studienstiftung des Deutschen Volkes, by a grant of TÖB (Support Programme for Tropical Ecology of GTZ), the Nederlandse Stichting voor Internationale Vogelbescherming, Globale Nature Fund and the Oriental Bird Club (2005-2007), and WILCON Foundation (2008-2009).

Many thanks also to Surni, CG’s main boat driver who has excellent eyes and superb driving skills.

Address:

Dr. Christian Gönner, Magnolienweg 6, 88662 Überlingen, Germany

E-Mail: Christian.Goenner@web.de

49

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Annex

Annex 1 – List of Waterbirds and Wetland-dependent Species Recorded in the Middle Mahakam Wetlands between 1988 and 2011

While wetland-dependent kingfishers and birds of prey are covered, passerines, as well as birds only recorded in swamp forests and riparian forests are not included. A complete list of the MMW comprising 276 species has been prepared by Gönner (2010).

Abbreviations of the Habitat Types and Abundance Categories (partly following van Balen and Prentice 1997):

oW: open water bodies C: common

o1: open swamp (immersed sedge and grasslands) U: uncommon

o2: open swamp (o1 with Mimosa shrubs) R: rare

o3: open swamp (aquatic vegetation - submerged/floating) L: local

MF: mud flats b: breeding

SF: freshwater/peat swamp forest b?: breeding suspected

RF: riparian forest m: migrant

r: roosting

*: in captivity

oW o1 o2 o3 MF SF RF

Wandering Whistling-Duck Dendrocygna arcuata C Cb? - C U - -

Sunda Teal Anas gibberifrons R - - - - - -

Garganey Anas querquedula Um - - Um - - -

Storm's Stork Ciconia stormi - R - - R R -

Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus - C C - U U -

White-shouldered Ibis Pseudoibis davisoni - - - - - R R

Purple Heron Ardea purpurea - C Cb? - C - -

Great Egret Ardea alba - C Cr - C - -

Intermediate Egret Egretta intermedia - U U - U - -

Little Egret Egretta garzetta - U U - C - U

Chinese Egret Egretta eulophotes - - - - - - -

Eastern Cattle Egret Bubulcus coromandus - C C - L - -

Striated Heron Butorides striatus - - R - - - R

Javan Pond-Heron Ardeola speciosa - C Cb C C U -

Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus - - Ub? - - - -

oW o1 o2 o3 MF SF RF

Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis - - Ub - - - -

Black Bittern Dupetor flavicollis - - Ub? - - U -

Black-crowned Night-Heron Nycticorax nycticorax - - R - - - R

Little Black Shag Phalacrocorax sulcirostris R - - - - - -

Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster - L - - - L L

Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrines Rm - - - Rm - -

Black-tighed Falconet Microhierax fringillarius - - - - - L L

Osprey Pandion haliaetus R - - - - - -

Black Kite Milvus migrans R - - - - - -

Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus - - L - - L -

Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus C C C C C C C

Crested Serpent-Eagle Spilornis cheela - - - - - U U

White-bellied Fish-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster U - - - U U U

Grey-headed Fish-Eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus U - - - U U L

Lesser Fish-Eagle Ichthyophaga humilis R - - - - U L

Changeable Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus - - C - U U U

Wallace’s Hawk-Eagle Nisaetus nanus - - - - - R L

Ruddy-breasted Crake Porzana fusca - - R - - - -

White-browed Crake Porzana cinerea - C C - - - -

White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus - - C - - - U

Buff-banded Rail Gallirallus philippensis - R - - - - -

Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus - C U C - - -

Black-backed Swamphen Porphyrio indicus - C U C - - -

White-headed Stilt Himantopus leucocephalus - Ub - - - - -

Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus - R - - - - -

Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola - - - - Um - -

Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva - - - - Cm - -

Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius - - - - Cm - -

Mongolian Plover Charadrius mongolus - - - - Rm - -

Comb-crested Jacana Irediparra gallinacea - - - L - - -

Swinhoe's Snipe Gallinago megala - - - - Rm - -

Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago - - - - Um - -

Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus - - - - Rm - -

Far-Eastern Curlew Numenius madagascariensis - - - - Rm - -

oW o1 o2 o3 MF SF RF

Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa - - - - Rm - -

Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica - - - - Rm - -

Common Redshank Tringa totanus - - - - Um - -

Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia - - - - Um - -

Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola - - - - Cm - -

Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus - - - - Um - -

Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis - - - - Um - -

Terek Sandpiper Tringa cinereus - - - - Rm - -

Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos - - - - Cm - U

Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris - - - - Rm - -

Red-necked Stint Calidris ruficollis - - - - Cm - -

Temminck's Stint Calidris temminckii - - - - Rm - -

Long-toed Stint Calidris subminuta - - - - Cm - -

Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea - - - - Um - -

Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus - - - - Um - -

Oriental Pratincole Glareola maldivarum - - - - R - -

Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus Cm Cm - Cm Cm - -

White-winged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus Um Um - Um Um - -

Great Crested-Tern Sterna bergii Rm - - - - - -

Little Tern Sterna albifrons C C C C Lb - -

Sacred Kingfisher Todirhamphus sanctus - - Um Um - Um Um

Black-capped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata - - - - - - Rm

Stork-billed Kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis - - C C - - C

Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis - - Um Um - - Um

Blue-eared Kingfisher Alcedo meninting - - U - - - C

Blue-banded Kingfisher Alcedo euryzona - - R - - - -

Landscape Photographs

Open water body of DJ, Apr 2005

Channel DJ, Jul 1996

Channel DS, Apr 2005

Immersed grasslands, DJ, Oct 2005

Low water level, DJ Sep 2004

DJ with red algae, Oct 2005

Dry DJ, Sep 1997

Burning swamps DJ, Jul 2003

Burnt swamp forest, DJ 1996

Rice planting in DJ, Sep 1997 (CG)

Fishermen DJ, 1997 (CG)

Photo credits

Christian Gönner: title, 11 bottom, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 26, 27, 29 top, 31, 32, 33, 40, 43, all landscape images

Budiono: 11 top, 13, 20, 21 bottom, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29 bottom, 41

Graham Usher: 21 top