biology 441: 9/17/07 last time types of questions (proximate vs. ultimate) behavioral research...
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Biology 441: 9/17/07
Last time Types of questions (Proximate vs. Ultimate) Behavioral research methods
Today Behavioral methods cont’d Crickets Infanticide discussion
Next time Development of Behavior
[http://research.amnh.org/~krussell/professional/teaching.htm]
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Behavioral Research Methods
2. Experimental Methods Manipulating something (independent variable) and
measuring its affect on something else (dependent variable) while holding other factors constant
Best suited for lab situations; psychology
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Behavioral Research Methods
2. Experimental Methods Example: Method of isolation
Bird song in white-crowned sparrows
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Behavioral Research Methods
2. Experimental Methods Problems with laboratory studies
Difficult to
generalize Artificial situation
affects behavior
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Behavioral Research Methods
2. Experimental Methods Example of field study
Wasp nest location & landmarks (Tinbergen)
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Tinbergen and beewolf wasps
• Wasp hunts bees to provision their young
• Young are reared in burrows
• Burrows occur in groups
• Burrows entrances are buried when the wasp leaves to hunt
• Wasps can relocate their nests quickly
Example:
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Observation
• Wasps were marked to allow recognition of individuals
• Wasps returned to same nest and only constructed one nest
• Wasps would circle their nest before departing to hunt
Example:
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Hypothesis (possible explanation; educated guess)
• Tinbergen’s hypothesis - wasps used landmarks to locate their nests
Example:
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Experiment
• Tinbergen cleared possible landmarks from around the nest
• When the wasps returned, they circled but could not locate the nest site
• Does this prove Tinbergen’s hypothesis correct?
• Can this result be explained in other ways?
Example:
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Experiment (additional experiment)
• Tinbergen shifted landmarks from around the nest to a site close by
• He wanted to see if the wasps could be trained to the landmarks
• When the wasps returned, they landed within the landmarks
Example:
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Landmarks (pinecones) around nest
Landmarks shifted to new site
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Experiment (additional experiment)
• Tinbergen shifted landmarks from around the nest to a site close by
• He wanted to see if the wasps could be trained to the landmarks
• When the wasps returned, they landed within the landmarks
• Does this prove Tinbergen’s hypothesis correct?
• Can this result be explained in other ways?
Example:
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Behavioral Research Methods
2. Experimental Methods Problems with field studies
Lack of control; inability to hold certain variables constant
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Behavioral Research Methods
3. Correlational Methods Measurable changes in animals behavior that are
predictable from some other variable that we can measure
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Behavioral Research Methods
3. Correlational Methods Measurable changes in animals behavior that are
predictable from some other variable that we can measure
E.g., temperature and activity
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Behavioral Research Methods
3. Correlational Methods Problem: cannot infer causation
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Behavioral Research Methods
3. Correlational Methods Problem: cannot infer causation Solution? Manipulate potential causal factor
(experimental)
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Behavioral Research Methods
3. Correlational Methods Problem: cannot infer causation Solution? Manipulate potential causal factor
Not possible for study of human behavior
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Behavioral Research Methods
4. The Comparative Method Comparisons of behavior within species or between
species Idea that animals are optimally adapted to their
environment
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Behavioral Research Methods
4. The Comparative Method Comparisons among living species
Different strategies in different habitats
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Behavioral Research Methods
4. The Comparative Method Comparisons among living species
Different strategies in different habitats Different strategies in same habitat
E.g., Agelenopsis aperta & anti-predator behavior
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Behavioral Research Methods
4. The Comparative Method Comparisons among living species
Different strategies in different habitats Different strategies in same habitat Related species: differences in life styles related to
habitat E.g. Kittiwake vs. black-headed gulls
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Behavioral Research Methods
4. The Comparative Method Fossils (ancestors)
Clues about behavior Teeth marks, aggregation, nesting, etc.
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Behavioral Research Methods
5. Cost-Benefit Analysis Behavior is examined in terms of cost to animal vs. gain
to animal Assumption that animals behave to maximize gains and
minimize costs
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Behavioral Research Methods
5. Cost-Benefit Analysis Example: Tinbergen (again) and black-headed gulls
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Behavioral Research Methods
5. Cost-Benefit Analysis Example: Tinbergen (again) and black-headed gulls
Observations: Gulls remove eggshells from nest 1 hour after hatchingCost? Energy/time spent moving shells; leaving the nest
(predation risk)
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Behavioral Research Methods
5. Cost-Benefit Analysis Example: Tinbergen (again) and black-headed gulls
Observations: Gulls remove eggshells from nest 1 hour after hatchingCost? Energy/time spent moving shells; leaving the nest
(predation risk)Benefit?
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Behavioral Research Methods
5. Cost-Benefit Analysis Example: Tinbergen (again) and black-headed gulls
More information: Nest in open Numerous nest predators Nests are unguarded while parents forage Cryptic nest, offspring, and eggs Inside of egg is white
Hypothesis?
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Behavioral Research Methods
5. Cost-Benefit Analysis Example: Tinbergen (again) and black-headed gulls
Hypothesis? (ultimate cause) Removal of egg shells decreases likelihood of predation
Test?
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Behavioral Research Methods
5. Cost-Benefit Analysis Example: Tinbergen (again) and black-headed gulls
Hypothesis? (ultimate cause) Removal of egg shells decreases likelihood of predation
Test? Establish artificial nests Place eggshells at 15 cm, 100cm and 200cm
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Behavioral Research Methods
5. Cost-Benefit Analysis Example: Tinbergen (again) and black-headed gulls Steps to address ultimate causes
Question: Why had black-headed gulls evolved a special response to eggshells in their nest
Hypothesis: Eggshell removal had become common because it helped gulls conceal their offspring
Prediction: Predators would use eggshell as a cue for finding eggs Experiment: Find out what predators did Conclusion: Match data to hypothesis
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21
32
42
0
10
20
30
40
50
15 100 200
Distance from nest (cm)
Percent depredated
Results:
Do these data support the idea that eggshell removal is reproductively advantageous?
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Black-headed Gulls
Experimental method Nests with eggshells near them more likely to predated
Comparative method The Kittiwake ignores shells; has no nest predators
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Black-headed Gulls
Next Question: Why wait 1 hour to remove shells?
Cost: increased likelihood of predation Benefit?
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Black-headed Gulls
Next Question: Why wait 1 hour to remove shells?
Cost: increased likelihood of predation Benefit? More info:
Chicks easier to eat when plumage wet Cannibalism likely (neighbors)
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Black-headed Gulls
Next Question: Why wait 1 hour to remove shells?
Cost: increased likelihood of predation Benefit? Avoid predation by neighbors if wait
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Black-headed Gulls
Next Question: Why wait 1 hour to remove shells?
Cost: increased likelihood of predation Benefit? Avoid predation by neighbors if wait Comparative Method:
Oystercatcher chicks not in danger of predation by neighbors Parents remove egg shell immediately
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Behavioral Research Methods
SUMMARY 1. Observation method 2. Experimental method 3. Correlational method 4. Comparative method 5. Cost-benefit analysis
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Discussion Questions Which of the two articles is most persuasive, and why? How does progress in science arise from controversies of
this sort? Can you link the opposing interpretations of these two
studies to our discussion of ultimate and proximate causation of
behavior?